Geography Notes Types of Farming Small and Large farms Some farms only focus on | or 2 types of farming Larger farms may encompass all types of farming Key Featurec/ Characteristics Tnpuchornay include: money, labour, soil climate, érainage, fertilize and fuel Processes inciude seeding, harvesting, ploughing, shearing or milking tend to the production of Milk, Cereal, Eggs, Wool, Meat, Hay, Waste and other building materials,Different types of farming around the world Arable farming Only cultivate crops Pastoral farming Only rears livestock Mixed farming Both crop cultivation and livestock rearing Subsistence farming Crops grown are for owa consumption Commercial farming Crops grown are to be sold for profits Intensive farming, High input-land ratio Extensive farming Low input-land ratio Labour-intensive farming Labour is the most important input and is usually provided by family members Capital-intensive farming Machinery and technology are the most important inputs requiring a lot of monetary investment Sedentary farming Farmland stays permanently at one location Non-sedentary farming Farmland constantly moves to another location every few years (shifting cultivation) High-technology farming Machinery with high technology is used Low-technology farming Little technology used, possibly manual labour Monoculture Only one type of crop is grown Polyculture Many different varieties of crops are grown Dry farming Crops that do not require a lot of water Wet (Irrigation) farming Irrigation and a large amount of water is requiredHydroponics Roots are soaked in nutrient-rich water instead of soil Aeroponies Roots are left in open air and are nutrient-rich water sprayed with 4 Pillars OF Food Security > Available > Accessible > Mlordable > Safe Relief Slope fecing sunlight and slope that is not so steep will allow more crops to grow Soil Fertile soil with cnough zine and iron will allow more czops to be grown Climate There must be enough rain and suitable temperature to grow many crops Land Tenure Ownership of the land must be for a long enough duration so that crops can be grown to full maturity Land Fragmentation Land must not be too small after being divided up from an originally bigger piece of land so that more crops can grow ‘Transport Efficient and fast transport of equipment, seeds, and fertilisers to the farm, and crops to markets, will ensure more crops can be grown and delivered for sale Capital Enough money is needed to pay for machinery, seeds, and fertilisers so that more crops can be grown Demand People must want to buy the crops before farmers will decide to grow more cropsGovernment policy _| There must not be any restrictions by the government as to the type of crops grown or the amount grown so that farmers can plant many crops Water Security Why is it important for societies to be prudent in the management of water as a resource? Little percentage of Earth's water is freshwater, which can be used for daily life routines. Most of the freshwater is trapped in iceeaps and glaciers, while there is also some groundwater. However, these sources of water are not easily accessible. The people in societies can only use the surface water, which is very little. ‘Thus, it Is important for societies to be prudent in the management of water as a resource. Water incecurity & Why is freshwater essential? > look at the value of freshwater «Political -political stability and peace = Economic -industrial activities Social - body functioning/domestic purposes/recreation/religion practices ~ Physical /Environment Primary - agriculture/ fishing/ forestry/ mining Secondary - process/manufacture + value-add Tertiary - service Quaternary - consultancy + research Water management - reliable, sustainable + robust 3 Principles L. Collect every drop of rainwater2. Collect every drop of used water low production; quality water; water production 3. Recycle every drop of used water 4 Taps Tap 1 - imported water... water agreement in 1962 (expires in 2061) => 250million gallons per day Tap 2 - local catchment areas (river reservoirs) -17 reservoirs = catches as much rain as possible (>2400mm of rain) Tap 3 - 5 NeWater- reeycle waste water - 40% of water supply ap 4 - 3(+2 under progress) Desalination plants, FA arca has became more developed urbanised Density of residential industrial commercial has increased Natural ground cover = high Increase in imperviousness because more buildings + more urban infrastructure ~> asphalt roads and conerete pavements and concrete buildings — type of building materials 0% to 73-100%River and its Drainage Basin Procecces No, | Processes/flows Description 1. | Precipitation Water that falls to the earth either as a liquid(rain) or ina frozen state, Transpiration Biological process where water is lost from a plant through the stomata in its leaves. Water that is lost directly into the atmosphere from water surfaces, Water loss to the atmosphere from both evaporation and plant transpiration Refers to. precipitation that DOFS NOT reach the ground or soil, but instead, intercepted by the leaves and branches of plants, ‘The water may later drip to the ground or flow down the stem of the plants (stemflow) to the ground, while some returns to the atmosphere via evapotranspiration, Water that flows over to the ground. This happens when the soil is saturated and does not allow water to infiltrate. Another reason can be due to impermeable ground surface, also known as overland flow. It may also happen when the rate of rainfall exceeds the rate of infiltration Downward movement or transfer of water into the soil {rom the ground surface. 3. | Evaporation 4. | Evapotranspiration (No, 2 + 3) 5. _ | interception 6. | Surface run-off 7 Infiltration 8 Percolation Downward movement or transfer of transfer of water from the soil into underlying rocks. Water in the soil does not remain there but movies down slowly into the lower layers of soil and rock. This adds to groundwater. 9. | Throughilow Lateral flow of water in the soil layer towards the river, sea, lake or ocean. It moves more slowly than surface run-off,10. Base flow / Groundwater flow Base flow, or groundwater flow, is the lateral movement of groundwater that seeps through the spaces in the soil or rock into the river. ‘This movement of water is slow. ver Features in a Drainage Basin No. | Features Description LL Drainage basin ‘The area of land drained by a river. 2. | Watershed The edge of highland surrounding a drainage basin. It marks the boundary between two drainage basins. 3. | Source The beginning or start of a river. 4. | Confluence The point at which two rivers or streams join, 5. | Tributary A stream or smaller river which joins a larger stream or river. 6. | Distributary Where rivers branch off to form smaller streams, 7. | Mouth The point where the river comes to the end, usually when entering a sea, 8 | Ground water Groundwater is water that is stored in layers of soil and rocks following percolation of water , lying above an impermeable layer. 9. | Watertable The top level of saturated ground in the soil -it rises and falls depending on the amount of rain.Cource of the river \aer | Weer ses ae } BAN | resera hho 4 ‘Tributary B | \ ee "perve! Y J? Vx ‘= \ AeRaindrop Soil Soil moisture River 4. Percolation Ground water groundwater flow WHERE DOES THE RIVER GET 15 WATER FROM? Precipitation (snow, sleet, hail, rain) Surface runoff Subsurface nmoff + Through flow - Groundwater flow 1 3 Vertical erosion It makes a river channel deeper. ‘This happens more in the upper course of a river, where the river does not have energy to erode sideways and hence erode almost vertically to form V-shaped valleys, Lateral erosion In the middle and lower courses of the river, with increase in volume of water, lateral erosion can happen to make a river wider There are four main processes of erosion that occur in rivers. These are:GAcEiow is the pressure of water that breaks away rock particles from the river bed and banks. The force of the water hits river banks and then pushes water into cracks. Air becomes compressed, pressure increases and the river bank may be gradually worn away. GbErifiowis tne sediments carried by a river scoutwear down the bed and banks Abrasion is when rocks collide and break into smaller fragments. The edges of these rocks become smoother and more rounded. ‘This process does not erode the bed and bank, Pieces of river sediment become smaller and more rounded as they move downstream. Sobuion is formed when water dissolves certain types of particles found in rocks, for example limestone, Erosional Processes This can result in the formation of a waterfall, typically found at the upper course ofa river. ‘The formation of a waterfall Transportation Transportation of material in a river begins when friction is overcome. Material that has been loosened by erosion may be then transported along the river. ‘There are four main processes of transportation. Suspension is material made up of very fine particles such as clay and silt is lifted as the result of turbulence and transported by the river. Faster-flowing, turbulent rivers carry more suspended material. This is why rivers appear muddy as it travels towards the mouth of the river (where velocity is greater as is the occurrence of finer sediment). 10Sollucbion is cissotved material carried by a river. This often happens in areas where the geology is limestone and is dissolved in slightly acidic water. Sabbakion, is material such as pebbles and gravel that is to0 heavy to be carried in suspension and is bounced along the river by the force of the water. Trackion is tage materials such as boulders are rolled and pushed along the river bed by the force of the river. Deposition Deposition is the process of the eroded material being dropped. This happens when a river loses aoe Factors leading to deposition: © Shallow water © At the end of the river’s journey, at the river’s mouth When volume of water increases Note: Deposition forms features such as floodplain and levees as seen in the above diagram, How does rainfall affect the energy of the river? ~ Energy of river => volume and velocity = High rainfall = high volume > high energy ~ High rainfall leads to high volume because there is more direct throughfall and that leads. to aheavy impact when it hits the ground, Little time for the rainwater to seep into the sub-surface layer through infiltration and percolation. Hence it will runoff the surface as overland flow or surface runoff. (assumption here is that the surface of the rock is impermeable) - If the surface is permeable, will that affect the volume of the flow? Yes, only some. - If the surface is permeable, the volume of the water may be lower to. "1Formation of Floodplain and Levee material being (b) flooding depostion of epostied on bed at large-sized and coarser overlow material -_ (d) development of levees and flood plain after repeated flooding How can the effects of the resultant flow of water be minimised? Most likely effects from high volume and rate of flow is urban flooding, including flash floods Minimise the incidence of flooding by decreasing volume and speed of stormwater runoff. 4. Change in type of surfave/building materials; impervious/non-porous ‘hard’ surfaces are replaced by pervious/porous ‘soft’ surfaces (green roof, sponge roads) b. Plant trees with long roots that loosen the soil structure... leads to more infiltration ¢. Plant trees with large crowns that intercept and break through-fall. This will cause stem flow and leaf drip to increase 4. Create rain gardens to temporarily hold rainwater on roofs, driveways and lawns. They encourage interception and increase surface permeability ¢. Widening and deepening drains and canals to drain off excess rainwater quickly The energy of the river is never constant and it varies over space and time, Explain 12Energy of rivers varies over space and time. It may be influenced by |. Changing Volume - climate(i.e.rainfall intensity and curation, temperature readings); presence of vegetative cover,rock permeability and size of drainage basin Changing Velocity - eg the river discharge (affected by rock permeability, size and relief of drainage basin, precipitation and vegetative cover) Imagine that you are standing on the river bank, looking at the flow of the water, how could one tell about the energy of the river. Weather and C. mate Weather describes the day-to-day condition of the atmosphere. It might be sunny, hot, windy or cloudy, raining or snowing. Climate means the average weather conditions in a particular location based on the average weather experienced there over 30 years or more. The weather takes into account the temperature, precipitation, humidity and atmospheric pressure of the part of the atmosphere (air) closest to the surface of the earth. Note: Atmospheric pressure is the weight of air pressing down on us. Air is light but because there i barometer. The units used are millibars. so much of it above us, it exerts a pressure on us, Atmospheric pressure is measured by @ ‘The weather is constantly changing as temperature and humidity change in the atmosphere, Landmasses, such as the British Isles, experience constantly changing weather conditions. Climate refers to what is expected to happen in the atmosphere rather than the actual conditions It is possible for the weather to be different from that suggested by the climate. 13The science of monitoring and studying the atmosphere and predicting its weather and climate is called meteorology. People who study the weather and climate are known as meteorologists. Factors affecting temperature L. Latitude 2. Cloud cover 3. Distance from the sea Latitude Angle of incidence of Sun’s rays ¢ Mean annual temperature & Distance travelled by Sun’s rays Seasonal variation in temperature > ‘Temperature zone/Temperature climate> Spring, Summer, Autumn, Winter Note: * Ata lower latitude, the angle of incidence of the sun’s rays is high, close to 90°. This results in heat being concentrated over a small area, causing more heating, resulting in higher temperatures. The sun's rays also travel a shorter distance to reach the Earth’s surface, meaning that less of the sun's rays is lost by reflection, scattering and absorption. % At a higher latitude, the angle of incidence of the sun's rays is low. This results in heat being spread out over a large area, causing less intense heating, resulting in lower temperatures. The sun's rays also travel a further distance to reach the Earth's surface, meaning that more of the sun's rays is In conclusion, the higher the latitude, the lower the temperature. Bxtra infos * Locations near the equator (Like Singapore — 1'N) have only small variations in solar input annually because the sngle of incidence does not change much throughout the year. Consequently, there is ninor variation in the surface air temperature over the period of one calendar year. * Seasonal variations in the angle of incidence becone greater with increasing latitude (i.e, away from the equator). Because of these variations, surface air temperature also becomes more varied and even extreme as we approach the poles. Highest temperatures tend to correspond roughly to the summer season when dey lengths are the longest and oun’s angles are at their maximum. When day lengths are at their shortest and sun’s angles are at their minimum (winter), the lowest temperatures occur. Revolution VS Rotation Revolution: around the sun Rotation: by itself 15Altitude At higher altitudes, there is less water vapour, dust & other impurities to absorb heat to warm the air. Thus, temperatures drop with increasing altitude - by 6.5°C for every 1000m increase in altitude. Effect On Altitude On Temperature Heat also escapes rapidly because air is rarefied (contains little vapour & dust), thus lowering the temperature at higher altitude. Heat escapes from the surface slowly because air is dense & contains dust, thus increasing the temperature at lower altitude. Cloud cover Clouds absorb incoming heat from the Sun during the day, ‘This results in cooling effect. At night, clouds tap the outgoing heat from the ground. creating a warming effect. Equatorial regions like Singapore experience extensive cloud covers. % Clouds reflect & absorb much of the incoming solar radiation & Less intense heating —> Lower temp % Inconclusion, there will be warm days instead of hot days. Hot desert regions experience little cloud covers eg. Sahara Desert Cloudless sky allows maximum solar radiation to reach Barth's surface, % Cloudless sky allows terrestrial radiation to escape rapidly. In conclusion, there will be very hot days and very cold nights. Distance from the Sea Temperature of a place can be influenced by how near or how far itis located from the sea. For example, the temperature at a coastal location will be different from a continental interior {inland) location, This is due to different thermal properties of water and land. % Land absorbs and loses heat faster than the sea % Thesea absorbs and loses heat slower than the land. 16In conclusion: The sea has a moderating influence on temperature of coastal locations because it absorbs and loses heat at a slower rate than land. This moderating influence is also called the maritime effect. Maritime Effect During summer: The sea is cooler than land. Onshore wind that blows towards land lowers the temperature at coastal arcas. This results in cooler summer at coastal areas as compared to inland locations During winter: The sea is warmer than land. Onshore wind that blows towards land increases the temperature at coastal areas. This results in warmer winters in coastal areas compared to inland locations, Continental Effect Experienced by places located far {rom the coastal areas. fect on temperature in summer; ‘The temperature remains very high, Erfeet o temperature in winter: The temperature remains very low. Effect on annual temperature range: It will vary greatly. woe ° Micro-Climate Factors affecting temperature al the micro-climate scale (small scale) Moacro-Climate Factors affecting temperature at a large scale © within a large atea, e.g. city, country © within regions eg. Asia © Globally Relationship between temperature and humidity The increase in temperature resulted in the decrease in humility. There is an increase in the capacity of the air to hold in water vapour. 7Dew point Dew point is the point in which the air is fully saturated with water vapour. This means that the Relative Humidity is 100%. The dew point occurs because air has cooled and contracted, with water vapour filling up the air’s capacity. When dew point is reached, condensation occurs, and clouds are formed, leading eventually to rainfall Summary Coastal locations have cool summers and warm winters e.g. Los Angeles, USA. They experience maritime climate with a small annual temperature range. Places located far away from the sea at inland locations have hot summers and cold winters e.g. Moscow, Russia. They experience continental climate with a large annual temperature range. Rainfall Relative Humidity Formula; Actual amount of water vapour in the air + Maximum amount of water vapour that the air can hold at a given temperature Based on the definition of RH, the two factors that influence RH are: Amount of water vapour 18© Air temperature 2 factors: Amount of water vapour in the air © Air temperature Amount of Water Vapour in the Air If the amount of water vapour increases while the amount of water vapour that the air can hold remains the same, relative humidity will increase. For example, the amount of water vapour can increase if winds blowing inland bring in moisture from a water body e.g. the sea or lake. Air Temperature When the air is warmed up, its molecules ane expand and move further apart. Thus, its capacity to hold more water vapour increases. 100% 53% 28% Relative Relative Relative There is an inverse relationship between air temperature and relative temperature During the night when the temperature is cooler, the temperature contracts and results in ahigher relative humidity. During the day, the air heats up the 19land up the air parcel, which expands, resulting in lower relative humidity. Saturation When the amount of water vapour in the air is the same as the amount that the air can hold, the air is said to be saturated. At saturation point, the air holds the maximum amount of water vapour it can hold. Dew Point Temperature The temperature at which saturation occurs is known as dew point temperature. At dew point temperature, condensation begins and water vapour changes to liquid form. Formation of CloudsHow are Cloude Formed? (Clouds form when air temperature reaches the ‘saturation point. Dew point temperature, the point of saturation, is where the rate of evaporation equals condensation, ‘Condensation takes place when dew point temp. Is reached and condensation nuclei and clouds form. Therefore, clouds form and grow ‘when there is more condensation on nuclei than evaporation from nuclei. Conversely, DOO the they dissipate if there is more evaporation than condensation, Thus clouds appear and ANON tht 21disappear and are constantly changing shape. 1. CONDENSATION NUCLEI These are minute particles found in the air such as dust, smoke particles or tiny specks of wind-blown soil which allows condensation to take place at dew point temperature, 2. COALESCENCE Minute water droplets will coalesce or merge to form larger droplets that are visible as clouds. Hence, clouds are water droplets that are suspended in the atmosphere. 3. RAINEALL Cloud droplets eventually grow large enough to become raindrops that fall to the earth’s surface. Air Temperature and Relative Mg »* a CE lateige) +) oe Elias "' im « aT i Reel) ola oa lo) droplet Bliia fairy HumidityConvectional Rainfall in Tropical Climate Tropical climatic regions experience high annual precipitation exceeding 1500mm per year. Heavy rain and thunderstorms usually occur in the late afternoon. On a hot day, the air in contact with the warm ground is warmed by conduction. The warm air with higher temperature than the surrounding air. rises and is said to be unstable. This unstable warm air which holds a lot of moisture rises in a convection current. As it rises to great height, it cools. Further cooling after it reaches dew point causes water vapour to condense into water droplets around condensation nuclei such as particles of dust and smoke. The water droplets form towering cumulonimbus clouds. The droplets coalesce which is to merge with one another to form bigger droplets. When the water droplets are too heavy to be suspended, convectional rain falls. 23Formation of Relief Rainfall / Orographie Rain Te eld Deere Le) air is forced [MM condenses, Pa Ce) high areas rr) ENR PTET] Ps Relief rainfall occurs in coastal regions where mountains are present. In the rain shadow areas, deserts can be found. Wind and Air Pressure 24Air Pressure Pressure is the force with which something pushes on something else. Air pressure is the force with which air presses on everything. Air pressure is equal in all directions, because air is a fluid, force applied in one direction is distributed equally in all directions. Thus the downward pull of gravity on air molecules produces air pressure in all directions. 1 factor: Temperature Temperature The sun heats different areas of the earth by different amounts. This is called difierential heating. 1. Warm air expands and is less dense. Less dense air rises into the atmosphere This creates areas of low pressure 2. As air rises, it cools. 3. Cool air contracts and is more dense. More dense air sinks, creating areas of high pressure. Wind Wind is the movement of air, across the Earth's surface. It moves from an area of high pressure towards an area of low pressure. Cow Preceure System and Rain When air at the ground surface is heated, the air molecules get more energy 25and move apart. That means fewer molecules are occupying the space making the air less dense. When the warm air rises, and air pressure at the ground surface decreases. As the air rises, it expands, then cools. Cooler air can’t hold the water, so water vapor molecules condense and form clouds. Therefore, low pressure means clouds and precipitation. ‘As elevation goes up, air pressure goes down. This is an inverse relationship. There is less concentration of gases (thin air) at higher altitudes, hence, there is low air pressure. High altitude, Low Pressure eeu els) cats 26land and Gea Breezes > High Pressure Pressure Land and sea breezes occur because water and land absorb and lose heat (from the sun) at different rates. During the day, the land heats up more quickly quinn ¢ than the sea, causing air over Ailometre Return curent land to rise. As the warm air uaa rises, cool air from the sea is blown in underneath, producing a sea breeze blowing inland. The situation is reversed at night, with the cool air over land drawn in under the warm air over the sea, producing a generally weaker land breeze In Singapore, the sea breeze effect produces localised afternoon showers and I LAND thunderstorms that are ah Crea CG Seu 27Tropical Monsoons Monsoons are large-scale, seasonally changing wind circulations that form due to the temperature differences between land and ocean, like a giant sea breeze. Monsoons dominate the climate in the tropical regions of Asia, including Singapore. They are known locally as the Northeast Monsoon and the Southwest Monsoon, and are responsible for much of the variation in rainfall over the regions throughout the year. December - March: The Northeast Monsoon develops during the northem hemisphere winter between December and March, when the land over much of continental Asia is colder than the ocean. This causes sinking cold air over land to blow towards the ocean, replacing the void left by the rising warm air over the ocean. As the cold air flows southward towards the low pressure system, it warms up and moistens, leading to the formation of dense rain clouds in the equatorial region. The start of the Northeast Monsoon usually heralds the wettest months (wet phase), while its tail end brings the driest months (dry phase). June - September: The Southwest Monsoon develops during the southern hemisphere winter between June and September, when cold subsiding air flows from the high pressure systems in the southem hemisphere to the warm northern hemisphere. Coriolie effect Monsoon winds are influenced by the Coriolis effect such that surface winds are deflected to the right in the northem hemisphere to become northeasterly winds during the Northeast Monsoon. During the Southwest Monsoon, they are deflected to the left to become southwesterly winds. In between the two monsoon seasons is an inter-monsoon period which is characterised by light and variable winds and warm temperatures. Singapore experiences two inter-monsoon periods in April - May and October - November. 28Effect of Northeast Monsoon on Ve % Ponding: The excessive accumulation of water at low-lying areas that remains after 48 hours after the end of rainfall under conditions conducive to drying ® Fallen trees + Traffic stoppages (commuting by public and private transport are affected) Map Reading Skills Contour lines Names of im 1: 25000 A symbots Directional ina Indicator Legend 29Measuring Straight-line distance Measure the straight-line distance between the school and the church. Distance on the map is 7 cm. Actual distance is 7 x 100,000 cm = 700,000 cm = 7 km Actual distance is 7 x 1 km = 7 kmMeasure the straight-line distance between the school and the church using the straight edge of a piece of paper. 12 345 6 7 kilometres 7 km is shown on the line scale. 31Measuring Distance Along a Curve Anand River 1 5 kilometres Een Straightened string Therefore, 7 km is the actual distance. 32