UNIT 3 LAND REFORMS : SOCIAL,

ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL

LIMITATIONS
Contents
Objectives
Introduction
Rural Social Structure
Agrarian Economy and Rural Economic Inequality
Traditional Power Structure and Political Apathy
Nature of Rural Power Structure in India
Evaluation of Land Reforms
Let Us Sum Up
Key Words
Suggested Readings

This unit aims to acquaint you with socio-economic and political factors which have
proved to be the main hurdle, in the implementation of land reform measures. After
going through this unit you will able to identify:
the elements of rural socio-economic structure,
the nature of power structure, and
the way these socio-economic and political factors have emerged as hurdle, in
the process of land reforms.

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Land is the basic source of sustenance in the rural areas, as all primary and auxilliary
activities directly or indirectly are related to land. Since its concentration in limited
hands have been the main forces resulting in social, economic and even
inequalities, land reforms has been the major thrust area in policy making for rural
India.

Land reforms is visualised as an instrument of social justice and is directed to do

away with the exploitative relationship characterised by sharp class division between
rich landowners and impoverished peasants with no security of tenure. Thus it is
focused against the absentee landlords, through impositions of ceiling on size of
holdings. It also implies redistribution of surplus land among the peasants.

With regard to rural economy, land reforms are conceived as a means of increasing
agricultural production through land development. Peasants develop a long-term interest
for investing in the land they own. Simultaneously, the small farmers are benefited
with the massive input provided by. the state to the farmers. Apart from this, land
reforms will enable a more equitable distribution of land which will also generate
income on a more equitable basis. The generation of such income will facilitate the
growth of purchasing power among the lowest sections of society who remain landless.

In a country like India where more than 74% of the population live in rural areas, the
pattern of landholding happens to be a major co-relate of political power structure.
 Implementation of Land social hierarchy and economic relations. Possession of land confers attributes of
- constraints and political privilege and social prestige. The pattern of land ownership further determines
Prospects
the manner in which land and labour are combined for production purposes having
direct implications on the distribution of the produce. Thus the importance of land
reforms becomes central to the agrarian structure.

3.2 RURAL SOCIAL STRUCTURE

The Concept: Any measure to bring about structural changes in society is always
brought with varic.,,. kinds of constraints which are more prominent in rural India. In
order to know t h ~sl cial, economic and political limitations of land reforms, it is
necessary to analyse rural social structure. Herbert Spencer being the first, and then
Emile Durkheim, made efforts to define social structure. Later some sociologists and
social anthropologists gave more systematic definitions. Talcott Parsons defines social
structure as the particular arrangement of the interrrelated inktitutions, agencies and
social patterns, as well as the status and role which each person assumes in the
group. According to Radcliffe Brown, the components of social structures are human
beings, the structure itself being an arrangement of persons in relationship institutionally
defined and regulated. R. M. Mac Iver opines, "The various modes of the grouping
together comprises the copmlex pattern of social structure. In the analysis of the
social structure the role of diver attitudes and interests of social beings is revealed."

The best way to understand the concept of social structure is by taking the example
of organic structure, though the part of organic structure are the same in every case,
yet the forms of the structure of the people differ. Similarly, the parts of all the social
structure are similar, e.g. every social structure has a family, religion, political
organisation, economic institutions, land, area, etc. Yet the forms of social structure
differ, for example, the form of family is not similar in all the social structures. In sum,
we can say that social structure is a patternised arrangements of human relationship
structures and these structures are :
Ecological entities;
Human groups;
Institutional agencies:
Organisation; and
Collectivities.
Without undermining the mlport:inrr. of various constitutive parts of the social structure,
in the context of land reforms. w c m;ly consider the following three most important
institutions of rural social structure :
Village Community,
Family, and
Caste
i) Village Community
I
The concept of community, as used in sociology, has been defined in different ways.
These definitions have laid emphasis on either constellation of institutions, or deep
sense of togetherness, or territorial base, as important features of a community.
According to R. M. Mac Iver and C. H. Page. "Wherever the members of any
group, small or large, live together in such a way that they share, not this or that
particular interest but the basic conditions of a common life, we call that group a
community. The work of a community is that one's liCe may be lived wholely within
it. One can not live wholely within a business organisation or a church. One can live
wholely within a tribe or a city. The basic criterion of community, then, is that all one's
social relationships may be found within it".
Features of Indian 17illage Community Land Reforms: Social,
Economic and Political
Indian villages do not represent uniform unit on the basis of land area and size of Limitations
population, settlement pattern, land ownership, type of farming, occupational pattern,
structure of authority and power, caste composition, distance from cities etc. There
are considerable differences among them from these points of views. However,
territorial base is an important characteristics of Indian village community. In addition,
village is also a unit of social and economic organistation. Despite the fact that people
belong to different castes, classes and religions, with regards to identity they have a
strong sense of unity. It reinforces the sense of belongingness or "we feeling". There
is no anonimity in the village and a sense of village solidarity exists. The village is
perhaps the oldest permanent community in India.

India a Land of Villages

India is a land of villages and continue to dominate the Indian way of life. Although
villages constitute one of the basic elements of our social structures, it is the village
which has sheltered the two other elements of social structure viz., joint family
system and caste. An overwhelming majority of India's population live in more than
5.58 lakh villages. According 1991 Census, the village population of India is almost
74.28%. But the size of the villages has always varied. If we look at the population
size, we find that 26.5 per cent villages have less than 500 population. Another 48.8%
villages have population between 500-2000 and 19.4% villages have 2000-5000
population. Thus medium size villages constitute almost half of the villages.

Indian Villages: Historical Context

Indian villages have a prolonged history of their own. They have not only existed
through the ages, they have also played a prominent role in Indian polity. We have
references of villages as 'grama' in ancient sources as the RIG VEDA, the
RAMAYANA and the MAHABHARAT, which also mention 'gramani' as the head
of the village. We also have enough literature to speak of the position of villages
during 5" and 6"' century B.C, the period in which Jainism and Buddhism emerged.
'Arthashastra' of Kautilya provides us specific details about the village and its
administration during the Maurya period. After the decline of the Mauryas, even
during the Gupta and post-Gupta period, the villager and the village councils continued
to enjoy importance as local administrative units. During the Mughal period, villages
remained as political units having network of relations with other political units such
as the town, the city, the Pargana and the province. It is the British rule during which
the village community lost its autonomy and its administration became centralized,
which had never been experienced in the past.

Decline in the Importance of Villages

Villages started declining during the British period. A number of factors contributed
to the eclipse of the village administration. The British administration never provided
any grant to the village fund from the village revenue for the developmental activities.
The establishment of centralized and uniform legal system put an end to the power
and authority of the village institutions. The process of urbanization made cities more
attractive than the villages. The British introduced the "Zamindari" system in many
areas, though it wanted to establish a new system of revenue collection and land
settlement. Although Panchayat Acts were passed in some states to revive the village
Panchayat; but nothing concrete was done to revive the institutional system.

Current Status
After Independence there have been attempts to formalize the structure, organization
and functioning of village panchayats on democratic lines, through Panchyati Raj
legislations in different states, so that people's participation in the development programs
could 'be ensured. Today, Panchayats have a statutory base with a wide range of
Implementation of Land regulatory as well as developmental functions, rather than being confined to customs
- and and traditions. In some states, the Panchayats are also endowed with financial powers. .
Prospects
In most states, Gram Panchayats are now a part of the three tier Panchayati Raj
structure at the district, the block and the village levels. The 73d and 74h Constitutional
Amendments invest greater role and power to the Panchayati Raj institutions.

The family is a primarily, permanent and the most pervasive of all social institutions.
This is the basic unit of the social structure of any society. All societies both large
and small, primitive and civilized, ancient and modem have institutionalized the process
of procreation of the species and the rearing of the young. However, there could be
differences in terms of types of marriage, composition, size, structure and nature of
authority, role, patterns of descent, nature of ownership of property etc. Since land
is the primary source of property and family owns land, any measure related to land
reform can not ignore the institution/association of family.

Features of Family
Although many features of the family have been elaborated in sociological literature,
following are the essential characteristics of the family:

Social Features
a) Conjugal relationship between parents as per the form of marriage;
b) Common residence;
c) Basic economic unit;
Emotional bond among the members to meet psycho-social needs; and
I
I
d)
e) Socialization and informal social control of members.
Economic Features
a) Regulating labour requirement,
b) Defining the role and function of each member of the each family as per the
existing division of labour, and
c) Aocumulating and distributing the material goods produced.
Functions of Family
The family owes its existence as a social institution to a number of functions that it
performs both for the society as well as for the individual. From one point of view,
the functions are interdependent and a logical division into separate categories may
not do justice to their full elaboration. From another angle they are independent of one
another and in case of necessity, they may be performed by some other social
institutions. There is no other institution that can perform all the functions of a family
so well and satisfy the needs of society so effectively.

Functions of the Family

For Society For Individual

continuation of the species Life and survival
Sexual control Sexual opportunity
Maintenance Protection and support
Cultural transmission Socialization
Status ascription Societal identification
 Forms of Family L a ~ dReforms: Social,
Economic and Political
We find various classifications of family in sociological literature. On the basis of Limitations
authority, a family may be patriarchal or matriarchal. Under the particular family, the
male head of the family is possessed of inclusive powers. He is the owner and
administrator of the family property and its rights. Patriarchal family is patrilinial,
wherein the line of descent is traced through male, and patrilocal, where the wife
after marriage comes to live in the home of the husband. In the case of matriarchal
family, all the privileges and prerogatives lie with the main female member. It is, in
this sense, almost reverse of the patriarchal system. On the basis of blood relationship,
a family may be conjugal i.e. established through marriage, or consanguine i.e. consisting
of blood relations. Similarly, on the basis of structure, the family has been classified
into nuclear and extended family. A nuclear family is one which consists of the
husband, wife and their children, whereas an extended family can be viewed as a
merger of several nuclear family.

In Indian villages, joint family are move prevalent. It consists of members related
through blood and are spread over three or more generations, who live together under
common roof, with a common family head. There could be variations in degree but
some of the common characteristics of a joint family are: common roof, common
kitchen, common worship, common property, Karta's authority, mutual rights,
responsibilities and obligations, and some degree of self-sufficiency.

Current Status
The Indian joint family has undergone significant changes during the recent times.
Sociologists like I. P. Desai, K. M. Kapadia, Aileen Ross, A. & I. M. S. Gore
Shah,
and Ram Krishna Mukharjee have examined the causes and consequences of changes
in the family. Some of these changes are structural in nature while others are functional.
With regard to the structural changes, we find changes in respect of the size of joint
family, ownership of the property as a consequence of Hindu Inheritance and Succession
Act of 1956, exercise of authority, conjugal relationship, and joint family taking the
form of dependent nuclear family. Joint family has undergone many changes with
respect to its functional aspect as well. Today, a joint family is not fulfilling many of
its functions for there are well established and specialized agencies to undertake
these functions. External agencies, such as schools, colleges, hostels, hotels, cinema
i houses, hospitals, helpage homes, and voluntary associations have taken over some
of the traditional activities of the joint families.

The importance of the joint family as a self-contained economic unit based on land
) is getting transformed. Rise in population causing pressurc on land and other socio-
economic forces; like: education, individualism, separate sources of income, and social
mobility, are also affecting the structure of joint family. Introduction of land reforms
and ceiling on land give rise to the fear that the institution of joint fanlily would be
disadvantageous in working out the entitlement under ceiling.
iii) Caste
Caste system is an important structural aspect of the Indian social stratification
system, which influences the exercise of authority and power, and control of instruments
of material production. This is the main distributive management of a society. In
addition, there are strong socio-cultural factors which operate as indicators of social
stratification e.g. political power, occupational prestige, level of educational attainment,
local community status, ritual position, etc.

Features of India Caste System

Caste system with all its peculiar features is to be found only in India. The caste
system, the joint family system and the village community are generally regarded as
a three basic pillars of the India social system. Although large numbers of features
Implementation of Land have been delineated, we can identify following salient features:
Reforms - Constraints and
Prospects 1) Ascriptive status: In the caste system birth is the criterion of status and status
is ascribed to the individuals by birth.
2) A closed system: Since social mobility is restricted, individuals can not change
their caste easily and movement in the social hierarchy is difficult.
3) Purity and impurity: Hierarchical order is based on the principle of purity and
impurity. This gives rise to the evil system of untouchables.
4) Restrictions on social relations: It regulates even routine activities of the
members. These restrictions are related to social cohabitation and dining with
other caste members.
5) Complexity: The existence of more than 800 castes and sub-castes make the
system very complex. It is not easy to place caste one after the other in a
hierarchical order.
6) Endogamy: Caste is an endogamous group. Marriages within the caste is
mandatory and as per the rule of the caste system, inter-caste marriage is not
allowed.
7) Caste consciousness: One caste members form in group. This gives rise to
caste consciousness which goes against the principle of egalitarian society and
often gives rise to hostility which often affects various economic measures to
bring about directed changes.
Functions of Caste
The existence and continuance of caste system reveals that it has been fulfilling
certain functions. J. H. Hutton has grouped these functions into the following three
categories.

1) Indirvidual based functions: It provides ascriptive status to the individuals by

birth, keeping in view the position of a caste in the hierarchical order. The
choices of the individuals with regards to marriage, selection of friends, food
habits etc. are dictated by caste. It provides for occupational choices of the
individuals. In time of &is caste also guarantees social security to the individuals.
2) Community/Group based functions: It determines the membership of the
community and assigns social status to the individuals. However, the exact
position of a caste may not be same in different region. It enables members to
maintain unity by being members of a cohesive group. It also helps in transmitting
culture from one generation to the other.
3) Society based functions: Caste being the basis of the Hindu social organization,
it has certain functions in relation to society at large. Individual members of the
society always try to identify themselves with one or the other caste. Thus it has
provided opportunities for caste solidarity and mutual support. Different tasks or
works of the society are assigned to different castes. In addition, one of the
major functions of the caste is that it combines various groups, institutions and
sub-systems into a coherent social entity.
Domiqant Castes
Traditionally, there existed mutual cooperation among various caste and economic
necessities added to their interdependence. Jajamani system played a crucial role in
unifying the different caster. But the decline of the Jajamani system has disturbed
interdependence of castes. Conflicting situations are witnessed wherever and whenever
one caste attempts to dominate the other. Castes are not equal any where, rather we
find the domination of one caste over the rest of the castes. This domination is in the
form of powerful influence on other castes. According to M.N. Sriniwas, who introduced
the concept of dominant caste, "a caste is doininant when it preponderates numerically
 over the other castes, when it also wields preponderant economic and political power Land Reforms: Social,
and when it enjoys a high ritual status in the local caste hierarchy". Sriniwas further Econon~icand Political
Limitations
writes, "New factors affecting dominance have emerged in the last eighty years or
so. Western education, jobs in the administration and urban sources of income are all
significant in contributing to the prestige and power of particular caste groups". Thus
we can identify determinants of dominance as :

1) Ownership of sizeable amount of agricultural land,

2) Numerical strengths,
3) High ritual status,
4) Greater economic and political power,
5) Higher educational level of the caste, and
/
6) Higher occupation (technicaVprofessiona1) pursued by the caste.
However in local situations, we may find variations in the elements of dominance.
Certain families may be a few in numbers, but having network with the dominant
caste in region may be dominant in the village. Similarly, at the State level, we may
find shift in the dominance of the caste groups, depending on economic and political
changes. At the state level, Lingayats and Okkaligas in Karnataka, Reddys and
' Kamrnas in Andhra Pradesh, Nairs and Ezhavas in Kerala, Gounder Padayachi and
Mudaliars in Tamilnadu, Marathas, Brahamins and Mahars in Maharashtra, Rajputs
and Yadavs in U.P., Jats in Haryana, Yadavs, Bhumihars and Koiris in Bihar, are
found to be influencing the socio-economic and political life of the people.

Current Status
During the recent years the political influence of the dominant caste has increased.
Democracy and universal adult franchise have provided them opportunity to become
politically strong and powerful. Their representation in Assemblies and Parliament has
increased. With the introduction of Panchayati Raj system, these castes have extended
their area of influence in villages and districts. They have used the political instruments
to obtain for their caste members, good education and prestigious jobs. We shall
examine the role of dominant castes in the context of land reforms later.

3.3 AGRARIAN ECONOMY AND RURAL ECONOMIC

INEOUALITY
The word 'agrarian' pertains 'to cultivate' or 'agricultural land and its tenure', landed
property and management, or distribution of land. Indian rural economy is primarily
agrarian in nature. After almost five decades of planned economic development, India
continues to have a predominantly rural economy. But unfortunately Indian agrarian
economy is still in backward shape. Indian agriculture depends upon the monsoon,
with 74% of the area depending on rainfall as the chief source of irrigation. The
distribution of this rainfall is uneven with respect to time as well as region. Harnessing
water for irrigation would involve inter basin transfer of river water, which is
economically prohibitive. Many of our agricultural problems are due not merely to the
inadequacy of irrigation, but also because of the inefficient use of valuable water.
What it true for water is often true for other agricultural inputs as well. Although
fertilizers consumption has increased, manifolds, yet its use is very unevenly distributed
both among crops and region.

Performance in Agriculture
The basic problems of the rural economy are related to the low levels of agricultural
productivity. Productivity of land measured in terms of yields per hectare, continues
to be low. However, there has been a substantial increase in yield of wheat, rice and
Implementation of Land sugarcane. One of the major problems in agricultural sector is that wherever production
Reforms - Constraints and has increased, distribution and marketing system has been problematic. However,
Prospects
Government has since the mid seventies, policy set a minimum floor price for agricultural
products. Such prices have been periodically revised to provide remunerative prices
to fanners.

Rural Economic Inequality

Inequality in rural economic structure has been very prominent and consists of the
following agrarian classes. A.R. Desai has identifies the following classes in rural
areas.
1) Landowners (about 22% )
2) Tenants (about 27%),
3) Agricultural laborers (about 31%), and
4) Non-agriculturists (about 27%).
Daniel Thorner's categorization into Maliks, Kisan and Mazddors are based on the
following criteria :

1) Who obtain income from the land, that is, through rent, ones own cultivation or
wages.
2) Nature of rights, that is, ownership rights, tenancy rights, share-cropping rights
and no rights at all.
d-

3) Doing no work at all, doing partial work, doing total work and doing work for
others to earn wages.
D.N. Dhanagre, disagreeing with Thorner's classification on ground of theoretical
assumptions, has suggested an alternative model consisting of five classes:
a) Landlords
b) Rich peasants
. c) Middle peasants
d) Poor peasants
e) Landless labourers
Although classifications of agrarian classes are not flnal because of the variations and
complexities, yet it can help us as a methodologicd tool to examine rural economic
inequality.

Check Your Progress 1

~ o i e :a) Use the space given below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with the text.
1) What are the causes of the poor performance of agriculture in India?
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
, ...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
 Land Reforms: Social,
2) What are five agrarian classes enumerated by D.N. Dhanagare? Economic and Political
............................................................................................................... Limitations

...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................

3.4 TRADITIONAL POWER STRUCTURE AND

POLITICAL APATHY
The Concept: The concept of power structure occupies central place in the analysis
of Indian rural system. Political scientists, psychologists and sociologists have analyzed
the concept in different ways. Plato and Aristotle explain power structure in relation
to their theory of state, where as sociologists find the notion of power as an integral
part of social structure. Max Weber regarded power as the fundamental concept in
stratification of which class, status and party were the three separate dimensions.
According to Weber, classes were the outcome of the distribution of the economic
power, status was a kind of normatively defined social power and parties were groups
active in the political sphere. Power was, then, defined by Weber, in general terms,
as the probability of person or group carrying out their will even when opposed by
others. Many sociologists since Weber have assumed that power involves subordinate
resistance which must be overcome by subordinates. Alvin Gouldner noted, "power
is, among other things, the ability to enforce one's moral claims. The powerful can
thus conventionalise their moraI defaults". David Lockwood, while recognizing power
a latent force, observed that power must only refer to the capacity to realize ones
ends in conflicts situations against the will of others, and it must also include the
capacity to prevent opposition arising in the first place. We often here that the study
of power concentrates on the making and taking of important decisions. Thus, the
concept of power is complex. Various facets of power manifest in the given socio-
cultural set-up.

3.5 NATURE OF RURAL POWER STRUCTURE IN

INDIA
Before the abolition of feudalism, rural power structure was greatly influenced by the
Zamindari and the Jagirdari systems. Primarily it represented economic interests and
manifested through the institutions of caste and Panchayats. Agriculture being the
primary occupation, ownership of land and monopoly on economic activities influenced
and controlled rural power structure. Thus even in the selection of rural leaders either
in the village panchayat and caste panchayat, the zarnindars had a virtual monopoly.
Along with the zamindari system, caste system has aIso been a fundamental element
of rural social structure. Both the systems, gave rise to a unique power structure in
rural India. Even village panchayats were constituted mostly by representatives of
caste panchayats. Thus in pre-independence India the caste, the Zarnindari and the
Jagirdari systems, and the village panchayats monopolized rural power structure.

In the changed context and circumstances rural power structure has also undergone
transformation. Abolition of Zamindari system paved the way for a more democratic
system. Public land such as village ponds, grazing grounds, village streets etc. which
was used by the Zamindar's as personal property, have been declared as community
property. This disarmed the Zarnindars of economic exploitation and dominance over
others; K.L. Sharma writes, "today there is congruence in some aspects of elites
Implementation of Land culture, style of living and exercise of power, whereas in some other aspects, certain
Reforms - and amount of incongruence prevails. For instance, there is a greater possibility of political
Prospects
elites wielding economic power and that of less possibility of economic dominance
exercising political dominance. The cultural elite may have more economic privileges
than having access to positions of political power. However professional elites continue
to be a dividing line between different types of elites though the nature of
professionalisation today is different from that of the traditional one."

Features of Modern Power Structure

1) Either directly or indirectly, upper castes have a dominant role in rural power
structure.
2) Power has shifted from crude caste structure and has come to be located in a
more differentiated structures such as panchayats and political parties. The
important role of caste, however, remains.
3) Due to the process of Sanskritization and democratization, lower castes have
become more organized and the process of their empowerment to exert control
over rural power stncture is clearly visible.
4) Rural leadership of limited caste groups is being replaced by other caste groups.
Caste remains an inseparable part of rural power structure.
5) Quite often informal leaders influence the decisions at the village levels, The
most important feature of this kind of leadership is that they are men who can
get things done, despite the contrary wishes of other less powerful people.
Political Apathy
Innumerable plans and policies since Independence have been formulated to bring
about socio-economic changes in rural India. Yet things have not changed in the
desired direction. One of the most important reasons behind this is political apathy.
Broader objective of political parties has been to control power at the national and
state levels. Every political party issues manifesto at the time of elections which
contains major policies and plans of action. But once the election is over, the manifesto
is forgotten. There is also a gap between the policy of the party at the state and
national level and at local level. It has often been observed that ignorance, poverty,
illiteracy and inegalitarian system has favoured the political intentions of the parties.
It is comparatively easier to sway the ignorant voters on desired political line. Political
response in concrete terms with regard to major structural changes in rural India has
not been satisfactory and indifference among political workers at grassroots has
prevailed. This is true in the context of land reform measures also. With regard to
rural development, Amartya Sen has rightly pointed out that ". . .. the elimination of
ignorance, illiteracy, remediable poverty, preventable diseases, and of needless inequality
in opportunities must be seen as objectives that are valued for their own sake."

3.6 EVALUATION OF LAND REFORMS

Land reform measures since Independence have brought about some change in rural
India. Different state governments have undertaken various land reform measures
such as; abolition of the intermediaries, tenancy reforms, ceiling on landholdings,
consolidation of landholdings, completion and updating of land records, cooperative
farming, distribution of surplus government land etc. The efforts are in right direction.
The problem however, relates to the poor performance. The Annual Report of the
Ministry of Rural Development for the year 2005-06 mentions that out of 39.16 lac
acres of Bhoodan land donated, 21.75 lac acres have been distributed and 17.41 lac
acres of land is yet to be distributed. The worst performance has been in the State
of Bihar, including Jharkhand, where out of 21.18 lac acres only 7.23 lac acres, or
one third, has been distributed. Let us first discuss the progress made so far and we
 will examine the causes for the poor performance of the land reform programme Land Reforms: Social,
later. Economic and Political
Limitations
Progress of Land Reforms in India
Land reform measures are the most important instrument to bring about fundamental
changes in the agrarian economy of rural India, including the rural social structure.
It is also a means of empowerment of those who have out of the development
\process. Keeping this in view the state governments have enacted suitable legislations
to implement the land reforms. These efforts have had some positive effects of which
are noted below: 6

1) Substantial number of tenants have become owners of land that they are cultivating.
2) The exploitative Zarnindari and Mahalwari systems have been abolished.
' 3) Tenancy rights have become more secure.
4) The step in the direction of social justice has been in the form of ceiling limits
, to the landholdings which many of the states have fixed.

I 5) The system of absentee landlordism has been eradicated.

1 6) Rent payable by the farmers has been regularized.

Inspite of the positive effects, the performance of land reforms programs has not
been entirely satisfactory.

Performance of Land Reform Programme

The unsatisfactory progress of land reforms is clear from the latest report of the
NSSO, which shows that 10% of the rural population or 1.5 crore of the rural families
are still landless. In the year 1961-62, available agricultural land was 12.87 crore
hectares which has come down to 10.72 crore hectares in the year 2003, which
shows a decline in the availability in the agricultural land. The Survey also reports,
an interesting fact that 44% of the total agricultural land is owned by Other Backward
Castes, in comparison to 36% by the higher castes. Scheduled Castes own 9% of the
total available agricultural land. It shows that the middle and backward castes are
emerging as a force to reckon with in rural India and the Scheduled Castes are still
deprived.

Some of the reasons for the poor performance of the land reforms programme are
mentioned below:

1) Absence of strong political will: Political leadership is dominated by the upper

castelupper class people who have their own vested interest. This has resulted
in the absence of strong political will, which is a prerequisite for successful
implementation of land reform programme.
2) Lack of pressure from below: The beneficiaries of land reform programme
i.e. tenants and landless agricultural labourers, are largely unorganized and they
have not been able to bring about the required pressure on the government for
speedy implementation of the programme.
3) Legal difficulties: Large number of cases related to land ceiling are still pending
in the court of law. The rich take advantage of the legal loop holes.
4) Absence of updated land records: Evidence of the right on land can be
proved through land records. Unfortunately such records are not properly
maintained. It has also been accepted in the Annual Report 2005-06 of the Rural
Development Ministry that one of the constraints in improving of the
implementation of land reforms is the absence of land records. However, a
centrally sponsored scheme is strengthening of Revenue Administration and
updating of Land Records (SRA & ULR) is now under implementation.
Implementation of Land 5) Retention of land for personal cultivation: The term 'personal cultivation'
Reforms - Constraints and was not properly defined. Tahng advantage of the ambiguity the intermediaries
Prospects
retained large chunks of land for personal cultivation.
Role of Central Government has been limited to given suggestions and directions
to the state governments and there has not been enough pressure on the state
government for speedy implementation.
Absence of development oriented administration: The nature and culture
of bureaucracy has been that of revenue collection and law enforcement. Overall
complacence combined with inefficiency and corruption, also contributed to a
great extent to the failure of the programme.

Check Your Progress 2

Note: a) Use the space given below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with the text.
1) Mention the areas covered by Land Reforms Programme.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
2) List important features of the Indian Village Community.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
3) What is Dominant Caste?
................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
4) What are the causes of poor performance of agriculture in India?
...............................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
5) What are the five agrarian classes enumerated by D.N. Dhanagare?
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
6) How did Max Weber define the concept of power?
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
I

...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
7) What are the main features of modern power structure in India?
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
8) Mention three important positive impacts of the Land Reforms Programme.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................... I
9) What are the important reason for poor performance of Land Reform
Programme?
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
Implementation of Land have examined the three most important institutions viz. the village community, the
Reforms - Constraints and family and the caste. We have also examined the inegalitarian Indian agrarian economy.
Prospects
These1,two in unison, affected and influenced rural power structure. Political apathy
from above and poor response from the beneficiaries below also affected the
performance of the programme.

An objective assessment of the Land Reforms suggests that it would be incorrect to

say that the measures undertaken have not produced results. Simultaneously, it would
be equally incorrect to assume that the mission is complete. There are various hurdles
in the way of successful and speedy implementation of the programme which, if
removed, has tremendous potentiality to change the Indian rural economy, society, as
well as polity.

3.8 KEY WORDS

Land Reforms : Generally understood by the term, land reforms
refers to redistribution of land but its scope
subsumes abolition of intermediary tenures, tenancy
reforms, ceiling of landholdings, consolidation of
holdings, compilation and updating of land records.

Zamindari System : Zamindar normally means a non-cultivating

landlord. The system was introduced by the British
in 1793 which separated ownership of land from
managerial and labour functions. Under the system,
Zamindars were declared full proprietors of large
chunks of land and in return they collected rent
from the farmers.

Joint Family : It consists of members related through blood and

spread over three or more generation, living
together under a common roof and work under a
common head.

Domi~antCaste , : M.N. Sriniwas introduced the concept. The

determinants of dominance of the caste in a region
could be sizeable land ownership, numerical
strength, high ritual status, economic and political
power, and education level.

3.9 SUGGESTED READINGS

Mac Iver, R. M. and Charles H. Page: 'Society: An introductory Anulysis,' Macmillon
Ibdia (Delhi).
Dutt, Rudra and Sudershan, K.P.M. 'Indian Economy,' S. Chand & Co. (Delhi)
Rao, C. N. Shankar, (2004) 'Sociology of Indian Society,' S. Chand & Co. New
Delhi
Joshi, P. C., (1975) 'Land Reforms in India, Trends and Perspectives,' Institute of
Economic, Delhi.
Jha, Gulab (1990), 'Caste and the Communist Movement in Bihar,' Commonwealth
Publication, New Delhi.
Andra Beteille, (1971) 'Caste, Cluss and Power,' University of California Press,
London.
Annual Report 2005-2006, Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India.