PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT

What is Personality?
Dozens of different definitions of personality exist in the psychology
literature. Some definitions aim to encompass all aspects of a person’s
behavior.
Ø McClelland defined personality as “the most adequate
conceptualization of a person’s behavior in all its details.
Ø Menninger defined personality as the individual as a whole, his height
and weight and love and hates and blood pressure and reflexes; his
smiles and hopes and bowed legs and enlarged tonsils. It means all
that anyone is and that he is trying to become
Ø Byrne characterized the entire area of personality psychology as
“psychology’s garbage bin in that any research which doesn’t fit other
existing categories can be labeled ‘personality.’ ”
Personality
Is an individual’s unique constellation of psychological traits that is
relatively stable over time

What is Personality Assessment?

May be defined as the measurement and

evaluation of psychological traits, states, values,
interests, attitudes, worldview, acculturation,
sense of humor, cognitive and behavior styles,
and/or related individual characteristics.
Traits, Types and States
 What is Personality Traits?
1

Gordon Allport
This is a real physical entities that are “bona fide mental structures in each
personality”

Robert Holt
Are real structures inside people that determine their behavior in lawful
ways

Raymond Cattell
Mental structures, but structure do not imply actual physical status

Guilford
Any distinguishable, relatively enduring way in which one individual varies
from one another
NEO-PI-R

Provides systematic assessment of emotional,

interpersonal, experiential, attitudinal and motivational
styles. Big Five Factor Theory
• O
• C
• E
• A
• N
 What is Personality Types?
2

As constellation of traits that is similar in pattern to one identified category

of personality within a taxonomy of personalities. If traits – characteristics
types – descriptions

Example:
Describing people as “DEPRESSED” is different from describing that
individual as a “DEPRESSED TYPE”.

It has far-reaching implications regarding characteristics aspect of the

individual, such as the person’s worldview, activity level, capacity to enjoy
life and level of social interest.
Hippocrates’ Classification of People
ØSanguine –literal meaning is red, like blood;
describes someone who is ruddy in complexion,
presumably from copious blood flowing through the
body, cheerful and optimistic, although insomnia
and delirium were thought caused by excessive
blood in the brain.
ØMelancholic – means depressive
ØPhelgmatic – indicates apathy and sluggishness but
can also mean being calm under stress.
ØCholeric – is hot tempered
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

An assumption guiding the development of this test

was that people exhibit definite preferences in the way
they perceive or become aware of– and judge or arrive Introvert/Extravert

at conclusions about people, events, situations and Sensing/Intuitive

ideas. Thinking/Feeling
Judging/Perceiving
Example if you have high scores on Introversion,
Intuition, Thinking and Perceiving your personality falls
into INTP

Limiting
Not commonly used in clinical settings
16 Personality Factor Test (16PF)
Raymond Cattell

It is a self report assessment instrument that measures

the 16 normal adult personality dimensions
Standardized scores (stern) are derived for each of the
16 primary factors of personality.
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
For Personality Test that measure specific/coverage

Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI)

Beck Depression Inventory (BDI)

Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale

 What is Personality States?

The term "state" in personality assessment has two different

meanings:
Ø Psychodynamic Disposition: This usage refers to the inferred
conflicts among the id, ego, and superego. Assessment techniques
include free association, word association, dream analysis, and
analyzing slips of the tongue or other errors.
Ø Transitory Exhibition of Traits: The more popular usage refers to
temporary expressions of personality traits. A trait is a stable
behavioral predisposition, while a state indicates a temporary
condition. For example, someone may be described as being “in
an anxious state” during midterms, but not as an inherently
anxious person.
Ø Measuring Personality States: This involves assessing the
strength of traits that are temporary or situation-specific. Few
personality tests differentiate between traits and states.
Ø State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI): Developed by Charles D.
Spielberger and colleagues, this inventory distinguishes
between state anxiety (temporary tension due to a specific
situation) and trait anxiety (a stable personality characteristic).
Ø Test Structure: The STAI consists of statements asking
participants to indicate either how they feel "right now" (state
anxiety) or how they generally feel (trait anxiety).
Ø Reliability: Reports indicate that trait anxiety is more stable,
while state anxiety is more transitory in nature.
 Personality
Assessment: Some
Basic Questions
For what type of employment is a person with this type of
personality best suited?

Is the individual sufficiently well adjusted for military service?

What emotional & other adjustment-related factors may be

responsible for this students’ level of academic achievement?

What pattern of traits and states does this psychotherapy client

evince, and to what extent may this pattern be deemed
pathological?

How has this patient’s personality been affected by neurological

trauma?
 Who?
Who is being assessed and who is doing the assessment?
The self as the primary referent
Self report – a process wherein information about
assesses is supplied by the assesses themselves
Self-concept – one’s attitudes, beliefs, opinions and
related thoughts about oneself
Self-concept measure – an instrument designed to yield
information relevant to how individual sees
himself/herself with regard to selected psychological
variables
Self-concept differentiation – the degree to which a
person has different self-concepts in different roles.
 Who?
Who is being assessed and who is doing the assessment?
Another person as the referent

In some situations, the best available method for the assessment

of personality, behavior or both involves reporting by a third party.

Example: A child may be unable or unwilling to complete a

measure (self-report, performance) that will be of value in making
a valid determination concerning child’s emotional status.
Leniency Error or generosity error - an error in rating that arises
from the tendency on the part of the rater to be lenient in scoring,
marking, and/or grading

Severity error - a type of rating error where raters consistently give

overly negative or harsh assessments, often leading to
undeservedly low scores
Error of central tendency -the rater, for whatever reason, exhibits a
general and systematic reluctance to giving ratings at either the
positive or the negative extreme

Halo Effect - a tendency to give a particular ratee a higher rating

than the ratee objectively deserves because of the rater’s failure to
discriminate among conceptually distinct and potentially
independent aspects of a ratee’s behavior.
 Who?
Who is being assessed and who is doing the assessment?
The cultural background of assessees
Test developers and users have shown increased sensitivity to
issues cultural diversity.
A number of concerns have been raised regarding the use of
personality tests and other tools of assessment with members of
culturally and linguistically diverse populations
How fair or generalizable is a particular instrument or
measurement technique with a member of a particular cultural
group?
 Who?
Who is being assessed and who is doing the assessment?
The cultural background of assessees

How fair or generalizable is a particular instrument or

measurement technique with a member of a particular cultural
group?

How a test was developed, how it is administered, and how scores

on it are interpreted are all questions to be raised when
considering the appropriateness of administering a particular
personality test to members of culturally and linguistically diverse
populations.
 What?

What is assessed when a personality assessment is conducted?

Primary content area sampled

Personality measures are tools used to gain insight into a wide

array of thoughts, feelings, and behavior associated with all
aspects of human experience

Example: An observational checklist may concentrate on

classroom behaviors associated with movement in order to assess
a child’s hyperactivity
 What?

What is assessed when a personality assessment is conducted?

Testtaker response style
Response Style – refers to a tendency to respond to a test items or
interview question in some characteristic manner regardless of the
content of the item or question.
Acquiescent – a pattern of responding which an individual may be
apt to respond yes or true than no or false.

Impression Management– used to described the attempt to

manipulate others’ impressions through “selective exposure of
some information (it may be false information)….coupled with
suppression of [other] information.
 What?

What is assessed when a personality assessment is conducted?

Testtaker response style

Impression Management– used to described the attempt to

manipulate others’ impressions through “selective exposure of
some information (it may be false information)….coupled with
suppression of [other] information.

Enhancement– Claiming positive attitude

Denial– rejecting negative attributes

Self Deception– providing biased but sincerely held self-deceptions

 What?

What is assessed when a personality assessment is conducted?

Testtaker response style

Some personality tests contain items designed to detect different

types of response styles.

Example: a true response to an item like “I summer in Baghdad”

would raise a number of questions, such as: Did the testtaker
understand the instructions? Take the test seriously? Respond true
to all items? Respond randomly? Endorse other infrequently
endorsed items?
 What?

What is assessed when a personality assessment is conducted?

Testtaker response style

Responding to a personality test in an inconsistent, contrary, or

random way, or attempting to fake good or bad, may affect the
validity of the interpretations of the test data.

Validity Scale - as a subscale of a test designed to assist in

judgments regarding how honestly the testtaker responded and
whether observed responses were products of response style,
carelessness, deliberate efforts to deceive, or unintentional
misunderstanding..
 Where?

Where are personality assessments conducted?

Traditional sites for personality assessment, as well as other

varieties of assessment, are schools, clinics, hospitals, academic
research, laboratories, employment counseling and vocational
selection centers, and the offices of psychologist and counselors.

Natural settings ranging from assessee’s own home

 How?

How are personality assessments structured and conducted?

Scope and Theory – scope and to what extent is personality test

based on a particular theory of personality.

Procedures and items format – face to face interviews, computer-

administered test, behavioral observation, paper-and-pencil test,
evaluation of case history data, evaluation of portfolio data and
recording of physiological responses.

Frame of Reference – aspects of focus of exploration such as the

time frame (the past, present or future) as well as other contextual
issues that involve people, places and events
 Scope and Theory – scope and to what extent is personality test
based on a particular theory of personality.

The California Psychological Inventory (CPI 434) is an example of

an instrument with a relatively wide scope. This test contains 434
true–false items—but then you knew that from its title—and is
designed to yield information on many personality-related
variables such as responsibility, self-acceptance, and dominance
For example, consider tests designed to measure a
personality variable called locus of control (Rotter, 1966;
Wallston et al., 1978). Locus (meaning “place” or “site”) of
control is a person’s perception about the source of things
that happen to him or her.
In general, people who see themselves as largely responsible for
what happens to them are said to have an internal locus of
control.
People who are prone to attribute what happens to them to
external factors (such as fate or the actions of others) are said
to have an external locus of control.
 Procedures and items format
Personality may be assessed by many different methods, such as
face-to-face interviews, computer-administered tests, behavioral
observation, paper-and pencil tests, evaluation of case history
data, evaluation of portfolio data, and recording of physiological
responses.
Structured Interview - the interviewer must typically follow an
interview guide and has little leeway in terms of posing questions
not in that guide.
 How?

How are personality assessments structured and conducted?

Scoring and interpretation– personality measures differ with

respect to the way conclusions are drawn from data they provide.
Approaches in Assessment
Nomothetic Approach- is characterized by efforts to learn
how limited of personality traits can be applied to all people (
ex. 16 PF and Big 5 Factor)
Idiographic Approach – characterized by efforts to learn about
each individual’s unique constellation of personality traits,
with no attempt to characterize each person according to any
particular set of traits.
 Normative Approach
A test taker’s responses and the presumed strength of a measured
trait are interpreted relative to the strength of that trait in a sample of
a larger population.

Ipsative Approach
A test taker’s responses, as well as the presumed strength of
measured traits are interpreted relative to the strength of
measured traits for the same individual.
 Issues in personality test development and use
Ø Target Population: Identifying the specific test-takers for whom the test
is designed.
Ø Self-Report vs. Rater/Observer Input: Deciding whether the
assessment will rely on self-reports or require evaluations from raters
or judges. If raters are involved, determining their necessary
qualifications and training is important.
Ø Interrater Reliability: Ensuring a reasonable level of agreement among
raters to maintain reliability in the results.
Ø Content Sampling: Defining which content areas the test should cover
and addressing test-taker response styles.
Ø Item Format and Scoring: Choosing the appropriate item format and
method for scoring and interpretation.
 Issues in personality test development and use

Self-reporting has advantages, as individuals often know

themselves best; however, it poses risks regarding the accuracy
of responses since respondents may provide biased or
dishonest answers. For instance, a respondent might select
"true" for the statement "I tend to enjoy meeting new people,"
yet we cannot fully ascertain their actual feelings about
socializing. This ambiguity can arise from a lack of insight, a
desire to appear favorable, or even careless answering.
 Issues in personality test development and use

To address these accuracy concerns, some test developers

include validity scales in self-report tests to detect any
attempts to provide misleading information. Despite debates
over the necessity of these scales in personality assessments,
their inclusion is often justified as essential for clinical
interpretation.
 Issues in personality test development and use

When using raters, it’s critical to educate them about

potential errors and biases to enhance rating accuracy.
Training sessions can help clarify terminology and
facilitate comparison between novice and experienced
raters
 Issues in personality test development and use

Language also plays a significant role in test accuracy,

especially when assessing individuals from different cultural
backgrounds. Nuances can be lost in translation, affecting
the meaning of items. For instance, specific psychological
traits may vary culturally, prompting researchers to advise
caution in applying Western study results universally.
Issues in personality test development and use

The application of tests across diverse populations

raises questions about the appropriateness and
validity of norms derived from one cultural context.
Variations in psychopathology across demographic
groups further complicate interpretations of test
results.
Issues in personality test development and use

Lastly, recent societal concerns about privacy,

particularly in light of heightened security
measures, have raised new ethical issues
surrounding the balance between public safety
and individual privacy rights.
 Developing Instruments to Assess Personality

Logic and Reason

The development of personality tests in psychology benefits
from logic and reason, particularly through a content-oriented
approach that specifies what items to include. For instance, a
true-false test for extraversion might feature an item like "I
consider myself an outgoing person." Historical examples, such
as the Personal Data Sheet used for screening World War I
recruits, illustrate the use of self-report items to assess
psychological conditions based on reported problems.
 Developing Instruments to Assess Personality

Theory
Personality measures vary in their reliance on specific theories,
such as psychoanalytic theory, which would lead to different
item development—potentially including items on ego and
superego defects or dream analysis—while still incorporating
research, clinical experience, and expert opinions.
 Developing Instruments to Assess Personality

Data Reduction Methods

Raymond Cattell's research in the 1940s led him to identify 16
source traits from an extensive list of personality terms,
culminating in the Sixteen Personality Factor (16 PF)
Questionnaire. However, debates have arisen about whether
these factors are distinct and whether fewer factors may exist.
 Developing Instruments to Assess Personality

Date Reduction Method

The Big Five model, including dimensions such as Neuroticism,
Extraversion, Openness, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness,
has gained widespread acceptance and has led to several
measures, including the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO
PI-R) and other shorter tests like the Big Five Inventory (BFI) and
the Ten Item Personality Inventory (TIPI). Additionally, innovative
nonverbal measures like the Five-Factor Nonverbal Personality
Questionnaire (FF-NPQ) have emerged.
 Developing Instruments to Assess Personality

Criterion Groups
A criterion group is a reference group of test-takers with specific shared
characteristics, used in scale development to standardize item selection
through a process called empirical criterion keying. This involves several
steps:
1. Create a large pool of preliminary test items.
2. Administer these items to both a criterion group (with the trait being
measured) and a randomly selected control group (without the trait).
3. Conduct an item analysis to identify which items effectively discriminate
between the two groups.
4. Standardize the final test items using data from a representative sample to
evaluate future test-takers against this standard.
The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
(MMPI), developed by Starke R. Hathaway and John
Charnley McKinley, is a true-false test with 566 items
designed for psychiatric diagnosis in individuals aged 14
and older, created through empirical methods that
involved comparing clinical criterion groups against
normal control groups to identify items that differentiate
between them.
The MMPI-2 retains much of the MMPI's structure and
scoring but features a more representative standardization
sample, includes 567 true-false items (with 14% rewritten
for clarity and contemporary language), and has a revised
age range for test-takers (18 and older); it also introduces
content component scales for more specific assessments
while maintaining the original 10 clinical scales.
The MMPI-2-RF was developed to address issues with the
MMPI-2's clinical scales, specifically the significant item
overlap (averaging more than six items per scale) that
decreased their distinctiveness and discriminant validity,
and the conceptual overlap of a common factor, described
as anxiety or demoralization, that pervades various clinical
scales and underlies many forms of psychopathology.
The MMPI-A-RF, developed as a revised version of the
original MMPI-A to assess adolescent
psychopathology, features 478 true-false items, 10
clinical scales, and seven validity scales, with a focus
on reducing item overlap and enhancing theoretical
clarity; it uses a nationally representative normative
sample and has become a widely used tool for
evaluating adolescent psychological issues.
Since its debut in the 1940s, the MMPI has been
recognized as a groundbreaking and well-
researched tool in psychology, leading to thousands
of studies and various revisions aimed at addressing
its weaknesses and keeping it relevant, thus
ensuring it remains a continually evolving
instrument in the field.
 PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT AND CULTURE

Assessment professionals in the U.S. must approach personality

evaluation of culturally and linguistically diverse populations—such
as Native American, Latinx, Asian, and Black/African American
individuals—carefully and with cultural sensitivity, as traditional
assessment methods may not be suitable. Before using any
assessment tools, professionals should consider factors like
acculturation, values, identity, worldview, and language to ensure
meaningful results and provide necessary context for personality
evaluation.
 PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT AND CULTURE

Acculturation and Related Considerations

Acculturation is an ongoing process where an individual's

thoughts, behaviors, values, worldview, and identity develop in
relation to a specific cultural group, influenced by various agents
such as family, peers, and media.
 PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT AND CULTURE

Acculturation and Related Considerations

Values, which represent what individuals prize or believe in, are

intertwined with acculturation. Rokeach distinguished between
instrumental values (guiding principles) and terminal values
(ultimate objectives), while Kluckhohn approached values from
a cultural perspective, emphasizing how different civilizations
answer essential questions about group relations, leading to
varying norms and behaviors.
 PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT AND CULTURE

Acculturation and Related Considerations

Identity in this context may be defined as a set of cognitive and
behavioral characteristics by which individuals define
themselves as members of a particular group. Stated simply,
identity refers to one’s sense of self. Levine and Padilla (1980)
defined identification as a process by which an individual
assumes a pattern of behavior characteristic of other people,
and referred to it as one of the “central issues that ethnic
minority groups must deal with”
 PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT AND CULTURE

Acculturation and Related Considerations

Personal identity, linked to acculturation, defines how

individuals see themselves in relation to their group, and
worldview reflects how cultural background and learning
experiences shape their interpretations.