EC1012E

SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

Gopi Krishna Saramekala

Assistant Professor

Department of Electronic and Communication Engineering

National institute of Technology Calicut
1
CourseOutcomes:

• CO1: Apply the basic laws of solid state physics to understand the
properties of semiconductor materials.
• CO2: Analyze and model different types of semiconductor junctions,
including homo junctions and heterojunctions.
• CO3: Analyze and model the physics of Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor
systems and MOSFETs.
• CO4: Apply simulation tools for analyzing and evaluating various
semiconductor devices.
2
Module 1:
Introduction to Quantum mechanics: Schrodinger equation, Particle in
infinite potential well, Crystal structure of solids, Formation of energy
bands, E-K diagram, Electron effective mass, Concept of hole, Direct
and indirect band gap semiconductors, Density of states, Fermi Dirac
distribution, Maxwell Boltzmann distribution, Intrinsic and extrinsic
semiconductors, Equilibrium carrier concentration, Mass action law,
Carrier transport, Drift, Diffusion, Hall effect. Non-equilibrium carrier
concentration, Recombination and generation of carriers, Life
time,Continuity equation - Quasi Fermi levels
3
Module 2:
Semiconductor junction: P-N junction under equilibrium, Energy band
diagram, Current under forward bias, Reverse
bias, IV characteristics, Charge storage and transient behavior, Junction
capacitance, Junction break down, Small signal model of P-N diode,
Metal-Semiconductor contacts, Non-rectifying (ohmic) contacts,
Schottky diodes.

4
Module 3:
Metal-Oxide-Silicon System: Ideal MOS structure, Accumulation,
Depletion, Inversion, Energy band diagram under bias, Threshold
voltage, C-V characteristics, Effects of work function difference,
Oxide and interface charges.

MOSFET: Structure, Types, Threshold voltage, DC characteristics,

Channel length modulation, Subthreshold conduction, Small signal
models of MOSFET, Short channel effects (SCEs), Introduction to
advanced MOS devices.
5
Semiconductor Devices Lab:
Simulation of semiconductor devices using SPICE/ MATLAB/ TCAD
and Hardware experiments on device characteristics of diodes and
BJTs, IV characteristics of diodes, BJTs and MOSFETs, CV
characteristics of MOS capacitor

Text book: Semiconductor physics and devices : basic principles by Donald A. Neamen

6
 Tools LIST OF EXPERIMENTS Week
VOLTAGE DIVIDER NETWORK DEC 22- 27
RC INTEGRATOR/LOW PASS FILTER DEC 30 - JAN 3

RC DIFFERENTIATOR/HIGH PASS FILTER JAN 6 – 10

SIMULATION
DIODE CHARACTERISTICS - V-I JAN 13 – 17
(LT SPICE)
BJT CHARACTERISTICS-CE,CB,CC CONFIGURATIONS- JAN 20 – 24
INPUT AND OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS
MOSFET CHARACTERISTICS- DRAIN CHARACTERISTICS AND JAN 27 – 31
TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS
PN JUNCTION DIODE – ENERGY BAND, POTENTIAL, ELECTRIC FIELD FEB 17 - 21
SIMULATION
BJT - ENERGY BAND, POTENTIAL, ELECTRIC FIELD FEB 24 - 28
(TCAD) MAR 3 - 7
MOSFET - ENERGY BAND, POTENTIAL, ELECTRIC FIELD
DIODE CHARACTERISTICS - V-I MAR 10 – 14
HARDWARE MAR 17 – 21
BJT CE CONFIGURATION- INPUT AND OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS

7
 INTRODUCTION

Transistors per Die

10 Core
Core i7 Xeon
10 12 (Quad)
AMD K10
10 11
Core 2 Duo
2G 4G
10 10 512 M 1 G
Memory 256 M
10 9 Microprocessor 128 M
64 M Itanium
10 8 16 M
4M Pentium 4
10 7 1M Pentium iii
256 K Pentium II
10 6 Pentium
16 K i 486 TM
Resistor 10 5
(1826) 4K i 386 TM
10 4 1K 80286
Vacuum Tubes 8080
(1904) 10 3 8086
2 4004
P-n Junction
10
(1949)
10 1
1820 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
SSI MSI VLSI ULSI, WSI, SOC and 3D-IC
Bipolar IC CMOS
Transistor (1958) (1963) Microprocessor (1971)
(1947)
MOSFET One-transistor
JFET (1960)
(1952) DRAM cell
(1968)

Fig 1.1. A brief timeline of the major milestones in the development of Semiconductor Devices
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 The Integrated Circuit (IC)

• The integrated circuit has led to a new revolution in electronics that was
not possible with discrete devices.
• Integration means that complex circuits, consisting of millions of devices,
can be fabricated on a single chip of semiconductor material.
• The first IC was fabricated in February of 1959 by Jack Kilby of Texas
Instruments.
• Since the first IC, very sophisticated and complex circuits have been
designed and fabricated.
• A single silicon chip may be on the order of 1 square centimeter and some
ICs may have more than a hundred terminals.
• An IC can contain the arithmetic, logic, and memory functions on a single
chip
• The primary example of this type of IC is the microprocessor.
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Fabrication
• The integrated circuit is a direct result of the development of various
processing techniques needed to fabricate the transistor and interconnect
lines on the single chip.
• The total collection of these processes for making an IC is called a
technology.
Basic Steps in Fabrication
• Thermal Oxidation
• Photomasks and Photolithography
• Etching
• Diffusion
• Ion Implantation
• Metallization, Bonding, and Packaging
10
 -- Thermal Oxidation -- Photomasks and Photolithography -- Etching
-- Diffusion -- Ion Implantation -- Metallization, Bonding, and Packaging

Fig. 1.2 The basic steps in forming a pn junction. 11

Crystal growth, wafer fabrication and
basic properties of silicon wafers

12
Raw material preparation

13
 Metallurgical grade silicon
• Quartzite (sand, SiO2) is placed in a hot (~1500oC to1800oC) furnace with carbon releasing
materials which reacts as shown below forming metallurgic grade silicon (MGS):
SiO2(solid) + 2C(solid) = Si(liquid) + 2CO(gas)

• Metallurgical grade silicon (~98% pure) production and typical impurity levels.
• Over 60% MGS is used to make Al alloys.
• The fraction used for semiconductors is very small. 14
 Electronics grade silicon (polycrystalline)

• Initially, the solid Si is first converted into a liquid form (SiHCl3) for purification,
then converted back into solid Si.
• Both reactions occur at high temperatures.
• Metallurgical grade silicon is treated with hydrogen chloride to form
trichlorosilane:
Si + 3HCl → SiHCl3(g) + H2(g)
• SiHCl3 is liquid at room temperature, boiling point of 32oC. Multiple distillation of
the liquid removes the unwanted impurities (99.9999% pure).
• The purified SiHCl3 is then used in a hydrogen reduction reaction to
prepare the electronics grade Si (EGS):
SiHCl3(g) + H2(g) → Si(s) + 3HCl(g)
(this is the reverse reaction of the above reaction)
• EGS is the raw material for Si single crystal production.
15
 Si single crystal growth

Two methods are used: Czochralski (CZ) and

float zone (FZ).

Jan Czochralski (1885 - 1953) was a Polish chemist who

invented the Czochralski process, which is used to grow single
crystals and is used in the production of semiconductor
wafers.
He discovered the Czochralski method in 1916 when he
accidentally dipped his pen into a crucible of molten tin rather
than his inkwell. He immediately pulled his pen out to discover
that a thin thread of solidified metal was hanging from the
nib. The nib was replaced by a capillary, and Czochralski
verified that the crystallized metal was a single crystal.
16
 Czochralski method (CZ)

• It is widely employed for Si, GaAs, and InP.

• The EGS is broken into small pieces and placed in an SiO2 crucible.
• In an argon ambient, the crucible is heated to just above 1417oC.
• Dopant is added to the melt to intentionally dope the resulting crystal.
• A single crystal seed is then lowered into the melt (crystal orientation and wafer diameter determined by
seed orientation and pull rate), and withdrawn slowly.
• Melt flows up the seed and cools as crystal begins to grow.
• Seed rotated about its axis to produce a circular cross-section crystal. The
rotation inhibits the natural tendency of the crystal to grow along certain orientations to produce a
faceted crystal.
• Long ingots (boules) 100 kg, with very good circular cross-section are produced.

17
Czochralski method (CZ)

18
 Czochralski growth of silicon
A commercial CZ puller Early in the growth process Later in the growth process

19
 Float-zone crystal growth: overview
• For CZ-grown Si, impurities (O and C) can be introduced from the melt contacting the SiO2 crucible
and from graphite susceptor/supporter.

• This limits the resistivity to 20Ωcm, while intrinsic Si is 230kΩcm.

• These crystals are more expensive

• Float-zone does not allow as large Si wafers as CZ does (~ 200mm and 300mm) and radial
distribution of dopant in FZ wafer is not as uniform as in CZ wafer.

• It is good for solar cells, power electronic devices (thyristors and rectifiers) that use the entire
volume of the wafer not just a thin surface layer, etc.

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Float-zone Method

21
 Float-zone crystal growth process

• Polycrystalline silicon is converted into single- crystal by zone heating

(zone melting).
• The entire poly-Si rod from the EGS process is
extracted as a whole.
• The rod is clamped at each end, with one end in contact with a single
crystal seed.
• An RF heating coil induces eddy currents (power I2R) in the silicon,
heating it beyond its melting point in the vicinity of the coil.
• The "floating" melt zone is about 2cm wide/high.
• The seed crystal touches the melt zone and is pulled away, along with
a solidifying Si boule following the seed. The crystalline direction
follows that of the seed single crystal.

Melt is not held in a container, it is “float”, thus the name “float zone”.

22
 Float-zone: zone refining
• Dopants/impurities prefer to stay in the liquid than in the solid.
• Thus, the impurities generally stay in the melt zone, and don't
solidify in the boule.
• That is, segregation (and evaporation) of impurities in the melt
zone help purify the Si further.
• One can "purify" FZ wafers further by successively passing the
coil along the boule. The impurities then segregate towards
the end of the boule.
• Of course, if neglecting impurity evaporation, the total amount
of impurity is the same. Yet the impurity at the lower part is
much lower than, and at the upper part approaches to, the
original impurity concentration.
• Thermal instability in the melt zone can cause micro-
variations in composition and doping.
Difficult in making a uniform doping
concentration.

23
Brief Idea

24
 Semiconductor Materials
The Semiconductor Industry
• Semiconductor devices such as diodes, transistors and integrated circuits can be
found everywhere in our daily lives, in televisions, automobiles, washing
machines and computers. We have come to rely on them and increasingly have
come to expect higher performance at lower cost.
• The massive growth of the semiconductor industry is hard to even imagine a
similar growth in any other industry. For instance, in the automobile industry, no
one would even expect a five times faster car with a five times larger capacity at
the same price when comparing to what was offered five years ago.
Nevertheless, when it comes to personal computers, such expectations are very
realistic.

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• The essential fact which has driven the successful growth of the computer
industry is that through industrial skill and technological advances one manages
to make smaller and smaller transistors. These devices deliver year after year
better performance while consuming less power and because of their smaller
size they can also be manufactured at a lower cost per device.

26
 Semiconductors
Semiconductors are a group of materials having
conductivities between those of metals and insulators

Ex : Silicon and Germanium

Difference in conductivity

27
• Elemental semiconductors – Si and Ge (column IV of periodic table) – compose of single
species of atoms
• Compound semiconductors – combinations of atoms of column III and column V and
some atoms from column II and VI (combination of two atoms results in binary
compounds)
• There are also three-element (ternary) compounds (GaAsP) and four-elements
(quaternary) compounds such as InGaAsP.

28
• The wide variety of electronic and optical properties of these
semiconductors provides the device engineer with great
flexibility in the design of electronic and opto-electronic
functions.
• Ge was widely used in semiconductor development for
transistors and diodes.
• Si is now used for the majority of rectifiers transistors and
integrated circuits.
• Compounds are widely used in high-speed devices and devices
requiring the emission or absorption of light.
• GaN, GaP, and GaAs are common in LEDs.

29
• The ternary and quaternary compounds such as GaAsP and InGaAsP can be
grown to provide added flexibility in choosing material properties
• The electronic and optical properties of semiconductors are strongly affected
by impurities, which may be added in precisely controlled amounts (e.g. an
impurity concentration of one part per million can change a sample of Si
from a poor conductor to a good conductor of electric current). This process
called doping.

30
 Solid state structures
Types of Solids
• Amorphous, polycrystalline, and single crystals are the three general types of
solids.

Fig.2. Schematics of three general types of crystals: (a) amorphous,

(b) polycrystalline, (c) single.

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Space Lattices
A representative unit, or a group of atoms, is repeated at regular intervals in
each of the three dimensions to form the single crystal. The periodic
arrangement of atoms in the crystal is called the lattice.

Fig.3(a). 2D representation of a single- Fig. 3(b). 2D representation of a single- crystal

lattice crystallattice showing various possible unit cells

Primitive and Unit Cell

A primitive cell is the smallest unit cell that can be repeated to form
the lattice. 32
Fig. 4. A generalized primitive unit cell

33
Basic Crystal Structures

• Simple cubic (sc)

• Body-centered cubic (bcc)
• Face-centered cubic (fcc)

Fig. 5. Three lattice types: (a) simple cubic, (b) body-centered cubic,
(c) face-centered cubic
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Problem 1
Find the volume density of atoms in a crystal for sc, bcc and fcc
where lattice constant a= 5 Å

35
Problem 1
Find the volume density of atoms in a crystal for sc, bcc and fcc where lattice constant
a= 5 Å
Solution:
Volume Density= (Number of atoms per unit cell) / (Volume of the unit cell)
sc:
The number of atoms per unit cell is 1/8*8=1

Volume of the unit cell is ‘a3’ =(5*10-8)3

Volume density = 1/(5*10-8)3 = 0.8*1022 atoms/cm3

bcc:
Volume density of bcc is the volume density of sc multiplied by 2
fcc:
Volume density of fcc is the volume density of bcc multiplied by 2

36
Crystal Planes and Miller Indices

Fig. 6. A representative crystal lattice plane

37
Fig. 7. Three lattice planes: (a) (100) plane, (b) (110) plane, (c) (111) plane.

38
Problem 2:
Calculate the surface density of atoms shown in figure 8, where, a= 5*10-8 .

Fig. 8 (a) The (110) plane in a bcc and (b) the atoms cut by the (110) plane in a bcc.

Solution:

=5.66*1014 atoms/cm3 39
 THE DIAMOND STRUCTURE

Diamond lattice unit cell, showing the four nearest neighbour structure
The basic lattice structure for
many important semiconductors
is the diamond lattice, which is
characteristic of Si and Ge. In
many compound semiconductors,
atoms are arranged in a basic
diamond structure but are
different on alternating sites. This
is called a zincblende lattice and
is typical of the III-V
The diamond lattice can be thought of compounds.
as an fcc structure with an extra atom
placed at a/4+b/4+c/4 from each of the
diagonals.

40
 Fig. 9. The tetrahedral structure of closest neighbors in the diamond lattice.

Fig. 10. Portions of the diamond lattice: (a) bottom half and (b) top half. 41
• Compound semiconductors, such as gallium arsenide, have the zincblende structure
shown in Figure 11.
• Figure 11 shows the basic tetrahedral structure of GaAs in which each Ga atom has four
nearest As neighbors and each As atom has four nearest Ga neighbors.
• This figure also begins to show the interpenetration of two sublattices that can be used to
generate the diamond or zincblende lattice.

Figure 1.15 | The tetrahedral structure of closest

Fig. 11. The zincblende (sphalerite)
neighbors in the zincblende lattice.
lattice of GaAs. 42
Problem 3.
Calculate the No. of atoms in diamond unit
cell

Solution:

No. of atoms contributed by FCC unit cell having origin at (0,0,0) = 4.

No. of atoms contributed by FCC having origin at a/4(1,1,1) = 4
So, total No. of atoms = 8
43
Problem 4.
Calculate the volume density of Si atoms (atoms/cm3), if lattice
constant (a) is 5.43 Å.
Solution:

44
Problem 5.
Calculate no. of Si atoms in (100), (110) and (111) planes of Si crystal structure and
find the surface density of Si atoms (atoms/cm3), if lattice constant (a) is 5.43 Å.

45
 Defect in crystals
Point defects: vacancy, interstitial, substitutional, Frankel defects
Linear defects: edge and screw dislocations
Planar defects: stacking fault, grain boundaries, surfaces Bulk defects: cracks and pores, precipitate

46
Point defects

Point defects.
a) Substitutional.
b) Interstitial.
c) Vacancy (Schottky defect).
d) Frenkel-type defect
(interstitial - vacancy pair).

Point defects dictate most

dopant diffusion mechanisms,
and thus determine the
impurity profile.

47
 Line defects: dislocation
• A missing line or additional line of atoms is called a dislocation.
• Dislocations are either pure edge, pure screw or a combination of both types.

Screw dislocations
give a helical
structure to the
planes, often show
up in crystal growth

48
 Dislocation move

• Dislocation affects deformation properties - to slide upper block over lower. Now only requires a
line of bonds to break at a time, not a whole plane process of slip.
• It causes low yield strength of solids.
• Dislocation sources: by stress due to temperature gradient.
49
 Planar defects: stacking faults
Volume defects: precipitates
• A stacking fault is a disruption in the stacking of layers in the crystal.
• It is terminated by dislocation.

• Precipitates are three dimensional defects that have a different chemical makeup from the
host lattice.
• They can result from an impurity exceeding the maximum solubility of
the crystal (much like super-saturation of sugar in water).

50
Introduction to Quantum Mechanics

51
 Introduction to Quantum Mechanics

Classical Mechanics
Do Electrons in Atoms and Molecules Obey Newton’s Laws of Motion?
• At first glance, it may seem natural to assume that the behavior of electrons follows the
familiar principles of Newton's classical mechanics, just as planets follow predictable
orbits around the Sun.
• However, the answer to this question is a definitive “No”
• Electrons in atoms and molecules exhibit behaviors that are fundamentally different from
what classical physics predicts. Their motion cannot be accurately described by trajectories
or forces in the classical sense.

52
 Introduction to Quantum Mechanics

Features of Classical Mechanics (CM)

1) Classical mechanics predicts a precise trajectory for a particle.

At any given moment, the exact position (r⃗) and velocity (v⃗) of a particle can be
simultaneously known.
This allows for the calculation of momentum (p⃗=mv⃗), where ‘m’ is the mass of the particle.
velocity v

position r = (x,y,z)

•Position (r⃗), velocity (v⃗), and momentum (p⃗​) are vector quantities, meaning they have both
magnitude and direction.
•Velocity, for instance, is expressed as: v⃗=(vx,vy,vz) representing its components along the x, y,
and z axes. 53
 Introduction to Quantum Mechanics
• Given the initial conditions (position and velocity at a specific time), the laws of classical
mechanics allow us to calculate the future motion of the particle with complete accuracy.
• Classical mechanics works exceptionally well for large-scale systems (Macroscopic
Systems), such as planetary motion, where quantum effects are negligible.

2) Any type of motion (translation, vibration, rotation) can have any value of energy associated
with it – i.e. there is a continuum of energy states.
3) Particles and waves are distinguishable phenomena, with different, characteristic properties
and behaviour.
Property Behaviour

mass momentum
Particles position  collisions
velocity
Waves wavelength  diffraction
frequency interference
54
 Introduction to Quantum Mechanics
Revision of Some Relevant Equations in CM

Total energy of particle:

E = Kinetic Energy (KE) + Potential Energy (PE)

T - depends on v V - depends on r

V depends on the system

e.g. positional, electrostatic PE

E = ½mv2 + V

 E = p2/2m + V (p = mv)

Note: strictly E, T, V (and r, v, p) are all defined at a particular time (t) ; E(t) etc..

55
 Introduction to Quantum Mechanics
Consider a 1-dimensional system (straight line translational motion of a particle under the
influence of a potential acting parallel to the direction of motion):

Define: position r=x

velocity v = dx/dt
momentum p = mv = m(dx/dt)

PE V
force F = −(dV/dx)

Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion

F = ma = m(dv/dt) = m(d2x/dt2)
acceleration

Therefore, if we know the forces acting on a particle we can solve a differential equation to
determine it’s trajectory {x(t),p(t)}.
56
 Principles of Quantum Mechanics
• There are three principles we need to consider:
• The principle of energy quanta,
• The wave–particle duality principle
• The uncertainty principle.
Energy Quanta

• Photoelectric effect demonstrates an inconsistency between experimental results and

the classical theory of light.
• If monochromatic light is incident on a clean surface of a material, then under certain
conditions, electrons (photoelectrons) are emitted from the surface.
• According to classical physics, if the intensity of the light is large enough, the
work function of the material will be overcome and an electron will be emitted
from the surface independent of the incident frequency. 57
 Principles of Quantum Mechanics

• The observed effect is that at a constant incident intensity, the maximum kinetic
energy of the photoelectron varies linearly with frequency with a limiting frequency
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑜 , below which no photoelectron is produced.

• If the incident intensity varies at a constant

frequency, the rate of photoelectron
emission changes, but the maximum
kinetic energy remains the same.
• In 1900, Plank postulated that thermal
radiation is emitted from a heated surface
in discrete packets of energy called quanta.
• The Energy of the quanta is given by 𝐸 = (a) The photoelectric effect and (b) the maximum
ℎ𝜈, where h=plank Constant, 𝜈 is kinetic energy of the photoelectron as a function of
frequency of radiation incident frequency
58
 Principles of Quantum Mechanics
• Then in 1905, Einstein interpreted the photoelectric results by suggesting that the energy in
a light wave is also contained in discrete packets or bundles. The particle-like packet of
energy is called a photon, whose energy is also given by 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈.
• A photon with sufficient energy can knock an electron from the surface of the material.
• The minimum energy required to remove an electron is called the work function of the
material and any excess photon energy goes into the kinetic energy of the photoelectron.
• The photoelectric effect shows the discrete nature of the photon and demonstrates the
particle-like behavior of the photon.
• The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectron can be written as
1
𝑇 = 𝑚𝑣 2 = ℎ𝜈 − ℎ𝜈𝑜 𝜈 ≥ 𝜈𝑜
2
• ℎ𝜈 is the incident photon energy and ℎ𝜈𝑜 is the minimum energy, or work function,
required to remove an electron from the surface. 59
 Principles of Quantum Mechanics
Wave–Particle Duality

• The particle-like behavior of electromagnetic waves was also instrumental in the

explanation of the Compton effect.
• In an experiment, x-ray beam was incident on a solid. A portion of the x-ray beam was
deflected and the frequency of the deflected wave had shifted compared with the incident
wave.
• In 1924, de Broglie postulated the existence of matter waves. He suggested that since
waves exhibit particle-like behavior, particles should be expected to show wave-like
properties.
• The hypothesis of de Broglie was the existence of a wave particle duality principle .
ℎ
The momentum of a photon is given by 𝑝 =
𝜆
where 𝜆 is the wavelength of the light wave know as de Broglie wavelength .
• This wave–particle duality principle of quantum mechanics applies primarily to small
particles such as electrons, but it has also been shown to apply to protons and neutrons.
60
 Principles of Quantum Mechanics
The Uncertainty Principle
• The Heisenberg uncertainty principle applies primarily to very small particles and states that we
cannot describe with absolute accuracy the behavior of these subatomic particles.
• The uncertainty principle describes a fundamental relationship between conjugate variables,
including position and momentum and also energy and time.
• The first statement of the uncertainty principle is that it is impossible to simultaneously describe
with absolute accuracy the position and momentum of a particle.
• If the uncertainty in the momentum is ∆p and the uncertainty in the position is ∆x, then the
uncertainty principle is stated as
ℎ
Δ𝑝 Δ𝑥 ≥
2𝜋
• The second statement of the uncertainty principle is that it is impossible to simultaneously
describe with absolute accuracy the energy of a particle and the instant of time the particle has
this energy.
ℎ
Δ𝐸 Δ𝑡 ≥
2𝜋
• One consequence of the uncertainty principle is that we cannot, for example, determine the exact
position of an electron. We will, instead, determine the probability of finding an electron at a
particular position. 61
 Schrodinger’s Wave Equation
• Schrodinger, in 1926, provided a formulation called wave mechanics, which
incorporated the principles of quanta introduced by Planck, and the wave–particle
duality principle introduced by de Broglie.
• The one-dimensional, nonrelativistic Schrodinger’s wave equation is given by

• where 𝜓(x, t) is the wave function, V(x) is the potential function assumed to be
independent of time, m is the mass of the particle
• Assume that the wave function can be written in the form
𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝜓(𝑥)𝜙(𝑡)

62
• where 𝜓(x) is a function of the position x only and 𝜙(t) is a function of time t only.
Substituting this form of the solution into Schrodinger’s wave equation, we obtain

• If we divide by the total wave function 𝜓 𝑥 𝜙 𝑡

• Since the left side of Equation is a function of position x only and the right side of the
equation is a function of time t only, each side of this equation must be equal to a
constant.
• The time-dependent portion 𝜂 =

where again the parameter 𝜂 is called a separation constant

63
 • The solution of Equation can be written in the form
• The form of this solution is the classical exponential form of a sinusoidal wave.
ℎ𝜔
𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 or
2𝜋
𝜂 𝐸
𝜔= =
ℎ ℎ
= 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡
• The time-independent portion of Schrodinger’s wave equation can now be written
from Equation

Or

where, m is the mass of the particle, V(x) is the potential experienced by the particle, and E is the total energy of
the particle. 64
 Schrodinger Equation - Summary
• Schrodinger equation: Wave mechanics
• Newton’s laws: Classical mechanics
• Maxwell’s equations: Electromagnetic theory

➢ The electron is not be regarded as a wave, but as particle, with an

associated hypothetical de Broglie wave.

➢ Over a small region, where the electron is known to exist, a probably

‘wave packet’ could be set up.

➢ The probability of locating the electron at a certain point – solution of

Schrodinger’s equation.
65
 Solution of Schrodinger equation
1. Free electron
2. Electron in a potential well (Bound electron)
3. Finite potential Barrier (Tunnel effect)
4. Electron in a periodic Field of a crystal (the solid state)
2 2 𝑚
𝛻 ψ +8𝜋 2 (E-W) ψ =0
ℎ
2𝑚 ℎ
𝛻2 ψ+ (E-W) ψ = 0 where ħ=
ħ 2 2𝜋

66
Case I: Free electron
• Consider motion of electron in a free space, ie. in a potential free space in
the +x direction. i.e. ‘No Wall’ or No potential barrier to restrict.
• The potential energy V(x)=0 and the Schrodinger equation reduces to,
𝑑 2 ψ 2𝑚
+ 2 E ψ =0 (1)
𝑑𝑥 2 ħ

Solution to above differential equation ψ(x) = 𝐴𝑒 𝑗𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑥 (2)

2𝑚𝐸 ħ2 𝑘 2
where k= ⇒ E= [k is wave number]
ħ2 2𝑚
ψ(x) exists for all values of E or all energy levels. Thus a continuous band is
obtained.
Free-flying electron – all values of energy are allowed.
67
Further, we know that the solution for time dependent portion is ϕ(t) = 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡

Then the total solution for wave function is given by ψ(x) = 𝐴𝑒 𝑗(𝑘𝑥−𝜔𝑡) + 𝐵𝑒 −𝑗(𝑘𝑥+𝜔𝑡) (3)

• The first term, with the coefficient A , is a wave traveling in the +x direction, while the
second term, with the coefficient B , is a wave traveling in the - x direction. The value of
these coefficients will be determined from boundary conditions.

As we considered that the particle traveling in the +x direction, it will be described by the x
traveling wave i.e. coefficient B = 0. We can write the traveling-wave solution in the form

ψ(x) = 𝐴𝑒 𝑗(𝑘𝑥−𝜔𝑡) (4)

68
 2𝑚𝐸 1 2 𝑝2
We know that k = , E= 𝑚𝑣 , p=mv => E= ,
ħ2 2 2𝑚
𝑝2 𝑝
k= =
ħ 2 ħ
ℎ 2𝜋ħ ℎ
We also know from de Broglie wavelength λ = = since, ħ= ,
p p 2𝜋
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝜆= => k =
k λ

• A free particle with a well-defined energy will also have a well-defined

wavelength and momentum.
• A free particle with a well-defined momentum can be found anywhere
with equal probability.
69
 Case II: Electron in a potential well (Bound Electron)

➢Electron bound to its nucleus

➢Infinite potential well
➢Potential barriers don’t allow the electrons to escape from the well
i.e. ψ(x)=0, at x=0 ∞ ∞

ψ(x)=0, at x=a
Well
v v

➢Assume the electron propagates in x direction =0X =a

*
nucleus X
x

➢In this case electron is reflected on the walls of the well – positive and
negative x-direction
➢Potential energy inside the well is zero as before

70
(i) Energy:
Schrodinger equation for an electron in region 2
𝑑 2 ψ 2𝑚
+ Eψ=0
𝑑𝑥 2 ħ2
Solution: Two propagation directions (+x and –x)
𝑗𝑘𝑥 −𝑗𝑘𝑥 2𝑚𝐸
ψ(x) = 𝐴𝑒 +𝐵𝑒 where k=
ħ2
At x=0, ψ(x)=0 or 0=A+B ⇒ B=-A
Figure: Potential function of the
At x=a, ψ(x)=0 => 0 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑗𝑘𝑎 +𝐵𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑎 infinite potential well.
i.e. 0 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑗𝑘𝑎 − 𝐴𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑎 ⇒ A[2j sin(ka)]=0

 sin(ka)=0 or ka=n𝜋, 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, … … [Here, n cant be zero as n=0 represents wave is not

propagating]
𝑛𝜋
𝑘= =wave number
𝑎
71
 2𝑚𝐸 𝑛𝜋 ℎ
We know that k= = where ħ=
ħ2 𝑎 2𝜋
2 2 𝑎2 8𝜋2 𝑚𝐸
𝑛 𝜋 =
ℎ2

𝑛2 ℎ 2
 En = Thus the solution of Schrodinger equation exists only for certain energy
8𝑚𝑎2
values. Therefore certain discrete energy levels exist , E1, E2, E3, ….En exist
in the case of an 𝑒ҧ in a potential well (bound electron)
(ii) Wave function:

For finding wave function we don’t know the coefficient ‘A’

Probability of locating the electron at any x is, ψψ∗ dx=1 [normalization boundary
condition]
ψ(x)= 𝐴𝑒 𝑗𝛼𝑥 +𝐵𝑒 −𝑗𝛼𝑥
ψ(x) = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘x
72
ΨΨ∗ dx= A2sin2kx dx =1
2
=>A=
𝑎
2 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝜋
Hence, Ψ= sin( ) [since, k= ]
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
(iii) Probability density function:
P= ψ2 = 2 2
sin (
𝑛𝜋𝑥
)
𝑎 𝑎
The particle spends most of the time at the point at which 2
ψ is maximum.

73
 𝑛2 ℎ 2
En =
8𝑚𝑎2

2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
Ψ= sin( )
𝑎 𝑎

P= ψ2 = 2 2
sin (
𝑛𝜋𝑥
)
𝑎 𝑎

Figure: Particle in an infinite potential well: (a) four lowest discrete energy levels,
(b) corresponding wave functions, and (c) corresponding probability functions.
74
• Based on the obtained energy expression of the particle and corresponding graphs we can
conclude that the energy of particle is quantized.
• That is, the energy of the particle can only have particular discrete values.
• The quantization of the particle energy is contrary to results from classical physics, which
would allow the particle to have continuous energy values.
• The quantization of the energy of a bound particle is an important result.

75
Case III: Electron in a finite potential barrier (Vo) (Quantum mechanical tunnelling)
Free electron moving in the positive x-direction, encounters a potential barrier Vo which is
larger than E of the electron.

In Region 1: (x< 0)
The electron is assumed to be free,
𝑑 2 ψ 2𝑚
(I) 2 + 2 E ψ =0
𝑑𝑥 ħ
2𝑚𝐸
ψ I(x) = 𝐴𝑒 𝑗𝑘𝑥 +𝐵𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑥 , k=
ħ2

Inside the potential barrier, (x>0), the Schrodinger equation,

𝑑 2 ψ 2𝑚
(II) 2 + 2 (E-Vo) ψ =0
𝑑𝑥 ħ
2𝑚(𝐸−𝑉𝑜)
(II) ψ II(x) = 𝐶𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑥 +𝐷𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑥 where 𝛽=
ħ2
Since Vo >E, 𝛽 will be imaginary. 76
Let γ = j𝛽
ψ II(x) = 𝐶𝑒 γ𝑥 +𝐷𝑒 −γ𝑥
−1(2𝑚)(𝑉𝑜−𝐸) (2𝑚)(𝑉𝑜−𝐸)
𝛽= =j
ħ2 ħ2
(2𝑚)(𝑉𝑜−𝐸)
γ = j𝛽 = −
ħ2

When x = ∞,
ψII(x)=C.∞+D.0 Figure: The wave functions through the potential barrier.
If C is finite, ψII(x)→ ∞ 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 → ∞
But ψ2≯1 (It is probability)
Therefore, C=0
ψII(x) = 𝐷𝑒 −γ𝑥
i.e. As x↑, ψII(x) ↓
77
When Vo↑, damping will also ↑.
(2𝑚)(𝑉𝑜−𝐸)
(γ = − )
ħ2
If the potential barrier is moderately high and relatively narrow, tunnelling will take place.
•The penetration of a potential barrier by an electron wave is called ‘tunnelling’.
•Tunnelling is a quantum mechanics effect.

When x =0
ψI = ψII at x=0. By substituting x=0 => Aj𝛼 − 𝐵𝑗𝛼 = γ𝐷
𝐴𝑒 𝑗𝑘𝑥 +𝐵𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑥 = 𝐷𝑒 −γ𝑥 𝐷 γ
A= (1+j )
2 𝛼
i.e. A+B = D (at x=0) 𝐷 γ
dψI dψII B= (1-j )
2 𝛼
= ψ I and ψ II can be expressed in terms of a
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐴𝑒 𝑗𝑘𝑥 jk - 𝐵𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑥 jk = - γ.𝐷𝑒 −γ𝑥 constant D. 78
 𝐸 𝐸 2γ𝑎
Tunneling probability, T=16( )(1- )𝑒
𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑜
2𝑚(𝑉𝑜−𝐸)
Where γ = −
ħ2

• This result implies that there is a finite probability that the incident particle will penetrate
the potential barrier and exist in region II.
• The probability of a particle penetrating the potential barrier is another difference between
classical and quantum mechanics.
• The quantum mechanical penetration is classically not allowed.
79
 Important Points: Summary
de Broglie wavelength The wavelength of a particle given as the ratio of Planck’s constant to
momentum.
Heisenberg uncertainty principle The principle that states that we cannot describe with absolute
accuracy the relationship between sets of conjugate variables that describe the behavior of particles,
such as momentum and position.
Pauli exclusion principle The principle that states that no two electrons can occupy the same
quantum state.
photon The particle-like packet of electromagnetic energy.
quanta The particle-like packet of thermal radiation.
quantized energies The allowed discrete energy levels that bound particles may occupy.
quantum numbers A set of numbers that describes the quantum state of a particle, such as an
electron in an atom.
quantum state A particular state of an electron that may be described, for example, by a set of
quantum numbers.
tunneling The quantum mechanical phenomenon by which a particle may penetrate through a thin
potential barrier.
wave–particle duality The characteristic by which electromagnetic waves sometimes exhibit
particle-like behavior and particles sometimes exhibit wave-like behavior. 80
Introduction to the Quantum
Theory of Solids

81
 Formation of Energy Bands in Solids
• The energy of bound electrons in an atom is quantized, meaning that electrons
can only occupy discrete energy levels. These energy levels correspond to the
specific orbits or states that an electron can occupy around the nucleus.
• The quantization arises from the wave nature of electrons and is governed by
quantum mechanics. The probability density for an electron determines the
likelihood of finding the electron at a particular distance from the nucleus.
• This probability distribution is described by the electron’s wavefunction, which
varies with the energy level. Higher energy levels are associated with
wavefunctions that spread farther from the nucleus, while lower energy levels
are more localized.

82
Energy Levels

• The number of electrons in a given orbit is 2n2

83
• In a single isolated atom, the energy levels are well-defined and discrete. However,
when many atoms come together to form a solid:
• The probability density for the electron gives the probability of finding the electron at
a particular distance from the nucleus.

(a) Probability density function of an isolated hydrogen atom. (b) Overlapping probability density functions of two
adjacent hydrogen atoms. (c) The splitting of the n = 1 state.

84
• Regular periodic arrangement of hydrogen-type atoms that are initially very far apart,
and begin pushing the atoms together, the initial quantized energy level will split into
a band of discrete energy levels. This effect is shown schematically in Figure.

The splitting of an energy state into a band of allowed energies.

(where, r0 parameter represents the equilibrium interatomic distance in the crystal.)
• Since no two electrons can have the same quantum number, the discrete energy must
split into a band of energies in order that each electron can occupy a distinct
quantum state.
• At the equilibrium interatomic distance, there is a band of allowed energies, but
within the allowed band, the energies are at discrete levels. 85
• Suppose the atom in this imaginary crystal contains electrons up through the
n=3 energy level.

Schematic showing the splitting of three energy states into allowed bands of energies

86
• A schematic representation of an isolated carbon atom is shown in Figure

(a) Schematic of an isolated carbon atom. (b) Energy band diagram for carbon atom
87
Figure: The E versus k diagram . The allowed energy bands and forbidden energy bandgaps are indicated.
88
 unfilled

conduction band

energy gap

Valence band

Filled

Figure: The E versus k diagram with allowed energy bands and forbidden energy bandgaps are indicated.
89
 Electrical Conduction in Solids

Two-dimensional representation (a) Two-dimensional representation of the breaking of a covalent

of the covalent bonding in a bond (at T > 0 K) (b) Corresponding line representation of the energy
semiconductor at T = 0 K. band and the generation of a negative and positive charge with the
breaking of a covalent bond.

• All of the valence electrons schematically shown in Figure are in the valence
band. The upper energy band, the conduction band, is completely empty at T =0
K.
• As the temperature increases above 0 K, a few valence band electrons may gain
enough thermal energy to break the covalent bond and jump into the conduction
band.
90
• The semiconductor is neutrally charged. This means that, as the negatively charged
electron breaks away from its covalent bonding position, a positively charged “empty
state” is created in the original covalent bonding position in the valence band.

Figure: The E versus k diagram of the conduction and valence bands of a semiconductor at (a) T = 0 K and (b) T >0 K.
91
Drift Current

• Current is due to the net flow of charge.

• If we had a collection of positively charged ions with a volume density N (𝑐𝑚−3 )
and an average drift velocity 𝑣𝑑 (𝑐𝑚/𝑠), then the drift current density would be
𝑗 = 𝑞𝑁𝑣𝑑 𝐴/𝑐𝑚2 =>

The asymmetric distribution of electrons in the E versus k diagram when an external force is applied.

We may write the drift current density due to the motion of electrons as
92
Electron Effective Mass
• The movement of an electron in a lattice will, in general, be different from that of an
electron in free space. In addition to an externally applied force, there are internal
forces in the crystal due to positively charged ions or protons and negatively charged
electrons, which will influence the motion of electrons in the lattice.

𝐹𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 + 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎 (m is the rest mass)

𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝑚∗ 𝑎 (acceleration depends on external force and m* is effective mass)

• We can also relate the effective mass of an electron in a crystal to the E versus k
curves. In a semiconductor material, we will be dealing with allowed energy bands
that are almost empty of electrons and other energy bands that are almost full of
electrons.

93
Energy and momentum
𝑝2 ℏ2 𝑘 2
𝐸= = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑝 = ℏ𝑘
2𝑚 2𝑚
𝑑𝐸 ℏ2 𝑘 ℏ𝑝 𝑑2𝐸 ℏ2 1 𝑑2𝐸 1
= = = ℏ𝑣 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = => =
𝑑𝑘 𝑚 𝑚 𝑑𝑘 2 𝑚 ℏ2 𝑑𝑘 2 𝑚
where, v is the velocity of the particle
If we apply an electric field to a Free electron, so as per newton’s law
𝑒𝐸
𝑓 = 𝑚𝑎 = −𝑒𝐸, ⇒ 𝑎=−
𝑚
where a is the acceleration, E is the applied electric field, and e is the magnitude
of the electronic charge, m is the rest mass.

The motion of the free electron is in the opposite direction to the applied electric
field because of the negative charge.

94
• We may now apply the results to the electron in the bottom of an allowed energy
band. The energy near the bottom of this energy band may be approximated by a
parabola, just as that of a free particle.

(a) The conduction band in reduced k space, and the parabolic approximation. (b) The valence band in reduced k
space, and the parabolic approximation.

As the above curves are not same as the curvature of the free-particle curve, we can write
𝑒𝐸
𝑎= − ∗ where, m* is the effective mass of the electron
𝑚 95
Concept of Hole
• The two-dimensional representation of the covalent bonding shown in Figure

• Positively charged “empty state” was created when a valence electron was elevated into
the conduction band.
• The movement of a valence electron into the empty state is equivalent to the movement
of the positively charged empty state itself
• The crystal now has a second equally important charge carrier that can give rise to a
current. This charge carrier is called a hole
−𝑒𝐸 𝑒𝐸
𝑎= ∗ = ∗ where, m* is the effective mass of the electron
−𝑚 𝑚 96
 Metals, Insulators, Semiconductors

Allowed energy bands showing Allowed energy bands Two possible energy bands of a
(a) an empty band, (b) a showing (a) an almost empty metal showing (a) a partially
completely full band, and (c) band, (b) a almost full filled band and
the bandgap energy between band, and (c) the bandgap (b) overlapping allowed energy
energy between the two
the two allowed bands. allowed bands. bands.
97
 How to count the number of carriers, n?

Current flow in semiconductor  Number of carriers (electron @ hole)

• Pauli exclusion principle: It states that no two electrons can occupy the same quantum state.

Hence, If we know

1. No. of energy states Density of states (DOS)

2. Occupied energy states The probability that energy states is occupied

“Fermi-Dirac distribution function”

n = DOS x “Fermi-Dirac distribution function”

98
 Density of states (DOS)
The density of quantum states is a function of energy E.
• Let us consider a one-dimensional chain of atoms:
a a a

L =Na ➔ length of the chain

(a) A two-dimensional array of allowed quantum states in k space.

(b) The positive one-eighth of the spherical k space.
99
 The density of quantum states per unit volume of the crystal

4 (2m)3/ 2
g(E) = 3 E electron mass =
h
9.1093837 × 10-31 kg
➢ A function of energy
➢ As energy decreases available quantum
states decreases

Derivation; refer text book

100
Problem 1. Calculate the density of states per unit volume with energies between 0 and 1 eV

Sol.
Density of States
1eV

=  g(E)dE
0

4 (2m)3/ 2 1eV
=
h3 
0
EdE

4 (2m)3/ 2 2 3/ 2 1eV
= [E ]
h3 0
3
4 (2  9.1110−31)3/ 2 2 (1.610 −19 )3/ 2
=
(6.625 10−34 )3 3
= 4.51021 states / cm3
101
Extension to semiconductor
Our concern; no of carrier that contribute to conduction (flow of current) Free electron or hole

1. Electron as carrier

T> 0K Can freely moves

Conduction
band
Ec

Ev
Valence
band

Electron in conduction band contribute to conduction

Determine the DOS in the conduction band

102
 4 (2m)3/ 2
g(E) = 3
E − EC
h
Energy

Ec

103
2. Hole as carrier
Conduction
band
Ec

Ev
Valence
band
freely
moves
Empty
state

hole in valence band contribute to conduction

Determine the DOS in the valence band

104
 4 (2m)3/ 2
g(E) = 3
Ev − E
h
Energy

Ev

105
Density of States Function- Summary

Density of the quantum states is the function of Energy of Free Electron.

3
4Π 2𝑚 2
𝑔 𝐸 = 𝐸
ℎ3

3
4𝜋 2𝑚 2
𝑔𝑐 𝐸 = 𝐸 − 𝐸𝑐
ℎ3
3
4𝜋 2𝑚 2
𝑔𝑣 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸
ℎ3

The density of quantum states is a function of

The density of energy states in
energy E. As the energy of this free electron the conduction band and the
becomes small, the number of available density of energy states in the
valence band as a function of
quantum states decreases. energy.

106
Problem 2. Determine the total number of energy states in Si between Ec and Ec+kT at T=300K

Sol:

4 (2m) 3/ 2 Ec+kT
Let x=E−EC, so dx=dE.
g=
h
n
3
Ec
 E − EC dE
The limits of integration become:
•When E=EC, x=0.
4 (2m n ) kT
•When E=EC+kT, x=kT.
=
h3 0
 x dx

4 (2m n ) 3/ 2  2 
=   (kT ) 3/ 2
h3 3
4 (2 1.08  9.1110−31)3/ 2 2
=  (0.0259 1.610
−19 3/ 2
)
(6.625 10−34 )3 3
= 2.12 1019 cm−3
107
Problem 3. Determine the total number of energy states in Si between Ev and Ev-kT at T=300K

Sol.

4 (2m p )3/ 2 Ev
g=
h 3  Ev − EdE Mp; mass of hole
Ev−kT

4 (2m p ) 3/ 2  2 
=   (kT ) 3/ 2
h3 3
4 (2 0.56  9.1110−31)3/ 2  2 
=   (0.0259 1.6 10 −19 3/ 2
)
(6.625 10 )
−34 3
 
3
= 7.92 1018 cm−3

108
The Fermi–Dirac Probability Function
It gives the probability that a quantum state at the energy E will be occupied by an electron.

➢Statistical behavior of a large number of electrons

• The distribution is defined as

𝑁 𝐸 1 where, EF is the Fermi energy

• 𝑓𝐹 𝐸 = = 𝐸−𝐸𝐹
𝑔 𝐸 1+exp
𝐾𝑇 Fermi energy: Energy of the highest occupied quantum state

• Where 𝑁 𝐸 is number of particle per unit volume per unit energy and 𝑔(𝐸) is the
number of quantum states per unit volume per unit energy

• This function gives the probability of finding an electron in a quantum state at energy E.
𝐸𝐹 is fermi energy.

109
 The Distribution Function and the Fermi Energy
• At T=0 K when 𝐸 < 𝐸𝐹

𝑁 𝐸 1
• 𝑓𝐹 𝐸 = = 𝐸−𝐸𝐹 =1
𝑔 𝐸 1+exp 𝐾𝑇

• At T=0 K when 𝐸 > 𝐸𝐹

𝑁 𝐸 1
• 𝑓𝐹 𝐸 = = 𝐸−𝐸𝐹 =0
𝑔 𝐸 1+exp
𝐾𝑇

• For T =0 K, the electrons are in their lowest possible energy states.

• The probability of a quantum state being occupied is unity for 𝐸 < 𝐸𝐹 and the probability
of a state being occupied is zero for 𝐸 > 𝐸𝐹 . All electrons have energies below the Fermi
energy at T 0 K.
110
• For T> 0 K, some electrons jump to higher energy level.
• So some energy states above EF will be occupied by electrons and some energy states
below EF will be empty

111
 Problem 4. Assume that EF is 0.30 eV below Ec. Determine the probability of a states being occupied by an
electron at Ec and at Ec+kT (T=300K)

Sol.

1. At Ec 2. At Ec+kT
1 1
f = f =
 EC − (EC − 0.3eV )   EC + 0.0259 − (EC − 0.3eV )
1 + exp  1+ exp
 kT   kT
1 1
= =
1+ exp
0.3259eV 
1 + exp
0.3eV 
 
 kT   kT 
= 9.32 10−6 = 3.4310−6

Electron needs higher energy to be at higher energy states. The probability of electron at Ec+kT lower than at Ec
112
 1
f F (E) = electron
 E − EF 
1+ exp 
 kT 

For Hole?

The probability that states are being empty is given by

1
1− f F (E) = 1−
 E − EF 
1+ exp 
 kT 

113
Approximation when calculating fF(E)
1
f F (E) =
 E − EF 
1 + exp 
When E-EF>>kT  kT 
1
f F (E) 
 E − EF  Maxwell-Boltzmann approximation
exp 
 kT 

Approximation is valid in this range

114
 Semiconductor in Equilibrium
Equilibrium; no external forces such as voltages, electrical fields, magnetic fields, or
temperature gradients are acting on the semiconductor

115
➢How to count number of carriers, n?

Assumption; Pauli exclusion principle

If we know
1. No. of energy states Density of states (DoS)

2. Occupied energy states The probability that energy states is

occupied
“Fermi-Dirac distribution function”

n = DOS x “Fermi-Dirac distribution function”

116
Density of states (DoS)

E
No of states (seats) above EC for electron

4 (2m*)3/ 2
Conduction g(E) = E − EC
band h3
Ec

Ev
Valence No of states (seats) below Ev for hole
band
4 (2m*)3/ 2
g(E) = Ev − E
h3
g (E)

117
 Fermi-Dirac distribution
Probability of electron having certain energy
E
Electron (blue line)
Electron
1
having energy f F (E) =
above Ec  E − EF 
1+ exp 
Ec  kT 
Fermi energy, EF
Ev hole (red line)
Hole having 1
energy below 1−
 E − EF 
Ev 1+ exp 
f (E)  kT 
0.5 1
EF; the energy below which all states are filled with electron and above which all states are empty at 0K
118
No of carrier
E

No of free electron Ec
free electron
Ec

Ev Ev free hole
No of free hole

1
g(E) x f (E)

119
Thermal equilibrium concentration of electron, no

no =  g(E) f (E)dE
EC

4 (2m*)3/ 2
g(E) = E − EC
h3
1  − (E − EF ) 
f F (E) =  exp  Boltzmann approximation
 E − EF   kT 
1+ exp 
 kT 

 2m kT   − (EC − EF ) 
* 3/ 2


no = 2 
n
 exp
2  
 h  kT
 − (EC − EF ) 
= NC exp  where, NC is the effective density of states
 kT  function in conduction band 120
121
122
Thermal equilibrium concentration of hole, po
Ev
po =  g(E)1− f (E)dE


4 (2m*)3/ 2
g(E) = Ev − E
h3
1  − (E F − E) 
1− f F (E) =  exp  Boltzmann approximation
 EF − E   kT 
1+ exp 
 kT 

 2m kT 
3/ 2
 − (E F − Ev ) 
*
po = 2  
p
exp  
 h2   kT 
 
 − (E F − Ev ) 
= N v exp  
where, NV is the effective density of states
 kT  function in valance band
123
Q.1 Calculate the thermal equilibrium electron and hole concentration in Si at T= 300K.
Assume that Fermi energy is 0.25 eV below the conduction band. The value of Nc for Si at
T=300 K is 2.8 x 1019 cm-3.

Ec
0.25 eV
EF

Ev

124
Q.1: Solution

Ec
0.25 eV
EF Eg=1.12 eV
Eg-0.25 eV
Ev

Electron concentration

 −(E C − EF ) 
no = N C exp  
 kT
−(EC − EC + 0.25) 
= 2.81019  exp  
 0.0259
= 1.81015 cm−3

125
Q.2: Solution

Ec
Eg=1.12 eV
EF
0.27 eV
Ev

Hole concentration

 − (E F − Ev ) 
po = Nv exp  
 kT
− (0.27)
= 1.04 1019  exp 
 0.0259 
= 3.03 1014 cm−3
126
  2mn*kT 
3/ 2
 − (E C − EF )   − (E C − EF ) 
no = 2  exp   = N C exp  
 h 2
  kT kT

 2m*p kT 
3/ 2
 − (E F − Ev )   − (E F − Ev ) 
po = 2  exp   = N exp 
 h  
2 v
   kT   kT

➢NC and Nv are constant for a given material (effective mass) and temperature
➢The position of Fermi Energy is important

• If EF is closer to EC than to Ev, n>p

• If EF is closer to Ev than to EC, n<p
127
Intrinsic semiconductor: A pure semiconductor with no impurity atoms and no lattice
defects in crystal

• Carrier concentration (ni, pi)

• Position of EFi
1. Intrinsic carrier concentration

The intrinsic concentration of electron in the conduction band (ni) =

The intrinsic concentration of hole in the valence band (pi)

 − (EC − E Fi )   − (E Fi − Ev ) 
ni = pi = N C exp
  = N v exp  
kT   kT

 − (EC − Ev )   − Eg 
 ni = N C N v exp  = N c N v exp 
2

 
 kT   kT 
Independent of Fermi energy
128
Q. 3: Calculate the intrinsic carrier concentration in gallium arsenide (GaAs) at room
temperature (T=300K). Energy gap, Eg, of GaAs is 1.42 eV. The value of Nc and Nv at
300 K are 4.7 x 1017 cm-3 and 7.0 x 1018 cm-3, respectively.

Sol: ni​=2.14×106cm−3.
129
Material Conduction band Valence band Intrinsic carrier
(300K) effective density (N C ) effective density (N v ) concentration (n i =p i )
Si 2.78x1019 9.84x1018 1.5x1010
Ge 1.04x1019 6.0x1018 2.33x1013
GaAs 4.45x1017 7.72x1017 1.84x106

130
2. Intrinsic Fermi level position, EFi

If EF closer to Ec, n>p

If EF closer to Ev, n<p

Intrinsic; n=p

EF is located near the center of the forbidden bandgap

− (EC − E Fi )   − (EFi − Ev ) 
NC exp
  = N v exp  
kT   kT
3  m*p  Ec
EFi = Emidgap + kT ln * 
4 m  Emidgap
 n
Ev
mp = mn EFi = Emidgap

mp ≠ mn EFi shifts slightly from Emidgap

131
 no=po

Efi is located near the center of Eg

132
Q. 4. Calculate the position of the intrinsic Fermi level with respect to the center of
the bandgap in silicon at T =300 K.

The intrinsic Fermi level with respect to the center of the bandgap is
3  m*p 
EFi = Emidgap + kT ln * 
4 m 
 n
We know that the density of states effective carrier masses in silicon are m*n = 1.08m0 and m*p = 0.56m0

EFi - Emidgap = 0.0128 eV = 12.8 meV

The intrinsic Fermi level in silicon is 12.8 meV below the midgap energy. If we compare 12.8 meV to 560 meV, which is
one-half of the bandgap energy of silicon, we can, in many applications, simply approximate the intrinsic Fermi level
to be in the center of the bandgap.

133
Dopant atoms and energy levels

adding small, controlled amounts of specific dopant, or impurity, atoms

Increase no. of carrier (either electron or hole)

Alter the conductivity of semiconductor

3 valence 5 valence
electrons electrons
III IV V
Consider Phosphorus (P) and boron (B) as
B C
Al Si P impurity atoms in Silicon (Si)
Ga Ge As
In Sb

134
1. P as substitutional impurity (group V element; 5 valence electron)

Donor electron

➢ In intrinsic Si, all 4 valence electrons contribute to covalent bonding.

➢ In Si doped with P, 4 valence electron of P contribute to covalent bonding
and 1 electron loosely bound to P atom (Donor electron).

can easily break the bond and freely moves 135

➢ Energy to elevate the donor electron into conduction band is less than that for the electron involved in covalent
bonding

The energy-band diagram showing (a) the discrete donor energy state and (b) the effect of a donor state being ionized.

➢Ed is the energy state of the donor electron which is located near Ec
➢When small energy is added, donor electron is elevated to conduction band, leaving behind
positively charged P ion
➢P atoms donate electron to conduction band→ P; donor impurity atom
➢No. of electron > no. of hole→ n-type semiconductor (majority carrier is electron)
136
2. B as substitutional impurity (group III element; 3 valence electron)

➢ In Si doped with B, all 3 valence electron of B contribute to covalent

bonding and one covalent bonding is empty
➢ When small energy is added, electron that involved in covalent bond will
occupy the empty position leaving behind the empty position associated
with the Si atom
Hole is created
137
 ➢ Electron occupying the empty state associated with B atom does not have
sufficient energy to be in the conduction band→ no free electron is created

➢Ea (acceptor energy state) is located near Ev

➢When electron from valence band elevate to Ea, hole and negatively charged B are created
➢B accepts electron from valence band→ B; acceptor impurity atom
➢No. of hole > no. of electron→ p-type material (majority carrier is hole)
138
 ➢ Pure single-crystal semiconductor; intrinsic semiconductor

➢ Semiconductor with dopant atoms; extrinsic semiconductor

n-type p-type
Dopant atom; ✓ Donor impurity atom ✓ Acceptor impurity atom
Majority carrier; ✓ electron ✓ hole

Ionization Energy
The energy that required to elevate donor electron into the conduction (in case of donor impurity
atom) or to elevate valence electron into acceptor state (in case of acceptor impurity atom).

139
Carrier concentration of extrinsic semiconductor
When dopant atoms are added, Fermi energy and distribution of electron and hole will change.

Electron> hole hole> electron

n-type p-type

EF>EFi EF<EFi 140

 ➢ Change of Fermi energy causes change of carrier concentration.

no and po equation as function of the change of Fermi energy

 −(E C − EF )   EF − EFi 
no = N C exp  =
 in exp  kT 
 kT

−(E F − Ev )  = n exp  −(E F − EFi ) 

po = N v exp   i  
 kT kT

ni; intrinsic carrier concentration

Efi; intrinsic Fermi energy

141
The nopo product

 − (E C − EF )  − (EF − Ev ) 
no po = NC Nv exp  exp
  
 kT kT
 − Eg 
= N C N v exp  
 kT 
= ni2
n p = n2
o o i

Product of no and po is always a constant for a given material at a given temperature.

142
Degenerate and Non degenerate semiconductors
Nondegenerate semiconductor
Small amount of dopant atoms (impurity atoms)
✓ No interaction between dopant atoms
✓ Discrete, noninteracting energy state.
✓ EF at the bandgap

EF

EF

donor acceptor

Nondegenerate semiconductor
143
degenerate semiconductor
Large amount of dopant atoms (~effective density of states)

✓ Dopant atoms interact with each other

✓ Band of dopant states widens and overlap the allowed band
(conduction @ valence band)
✓ EF lies within conduction @ valence band

EF
Ec Filled states Ec

Ev empty states
Ev EF

Degenerate semiconductor
144
Statistic donors and acceptors
The distribution function of donor electrons in the donor energy states is then
slightly different than the Fermi–Dirac function.

Discrete donor level

donor

Nd = − +
nd = N N
1  Ed − E F  d d
1+ exp 
The probability function of 2  kT 
electrons occupying the
donor state is Concentration of Concentration of
donors ionized donors
145
 Discrete acceptor level

acceptor

Na
pa = = N a − N a−
1  E − Ea 
1+ exp F 
The probability function of g  kT 
holes in the acceptor states
Concentration of Concentration of
acceptors ionized acceptor

g; degeneracy factor (Si; 4)

146
We can determine the relative number of electrons in the donor state compared with the total number of
electrons; therefore, we can consider the ratio of electrons in the donor state to the total number of
electrons in the conduction band plus donor state.

nd 1
=
nd + no N − (EC − Ed ) 
1+ C exp 
2N d  kT

ionization energy

147
Q.5. Consider phosphorus doping in Si for T=300K at concentration of 1016 cm-3
(NC=2.8 x1019 cm-3, EC-Ed= 0.045 eV). Find the percentage of electrons present in the
donor state.

nd 1
=
nd + no 2.81019  − 0.045 
1+ exp 
21016
0.0259 
= 0.0041 = 0.41%

➢only 0.4% of donor states contain electron. The donor states are states are said to be
completely ionized

148
Complete ionization: The condition when all donor atoms are positively charged by giving up their
donor electrons and all acceptor atoms are negatively charged by accepting electrons

149
 At T=0 K, all electron in their lowest possible energy state
Nd+=0 and Na- =0

EF

EF

Freeze-out: The condition that occurs in a semiconductor when the temperature is lowered and the donors
and acceptors become neutrally charged. The electron and hole concentrations become very small.

150
 Charge neutrality

Charge-neutrality condition
In thermal equilibrium, semiconductor crystal is electrically neutral
“Negative charges = positive charge”

This condition will be used to determined the carrier concentrations as a function of impurity doping concentration

Compensated semiconductor: A semiconductor that contains both donor and acceptors at the same region

If Nd > Na → n-type compensated semiconductor

If Na > Nd → p-type compensated semiconductor
If Nd = Na → has the characteristics of an intrinsic semiconductor

151
 Charge-neutrality condition

no + N a− = po + N d+
Negative charges Positive charges

no + (N a − pa ) = po + (Nd − nd )

no ofis electrons
thermal-equilibrium concentrations

Nd is the concentration of donors

nd is the concentration of electrons in

the donor energy states
N +d is the concentration of positively
charged donor states. 152
 no + (N a − pa ) = po + (N d − nd )
If we assume complete ionization (pa=0, nd=0)

n o + N a = po + N d
From nopo=ni2

ni2
no + N a = + N d
n0

Nd − Na  Nd −Na
2
no = +   + ni
2

2  2 

Electron concentration is given as function of donors and acceptors concentrations

153
Q.6. Consider an n-type silicon semiconductor at T=300 K in which Nd=1016 cm-3 and
Na=0. The intrinsic carrier concentration is assumed to be ni=1.5x1010 cm-3. Determine the
thermal equilibrium electron and hole concentrations.

N − Na  N − Na 
2
Electron concentration, no = d +  d  + ni2
2  2 
1016 1016 
= +  + (1.510 10 ) 2
2  2 
 1016 cm−3

ni2 (1.51010 )2 −3
Hole concentration, po = = = 4
16
2.2510 cm
, n o
10

154
Q.7. Calculate the thermal-equilibrium electron and hole concentrations in germanium for a given doping
concentration. Consider a germanium sample at T 300 K in which Nd=2 x 1014 cm-3 and Na= 0. Assume that
ni=2.4 x 1013 cm-3

The majority carrier electron concentration is

155
 Redistribution of electrons when donors are added

• When donors are added, no > ni and po < ni

• A few donor electron will fall into the empty states in valence band and hole concentration will
decrease
• Net electron concentration in conduction band ≠ intrinsic electron + donor concentration 156
Temperature dependence of no
Nd − Na  N − N a 
2
no = +  d  + ni2
2  2 
Very strong function of temperature
Freeze-out
Extrinsic Intrinsic
Partial ionization no=Nd no=ni

0K Temperature

• As temperature increases, ni2 term will dominate.

Shows intrinsic characteristics

157
Hole concentration
From charge-neutrality condition and nopo product

no + (N a − pa ) = po + (N d − nd )
n p = n2
o o i

ni2
+ N a = po + N d
po

Na − Nd  Na− Nd 
2
po = +   + ni
2

2  2 

158
Q.8. Consider an p-type silicon semiconductor at T=300 K in which Na=1016 cm-3 and Nd=3 x 1015 cm-3. The
intrinsic carrier concentration is assumed to be ni=1.5x1010 cm-3. Determine the thermal equilibrium electron
and hole concentrations.

N − Nd  N − Nd 
2
Hole, po = a +  a  + ni2
2  2 
1016 − 31015 1016 − 31015 
= +   + (1.510 10 ) 2
2  2 
 7 1015 cm−3
ni2 (1.51010 )2 −3
electron, no = = = 4
3.2110 cm
po 7 1015

approximation po=Na-Nd If we assume complete ionization and if (Na - Nd) >> ni,
then the majority carrier hole concentration is, to a
very good approximation, just the difference between
the acceptor and donor concentrations. 159
Position of Fermi Energy Level

As a function of doping concentration and temperature

Equations for position of Fermi level (n-type)

 N C 
EC − EF = kT ln 
 no 
Compensated semiconductor, no=Nd-Na

 NC 
EC − E F = kT ln 
 Nd − Na 

n 
E F − E Fi = kT ln  o 
 ni 

160
Equations for position of Fermi level (p-type)

N 
E F − EC = kT ln  v 
 po 
Compensated semiconductor, po=Na-Nd

 Nv 
E F − Ev = kT ln
 Na − Nd 

p 
E Fi − E F = kT ln  o 
 ni 

161
Q.9. Silicon at T=300 K contains an acceptor impurity concentration of Na=1016 cm-3. Determine the concentration
of donor impurity atoms that must be added so that the Silicon is n-type and Fermi energy is 0.20 eV below the
conduction band edge.

 NC 
EC − EF = kT ln 
 N d − Na 
− (EC − EF ) 
Nd − Na = N C exp
 
kT
− 0.2 
= 2.81019 exp = 1.24 10 16
cm−3

0.0259 

16 −3 16 −3
N d =1.2410 cm + N a = 2.2410 cm

162
Position of EF as function of donor concentration (n-type) and acceptor concentration (p-type)

163
Position of EF as function of temperature for various doping concentration

164
 Important terms
Intrinsic semiconductor; A pure semiconductor material with no impurity atoms and no lattice defects in
the crystal

Extrinsic semiconductor; A semiconductor in which controlled amounts of donors and/or acceptors have
been added so that the electron and hole concentrations change from the intrinsic carrier concentration and
a preponderance of either electron (n-type) or hole (p-type) is created.

Acceptor atoms; Impurity atoms added to a semiconductor to create a p-

type material

Donor atoms; Impurity atoms added to a semiconductor to create n-type material

Complete ionization; The condition when all donor atoms are positively charged by giving up their donor
electrons and all acceptor atoms are negatively charged by accepting electrons

Freeze-out; The condition that occurs in a semiconductor when the temperature is lowered and the donors
and acceptors become neutrally charged. The electron and hole concentrations become very small

Fundamental relationship n p = n2 165

o o i
 Carrier Transport Phenomena
Transport: the process by which charged particles (electrons and holes) move

166
In this chapter, we will

• Describe the mechanism of carrier drift due to an applied electric field

• Describe the characteristics of carrier mobility

• Describe the mechanism of carrier diffusion

• Describe the effects of a nonuniform impurity doping concentration

• Discuss and analyze the Hall Effect

167
 Understanding of electrical properties ( I-V characteristics)

Basic current equation;

I  e n E
e: electronic charged (constant, 1.6 x 10-19 C)
u: mobility ( figure of merit that reflect the speed)
n: carrier concentration
E: Electric field

➢So far, we have studied Carrier concentration (electron, no and hole, po)

➢Now, Carrier transport (current)

168
 Carrier Transport

“Drift” “Diffusion”
The movement of carrier The flow of carrier due to
due to electric field (E) density gradients (dn/dx)

E electron divider
+ -

electron

169
 Carrier Drift

Drift current density

Consider a positively charged hole,

➢When electric field, E, is applied, the hole accelerates

F = m*p a = eE
m*p; effective mass of hole, a; acceleration, e; electronic charge
➢However, hole collides with ionized impurity atoms and with thermally vibrating lattice atom

Lattice atom

hole
E
Ionized impurity atom

170
 Lattice atom

hole
E
Ionized impurity atom

Holes Gain average drift velocity, vdp

accelerates
due to E vdp =  p E

µp; Hole mobility (unit; cm2/Vs)

Involves in collision Describes how well a carrier move
(“Scattering Process”) due to E
→ Loses most of energy

171
Drift current density, Jdrf (unit; A/cm2) due to hole

J p|drf = epv dp
J p|drf = e p pE

Drift current density due to electron

J n|drf = e n nE

Total drift current;

J drf = e(n n +  p p) E

The sum of the individual electron and hole drift current densities

172
Mobility effects

Mobility is important parameter to determine the conductivity of material

e cp e cn
p = n =
m*p mn*

; mean time between collisions

If  =10-15 s, in average, every 10-15 s, carrier involves in collision @ scattering

Two dominant scattering mechanism

1. Phonon or lattice scattering
2. Ionized scattering

173
1. Lattice scattering or phonon scattering

At temperature, T > 0 K, atoms randomly vibrate. This thermal vibrations cause a disruption of
the periodic potential function. This resulting in an interaction between carrier and the vibrating
lattice atoms.

Mobility due to lattice scattering, µL

 L  T −3 / 2

As temperature decreases, the probability of a scattering event decreases. Thus, mobility

increases

Temperature , Scattering Probability , Mobility 

Temperature , Scattering Probability , Mobility 

174
electron 175
hole 176
2. Ionized Ion scattering
Coulomb interaction between carriers and ionized impurities produces scattering or collusion. This
alter the velocity characteristics of the carriers.
Mobility due to ionized ion scattering, µI

T 3/ 2
I  Total ionized impurity concentration
NI

• If temperature increases, the random thermal velocity of a carrier increases, reducing the time the
carrier spends in the vicinity of the ionized impurity center. This causes the scattering effect decreases
and mobility increases.

Temperature , Thermal velocity, Time around ionized impurity, Mobility 

• If the number of ionized impurity centers increases, then the probability of a carrier encountering an
ionized impurity centers increases, thus reducing mobility

Ionized Impurity , Scattering Probability , Mobility 

177
178
• Normally, more than one source of scattering is present, for example both impurities and
lattice phonons.

• It is normally a very good approximation to combine their influences using "Matthiessen's

Rule" (developed from work by Augustus Matthiessen in 1864):

The net mobility is given by

1 1 1
= +
 L I

Due to phonon scattering Due to ionized ion scattering

179
Conductivity
Drift current electron
J drf = e(n n +  p p) E = E
hole
σ: conductivity [(Ω.cm)-1]
 = e(n n +  p p)
Function of electron and hole concentrations and mobolities

Ρ: resistivity [Ω.cm]
1 1
= =
 e(  n n +  p p)

180
181
182
 Bar of semiconductor

L I
+
- V

Area, A

I V
Current density, J = Electric field, E=
A L

J = E
Resistance, R is a function of resistivity, or conductivity, as
I V
=
well as the geometry of the semiconductor
A L
 L   L 
V =  I =   I = IR
 A   A 
183
Consider p-type semiconductor with an acceptor doping Na (Nd=0) in which Na>>ni

 = e(n n +  p p)  en p

Assume complete ionization

1
  e n N a 


Function of the majority carrier

184
Q1. Consider compensated n-type Silicon at T=300 K with a conductivity of σ=16 (Ωcm)-1 and an
acceptor doping concentration of 1017 cm-3. Determine the donor concentration and the electron
mobility.

Solution;

At T=300 K, we can assume complete ionization. (Nd-Na >>ni)

  e n n = e n ( N d − N a )
16 = (1.6 10−19 )  n ( N d − 1017 )

To determine µn and Nd, we can use figure mobility vs. impurity concentration with trial and error

1020 = n ( Nd −1017 )
185
✓If Nd=2 x 1017 cm-3, impurity
concentration, NI= Nd++Na-=3 x 1017 cm-3.
from the figure, µn= 510 cm2/Vs. so
σ=8.16 (Ωcm)-1.

✓If Nd=5 x 1017 cm-3, impurity

concentration, NI= Nd++Na-=6x 1017 cm-3.
from the figure, µn= 325 cm2/Vs. so
σ=20.8 (Ωcm)-1.
Nd should be between 2 x 1017 and 5 x
1017 cm-3. after trial and error.

Nd= 3.5 x 1017 cm-3

µn=400 cm2/Vs
σ= 16 (Ωcm)-1

186
Q 2. Designing a semiconductor resistor with a specified resistance to handle a given current
density

A Si semiconductor at T=300 K is initially doped with donors at a concentration of Nd=5 x 1015

cm-3. Acceptors are to be added to form a compensated p-type material. The resistor is to
have a resistance of 10 kΩ and handle a current density of 50 A/cm2 when 5 V is applied.

Solution;

When 5 V is applied to 10 kΩ resistor, the current, I

V 5
I= = 4 = 0.5mA
R 10
If the current density, J is limited to 50 A/cm2, the cross-sectional area, A is

I 0.5  10−3
A= = = 10−5 cm 2
J 50
187
Consider that electric field, E is limited to 100 V/cm. Then the length of the resistor, L is

V 5
L= = = 5 10− 2 cm
E 100
The conductivity, σ of the semiconductor is

L 5 10−2
= = 4 = 0.5( cm ) −1

RA 10 10−5

The conductivity of the compensated p-type semiconductor is

  e p p = e p ( Na − Nd )

Here, the mobility is function of total ionized impurity concentration Na+Nd

188
Using trial and error, if Na=1.25x1016cm-3 , then Na+Nd=1.75x1016cm-3, and the hole mobility,
from figure mobility versus impurity concentration, is approximately µp=410 cm2/Vs. The
conductivity is then,
 = e p ( N a − N d ) = 1.6 10−19  410 ((12.5 − 5) 1015 ) = 0.492

This is very close to the value we need. From the calculation

L=5x10-2 cm
A=10-5cm2
Na=1.25x1016cm-3

189
Velocity Saturation

vd = E
Drift velocity increase linearly with applied electric field.

✓At low electric field,

vd increase linearly
with applied E.
slope=mobility

✓At high electric

field, vd saturates
→ Constant value

190
Carrier diffusion
Diffusion: It is a process whereby particles flow from a region of high concentration toward a
region of low concentration.
Carrier divider

Electron concentration, n

Electron flux
 dn 
J nx|dif = (−e) Dn  − 
 dx 
Electron diffusion dn
current density J nx|dif = eDn
dx

Position x
Dn; electron diffusion coefficient
Diffusion coefficient indicates how well carrier move as a result of density gradient.
191
  dp 
J px|dif = eDp  − 

Hole centration, p
 dx 
Hole flux
dp
J px|dif = −eDp
dx
Hole diffusion
current density
Dp; hole diffusion coefficient
Position x

Einstein relation
kT
Dn = n
e
kT
Dp = p
e
192
Total Current Density

Total Current Electron drift hole drift Electron diffusion hole diffusion
Density current current current current

J = J n|drf + J nx|dif + J p|drf + J px|dif

dn dp
1-D J = en n E x + ep p E x + eDn − eDp
dx dx

3-D J = enn E + ep p E + eDnn − eDpp

193
 Dn Dp kT
= =
n p e

Assume the mobility of a particular carrier is 1000 cm2/V-s at T=300K.

Determine the diffusion coefficient given the carrier mobility.

Using the Einstein relation we have that

D kT  kT 
=  D=   = 0.0259  1000 = 25.9 cm 2
/s
 e  e 

194
 Dn Dp kT
= =
n p e

Assume that electron diffusion coefficient of a semiconductor at T=300K is

Dn=215 cm2/s. Determine the electron mobility.

Using the Einstein relation we have that

D kT D 215
= = = = 8301 cm 2 /V-s
 e  kT  0.0259
 
 e 

195
 The Hall effect
The Hall effect is the production of a voltage difference (Hall voltage) across an electrical conductor when
a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the current flow. It was discovered by Edwin Hall in 1879 and is
widely used in physics and engineering.
Using the effect, we can determine
➢The type of semiconductor
➢Carrier concentration
➢mobility Magnetic field

Force on charged particle in

magnetic field (“Lorentz force”)

𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝑑 × 𝐵

vd is the drift velocity;

Applied electrical field B is the magnetic field 196
 ➢the Lorentz force on
electron and hole is in –y
direction
➢There will be buildup of
negative charge (n-type) or
positive charge (p-type) at
y=0
➢As a results, an electrical
field called “Hall field, EH” is
induced. Hall field produces
“Hall voltage, VH”

Polarity of VH is used to determine the type of semiconductor

In y-direction, Lorentz force will be balanced by force due to Hall field
VH
qvx  Bz = q
W (p-type)
VH = v xWBz
197
For p-type Ix
vx = Since; vd​=I/pAq for holes​
(ep)(Wd )

I x Bz
VH =
epd
I B
p= x z Can calculate the hole concentration in p-type
eVH d

For n-type I x Bz
VH = −
end
Note that VH is negative for n-type
I B
n=− x z
eVH d

198
When we know the carrier concentration, we can calculate carrier mobility

Ix ep pVx
J x = ep p E x =
Wd L
IxL
p =
epVxWd

Similar with n-type, mobility is determined from

IxL
n =
enVxWd

199
Q3. Silicon at T = 300 K is uniformly doped with phophorus atoms at a concentration of 2 1016 cm. A Hall
effect device has been fabricated with the following geometry: d = 10-3 cm, W = 10-2 cm, and L = 10-1 cm. The
electrical parameters measured are: Ix = 1.2 mA, and Bz = 500 gauss = 5 10-2 Tesla. Determine a) The Hall
voltage b) The Hall field

200
Nonequilibrium Excess Carriers in
Semiconductors

201
In this section, we will discuss the behavior of nonequilibrium electron and hole
concentrations as a functions of time and space coordinates
• Define the generation rate and recombination rate of excess carriers, and define the
excess carrier lifetime.
• Discuss why excess electrons and excess holes do not move independently of each
other. The movement of excess carriers is called ambipolar transport, and the
ambipolar transport equation is derived.
• Apply the ambipolar transport equation to various situations to determine the time
behavior and spatial behavior of excess carriers.
• Define the quasi-Fermi energy level.
• Excess electrons in the conduction band and excess holes in the valence band may
exist in addition to the thermal-equilibrium concentrations if an external excitation is
applied to the semiconductor.
• They diffuse, drift, and recombine with the same effective diffusion coefficient, drift
mobility and life time. 202
 Carrier Generation & Recombination
• Generation is the process whereby electrons and holes are created.
• Recombination is the process whereby electrons and holes are annihilated.
• In a state of thermal equilibrium, electrons in a material's crystal lattice can gain
sufficient thermal energy to break free from their covalent bonds. This energy allows
them to transition from the valence band to the conduction band, creating a free
electron in the conduction band and a hole in the valence band. This simultaneous
creation of a free electron and a hole is known as generation.
• Once free, the electron moves randomly through the crystal lattice. During its motion, it
might encounter a broken covalent bond—a site corresponding to a hole. If the free
electron recombines with this hole, the electron-hole pair is effectively lost. This process
is referred to as recombination.
203
 The Semiconductor in Equilibrium

Gn 0 = G p 0

Given that thermally generated free electrons and holes must come in pairs

Gn 0 = G p 0
and they will also recombine in pairs so

Rn 0 = R p 0
204
 The Semiconductor in Equilibrium

In thermal equilibrium the total number of free electrons and holes is constant
so the rates at which they are being generated must be equal to the rates at
which they are recombining.

Gn 0 = G p 0 = Rn 0 = R p 0

205
 Excess Carriers
• External events, such as incident photons, can disrupt this equilibrium though and
create additional electron-hole pairs.
• These “excess” charge carriers would be generated at equal rates for electrons and
holes, so

g =g
'
n
'
p

206
 Excess Carriers

The excess electrons and holes would also recombine in pairs so we can write:

R =R
'
n
'
p

207
 Excess Carriers
Relevant notation used

The number of actual excess electrons and holes are denoted as n and p. Thus the total
number of free electrons and holes in the semiconductor can now be written as:
n = n0 + n
p = p0 + p 208
 Excess Carriers
• For the simple model of recombination we are using (direct band-to-band
recombination) the probability of an electron-hole pair recombining is constant with
time.
• Moreover, the rate at which electrons recombine must be proportional to both the
electron concentration and hole concentration. We can describe this mathematically
with:
dn(t )
dt
 
=  r ni2 − n(t ) p(t )
where
n(t ) = n0 + n(t )
p (t ) = p0 + p (t )

The term  r ni2 is the thermal equilibrium generation rate.

Note then that the entire expression in the parentheses will be less than (or equal to)
zero so that the derivative is negative. This should make common sense as the value of
n(t) is decreasing due to recombination. 209
 Excess Carriers

• Since n0 is constant with respect to time the derivative can be taken with respect
to n instead of n.
• Also, since excess electrons and holes are generated and recombine in pairs we
know that n(t) = p(t).
• Making these substitutions and expanding the terms out we find:

d (n(t ))
dt
 
=  r ni2 − (n0 + n(t ))( po + p (t ))

d (n(t ))
dt
 
=  r ni2 − n0 p0 + n0p (t ) + n(t ) p0 + n(t )p (t )

d (n(t ))
= − r n0n(t ) + n(t ) p0 + n(t )n(t )
dt
210
 Low-Level Injection

• The differential equation we have derived up to this point isn’t the easiest to solve at
the moment. However, if we restrict ourselves to the case of “low-level injection” (a
common situation) it becomes much simpler.
• Low-level injection simply means that the number of excess carriers is much smaller
than the thermal equilibrium values of the majority carrier concentration. That is (for p-
type material), n(t) « p0.
• For p-type material we also know that n0 « p0. Therefore, looking at our equation

d (n(t ))
= − r n0n(t ) + n(t ) p0 + n(t )n(t )
dt

• we can see that the n(t)p0 term will dominate the other two terms on the right-hand
side of the equation.
211
 Low-Level Injection

• We can thus approximate this equation as

d (n(t ))
= − r n(t ) p0 
dt
• This is a simple first-order differential equation with a solution of
n(t ) = n(0)e − r p0 t
= n(0)e − t  n 0
where n0, the excess minority carrier lifetime, is given by n0 = (rp0)-1. Note that the excess
minority carrier lifetime depends on the majority carrier concentration.

• The excess carrier recombination rate, Rn’, is the change in the number of excess
carriers, n(t), so we can write
− d (n(t )) n(t )
Rn' = =  r p0n(t ) =
dt  n0
212
 Low-Level Injection
• For direct band-to-band recombination, the excess majority carrier holes recombine at
the same rate (if an electron has recombined, it obviously must have recombined with a
hole therefore subtract both one free electron and one free hole).
• Since the two rates are equal we can write, for p-type material,

n(t )
R =R =
' '
n
 n0
p

• A similar derivation can be done for low-level injection in n-type material to yield

n(t )
R =R =
' '
n
 p0
p

213
Q 4. Determine the behavior of excess carriers as a function of time. Assume that excess
carriers have been generated uniformly in a semiconductor to a concentration of  n(0) =
1015 cm-3. The forcing function generating the excess carriers turns off at time t = 0.
Assuming the excess carrier lifetime is  n0 = 10-6 s, determine  n(t) for t > 0.

Sol.

214
 Continuity Equations

• Let us consider the flux of particles into and out of a small box.
• Assume the flow of particles only occurs in 1-D along the x-axis and the box is a
differential volume with dimension dx by dy by dz.

• Assume our particles are holes. Then using a first-order Taylor expansion we can
relate the flux of particles into the box to the flux of particles out of the box as

Fpx+
Fpx+ ( x + dx) = Fpx+ ( x ) + dx
x 215
 Continuity Equations

• The net increase in particles within the volume would be the difference of the two
fluxes (multiplied by the surface area)

 −  +

 +

Fpx (x ) − Fpx (x + dx) dy
+
 dz = 
Fpx
dx dydz
Area  x 
• But the net increase in particles inside the box could also be written

p
dxdydz
t  
Volume
So
p Fpx+
dxdydz = − dxdydz
t x
• This only represents the buildup or decrease of particles in the box due to different
flow rates however.
216
 Continuity Equations
• We also need to account for the effects of generation and recombination that may be
occurring within the box. These two phenomena would also contribute to an increase
or decrease of the particle concentration within the box. Including these terms we
have:
+
p Fpx p
dxdydz = − dxdydz + g p dxdydz − dxdydz
t x  pt

• p is the density of holes and pt is the combined hole lifetime (it includes both the
thermal equilibrium carrier lifetime and the excess carrier lifetime).
• Dividing through by dx·dy·dz we reach the Continuity Equations.

+
p Fp
=− + gp −
p
(Holes)
t x  pt
n Fn−
=− + gn −
n
(Electrons)
t x  nt 217
 Excess carrier generation and recombination

Symbol Definition
n0, p0 Thermal equilibrium electron and hole concentrations (Independent of Time)
n, p Total electron and hole concentrations (may be functions of time and/or position).

n = n- n0 Excess electron and hole concentrations (may be functions of time and/or position).
p = p- p0
Gn0, Gp0 Thermal electron and hole generation rates (cm-3s-1)
Rn0, Rp0 Thermal equilibrium electron and hole recombination rates (cm-3s-1)
g n , g p Excess electron and hole generation rates (cm-3s-1)

R n , R p Excess electron and hole recombination rates (cm-3s-1)

Excess minority carrier electron and hole lifetimes (s)
n0,p0

218
 Nonequilibrium Excess Carriers

When excess electrons and holes are created,

n(t ) = n0 + n(t ), p (t ) = p 0 + p (t ) and np  n i2
The excess electrons and holes are created in pairs,
g n = g p and  n (t ) =  p (t )
The excess electrons and holes recombine in pairs,
Rn = R p
The excess carrier will decay over time and the decay rate depends on the concentration of
excess carrier.

dn(t )  ni2 − n(t )p(t ) =  r ni2 − n(t )p(t )

dn(t )
or,
dt dt
r is the constant of proportionality for recombination.

219
 Gn 0 = G p 0 = Rn 0 = R p 0
• For Low-Level Injection the excess electrons can be written as
n(t ) = n(0)e − r p0 t
= n(0)e − t  n 0
where n0, the excess minority carrier lifetime, is given by n0 = (rp0)-1.

• The excess carrier recombination rate, Rn’, is the change in the

number of excess carriers, n(t), so we can write
− d (n(t )) n(t )
Rn' = =  r p0n(t ) =
dt  n0
• For direct band-to-band recombination, the excess majority
carrier holes recombine at the same rate hence

n(t ) n(t )
R =R =
' '
=
n
 n0
p
 p0
n0 p0 n p n p
Rno = R po = '
R = R po =
'
Rn = = R p =  R
 n0  p0 no
 n0  p0  nt  pt
220
 Time-Dependent Diffusion Equations
• Current densities are given by
p
J p = e p pE − eDp
x
n
J n = e n nE + eDn
x
• By dividing the current density by the unit of charge we obtain particle flux:

Jp p
= F =  p pE − D p
+

x
p
e
Jn n
= Fn = −  n nE − Dn
−

(− e) x

221
 Time-Dependent Diffusion Equations

• By substituting these expressions into the Continuity Equations we get:

 ( pE )
+
p Fp p 2 p p
=− + gp − = − p + Dp 2 + g p −
t x  pt x x  pt
n Fn− n  (nE )  2n n
=− + gp − = + n + Dn 2 + g n −
t x  nt x x  nt

• Both p (or n) and E can be functions of position so we need to use the chain rule

 ( pE ) p E
=E +p
x x x
 (nE ) n E
=E +n
x x x

222
 Time-Dependent Diffusion Equations

Thus
p  p E  2 p p
= − p  E +p  + Dp 2 + g p −
t  x x  x  pt
n  n E   2n n
= + n  E +n  + Dn 2 + g n −
t  x x  x  pt

• If we assume we have a homogeneous semiconductor (the doping concentration of

electrons and holes is uniform throughout the semiconductor), then

p ( x ) = p0 + p ( x )
n( x ) = n0 + n( x )
and our partial derivatives of p(x) and n(x) just become partial derivatives of p(x) and n(x).

223
 Time-Dependent Diffusion Equations

• Thus we get the time-dependent diffusion equations for electrons and holes in a
homogeneous semiconductor:

 (p )  2 (p )   (p ) E  p

= Dp −  p E + p  + g −
t x    pt
p
 
2
x x
 (n )  2 (n )   (n ) E  n
= Dn + n  E +n  + gn −
t x 2
 x x   nt

224
 Ambipolar Transport

• Since the internal E-field creates a force attracting the electrons and holes, this E-field will hold
the pulses of excess electrons and holes together.
• The negatively charged electrons and positively charged holes then will drift or diffuse together
with a single effective mobility or diffusion coefficient.
• This phenomenon is called Ambipolar diffusion or Ambipolar transport.
225
 Ambipolar Transport Equations

Since electrons and holes are generated in pairs

n p
Similarly, Rn = = Rp = R
 nt  pt
And since they are generated in pairs (assuming charge neutrality), n = p.
Thus we can write the time-dependent diffusion equations as:

 (p )  (n )  2 (n )   (n ) E 

= = Dp − p E +p + g −R
t t x 2
 x x 
 (n )  2 (n )   (n ) E 
= Dn +  n E + n + g −R
t x 2
 x x 
Multiplying the first equation by nn and the second equation by pp we get:
226
 Ambipolar Transport Equations

 (n )  2 (n )   (n ) E 

n n =  n nDp − n  p nE +p  +  n n( g − R )
t x 2
 x x 
 (n )  2 (n )   (n ) E 
p p =  p pDn + n  p p  E +n  +  p p(g − R )
t x 2
 x x 
E
Adding these we eliminate the term
x

(n )  2 (n ) (n )

(n n +  p p ) = ( n nDp +  p pDn ) +   ( p − n )E + ( n n +  p p )(g − R )
t x x
2 n p

We can simplify/rewrite this by dividing through by (nn+pp).

227
 Ambipolar Transport Equations

The Ambipolar Transport Equation

 (n )  2
(n )  (n )
=D '
+ E
'
+g−R
t x 2
x
n nDp +  p pDn n  p ( p − n)
D =
'
 = '
n n +  p p n n +  p p
However, since Dn Dp kT
= =
n p q

Dn D p (n + p ) n  p ( p − n)
D = '
 =
'
Dn n + D p p n n +  p p
228
 Ambipolar Transport Equations
Limits of Extrinsic Doping and Low Injection

• For “strongly” p-type (or n-type) material under low level injection this reduces considerably.

For p-type, low-level injection For n-type, low-level injection

p0  n0 n0  p0
p0  n n0  n
D '  Dn D'  Dp
 '  n  '  − p

229
 Ambipolar Transport Equations
• Also for low-level injection (small no of excess carriers) the probability of
recombining will be almost constant (the chance of hitting a majority carrier won’t
change much), so nt = n and pt = p.
• For generation and recombination we have a combination of thermal-equilibrium
generation/recombination and excess carrier generation/recombination. Looking at
just electrons we have:

( ) (
g − R = gn − Rn = Gn0 + gn' − Rn0 + Rn' )
However, for thermal equilibrium, we know Gn0 = Rn0
Hence, n
g − R = g n' − Rn' = g n' −
 n0
and we would have a similar expression for the holes.

230
 Ambipolar Transport Equations

Combining all this gives our final Ambipolar Transport Equations:

 2 (n )  (n ) n  (n )

Dn + n E +g −
'
= p − type
x 2
x  n0 t
 2 (p )  (p ) p  (p )
Dp − pE +g −
'
= n − type
x 2
x  p0 t

These equations simply say that there can be a change in our excess carrier
concentration over time because:
1. They diffuse away.
2. They drift away.
3. More are generated.
4. They recombine. 231
 Ambipolar Transport Equations

• It is common in real situations that we can simplify these equations because of the specific
boundary conditions that apply.

 (n )  (p )
Steady-state → = 0, =0
t t

Uniform distribution of excess carriers → Dn  2

( n ) = 0, D
 2
(p ) = 0
 
2 p 2
(uniform generation rate) x x

 (n )  (p )
Zero electric field → E = 0, E =0
x x

No excess carrier generation → g' = 0

No excess carrier recombination → n p

= 0, =0
 n0  p0
232
 Quasi-Fermi Energy Levels

• The thermal-equilibrium electron and hole concentrations are functions of the Fermi
energy level. We can write
 −( EC − EF )   EF − EFi 
no = N C exp   = ni exp  kT 
 kT   
 −( EF − Ev )   −( EF − EFi ) 
po = N v exp   = ni exp  
 kT   kT 

233
 Quasi-Fermi Levels

• The Fermi Level is constant in a sample under equilibrium. However, with generation
or current flowing (even in steady-state) we are in nonequilibrium so EF is no longer a
constant.
• However, we still want to know (or relate) total electron and hole concentrations. This
can be done by considering a “shift” in EF that represent the “More” or “Less” p or n
nature of the semiconductor. These new levels are called EFn and EFp, the Quasi-
Fermi Levels.

n = n0 + n = ni e ( EFn − EFi ) kT
(EFi − EFp ) kT
p = p0 + p = ni e

234
 Quasi-Fermi Energy Levels

• If excess carriers are created in a semiconductor, we are no longer in thermal

equilibrium and the Fermi energy is strictly no longer defined. If n and p are excess
electron and hole concentrations respectively, we write

 E − EFi 
no +  n = ni exp  Fn 
 kT 

 −( EFp − EFi ) 
po +  p = ni exp  
 kT 

235
 Quasi-Fermi Energy Levels

Question: Consider an n-type semiconductor at T=300K with carrier concentration of n0=1015 cm-3, ni=1010 cm-
3, and p =105 cm-3. In nonequilibrium, assume that the excess carrier concentrations are n=p= 1013 cm-3
0

The Fermi level for thermal equilibrium can be determined

 n0 
EF − EFi = kT ln   = 0.2982 eV
 ni 
In nonequilibrium, quasi Fermi level for electrons and holes becomes

 n + δn 
EFn − EFi = kT ln  o  = 0.2984 eV
 ni 
 po + δp 
EFp − EFi = ln   = 0.179 eV
 ni 
236
Dielectric Relaxation Time Constant

The injection of a concentration of holes

into a small region at the surface of an n-
type semiconductor.

237
 Important Formulae
The density of quantum states per unit volume of the crystal

4 ( 2m) 3 / 2
g (E) = E
h3
The density of quantum states per unit volume of the crystal when electron in conduction band
contribute to conduction

4 (2mn ) 3 / 2
g (E) = E − EC
h3
The density of quantum states per unit volume of the crystal when hole in valance band contribute to
conduction

4 (2mn ) 3 / 2
g (E) = Ev − E
h3
where,
2
mn =
 d 2E 
 
2 
 dk  238
The probability that a quantum state at the energy E will be occupied by an electron is

1
f F (E) =
 E − EF 
1 + exp 
 kT 
The probability that a quantum state at the energy E will be occupied by a hole is

1
1 − f F (E) = 1 −
 E − EF 
1 + exp 
 kT 

239
Thermal equilibrium concentration of electron, no and hole po
 − ( EC − EF )   NC 
no = N C exp   EC − EF = kT ln  (1)
 kT   no 
 − ( EF − EV )   NV 
po = NV exp   EF − EV = kT ln  (2)
 kT   po 
The intrinsic concentration of electron in the conduction band (ni) and the hole in
the valence band (pi)
 − ( EC − Ei )   NC 
ni = N C exp    EC − Ei = kT ln  (3)
 kT   ni 
 − ( Ei − EV )   NV 
pi = NV exp   Ei − EV = kT ln  (4)
 kT   ni 
Divide equation 1 with 3 and 2 with 4 to obtain 5 and 6, respectively.
 ( EF − Ei )   n0 
n0 = ni exp   EF − Ei = kT ln  (5)
 kT   ni 
 ( E − EF )   P0 
p0 = ni exp i   Ei − EF = kT ln  (6)
 kT   ni 
240
 no po = ni2
3/ 2
 2m kT 
* 3/ 2
 2m kT  *

NV = 2  p
N C = 2 n
2
  h  2
 h   
 − ( EC − Ev )   − Eg 
ni = N C N v exp = N c N v exp 
2
 
 kT   kT 

ni = 1.5 1010 / cm3 for Si

241
q= Charge of the electron,1.60 × 10-19 J
m0 = Free electron mass, 9.11 × 10-31kg
h = Planck's constant, 6.63×10-34 J/s or m2Kg/s
k = Boltzmann’s constant, 1.38 × 10-23 J/K or 8.62 × 10-5 eV/K

NC = effective density of states in the conduction band for

Si: 2.8 x 1019 cm-3 Ge: 1.04 x 1019 cm-3 GaAs: 4.7 x 1017 cm-3
NV = effective density of states in the valance band for
Si:1.04 x 1019 cm-3 Ge: 6 x 1018 cm-3 GaAs: 7 x 1018 cm-3

242
Measured ionization energies for various impurities in Si and GaAs. The levels below
the gap center are measured from the top of the valence band and are acceptor levels
unless indicated by D for donor level. The levels above the gap center are measured
from the bottom of the conductor band and are donor levels unless indicated by A for
243
acceptor level.