Princess Sumaya University for Technology

Electrical Engineering Department

Power Systems Lab

Experiment No. 8
Power Transmission
Three-phase overhead power line
(Theoretical Explanation)
Basic safety instructions

• High, life-threatening voltages occur during all experiments powered by the mains
network. For this reason, only use safety connection cables and avoid short circuits.
• All devices with an earthing option must be earthed.
• Always carefully check the application modules' wiring before turning on the mains
power.
• Wherever possible, connect a stable monitoring instrument into the current path.
• Always use shaft and coupling guards as protection against rotating motor parts.
• Also refer to your local guidelines and standards concerning the handling of electrical

This experiment imparts a comprehensive and practical knowledge of high-voltage power

transmission lines.

A 3-phase line model is used to measure the characteristic parameters of a power transmission
line, besides evaluating its operational characteristics in quantitative as well as qualitative terms.
These characteristic parameters include active and reactive resistance (inductive and capacitive),
star and delta voltages, voltage differences, line, load and charging currents, short-circuit current
in the event of a short circuit, active and reactive power (capacitive and inductive), power
dissipation and inherent reactive power.

Training content

Characteristic line parameters

 • Line operation under no-load
• Line operation during matching
• Line operation during symmetric short circuit
• Line operation under different types of load (resistive, inductive)
• Transmission losses, efficiency
• Reactive power compensation (parallel and series mode)

Prerequisites
The following background is needed for successful participation in this course:

• Fundamentals of electrical engineering

• Complex AC technology
• Three-phase technology
• Metrology
• Successful completion of the Electric Power Systems course (EE24463)

Equipment

CO3301-3A Transmission line model 150 km / 300 km

CO3301-5P Power-switch module
CO3301-3F Resistive load (3-phase, 1 kW)
CO3301-3D Inductive load (3-phase, 1 kW)
CO3301-3E Capacitive load (3-phase, 1 kW)
SO2800-6K Interactive Lab Assistant: High-voltage
transmission lines
ST8008-4S Adjustable three-phase supply (0 - 400 V / 2 A,
72PU)
ST8008-7F Table-top housing for 72PU inserts for CEE three-
phase connection
ST8010-4J 5-way socket strip with illuminated mains switch
CO5127-1Y Three-phase meter
CO5127-1Z Analog/digital multimeter, power meter/power-
factor meter,software
 General Notes on the Power Transmission Experiments
Power is generated only in part near load clusters. For this reason, supply networks designed to
transmit high powers must be able to operate at variable voltage levels. For technical and
financial reasons, in particular, networks operating at high and extra-high voltages mainly
comprise overhead transmission lines. Only a merger of individual subnetworks into an
integrated power grid makes it possible to operate large power station units at high efficiencies.
Moreover, only integrated operation makes it possible to maintain a viable reserve to allow for
potential failure. In view of these advantages of integrated power grids, practically all networks
in western European nations operate continuously in parallel mode at a standard frequency of 50
Hz (or 60 Hz in many Anglo-Saxon regions).

The higher the power to be transmitted and the greater the distance between the power source
and consumer, the higher the transmission voltage. As this voltage increases, naturally so does
the required height of the pylons in order to ensure that certain safety clearances are maintained.
When speaking of electricity supply, a distinction is made between extra-high voltage networks
(220 - 380 kV and beyond), high-voltage networks (60 - 110 kV), medium-voltage networks (10
– 30 kV) and low-voltage networks (in which power transmission typically takes place at a
voltage of 400 V). This classification has been performed arbitrarily in accordance with the
electricity industry's specifications. In contrast, regulations laid down by VDE (Association of
German Electrical Engineers) only distinguish between low voltage (up to 1000 V) and high
voltage (over 1000 V).

During actual operation, it is naturally not possible to constantly maintain the voltages at all of a
network's nodes at their nominal values. At least the voltage bandwidth in networks employing
high and extra-high voltages fluctuates between roughly ± 10% of the nominal voltage. Control
transformers between the various network levels ensure that customers nonetheless receive
voltages close to the respective nominal values.

The conductor cross-section should be selected so as to minimize the voltage losses along the
routes to the consumers, while also preventing impermissibly high current densities which might
overheat the conductive materials. The outcome is economical cross-sections standardized not
only for the sake of mutual compliance but also to ensure compatibility with the respective
voltages mentioned earlier.
In the energy industry, the three phases of a three-phase system make up what is known as the
electric circuit. To economize on line routing, the pylons are often occupied by several (up to
six) electric circuits.

The voltage present between any two outer conductors (phases) of a three-phase system is agreed
as representing the nominal voltage or rated voltage. The permissible values of the continuous
current (associated with heating) and voltage (associated with the air's breakdown resistance)
determine the maximum power which can be transmitted along a line; this is also known as the
thermal power limit. It is not to be confused with the natural power transmitted if the line is
terminated by a resistive load of the same magnitude as the characteristic impedance.
The experiments employ a 380-kV overhead transmission line model. In the steady state, this
model has all the electrical properties of a real overhead line operating at this voltage level; a
simple switchover mechanism permits lengths of 150 km and 300 km respectively to be realized
without a need for changing the experimental setup. This not only makes it possible to
investigate a line's operating behavior in the normal state (i.e. mixed resistive-inductive load),
but also in the three important, special cases comprising no-load, matching and short circuit at
the transmission distances typically involved. The line model has three phases and an additional
return conductor enabling an investigation of asymmetric faults.

The model can also be used to realize various types of neutral point wiring, besides examining
responses to earth faults and earth short circuits?

The experiments are particularly realistic, thanks to their voltage and current scales of 1:1000
respectively; consequently, 1 V in the model corresponds to 1 kV on a real line, while 1 A
corresponds to 1 kA. The same ratio applies to the powers: 1 W (or VA) in the model
corresponds to 1 MW (or 1 MVA) on a real line. As a result, the measurement results obtained
during the experiments can be applied very easily to real systems. The identical scales for the
voltage and current also permit the line impedances of a real transmission system to be applied in
the same fashion to the line model.

The employed models represent a 300-km long, 380-kV overhead transmission line with the
constants R', X', C'. Due to the line-to-line voltages of 380 V, 220 V and 110 V employed in the
experiments (i.e. 380 kV / 220 kV / 110 kV in the case of a real line), a transmission line
possessing the same constants remains realistic. To ensure efficient energy transmission, an
overhead line's length is restricted in accordance with the specified voltage levels. As a rule of
thumb: "Maximum line length in relation to voltage level = 1 km / 1 kV". Accordingly, a 380-kV
overhead line's length should be limited to 380 km.
 Theoretical Fundamentals

A line's behavior in the steady state can be described by means of the characteristic parameters
comprising resistance, inductance and capacitance. The expression "line" serves as a general
term for overhead lines and underground cables which basically exhibit the same behavior. The
three characteristic parameters just mentioned represent constants which apply at any point along
the length of the line (quantities per unit length). At the lengths of 100 – 400 km typical of extra-
high voltage lines, however, concentrations of elements can be considered without any
significant losses in accuracy, thus resulting in the following three-phase equivalent circuit
diagram:

Figure 1 Three-phase Equivalent Circuit Diagram of a Power Transmission Line

Comprising Concentrated Elements

The active resistance R is determined by the conductor's material, cross-section and, naturally,
length. The inductance L accounts for the magnetic field generated when a current flows through
a conductor loop. A distinction is made between two types of capacitance: The line-to-line
capacitance CL is the capacitance between any two outer conductors, while CE is the capacitance
between the outer conductors and earth. The dissipation losses caused by leakage currents and, in
particular, corona losses at high currents, are described by the conductance G. Finally, the
characteristics of the return conductor (earth, earth wire) are represented by means of the
parameters RE and LE. The line model consists of a 380-kV overhead line comprising groups of
four and possessing a cross-section of 4 x 300 mm² (aluminium). The model has the following
longitudinal data (constants):

R’ = 0.024 Ω/km, L’ = 0.77 mH/km, CB’ = 13.07 nF/km.

Single-phase representation is sufficient if the operating conditions are symmetric (identical
voltages and currents for the three outer conductors). The line and earth capacitances at various
voltages are converted into a new variable designated the effective or working capacitance CB. In
this case: CB = CE + 3 CL. It must be noted that underground cables have a much higher working
capacitance than overhead lines. Regardless, representation with the help of a Π-element is more
advantageous than the T-type equivalent circuit diagram shown above, the transverse elements
being applied in a proportion of half each at the beginning and end of the diagram. This results in
the following representation:

Figure 2 - Single-phase Equivalent Circuit Diagram of a Line

To keep transmission losses within limits, efforts are made in practice to minimize the conductor
resistance R and maximize the conductance G. Accordingly, R<<ωL and G>>ωCB.

Lines with these properties are described as low-loss. If R and G can be neglected entirely, one
speaks of a lossless line. Though lossless lines cannot be realized in practice, the simplifications
above become more accurate as the considered voltage level rises. This applies especially when
investigating the steady-state response. For rough calculations confined to essential aspects, the
equivalent circuit diagram shown below can be used to represent operation at zero power loss.

Figure 3 - Single-phase Equivalent Circuit Diagram of a Lossless Line.

For further investigations (e.g. determination of efficiency and transmission losses), it is
necessary to at least consider the active resistance as well as R. For exact modeling (e.g. when
investigating processes involving travelling waves), a line of length l should be composed of an
infinite number of π--elements each with a differential length of dl. This representation can be
used to derive line equations needed for precise calculations of long lines. These equations
include a factor designated characteristic impedance Zw. Assuming a lossless line, this factor is
calculated using the equation ZW = √ (L / CB). If a line is subjected to a resistive load equal in
magnitude to the characteristic impedance, one speaks of matching. This state is ideal in terms of
transmission losses. A variable load resistor at the end of the line can be used to clearly
demonstrate the three states comprising no-load, matching and (symmetric) short circuit.

Figure 4 - Lossless Line in Various Load States

In the case of single-phase representation, it is always necessary to account for star voltages, i.e.
those occurring between a phase and the neutral point (the voltage measured between two outer
conductors is designated line-to-line voltage UΔ here). On transition to a three-phase system, all
powers calculated in the single-phase representation must be multiplied by a factor of 3 to obtain
the total power. The designations listed below are used (complex variables are underlined).

U1, U2: Voltages respectively at the line's start and end

UL : Voltage drop along the line

I1, I2: Currents respectively at the line's start and end

I10, I20: Currents through the transverse branches respectively at the line's start and end

I12 : Current through the line's longitudinal branch

In the no-load state, the terminating resistance R at the line's end is infinitely large, so that the
current I2 = 0. The processes taking place in circuits operating at sinusoidal voltages are
visualized by means of phasor diagrams. These diagrams enable a simultaneous representation
of the magnitude and phase angle of the AC quantities under examination. Phasors can be added
or subtracted graphically, thereby allowing a clear display, for instance, of voltage drops in
networks.

All phasors rotate at an angular speed denoted by ω, their diagrams serving to provide
"snapshots" of the system under consideration. These displays are purely of a qualitative nature
and not true-to-scale, and therefore only intended for illustration. The related, numerical values
can be determined individually with the help of complex calculations. In the combined
current/voltage phasor diagrams below, the voltage vector at the end of the line is defined
arbitrarily as the reference phasor, and drawn in the same direction as the real axis. Furthermore,
as is common practice in energy technology, the display's coordinate system is rotated by +90°
so that the real axis points in the y-direction. The current/voltage phasor diagram below
describes the no-load state.

Figure 5 - Current/Voltage Phasor Diagram of a Lossless Line in the No-Load State

The phasor diagram shows that in this operating state, the voltage at the line's end is higher than
the voltage at the line's start. This is due to the working capacitance and known as the Ferranti
effect. The voltage at the line's end has risen disproportionately with respect to the line's length;
efforts are therefore made to avoid this operating state in practice. The current flowing in the no-
load state is termed the charging current, and the associated reactive power the charging power.
As already mentioned, underground cables have a higher working capacitance than overhead
lines. The effects described earlier are much more pronounced here. In the event of matching, the
load resistance R is exactly equal to the characteristic impedance. The power consumed by the
active resistance is termed natural power. The resultant current is just high enough so that the
reactive power consumption attributable to the line inductance is exactly equal to reactive power
generated by the working capacitance. Assuming that the line is lossless, it consumes or
generates no reactive power whatsoever, and the active power it draws from the upstream
connected network only amounts to the natural power.
 Furthermore, the voltage at the start of the line in this case has the same magnitude as the
voltage at the end of the line. The next phasor diagram describes this situation.

Figure 6 - Current/Voltage Phasor Diagram of a Lossless Line During Matching

(Termination with the Characteristic impedance)

Due to the conductive material of which it is made, every real transmission line also has an
active resistance, which is responsible for the transmission losses. These are equal to the
difference between the supplied and consumed powers. A transmission system's efficiency is
defined as the ratio between the active powers at the system's output and input. Because no
reactive power needs to be transmitted in the event of matching, the efficiency is maximized in
this case. Since the value of a line's load is determined by the behavior of the consumers
connected to the line, matching occurs very rarely and randomly. However, reactive power
compensation is also available as an option for minimizing transmission losses. Related
experiments are described in the chapter after the next one. In the case of a (three-pole) short
circuit, the load resistance R has the value 0. The current then flowing is limited only by the line
impedance (assuming that the line inductance results in lossless transmission) and therefore
much higher than the values occurring during normal operation. This must be detected and
isolated as soon as possible by the network protection devices. The phasor diagram below
describes this situation.
 Figure 7 - Current/Voltage Phasor Diagram of a Lossless Line in the Event of a Short
Circuit at the Line's End

Finally, we will look at the phasor diagram in the

case of the resistive/inductive loads such as those
occurring most frequently during real-life
operation. For a more precise representation, a
low-loss line is assumed here.

Figure 8 - Current/Voltage Phasor

Diagram of a Low-Loss Line in the
Case of a Mixed
(Resistive/Inductive) Load
The resultant current I2 through the load comprises a resistive and an inductive component in
accordance with the ratio of the load's active and reactive powers. In practice, the influence of
the capacitances at the line's end is (qualitatively) lower than that indicated in the phasor diagram
here, i.e. I2 andI12 are approximately equal. As the reactive power rises, so does the longitudinal
current through the line and, consequently, the losses produced by the line resistance R. To
minimize these losses, electricity supply companies define certain limiting values for the reactive
power and power factor cos(φ). Accordingly, it is common to demand a surcharge on electricity
rates (reactive power clause) from cos(φ) values below 0.8. One alternative for the customer is to
compensate the (usually) inductive reactive power by means of capacitors connected in parallel.
The power triangle shown below illustrates the relationships involved here.

Figure 9 - Power Ratios with an Uncompensated and Partly Compensated Load

P is the active power, Q the reactive power, and S the apparent power. To reduce the apparent
power and, consequently, the apparent current, the reactive power can be lowered, for instance,
from its original value Q to a residual value QR. This is equivalent to improving the power factor
from cos(φ2) to cos(φ'2). As indicated in the diagram, the compensatory reactive power QC
needed for this is therefore:

QC=P*(tan(φ2)-tan(φ'2)), where P is the total consumed active power.

The equation indicates that the compensatory capacitance is load dependent. Its three individual
capacitors C connected in star configuration are determined by:

C = QC / (ω*UN²)
The last equation assumes that the nominal voltage is present across the load. Moreover, half the
working capacitance present at the line's end also contributes very slightly toward compensation.
However, both influences are usually ignored during the design of compensatory mechanisms.
For full compensation, φ'2 must be zero, so that: QC=P*tan(φ2).

Usually, it is sufficient to perform compensation leaving a residual reactive power at which a

surcharge for reactive work is just avoided. Besides this parallel compensation (of relevance to
consumers), there is also the possibility of series compensation in the case of very long lines.
Performed by the transmission network's operator, this kind of compensation is meant to reduce
the effect of the longitudinal conductivity L and, therefore, the voltage drop UL (refer to Figure
4).

The next phasor diagram illustrates the action of series compensation (to simplify the working
capacitance was dropped).

For the sake of simplicity, the line capacitances are not

considered because they have practically no influence on the
process of compensation. If the entire voltage drop UL is to
be compensated, the three capacitors C must have the
following value:

C = 1/(ω²*L) = 1/(ω*XL)

In practice, only partial compensation is often performed to a

level of 30% – 60% (capacitor reactance in relation to line
reactance XL). Wherever possible, the three capacitors are
positioned roughly halfway between the two line ends.

Figure 10 - Series
Compensation: Circuit
Diagram and Associated
Phasor Diagram