Fomula of Name of Acid Fomula of Oxidation

No Name of Acid
Acid Radical Acid radical Number
1 Hydrochloric acid HCl Chloride -Cl -1
2 Hydrobromic acid HBr Bromide -Br -1
3 Hydriodic acid HI Iodide -I -1
4 Hydrogencyanide acid HCN Cyanide -CN -1
5 Nitric acid HNO3 Nitrate - NO3 -1
6 Nitrous acid HNO2 Nitrite -NO2 -1
7 Methanoic acid HCOOH Methanoate HCOO- -1
8 Ethanoic acid CH3COOH Ethanoate CH3COO- -1
9 Chloric acid HCLO3 Chlorate -CLO3 -1
10 Perchloric acid HCLO4 Perchlorate -ClO4 -1
11 Sulphuric acid H2SO4 Sulphate -SO4 -2
Hydrogensulphate -HSO4 -1
12 Sulphurous acid H2SO3 Sulphide -SO3 -2
Hydrogensulphite -HSO3 -1
13 Hydrogen sulphide H2S Sulphide -S -2
Hydrogensulphide -HS -1
14 Carbonic acid H2CO3 Carbonate -CO3 -2
Hydrogencarbonate -HCO3 -1
15 Phosphoric acid H3PO4 Phosphate -PO4 -3
Hydrogenphosphate -HPO4 -2
dihydrogenphosphate -H2PO4 -1
16 Phosphuric acid H3PO3 Phosphite -PO3 -3
Hydrogenphosphite -HPO3 -2
Dihydrogenphosphite -H2PO3 -1
17 Ammonium radical NH4- +1
18 Hydroxide radical -OH -1

I .SYMBOL OF SOME METALLIC ELEMENTS

Fixed oxidation No Formula Chemical name Common name
No English Name Symbol
namber 1 KOH potassium hydroxide caustic potash
1 Sodium Na +1 2 NaOH sodium hydroxide caustic soda
2 Potassium K +1 3 NaCl sodium chloride common salt
3 Silver Ag +1 4 CaO calcium oixde quick lime
4 Calcium Ca +2 5 Ca(OH)2 calcium hydroxide slaked lime
5 Barium Ba +2 6 CaCO3 calcium carbonate limestone , marble
6 Magnesium Mg +2 7 NaCO3 sodium carbonate washing soda
7 Zinc Zn +2
8 Aluminium Al +3 No Formual New name Old name
9 Chromium Cr +3 1 FeCl2 iron(II)chloride ferrous chloride
II . SYMBOL OF SOME METALLIC ELEMENTS 2 FeCl3 iron(III)chloride ferric chloride
Variable oxidation 3 PbO lead(II)oxide lead monoxide
No. English Name Symbol
number 4 PbO2 lead(IV)oxide lead peroxide/lead dioxide
10 Copper Cu +1 ,+2 5 CuSO4 copper(II)sulphate cupric sulphate / copper
sulphate
11 Mercury Hg +1 ,+2
6 HgO mercury(II)oxide mercuric oxide
12 Iron Fe +2 ,+3
7 MnO2 manganese(IV)oxide manganese dioxide
13 Gold Au +1 ,+3
8 N2O dinitrogen oxide nitrous oxide
14 Platinum Pt +1 ,+3
9 NO nitrogen monoxide nitric oxide
15 Tin Sn +2 ,+4
10 NO2 nitrogen dioxide nitrogen peroxide
16 Lead Pb +2 ,+4
*PATTERN*
17 Manganese Mn +2 , +4 ,+7
18 Antimony Sb +3 ,+5 1. MOH → MO +H2O
III. SYMBOL OF SOME NON-METALLIC ELEMENTS 2. MCO → MO + CO2↑
No English Name Symbol Oxidation number 3. MCO3 + dil acid → salt + H2 O + CO2↑
1 Hydrogen H 1 4. MO + dil acid → salt + H2 O
2 Oxygen O -2 5. MOH + dil acid → salt + H2 O
3 Chlorine Cl -1 6. M + dil acid → salt + H2↑
4 Bromine Br -1 7. MS + dil acid → salt + H2 S↑
5 Iodine I -1 8. MSO3 + dil acid → salt + H2 O + SO3↑
6 Nitrogen N +1 ,+2,  3, +4, +5
9. M + con: H2 SO4 → salt + H2O + SO2↑
7 Carbon C +2 , +4
8 Sulphur S -2 , +4 ,+6
9 Phosphorus P +3 , +5 ynmyef;wdkif Education Enterprise
 Element Discovered Electron
Z Symbol Latin name Discovered by
name in configurationn
1 Hydrogen H Hydrogenium 1766 Henry Cavendish 1s1
Pierre Jules Cesar
2 Helium He Helium 1895 Janssen, Joseph Norman 1s2
Lockyer
3 Lithium Li Lithium 1817 Johan August Arfwedson [He] 2s1
4 Beryllium Be Beryllium 1798 Louis Nicolas Vauquelin [He] 2s2
Joseph Louis Gay-
Lussac
5 Boron B Borum 1808 [He] 2s22p1
Louis Jacques Thenard
Humphry Davy
Deep Antoine Laurent de
6 Carbon C Carbonium [He] 2s22p2
antiquity Lavoisier
7 Nitrogen N Nitrogenium 1772 Daniel Rutherford [He] 2s22p3
Michal Sedziwoj
8 Oxygen O oxygenium 1774 Joseph Priestley [He] 2s22p4
Carl Wilhelm Scheele
Ferdinand Frederic Henri
9 Fluorine F Fluorum 1886 [He] 2s22p5
Moissan
Sir William Ramsay
10 Neon Ne Neon 1898 [He] 2s22p6
Morris William Travers
11 Sodium Na Natrium 1807 Humphry Davy [Ne] 3s1
Joseph Black
12 Magnesium Mg Magnesium 1808 [Ne] 3s2
Humphry Davy
13 Aluminium Al Aluminium 1825 Hans Christian Orsted [Ne] 3s23p1
14 Silicon Si Silicium 1824 Jons Jakob Berzelius [Ne] 3s23p2
15 Phosphorus P Phosphorus 1669 Hennig Brand [Ne] 3s23p3
16 Sulphur S Sulphuris <600 BCE - [Ne] 3s23p4
17 Chlorine Cl Chlorum 1774 Carl Wilhelm Scheele [Ne] 3s23p5
18 Argon Ar Argon 1894 Sir William Ramsay [Ne] 3s23p6
19 Potassium K Kalium 1807 Humphry Davy [Ar] 4s1
20 Calcium Ca calcium 1808 Humphry Davy [Ar] 4s2
21 Scandium Sc Scandium 1879 Lars Fredrik Nilson [Ar] 4s23d1
22 Titanium Ti Titanium 1795 William Gregor [Ar] 4s23d2
23 Vanadium V Vanadium 1830 Andres Manuel del Rio [Ar] 4s23d3
24 Chromium Cr Chromium 1797 Louis-Nicolas Vauquelin [Ar] 4s13d5
Johan Gottlieb Gahn
25 Manganese Mn Manganum 1774 [Ar] 4s23d5
Ignatius Gottfried Kaim
Deep
26 Iron Fe Ferrum - [Ar] 4s23d6
antiquity
27 Cobalt Co Cobaltum 1735 Georg Brandt [Ar] 4s23d7
Axel Frederic con
28 Nickel Ni Niccolum 1751 [Ar] 4s23d8
Cronstedt
Deep
29 Copper Cu Cuprum - [Ar] 4s13d10
antiquity
1300-1000 Andreas Sigismund
30 Zn Zn Zincum [Ar] 4s23d10
BCE Marggraf

Saya Minn Thant Chemistry

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 William 1 Saw
CHAPTER(1)
1. Nucleus
The atom has a small, dense, positively charged centre called the nucleus.
This nucleus contains protons and neutrons.
t u fwr fo n fao ;i , fN yD;o d
yfo n f;o n f?t aygi f;v u © P maq mifí t v , fA[ d kwG i f&S o n f/
d
4i f;u dkEsLu v d , yfpf[ kac:N yD
; y½kd
wG efESih
e
f , lx &G efyg0i fo n f/
2. Electron
Electrons are negatively charged particles moving outside and around the nucleus
in the circular orbits.
t Dv u fx ½G efo n ft EIwfv u © P maq mifN yD; EsLu v d , yf\ t jyi fb u fr S aeí wd u sao mpu f0d kif;ykH
v r f;aM
u mif;jzi fh
vS n fyhwfaeo n f/
3. Neutrons
Neutrons are uncharged particles in the nucleus of an atom.
e, lx ½G efo n fv u © P mr&S ao mt r IefjzpfN
d yD ; EsLu v d , yfx JwGi fyg0i fo n f/
4. Atomic number(Z)

William Saw
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is known as the atomic number
of an element.
Atomic number ( Z ) = Number of protons ( p+ ) = Number of electrons ( e - )
t u fwr fwpfv kH ;\ EsLu v d , yfpfwGi f&Sao my½kd
d wG efr sm;\ t a&t wG u fu dkj' yfpi fwpfck\ t u fwr ft r S wfpOf(Z)
[ ko wfr S wfo n f/
(y½kdwG ef\ t a&t wG u fo n fEsLu v d , yfpfu dk0ef;&Hx m;ao mt D v u fx ½G ef\ t a&t wG u fESi fhwln D o n f/)
5. Mass number (A)
The mass number of the element is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons
in the nucleus of an atom of that element.
EsLu v d , yfpfx J&S dy½kd
wG eft a&t wG u fESih
e
f , lx ½G eft a&t wG u faygi f;jci f;o n fx d kj' yfpi ft u fwr f\
t av ;csd efyi fjzpfo n f/
Mass number ( A )= Number of protons ( p+ )+ Number of neutrons( n0 )
 William 2 Saw
6. Isotopes A
ZX

Atoms of the same elements with different masses are called isotopes.
wln D j' yfpi ft u fwr fwpfv kH ;\ t av ;q r wlao mt u fwr fr sm;u d kt d
kifq d
kwkyf[ kac:M u o n f/
the same number of protons / different number of neutrons
35 37
number of neutrons = ( A - Z ) possible isotope = 17 Cl; 17 Cl;
7. Electronic Structure
The distribution of electrons in an atom of an element is known as the electronic
structure of that element.
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ywfaeo n fht D v u fx ½G efr sm;ae&mt v d ku fjzefa0ay;jci f;u d kj' yfpi fwpfck
\ t D v u fx ½G efwn faq mu fykH [ kac:o n f/
8. Complete Electronic Structure
The arrangement of all the electrons of an atom of the element in appropriate
sub-shell is known as the complete electronic structure of that element.
j' yfpi ft u fwr fwpfv kH ;u d k0ef;&H vS n fh
ywfaeo n fht D v u fx ½G efr sm;t m;v kH;u dko i fh
av smfao mv r f;aM u mif;cG J
r sm;wG i fae&mt v d ku fx n fh oG i f;pDpOfjci f;u d
kx d
kj' yfpi f\ jyn fh pkH
ao mt D v u fx ½G efwn faq mu fykH [ kac:o n f/

William Saw
9. Essential Electronic Structure
The representation of the arrangement of valence electrons of an atom of the
element in appropriate sub-shell is called the essential electronic structure of that
element.j' yfpi ft u fwr fwpfv kH ;u dk0ef;&HvSn fh ywfaeo n fhaygi f;pn f;t D v u fx ½G efawG ud ko i fh
av smfao m
(t jyi fb u fq kH ;)v r f;aM u mif;cG Jrsm;wG i fx n fh
oGi f;pDpOfjci f;u d kx dkj' yfpi f\ v dkt yft D v u fx ½G efwn faq mu fykH [ k
ac:o n f/
10. Electropositive Element
Metals are the electro-positive elements . They tend to lose electrons and form
positive ions. o wÅ K
r sm;o n f v Q yfppf" mwfzd kj' yfpi fr sm;jzpfM uN yD
; 4i f;wdu t D
kY v u fx ½G efr sm;x G u fapN yD;
vQ yfppf" gwfzd kt dkif, Gef;r sm;jzpfv mM u o n f/
11. Electro negative Element
Non-metals are the electro-negative elements . They tend to gain electrons and
form negative ions. o wÅ Kr [ kwfj' yfpi fr sm;o n fv Q yfppf" mwfr r sm;jzpfM uN yD ; 4i f;wdut D
kY v u fx ½G efr sm;u d
k
&, lN yD;v Qyfppf" gwfr t d kif, Gef;r sm;jzpfv mM u o n f/
 William 3 Saw
12. Atomic Size
Atomic radii decrease from left to right across a period in the periodic table.
t u fwr ft ½G , ft pm;r sm;o n ft yd kif;wpfckx JwG i fb , fr S
n mo d kY
oGm;o n fh t cgEsLu v d , yfpfx J&S d
y½kdwG ef\ q GJt m;aM u mifht &G , ft pm;i , fjci f; (ykH ysu fjci f;) jzpfo G m;&o n f/
Atomic radii increase from top to bottom in a group.
t u fwr ft ½G , ft pm;r sm;o n ft kyfpkwpfckwG i f;&Sd
t ay:r S at mu fo d kY
oG m;o n fht cgEsLu v d , yfpfx J&S dy½kd
wGefES i fh
jyi fb u f&Sd
t Dv u fx &G efwd a0;u G
kY mo G m;&jci f;aM u mifh t jyeft v S efq G Jt m;en f;v mN yD;t &G , ft pm;B uD ;v mo n f/
13. Metalloids - Metalloids show both properties of metal and non-metal.
o wÅ Ka, mif(pyf)r sm;o n fo wÅ K
ES i fh
o wÅ K
r [ kwfj' yfpi fwd kY
\ *kP fo wÅ ES
d pfr sK
;pv kH
d ;u d
kyd kifq d
kifM
u o n f/
A long the darkline - 5B ; 14Si
14. Noble gases (or) Inert gases
The noble gases (or) Inert gases, are neither electropositive nor electronegative,
because they have very stable electronic structure and have little tendency to gain
or lose electrons. pH " mwfai GUr sm;o n fv Q yfppf" mwfzd kj' yfpi fr sm;v n f;r [ kwfo v d kv Qyfppf" mwfr j' yfpi fr sm;
v n f;r jzpfMu yg/ 4i f;wd kY
wG i fwn fN r Jao mt D v u fx ½G efwn faq mu fykH r sm;&SM
duNyD ;t D v u fx ½G efr sm;u d kt en f;i , fr Q

William Saw
&, ljci f;r &S
?ay;v S
d Ljci f;r sm;r &Sd
M
u acs/
15. Ionization Energy
The amount of energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom to form
a gaseous ion is called the ionization energy .
Na (g) + energy  Na + (g) + electron
" mwfai G Ut oG i f&S
ao mj' yfpi ft u fwr fwpfckrS"mwfai G
d U
t oG i f&S
ao mt d
d kif, G
ef;t jzpfo d kU
a&mu f&S &eft D
d v u fx ½G ef
z, f&Sm;&efv d kt yfo n f/ , i f;o d z, f&S
kY m;&efv d kt yfao mpG r f;t i fu d kt d kif, Gef;jzpfpG r f;t i f[ kac:ygo n f/

16. Electron affinity

The electron affinity of an element is the energy released when an electron is added
to a gaseous atom to form a gaseous ions.
Cl (g) + electron  Cl - (g) + energy " mwfai GU
t oGi f&S
ao mj' yfpi ft d
d kif, G
ef;wpfck
jzpf&ef" mwfai G
Ut oG
i f&S
ao mj' yfpi ft u fwr fu d
d kt D
v u fx ½G
efaygi f;x n fh ay;pOfpG r f;t i fx G
u fay:v mo n f/
, i f;x G
u fay:v mao mpGr f;t i fu d
kx d
kj' yfpi f\ t D
v u fx ½G
efq G
JpG
r f;t i f[ kac:ygo n f/
 William 4 Saw
17. Octet Rule
In forming a chemical bond , atoms gain, lose or share electrons in such away to
attain the stable electronic structures of the noble gases, i,e..,
to have eight electrons in the outermost shell. This is known as octet rule.
wn fN r Jao m"mwfpn f;wpfckjzpfap&eft u fwr fr sm;u t D v u fx ½G efr sm;u d k&, ljci f;?ay;jci f; ESi fhzu fpyfjci f;r ms;
aMu mifhpH jy" mwfai G Ur sm;u JY
od wn fN
kY r Jv mNyD; t jyi fb u fwG i f(aygi f;pn f;u d ef;) t Dv u fx ½G ef&S
pfv kH
;jzpfv mon f/
4i f;u d k&S pfckpkpn f;r sOf;[ kac:M u o n f/
18. Electrovalent bond ( Ionic bond )
An electrovalent bond is formed when there is complete transfer of electron or
electrons from one atom to another resulting in the formation of cations and an
ions. These oppositely charged ions are held together by an electrostatic force.
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kif, G
ef;
(ay;o l)ES i fh"gwfr t dkif, G
ef;(, lo l)wd jzpfv mM
kY u w, f?, i f;q efY u si fb u ft d kif, Gef;r sm;[ mv Q yfN
id
r fq G Jt m;jzi fh
wpfcu kd kwpfckq G Jaq mifx m;jci f;u d kv Qyfppfpn f;v d kY
ac:w, f/
19. Covalent bond

William Saw
In covalent bonding, each electron of the shared pair passes from an orbit
controlled by the nucleus of one atom into an orbit controlled by the nuclei of
both atoms. o wÅ K
r [ kwfj' yfpi fr sm;wpfckES i fh
wpfck"mwfjyK wJY
t cgEsLu v d , yfr S xdef;csK
yfx m;ao mv r f;aM u mif;
ay:o d kYES
pfzu fpv kH;r St Dv u fx ½G efr sm;a&mu f&S oG
d m;N
yD
; zu fpyfj' yfaygi f;r sm;jzpfv mM u o n f/ (zu fpyfpn f;wG if
t dkif, Gef;r sm;[ kwfb Jar mfv D u sK ;r sm;o m&S M
d
u o n f/)
20. Co-ordinate bond ( Dative bond )
Co-ordinate bond is formed when one of the participant atoms possesses a lone
pair of electrons. This lone pair is donated to an atom needing them to build up or
complete electron octet or duplet of great stability. yg0i faeM u ao mt u fwr fr sm;t eu fr S
wpfca ko mt u fwr fu t x D ;u seft D v u fx ½G efwpfpkH udkyd kifq d
kifwJYt cgay;r Q pn f;jzpfay:v mo n f?
yd
kv Q t D
H v u fx ½G efpkH
ud kv dkt yfaeao mt u fwr fo d ay;v d
kY ku fjci f;jzi fhwn fN r JrIt m;au mif;apo n fh(8)v kH ;jyn fh ^
(2)v kH ;jyn fhwn faq mu fykH udkjzpfay:apo n f/
 William 5 Saw
21. Metallic bond
Valence electrons of metallic atoms are loosely held and move around the metallic
crystal forming metallic ions. Metallic ions are held together by the moving
electron cloud or sea of electron.o wÅ K
t u fwr fr sm;&Sdaygi f;pn f;t Dv u fx ½G efr sm;o n fwpfcku dkwpfck
t m;aysmh pGmjzi fhq G
Jaq mifx m;M
uNyD; o wÅKt d
kif, G
ef;r sm;jzpfv mM
u o n f?
xdkt id
kf, G
ef;wd o n f(a½G
kY Y
v sm;)v G
wfx Gu faeMuN yD
;t Dv u fx ½G efwdr fwd
ku f(yi fv , f)r sm;\ q G Jaq mifr IaM
u mifh
o wÅ Kpn f;r sm;jzpfay:v m&o n f/

CHAPTER(2)
THE GASEOUS STATE AND GAS LAWS
1. Gas pressure
The Force acting on a unit area is the gas pressure.
wpf, lepf{ &d
, may:o u fa&mu fv d
ku fwJY
t m;u d
kzd
t m;v d
ac:w, f/
kY
What are the measure quantities of gas?" mwfai G U
t ay:wd
kif;wmEd
kifwJY
t csu fawG
u b mawG
v J/
Mass ; volume ; temperature and pressure.

William Saw
2. Boyle’s Law
When the temperature of a given mass of gas is kept constant, the volume of the
gas is inversely proportional to its pressure.o wfr S wft av ;csd
ef&SwJY
d " mwfai GUwpfck\ t ylcsd
efu d
k
udef;ao jzpfapr , fq d
k&i f" mwfai G
U
\ x kx n f[ mt J'D
" mwfai G
U
\ zd
t m;eJU
ajymif;jyefq u fpyfr I&S
ygw, f/
d
1
V ( mass and temperature are kept constant)
P

3. Charles’ Law
When the pressure of a given mass of gas is kept constant, the volume of the gas
is directly proportional to its temperature on the Kelvin scale .
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wft av ;csd ef&SwJY
d " mwfai GU
wpfck\ zdt m;u d ku d
ef;ao jzpfapr , fq d
k&i f" mwfai G
U
\ x kx n f[ mt J'D
" mwfai G
U
\
t ylcsd
efeJU
wdku f&kd
u fq u fpyfr I&S
ygw, f/(wd
d ku f&kd
u ft csK
;u sw, f)
d
V  T ( mass and pressure are kept constant)
 William 6 Saw
4. Relationship between temperature and pressure
When a volume of a given mass of gas is kept constant, the pressure of the gas is
directly proportional to its temperature on the Kelvin scale.
o wfr Swft av ;csd ef&SwJY
d " mwfai G Uwpfck\ x kx n fu d ku d
ef;ao jzpfapr , fq d k&i f" mwfai G
U\ zdt m;o n f
xd k"mwfai GU
\ t ylcsd efeJU
wd ku f&kd
u fq u fpyfr &ISygw, f/(wd
d ku f&kd
u ft csK;u sw, f)
d
P  T ( mass and volume are kept constant)
5. Absolute zero temperature
The volume of all gases should become zero at - 273 ºC . This temperature is
assumed to be zero point of a new scale of temperature ( Kelvin temperature) and
also known as the absolute zero temperature.
T K = t ºC + 273
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, mrt &t yleJY x kx n f[ mwd ku f&kd
u ft csKd
;u so n fht wG u ft ylcsd efen f;v m&i fx kx n fv Jav smh
en f;
v mr, f/ t ylcsd efu d
kykH
rS
efav smh csv dku fwJY
t cg*&yfpau ;t &" mwfai G U
&JUx kx n fv JykH
rS
efav smh
u s&mrS aewjzn f;
jzn f;x kx n fo kn r S
wfo d a&mu f&S
kY v mw, f/ t J'D
d x kx n fo kn r Swfo da&mu f&S
kY aeao mt ylcsd
d eft r S
wfu d kKelvin
temperature or absolute zero temperature [ kac:jci f;jzpfw, f/

William Saw
6. Molar Volume of Gases
One mole of every gas occupies 22.4 dm3 at STP.

7. The term STP

STP means standard temperature and pressure.
Standard temperature = 0 ºC or 273 K
Standard pressure = 760 mmHg or 1 atm

8. Gay-lussac’s Law of Combining Volume of Gases

At the same temperature and pressure, the volume of reacting gases and gaseous
products are in simple ratios of small whole numbers .
hydrogen (3 H2 ) + nitrogen( N2 )  ammonia ( 2 NH3 )
3 volumes + 1 volume  2 volumes
 William 7 Saw
wln D
ao mt ylcsd efeJY
wln D ao mzd t m;&S
o n fht ajct aewG
d i f" mwfjyKaeao m" mwfai G Ur sm;ES
i fhjzpfv mM
u o n fh
" mwfjzpfypö n f;r sm;\ x kx n ft csK
;o n ft i , fq kH
d ;u def;jyn fh
t csK;r sm;o mjzpf&r n f/
d
9. Avogadro’s Theory
At the same temperature and pressure, equal volume of all gases contains the same
number of molecules.
V  n (at the same temperature and pressure)
n = number of molecules
wln D
ao mt ylcsd efeJY
w ln D ao mzdt m;wGi fwln D
ao mx kx n f&S o n fh" mwfai G
d U
wd kif; wln Dao mar mfv D u sL;t r Ief
t a&t wG u fr sm;yg0i fMu o n f/

10. Avogadro’s Number

The number of particles as there is atoms in 12 g of 12C .
Avogadro’s Number N = 6.02 x 10 23
pH
t jzpfo wfr S
w fx m;ao mu mAG
efpau ;t & wpfr d
k;&S
ao mt &m0w¬
d K
wdkif; 6.02 x 10 23 u d
k, fpD
yg&S
o n f/
d

William Saw
11. Relative density of Gas
mass of a volume of the gas
Relative density of a gas 
mass of an equal volume of hydrogen
1
relative density of a gas   relative molecular mass of the gas
2
8. Dalton’s Law of partial pressures
When the temperature is kept constant, total pressure of a gas mixture is the sum
of the partial pressure of different gases.
Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3 + ..............
Ptotal = total pressure of gas mixture
P1 , P 2 , P3 = partial pressure of different gases

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efu d
ku d
ef;ao t jzpfx m;&S
ao mt cg" mwfai G
d U
a&mrsm;\ pkpkaygi f;zd
t m;o n fx d
k"mwfai G
U
a&mwG
i fyg&S
d
ao m
" mwfai G
Uwpfckcsi f;pD
\ zd
t m;r sm;aygi f;v ' fES
i fh
w ln D
o n f/
 William 8 Saw
9. Graham’s Law of Gaseous diffusion
At the same temperature and pressure, the rate of diffusion of a gas is inversely
proportional to the square root of the density of the gas.
1
rα ( at the same temperature and pressure)
d
r = rate of diffusion of a gas ( cm3s-1 )
d = density of gas ( gdm-3 )
M = molar mass ( gmol-1 )
wln D
ao mt ylcsd efeJY
w ln D
ao mzd t m;wG i f&S
o
d n fh
" mwfai G
U
wpfck\ ysH
U
ES
EIef;o n fx d
Y
H k"mwfai G
U
\ od
yfo n f;jci f;
ES
pfx yfu d
ef;&i f;ES
i fhajymif;jyeft csK
;u sv su f&S
d ayo n f/
d

CHAPTER-3
STOICHIOMETRY
A part of chemistry which deals with the quantities of substances taking part in a
chemical reaction is called stoichiometry. " mwfjyK jci f;wGi fyg0i fao m" gwfjyK ypö n f;r sm;ES i fh
" mwfjzpfypö n f;r sm;\ yr mP jci f; q u fpyf(" mwfjyK r It csK
;t wd
d t u s)u d kq dkv d
ko n f/
1. Titration

pH, S
William Saw
Addition of a standard solution to a specific volume of unknown molarity.
x kx n fo d NyD
;jyi f;t m;r o d
Ofjci f;(pH
wd
2. Standard solution
ao maysmf&n fwG
ku fjci f;)[ kac:o n f/
i f;o dkYjyi f;t m;o d (pHaysmf&n f)x n fh " gwfjyKo n fh
v kyfi ef;pOfu d k

The reagent of exactly known concentration that is used in titration is called a

standard solution. pH , SOfjci f;wGi ft o kH ;jyK o n fhjyi f;t m;t wd t u so d ao m"mwfjyK ypön f;(aysmf&n f)u d k
pHaysmf&n f[ kac:o n f/
3. Primary standard
Primary standard is a standard solution which is prepared by dissolving known
weight of a substance in known volume of solution.
x kx n fo d aysmf&n fwG i f;o d
kYt av ;csd efo dj' yf0wÄ K
ud kaysmf0i fapjci f;jzi fhpHaysmf&n fwpfckjyK v kyfjci f;jzi fh
&&Sdv mao m
aysmf&n fu d kr lv pH aysmf&n f[ kac:o n f/
 William 9 Saw
4. Required for primary standard
(i) Highest purity o efY
pi fr Ijr i fh
r m;&r , f
(ii) Stability wn fjr JrI&S &r , f
d
(iii)Free from water (or) absence of hydrate water a&yg0i fr Iu i f;pi f&r , f
(iv)Reasonable cost aps;ayg&r , f?t v G , fwu l&r , f
(v) High molecular mass t av ;q yr mP r sm;&r , f
5. Standardization
The process by which the concentration of a standard solution is determined
volumetrically by the use of a primary standard is called standardization .
r lv pHaysmf&n fu dkt o kH
;jyK
í pH aysmf&n fwpfck\ jyi f;t m;u d kx kx n fwdkif;" mwfcG
Jjci f;jzi fhwG u fcsu fao m
v kyfi ef;pOfu d
kpH
aysmf&n fjyKv kyfjci f;[ kac:o n f/
6. Equivalence point
The point at which the standard solution reacts with an unknown solution in an amount
of chemical equivalence is called the equivalence point.
pHro a do maysmf&n fwpfckES i fh
pH
od ao maysmf&n fwd kU
"gwfjyK
í &&S v mo n fh"gwfjyK
d r Iyr mP &v ' fu d kn D
rQrS
wf[ kac:o
n f/

William Saw
7. End point
The end point can be determined by observing the physical change associated with
the equivalence point.
nD rQ
rSwfESi fh
v u fawG U
ajymif;v JrIyr mP wefzd k;u d
kav hv mwGu fcsu fí &ao mN yD ;q kH;r Sw end point u d kac:o n f/
8. Indicator
An indicator indicates the end point by its change of colour.
1. methyl orange »acid is red. » base is yellow » end point is pink.
2. phenolphthalein »acid is colourless.» base is red » end point is pink.

Note*
* Equivalence point is the theoretical concept.
* End point is the practical measure of equivalence point.
equivalence point. = not identity = end point
 William 10 Saw
CHAPTER-4
ELECTROLYSIS
1. Conductors
A substance which conducts or allows the passage of electricity is called a
conductor. v Q yfppfjzwfo ef;pD ;q i f;jci f;u d kcG
i fh
jyK Ed kifao mt &m0wÄ K
udkv Qyfu l;ypö n f;[ kac:o n f/
2. Non-Conductor or Insulator
A solid substance which does not conduct electricity, is known as a non-conductor
or insulator. v Q yfppfjzwfo ef;pD ;q i f;jci f;u dkcG i fh
r jyK Edkifao mt &m0wÅ K
ud kv Q yfu mypö n f;[ kac:o n f/
3. Electrolytes
A substance, which in the molten state or as a solution in water, allow the passage
of electricity are called electrolytes.a&r JY t ajct ae&S aeao mt &m0wÄ
d Kwpfcko d r [ kwf
kY
a&aysmf&n fwd wG
kY i fv Qyfppfjzwfo ef;pD ;q i ;fjci f;u d kcG i fhjyKay;Ed kifo n fhaysmf&n fu d kv Qyfv d ku faysmf&n f[ kac:o n f/
4. Non-electrolytes
A substance in a solution that does not conduct electric current is called a
non-electrolytes. v Q yfppfjzwfo ef;pD ;q i f;jci f;u d kcG i fh
jyKr ay;Ed kifo n fh
aysmf&n fu d kv Q yfr v d ku faysmf&n f

William Saw
[ kac:o n f/
5. Electrolysis
The decomposition of a compound, in solution or in the molten state, brought
about by the passage of an electric current through it, is known as electrolysis.
vQ yfppfjzwfo ef;pD ;q i f;jci f;aMu mifha&r JY &n faysmf&n fr sm;aysmf&n fj' yfaygi f;r sm;N ydK
uG JrIjzpfjci f;u d kv Q
yfppfo kH
;
N
zdK
cGJjci f;[ kac:o n f/
6. The Ionic Theory [ Arrhenius 1880]
1. Electrolytes contain electrically charged particles called ions.
vQ yfv dku faysmf&n fx JwG i fv Q
yfppfu d ko , faq mifay;r n fh t r Iefr sm;yg0i fo n f/4i f;u d kt d kif, G efr sm;[ kac:o n f/
2. Electrolytes can conduct electricity due to the movement of these ions.
vQ yfv dku faysmf&n fx JwG i f4i f;t dkif, G efr sm;a&G U&Sm;Ed kifr IaMu mifhaysmf&n fwG i fv Q
yfppfpD ;u l;r Ijzpfay:o nf/
3. Non-electrolytes do not contain ions and so they cannot conduct electricity.
vQ yfr v dku faysmf&n fx JwG i f4i f;t dkif, Gefr sm;r yg&S djci f;aM u mifhaysmf&n fwG i fv QyfppfpD ;u l;r Ir jzpfay:jci ;f
jzpfo n f/
 William 11 Saw
7. cathode -The negative electrodes in electrolysis
anode -The positive electrodes in electrolysis
cation - an ion with a positive charge
anion - an ion with a negative charge

8. Cation -Cation is positively charged particles produced by the removal of

electron or electrons from a neutral atom.
Anion -Anion is negatively charged particles formed by the addition of
electron or electrons to a neutral atom.

9. Cathode- Cathode is a negative electrode. It donates the electron to a cation

during electrolysis.
Anode -Anode is positive electrode. It accepts the electron from an anion
during electrolysis.

William Saw
10. Electrochemical series
Cations and anions are arranged in order of increasingly easier readiness to
discharge from the solution.This arrangement is known as Electrochemical series.
aysmf&n fwG
i fyg0i fao mt zd
kt d
kif, G
ef;ES
i fh
t rt d
kif, G
ef;wd
\ N
kY yd
K
uGJrIt en f;t r sm;u d
kpD
pOfx m;o n fh
Z, m;ukd
vQyfppft m;pOfZ, m;[ kac:o n f/

11. Faraday’s first law of electrolysis Q=It

The mass of element liberated is directly proportional to the quantity of electricity
passed through the solution during electrolysis.
vQyfppfo kH
;N
zd
K
cGJrIaMu mifht en fu su yfwi vf mao mj' yfpi fwpfck\ t av ;csd
efyr mP o n ft o kH
;jyK
vdku fao m
vQyfppfyr P ES i fh
wdku f½kd
u ft csK
;u so n f/
d
quantity of electricity = current x time
unit = Coulomb
 William 12 Saw

1
12. Faraday’s second law of electrolysis no ; of mole charge on ions

When the same quantity of electricity is passed through solutions of different

electrolytes the relative number of moles of the elements deposited is inversely
proportional to the charges on the ions of each of the elements respectively.
wln D ao mv Qyfppfyr mP o n fr wln D ao mv Q yfv dku faysmf&n fwG i f;o d
kYjzwfo ef;ao mt cgt en fu su yfwi fr n fh
j' yfpi fwd
\ rd
kY k;t a&t wG u fo n f4i f;j' yfpi fr S
myi f&Sao mt d
d kif;, G
ef;t a&t wG u fES
i fhajymif;jyeft csK
;u saeo n f/
d

13. The Faraday as a Unit Quantity of Electricity (One Faraday)

The quantity of electricity required to liberate one mole of a univalent elements is
96500 coulombs. aygi f;pn f;u d ef;wpf&S u fyr mP wpfck(one mole)
ao mj' yfpi fwpfckt wG
d
xGu f&S
&efv d
d kt yfao mv Q
yfppfyr mP o n f 96500 coulombs (1 F )ES i fhn D
rQ
o n f/

14. Electroplating.

William Saw
Electroplating is the electrical precipitation of one metal on another. o wÅ K
wpfckrS
t jcm;o wÅ
K
wpfckt ay:o d
kYv Q
yfppfu d
kt o kH
;jyK
í t en fu su yfwi fjci f;u d
ko wÅ
K
&n fpd
r fjci f;[ kac:o n f/

15. Metallic lattice

In metals, the atoms are packed tightly together to form what is known as the
metallic lattice. The valence electrons from each atom in the lattice can move
freely thought the entire lattice.
o wÅ K
wG i ft u fwr fr sm;o n fwpfcku d kwpfcku dkwi f;M
u yfpG
myl;u yfo G
m;M
u ao mt cgav [ me, faygu fu av ;r sm;
jzpfv mMu o n f/ aygi f;pn f;t D v u fx ½G efr sm;u 4i f;av [ me, fr S
vG wfv yfpG
ma½G
U
v sm;0i fEd
kifx G
u fEd
kifM
u o jzi fh
o wÅ K
r sm;t M u m;v QyfppfpD;u l;r Ijzpfv m&o n f/
 William 13 Saw
CHAPTER-5
OXIDATION - REDUCTION
1. Oxidation
(i) Oxidation in term of oxygen 0 0 +2
2Cu + O2 2 CuO
Oxidation is the addition of oxygen to a substance.
(t &m0wÅ Kwpfcko d kYoxygen aygi f;jci f;u d k" mwfwd k;w, fv d ac:w, f)
kY
-2 0 0
(ii) Oxidation in term of hydrogen H2S + Cl2 2 HCl + S
Oxidation is the removal of hydrogen from a substance.
(t &m0wÅ KwpfckrShydrogen z, fx kwfv d ku fjci f;u d k" mwfwd k;w, fv d ac:w, f)
kY
(iii)Oxidation in term of electronegative elements
Oxidation is the addition of electronegative elements to a substance.
(t &m0wÅ Kwpfcko d kYvQ yfr j' yfpi faygi f;jci f;u dk"mwfwd k;w, fv d kY
ac:w, f)
(iv)Oxidation in term of electropositive elements
Oxidation is the removal of electropositive elements from a substance.
(t &m0wÅ KwpfckrSvQ yfzd kj' yfpi fz, fx kwfv d ku fjci f;u d k" mwfwd k;w, fv d kY
ac:w, f)

William Saw
(v) Oxidation in term of electron
Oxidation is the loss of electrons by an element or compound or ion.
(v Q yfr Ief?j' yfaygi f;?j' yfpi fwd r Selectron q kH
kY ;&IH
;jci f;u dkv J" mwfwd k;w, fv dac:ygw, f/)
kY
(vi)Oxidation in term of oxidation number
An element that increases in oxidation number is said to be oxidized.
(j' yfpi fwpfck\ " gwfwd k;u d ef;t a&t wG u fwd k;v mjci f;u d k" gwfwd k;o n f[ kac:o n f/)
"m wfav sm h
jci f;u "m wfwd k
;jci f;&J Uq efYu si fb u fq d k
awmh ajym raeawmh ygb l;
2. Reduction
(i) Reduction in term of oxygen
Reduction is the removal of oxygen from a substance.
(ii) Reduction in term of hydrogen
Reduction is the addition of hydrogen to a substance.
(iii)Reduction in term of electronegative elements
Reduction is the removal of electronegative elements from a substance.
 William 14 Saw
(iv)in term of electropositive elements
Reduction is the addition of electropositive elements to a substance.
(v) in term of electron
Reduction is the gain of electrons by an element or compound or ion.
(vi)in term of oxidation number
An element that decreases in oxidation number is said to be reduced.
3. Oxidizing agent
oxidizing agent is an electron acceptor. (electronv u fcH
o lu d
k"mwfwdk;ypö
n f;[ kac:o n f)
Reducing agent
A reducing agent is an electron donor. (electronx kwfay;o lu d k"mwfav smh
ypö n f;[ kac:o n f)
S u electron ay;w, f
-2 0 -1 0
H2S + Cl2 2HCl + S
Cl u electron v u fcH
w, f

4. Rule to assign the oxidation number

William Saw
1. Oxidation number of element is free state ( O2 , H2, Cl2... ) = 0
2. Oxidation number of simple ion ( MnO4- , Mg2+ ...)= charge on ions
3. Oxidation number of alkali metal (K , Na (+1) in NaCl, ... =+1
4. Oxidation number of oxygen in compound ( H2O , MgO ) = -2
5. Oxidation number of oxygen in H2O2 = -1

Chapter 6
Rate of reaction and Equilibria
1. Rate of reaction
The amount of reactant used up or product formed per unit time is called the rate
of reaction. wpf, lepft csd eft wG
i f;t o kH
;jyK
cJY
ao m" gwfjyK
ypö
n f; (o d
kU
) jzpfay:cJY
ao m"gwfjzpfypö
n f;yr mP
udk" gwfjyK
EIef;[ kac:o n f/
 William 15 Saw
2. Catalyst
A catalyst is a substance that alters the rate of chemical reaction but chemically
remains unchanged at the end of the reaction.
" gwfjyKr IwpfckwG
i f" gwfjyK
EIef;u d
kajymif;v Jay;Edkifao m(o dkY
) " gwfjyK
r Iypö
n f;N
yD
;q kH
;ao mfv n f;r ajymi;vf Jb J
u sef&Saeo n fh4i f;t &m0wÄ
d K
ud k" gwfu lypön f;[ kac:o n f/

3. Inhibitor ( negative catalyst)

A catalyst that decreases the rate of reaction is called negative catalyst or inhibitor.
" gwfjyK
EIef;u d
kaES
;apEd
kifo n fh
ypö
n f;u d
kt ES
K
wf" mwfu l(o d
) wm;q D
kY ;ypö
n f; [ kac:o n f/ Oyr m( o H
r IefY)

4. Positive catalyst
A catalyst that increases the rate of reaction is called a positive catalyst.
" gwfjyK
EIef;u d
kjr efapEd
kifo n fh
ypö
n f;u d
kt aygi f;" mwfu lypö n f; [ kac:o n f/ Oyr m( av )
5. Enzyme
Catalysts found in living tissue are called enzyme or biocatalyst.

William Saw
o u f&Sq Jv fawG
d wpf&I;awG rS
mawG U&ao mZD 0" mwfu lypö n f;u dkt i fZdkif;awG vd
ac:M
kY u w, f/
Ptyalin in saliva [ wHawG;wG i fygao mt i fZd kif;]and
pepsin in gastric juice [ t pmacs&n fwG i fygao mt i fZd kif;]

6. Reversible reaction.
Some chemical reactions can proceed on both forward and reverse directions under
the appropriate conditions.These reactions are called reversible reactions.
t csKU
dao m" gwfjyKjci f;r sm;o n fa&S Uod kU
ao mfv n f;au mif; (o d kY
) aemu fo dao mfv n f;au mif; " gwfjyK
kY jci f;r sm;
jzpfay:Mu o n f/4i f;" gwfjyK jci f;r sm;u dkt jyeft v S ef" gwfjyKjci f;[ kac:o n f/
7. Photochemical reaction
A photochemical reaction is a reaction which takes place only when the reactant
molecules absorb the light radiation.
ar mfv D
u sL;t csK
U
d
o n ft v i f;u d kpkyf, lN
yD ; " gwfjyK
M
u o n fh t wG u f4i f;u d
kt v i f;r S
" gwfjyK
D jci f;(o d
k)t pmcsu fjcif;
[ kac:o n f/
 William 16 Saw
8. Collision theory
The more frequent contact between the reacting species the greater can be the rate
of reaction. " gwfjyK ypön f;r sm;t csi f;csi f; B ud r fzefr sm;pGmx dawG U
r Ijzpfv mao mt cg" gwfjyK EIef;u d k
jr efv mapo n f/
9. Activation energy
The minimum energy required to form an activated complex is called activation
energy. pG r f;t i fjr i fh
j' yfaygi f;pyfjzpf&efv d kt yfao mt en f;q kH ; pG
r f;t i fu d
kwu f<u ajcjzpfpGr f;t i f[ kac:o n f/
10. Activated complex
The reacting particles with sufficient energy united to form an intermediate by
absorbing high energy. This complex formed is called activated complex.
" gwfjyKr Iefr sm;o n fv kH av mu fo n fh pG
r f;t i uf d k&, lN
yD ;j' yfaygi f;pyft jzpfaygi f;pyfM
u o n f/4i f;j' yfaygi f;pyfon f
t jr i h
fq kH
;pGr f;t i fu d k&, lx m;o jzi fh wn fN r Jjci f;r &SM
d
u ay/

11. Le-Chatelier’s Principle

When any one of the factors affecting the equilibrium of a chemical system such as

William Saw
temperature, pressure or concentration is changed, the system reacts in such a way
as to nullify the effect of the change. " mwkpepfwpfck\ r Q ajcwpfckt ay:o d kYwpfpkHw&mo u fa&mu f
cJY
r, q f d
k&i fOyr mt m;jzi fht ylcsd efao mf4i f;?zd t m;ao mf4i f; (o dkU
) yg0i fu d ef;ao mf4i f; wpfckcko u fa&mu fcJU r, f
qd k&i fpepfu ajymif;v Jrn f/x d kt cgo u fa&mu fv mo n fh ajymif;v JrIu d kpepfu wpfpkH w&mao men f;v r f;jzi fh wkH
jyef
Y
acszsu fr n fjzpfo n f/
Chapter 7.
Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions
pG
r f;t i fyp
kHH
awG t r sm;BuD ;&S
w JY
d t eu f" mwkaA' u awmht yleJY t r sm;MuD ;o u fq d kifygw, f/
1. Chemical energy / Chemical energeties
Chemical energy is a potential energy that depends upon the structure of the
substance. " mwkpG r f;t i fo n ft wn fpG r f;t i fwpfr sK
;yi fjzpfo n f?t b , faM
d u mifh qd kao mft &m0w¬ K
r sm;\
zGJU
pn f;r Iay:wG i fr lw n fao maM u mifh
jzpfo n f/ The study of energy changes by the chemical
reactions is called chemical energeties. " mwk"mwfjyK jci f;r sm;\ pG r f;t i fajymif;v Jjci f;u d
k
av h v mjci f;u d
kchemical energeties v d ac:ygw, f/
kY
 William 17 Saw
2. Potential energy
Potential energy is an energy that depends upon the position and structure of the
substance. t &m0w¬ KawG &JUzGJUpn f;wn faq mu fykH eJYwn fae&maM u mifhjzpfay:v mwJYpG r f;t i fu d
k
t wn fpG r f;t i fv dkY
ac:w, f/
3. kinetic energy
The energy due to a moving body is called kinetic energy.
½kyf0w¬ K
awG &JUa½G U
&Sm;r IaMu mifhjzpfay:v mwJYpG r f;t i fu d kawmht a½G U
pGr f;t i fv dac:w, f/
kY
4. Thermal energy
The energy due to the temperature differences is called thermal energy.
t ylcsdefajymif;v JrIaM u mifhjzpfay:v mwJYpG r f;t i fu d kawmht ylpG r f;t i fv d ac:w, f/
kY
5. Electrical energy
The energy produced by a generator is called electrical energy.
vQ yfppfx kw fpu faM u mifhjzpfay:v mwJYpG r f;t i fu d kawmhv Q yfppfpGr f;t i fv d ac:w, f/
kY

6. Endothermic reaction ( H = + )
An endothermic reaction is one which absorbs heat from the surroundings.

William Saw
ywf0ef;u si fr St ylu d kpkyf, lw JY
" mwfjyKjci f;u d kawmht ylpkyf" mwfjyK jci f;v d kY
ac:ygw, f/

7. Exothermic reaction ( H = - )
An endothermic reaction is one which release heat to the surroundings.
ywf0ef;u si fo d kYt ylx kw fv T w fw JY
" mwfjyKjci f;u d kawmht ylx kw f" mwfjyK jci f;v d kY
ac:ygw, f/
8. Enthalpy change ( H )
The heat absorbed or released in a process occurring at constant pressure is called
enthalpy change. zd t m;u d ef;ao t ajct aer S mjzpfay:wJYt ylpkyfjci f;jzpfap?t ylx kw fjci f;jzpfap
ajymif;v Jo G m;wJY t ylyr mP u d kenthalpy change v d ac:w, f
kY

9. Standard enthalpy change ( H )
The heat absorbed or released in a process occurring at standard condition of
temperature and pressure is called standard enthalpy change.
pHt ylcsdefeJY
pHzdt m;t ajct aer S mt ylpkyfjci f;jzpfap?t ylx kwfjci f;jzpfap jzpfay:ajymif;v Jv mwJY t ylyr mP
ud kawmhstandard enthalpy change v d ac:w, f?
kY
 William 18 Saw
10. One calorie
A calorie is the heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1ºC.
a& 1 gram u d kt ylcsd ef1ºC wd k;apzd kU&eft wG u fv dkt yfw JY
t ylyr mP u d k1calorie v d ac:w, f/
kY
11. Heat of combustion
Heat of combustion of a substance is defined as the heat change which takes place
when one mole of a substance is completely burned in oxygen.
one mole &S w JYt &m0w¬
d Koxygen r m SNyD;jyn fh
pkH
pG
mav mifu R r f;jci f;u d
kav mifu R r f;t ylv dac:w, f/
kY
12. Heat of formation.
The heat of formation of a compound is defined as the heat change when one mole
of a compound is formed from its elements in their standard state.
pHt ajct aewG i f&S
j' yfpi fr sm;aygi f;pyfjzpfay:jci f;jzi fhone mole &S
d d
ao mj' yfaygi f;wpfckjzpfay:ajymif;v J
o n fth wG u f4i f;u d kj' yfaygi f;jzpft ylv d ac:w, f/
kY
13. Heat of neutralization
Heat of neutralization is the heat changed when one mole of H+ ions from an
acid react with one mole of OH- ions from a base.

William Saw
aAYr Sone mole of OH- ion ES i fht u fq pfr Sone mole &S ao mH+ ions wd
d " mwfjyK
kY jzpfay:r Ir S
a& one mole jzpfay:ajymif;v Jv mo n fh t ylu d k"mwfjy, ft ylv d ac:w, f/
kY
14. Hess’s law of constant heat summation
The net enthalpy change of a given chemical reaction remains the same no matter
by what method the change is carried out.
H1 = H2 + H3
r n fo n fh
en f;jzi fh
" mwfjyK o n fjzpfygap ay;x m;ao m"mwfjyK jci f;\ t o m;wi ft ylajymif;v Jjci f;wefzd k;o n f
t wlw lyJjzpfw , fv d kY[ u fpfu ajymw, f/
 William 19 Saw
CHAPTER-13-
ACIDS , BASES AND THEIR NEUTRALIZATION
1. Lavoisier ( 1777) H.Davy (1816)
All acids contain oxygen. All acids contain hydrogen.
v mAdK
Gi fpD , mu awmht u fq pfw d kif;r S
mat mu fpD * si fygw, fv d ajymw, f/
kY
t d
wfcsfa' AD u awmht u fq pfw d kif;r S
m[ d ku fN
'd K
*si fygw, fv d ajymcJh
kY w, f/(t r SefaygU
)
2. Arrhenius (1887)
An acid as a compound produces hydrogen ion in water solution.
a&aysmf&n fw pfckrSH+ ion x G u fv mw, fq d k&i ft J'D aysmf&n f[ mt u fq pfygyJ/
A base as a compound produces hydroxide ion in water solution.
a&aysmf&n fw pfckrSOH- ion x G u fv mw, fq d k&i ft J'D aysmf&n f[ maAY ygyJ/
Strong Acid ( HCl , HNO3, H2SO4)
A strong acid one which is highly ionized in specified conditions and loses proton
with easily. pH o wfr S
w ft ajct aewpfckw G i fa&aysmf&n fw pfckrSion t jzpft N yD
;t yd
kifN
yd
K
uG JrIjzpfo v dk
y&kd
we Gft v G , fw u lx kw fay;Ed kifpGr f;&Sw JU
d t u fq pfu d kt u fq pfjyi f;v dac:ygw, f/
kY

William Saw
Strong Base (NaOH , KOH)
A strong base one which is highly ionized in specified conditions and loses
proton with easily. pH o wfr S w ft ajct aewpfckw G i fa&aysmf&n fw pfckrSion t jzpft N yD;t yd kifN
yd
K
uG JrI
jzpfo v d ky&kd wGeft v G , fw u lx kw fay;Ed kifpGr f;&SwJU
d aAU ud kt m;jyi f;aAU vd ac:ygw, f/
kY
Weak Acid (organic acids) HCOOH, CH3COOH, HCN........
A weak acid one which is partially ionized in specified conditions and loses
proton with difficulty. pH o wfr S w ft ajct aewpfckw G i fa&aysmf&n fw pfckrSion t jzpfw pd w fw pfydkif;
o mNydK
uG JEdkifo v dky&kdwGefu d
kv Jcu fcJpG mo mx kw fay;Ed kifv dkUt u fq pfaysmh vd ac:ygw, f/
kY
Weak base ... NH4OH
A weak base one which is partially ionized in specified conditions and loses
proton with difficulty. pH o wfr S w ft ajct aewpfckw G i fa&aysmf&n fw pfckrSion t jzpfw pd w fw pfyd kif;
o mNydK
uG JEd
kifo v d ky&kd
wGefu dkv Jcu fcJpG mo mx kw fay;Ed kifv d kUt m;aysmhaAU vdac:ygw, f/
kY
 William 20 Saw
Concentrated Acid (t u fq pfyg0i fr Ir sm;jci f;)
A concentrated acid is one which contains a pure acid or large proportion of the
acid .t u fq pfyg0i fr Ir sm;jci f; (o d ) o efY
kY pi fao mt u fq pfu d kt m;jyi f;ao mt u fq pfv d ac:w, f/
kY
Dilute Acid (t u fq pfyg0i fr Ien f;jci f;)
A dilute acid is one which contains a relatively small amount of the acid in
solution.t u fq pfyg0i fr Ien f;jci f; (o d )kYa&yg0i fr Ir sm;ao mt u fq pfu d kt m;aysmh ao mt u fq pfv d ac:w, f/
kY
3. Bronsted and lowry ( 1922 )
An acid as a proton donor . A base as a proton acceptor.
y&kd
we Gfx kw fay;Ed kifo lu t u fq pf?y&kd wG efu d kv u fcH
o lu aAY vd kUA&G efpwu feJY av mf0D u ajymw, f/
4. Lewis (1939)
A base as species which can donate an electron pair.
electron wpfpkH x kw fay;Ed kifpGr f;&S o lu d
d klewis base v d ac:w, f/
kY
An acid as species which can accept an electron pair.
electron wpfpkH ud kv u fcH o lu lewis acid jzpfw , f/
5. Basicity

William Saw
The basicity of an acid may be defined as the number of H+ ions that one molecule
of an acid can produce.
t u fq pfwpfck\ aAY * kP fo wÅ qd
d ko n fr S mt u fq pfar mfv D u sK
;wpfckrS[ d ku fN
'dK
*si ft d
kif, Gef; x kwfay;Ed kifo n fh
t a&t wG u fu dkq dkv dko n f/
6. Acidity
The acidity of a base may be defined as being equivalent to the number of
molecules of a monobasic acid, which will neutralize one molecule of the base.
aAYwpfck\ t u fq pf* kP fo wÅ qd
d ko n fr S mwln D ao mt a&t wG u f&So n fht u fq pfES
d i fh
aAYwd kU
\ " gwfjy, fEdkifpG
r f;
&S
jci f;u d
d kq d
kv d
ko n f/
7. Amphiprotic molecule
A molecule, such as water molecule, which can have both proton-accepting
(protophilic) and proton-donating(protogenic) properties, is called an amphiprotic
molecule. ar mfv D u sK ;wpfck(a&) o n fy½kd wGefu dkv u fcHEdkifpG
r f;&S
ov d
d kx kwfay;Ed kifpG
r f;v n f;&S
o n f/
d
, i f;*kP fo wÅ ES
d pfr sK
;pv kH
d ;u d
kydkifq d kifjci f;aM u mifh' G
* kP f&S
d ao mar mfv D
d u sK;[ kac:o n f/
 William 21 Saw
8. pH (or) hydrogen ion exponent
pH is defined as the negative logarithm to base 10 of the molar concentration of
hydrogen ion.
pH = -log[H+] or [H+] = 10-pH
9. pOH (or) hydroxide ion exponent
pOH is defined as the negative logarithm to base 10 of the molar of concentration
hydroxide ion.
pOH = -log[OH-] or [OH] = 10-pOH
10. Buffer solution
A buffer solution is defined as a solution that resists changes in pH as a result of
(1) dilution (2) small addition of acids or bases.
11. conjugate base ( acid radical )
A base produced by an acid in an acid-base equilibrium is called conjugate
base. Cl- is the conjugate base of HCl . t u fq pfaAY rQ
ajcwpfckrSx kwfay;v d ku fao m
t u fq pf\ t pd
wft yd
kif;u d
kt u fq pfwpfck\ q u fpyfaAY[ kac:o n f/

William Saw
12. Water neutrality
The term water neutrality refers to the situation in pure water at 298 K.
The pH of pure water is 7.
o wfr S
wfx m;ao mt ajct aewpfckwG i fa&o n fr n fo n fh
* kP fo wÅ
r Qr &S
d b Jysu fjy, fjci f;u d
d kq dkv d
ko n f/

(o d
rS
w f&r n fht csu fr sm;
The ionic dissociation of water
H2O (l) H+ (aq) + OH-(aq)

[ H  ] [OH - ] At 298 K or 25ºC

K
[H 2 O]

[H  ]  [OH - ]  1  10 -7 M At 298 K or 25ºC

 - -14 2
K W  [H ][OH ]  1  10 M At 298 K or 25ºC
K W = ionic product of water ((a&\ t dkif, G
ef;ajr §
mu faz:u d
ef;))
 William 22 Saw

pH Scales 0 acid 7 base 14

increase pure water increase

Strength of Acids

[H  ][A - ]
Ka  , pK a  pK b
[HA]
The disscoation constant of a weak electrolyte is expressed as
 pK a  - log K a  pK b  - log K b

* Small Ka value ( Large pKa ) indicates weak acid.

* Large Ka value ( small pKa ) indicate strong acid.

CHAPTER 14
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

William Saw
1. What is a fuel ?
Fuel is a substance which stores the large amount of potential energy.
t wn fpG r f;t i fyr mP r sm;pGmu dko d
kav S
mifx m;ao mt &m0wÄ Kudkav mifpm[ kac:o n f/
2. What is meant by ‘cracking’ ?
Large molecules from heavier fractions such as kerosene(paraffin)and diesel can
be broken down into smaller, valuable molecules by heat and catalyst containing
silica, alumina and zeolite.
t ylES
i fh
" mwfu lypö n f;u d
kt o kH
;jyKí B uD
;r m;ao mar mfv D u sK
;t pkt a0;u d kwefzdk;o dwd kif;wmwG
u fcsu fx m;o n fh
ao ;i , fao mar mfv D u sK;t pkrsm;t jzpfcG Jx kwfjci f;u d
kjzwfawmu fjci f;u d kac:o n f/
3. What are the three major fossil fuel ? t " d u &kyf<u i f;av mifpmo kH
;r sK
;u b mawG
d v J/
There three major fossil fuel are (i) coal (ii) crude oil (petroleum) (iii) natural gas.
4. What are the uses of LPG and CNG in Myanmar?
LPG is used in households, restaurants, hotels and motels for cooking, frying and
other heating systems. CNG is used in taxis, buses and vehicles.
 William 23 Saw
5. What is Biogas ? Explain the uses of biogas in Myanmar.
Biogas can be produced from organic wastes (e.g ; cow dung) by the action of
bacteria in the absence of air. It is the mixture of carbon dioxide and methane
produced by the anaerobic fermentation.
o u f&S t n pft aM
d u ;(EGm;acs;)r sm;&d Sb u fwD ;&D ;, m;r sm;o n fav r JY " gwfjyK
&mrSZD 0" mwfai G U
ud kjzpfv mapo n f/
4i f;"mwfai G U
aES
mwG i fu mAG ef' d
kifat mu fq k'dfES i fh
rDodef;" mwfai G Uwd ud
kY kav r JY
" mwfjyK r Ijzpfay:&mrS&&d vSmo n f/
In Myanmar, biogas is used to power the electrical generating engines mostly in
Kyauksetownship.
jr efr mEd
kifi H
&S
dau smu fq n fNrdKUwpf0d ku fwGi f4i f;" mwfai G Uud kv Qyfppfr D;x G
ef;&mwG i ft o kH ;jyK
aeMu o n f/
6. What is meant by Ignition temperature ?
Ignition temperature is the temperature at which fuel; air mixture ignites without
a flame. v kH av mu fo n fh t ylu d k&&SvQ
d i fr D
;&Id
U &efr v dkyJt v d kt av smu fr D ;pG Jav mifo n fh t ylu d kac:o n f/
7. What are the Different kinds of coals ?
(i) peat(o pf½G u faq G;)
(ii) lignite (soft coal )o u fwr f;Ekau smu fr D ;ao G ;

William Saw
(iii)bituminous (brown coal)o u fwr f;Ekau smu fr D ;ao G ;
(iv)anthracite ( hard coal )o u fwr f;&i fhau smu fr D ;ao G;
8. What is meant by ‘flash point’ ?
Flash point is the temperature at which the vapour will ignite in air in the
presence of a flame. av mifpmrsm;r D ;pGJ&eft wG u fv dkt yfo n fht ed r fh
q kH
;t ylcsd efu d
kac:o n f/
9. What products do you get all cracking reaction ?
All cracking reactions give two types of products.
(i) an alkane with a shorter chain than the original.
(ii) a shorter chain alkene molecule.
10. Name the chemical which can be obtained from coal and mention their use
(1) ammonia - for fertilizer
(2) coal gas - for industrial heating
(3) coal tar - for paint, dyes, creosote and pitch(u wÅ &m)
(4) coke - for iron and steel making,- for home and industrial heating
 William 24 Saw
Chapter 15
CHEMISTRY & SOCIETY
1. Element required by plants. t yi fw pfyi ft wG u fv d kt yfw JY
j' yfpi faygi f; 22 r sK;cefU
d &Sygw, f/
d
All plants required at least 22 elements for their growth.
2. What are the ten essential elements for plants ?t yi fw pfyi ft wG u fr &Sr jzpfv d
d kt yfw JY
j' yfpi fr sm;
The ten elements which are required in significant quantities are
C, O2 , N2 , P , K , Ca , S , Mg, and Fe.
3. What are the sources of plant nutrients and what does each of them supply
to plant? t yi fw pfyi ft wG u ft " d
u t m[ m&t &i f;t jr pfr sm;u av ?a&?ajr q D vT mwd jzpfw , f/
kY
Plants get their nutrient elements from three sources; air, water and soil.
Air supplies carbon and oxygen to plants.Water supplies hydrogen and
oxygen to plants. Soil supplies other elements to plants.
4. Write down the photosynthesis reaction in words and symbols.
carbondioxide + water sunlight
→ glucose + oxygen
6CO2 (g) + 6H2O(l) sunlight
→ C6H12O6 (s)+ 6O2 (g)

William Saw
5. How many types of fertilizers are there? What are these?
There are two types of fertilizers. ajr M o Zmt r sK
;t pm;2 r sK
d ;u o b m0ajr M
d o ZmeJU " mwfajr M o Zmwd kY
jzpfNyD
; o b m0ajr M o ZmawG u awmhaemu facs;eJY o pf&G
u faq G;jzpfw, f/ " mwfajr M o Zmu awmh" mwkaA' q m;
r sm;ES
i fhj' yfaygi f;awGjzpfM
u w, f/
(i) Natural fertilizers ( manure aemu facs; and Humuso pf&G u faq G ;)
(ii) Chemical fertilizer ( salts and other chemical compounds)
6. How many types of chemical fertilizers are there? What are these?
There are three types of chemical fertilizer. " mwk"mwfajr M o Zmo kH ;r sK
;&S
d w, f
d
(i) Nitrogen fertilizers (ii) Phosphorus fertilizers (iii) Potassium fertilizers
7. What is fertilizer?
Fertilizer is a substance that supplies nutrients to plants.
ajr Mo Zmq d kw mt yi fawG &Si fo efB
uD;x G
m;apzd
kY
t wGu ft ax mu ft yH ay;&wJY
Y t m[ m&awG jzpfw, f/
 William 25 Saw
8. What are the important nitrogen fertilizers? t a&;M uD
;wJYnitrogen fertilizers r sm;u awmh
The important nitrogen fertilizers are Urea, ammonium sulphate,
ammonium nitrate, sodium nitrate and calcium nitrate.
9. What are the important potassium fertilizers? t a&;M uD;wJYfertilizers r sm;u awmh
The important potassium fertilizers are potassium chloride and potassium sulphate.
10. How does prepare manufacture of urea? Write down the equation.
, l&;D
, m;" mwfajr M
o Zmt ajr mu ft jr m;u kbd , fv d
kx kw fazmfrv J?
Urea is manufactured on a very large scale by heating ammonia and
carbon dioxide under pressure with a suitable catalyst.
high pressure
CO2 (g) + 2NH3(g) catalyst   CO(NH2)2(s) + H2O (g)
11. Write an equation for the reaction of soil urea with water., l&D ;, m;eJY
ajr q D
vTm"mwfjyK
jci f;
CO(NH2)2(s) + H2O (l)   CO2 (g) + 2NH3(g)
12. Describe how would you neutralize the soil acid and the soil alkali?
Neutralization of the soil acids ajr q D vTmt csOfaygu f&i fx kH;eJY
jyK
jyi f" mwfjy, fapEd kifw , f
Lime is added to the soil to neutralize the soil acids.

William Saw
Neutralization of the soil alkali ajr q D vTmrS mo wÅ K
" mwfr sm;&i fa*g' efr IefY
eJU
jyK
jyi fEdkifw , f
Gypsum, CaSO4 . 2H2O is added to the soil to neutralize soil alkali.
13. What are insecticides? Give an example. t i f;q u fyd k;o wfaq ;q d kw mb mv J?
Insecticides are chemicals that kill insects.
Example , BHC (Benzene hexa chloride), Endrin and Aldrin.
14. What is cement? b d v yfajr q d
kw mb mv J
Cement is used in the construction of buildings. It is composed of lime,
alumina, silica and iron(III)oxide(haematite).Cement is a grey powder.
15. What are the chief compounds present in cement? b d v yfajr x JrS mb mawG yg&S ovJ
d
The chief compounds present in cement are Lime( CaO ),
Alumina( Al2O3),Silica (SiO2) and iron(III)oxide (haematite)Fe2O3.
16. Describe the four important stages in the manufacture of cement?
The four main stages in the manufacturing process of cement are mixing, heating,
cooling and grinding. b dv yfajr jyK
v kyfw JY
t q i fh4q i fh
&S
w , f?a&maES
d mjci f;?t ylay;jci f;?t at ;cH
jci f;eJY
 William 26 Saw
17. What are the raw material for making cements?
bd v yfajr jyK v kyfw JY
t cgr Smv d kt yfw JY
u kefMu r f;ypön f;r sm;u awmh
Raw materials used for cement production are haematite (Fe2O3),
limestone (CaCO3) and clay which is composed of silicon dioxide (SiO2) and
aluminiumoxide( Al2O3).
18. Describe how plaster of paris is obtained from Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O.
Plaster of paris (2CaSO4.H2O.) yv yfpwm&JU zG JU
pn f;r I
Plaster of paris is obtained by heating gypsum CaSO4.2H2O.to about 125ºC.
19. What is meant by a polymer.?
Polymers are large organic macromolecules. All living things contain polymers.
Proteins, carbohydrates, wood, natural rubber are known as natural polymers.
ao ;i , fr sm;jym;ao mo u f&S ar mfv D
d u sK;r sm;u d
kt r Q i fr sm;[ kac:o n f/ o u f&S t m;v kH
d ;wdkU
wG i ft o m;"mwf?
oM u m;j' yfaygi f;r sm;?o pfo m;?o b m0&mb mrsm;wG i ft r Q i fppfr sm;yg0i fM
u o n f/ 4i f;wd ud
kY ko b m0
ay:v D r mrsm;[ kac:o n f/
20. What are the properties of addition polymers?

William Saw
(i) All polymers are long-chain molecules made by joining together a large
number of monomer molecules.
ay:v D r mwd kif;wGi f&Sn fv sm;ao mar mfv D u sK ;q u fwef;r sm;yg0i fM uNyD; r lv ar mfv D
u sK;r sm;wpfckES i fh
wpfck
csdwfq u faeM u o n f/
(ii) Addition polymerization involves monomer molecules that contain a
C=C double bond.
aygi f;pyfay:v D r mrsm;jzpfay:&mü r vl ar mfv D u sK ;r sm;wG i fES
pfx yfpn f;yg0i f&r n f/
(iii)Addition polymers are homopolymers made from a single monomer.
r sK
d
;wlr lv ar mfv D u sK
;r sm;wpfckES i fh
wpfckaygi f;pyf&mrSaygi f;pyfay:v D r mjzpfv m&o n f/
(iv)During addition, the double bonds open up and join to themselves to make a
molecule with a very longchain.
aygi f;pyfaepOft wG i f; ESpfx yfpn f;r sm;yGi fh
xGu fv mN yD ; wpfckES i fh
wpfckcsd wfq u f&mrS&S n fv sm;ao m
ar mfv Du sK;q u fwef;B uD ;jzpfv mapo n f/
 William 27 Saw
21. Explain the following terms
(a) thermoplastic polymers
Most of the plastic can be softened on heating and melted and then re-moulded.
They are called thermoplastics.
yv yfpwpft r sm;pko n ft ylay;v d ku fao mt cgaysmh aysmif;MuNyD; t &n faysmfo G m;Mu o n f/
xd aemu ft jcm;ykH
kY pH r sm;t jzpfykH oGef;av mif;Ed kifM
u o n f/
(b) Thermosetting polymers
Some polymers can be heated and moulded once. The chains in these polymers
are cross-linked to each other. These cross-links are permenent chemical bonds
. They make the structures regid when moulded and no softening takes place
again on heating.
t csK U
dao may:v D r mrsm;u t ylay;t &n faysmfao mt cgwpfB udr fo mykH av mif;Ed kifM
u o n f/
t b , faM u mifhqd kao mf4i f;ay:v D r mrsm;M u m;wG i f cd
kifN
r Jao mpn f;jzi fhax mifh jzwfq u fo G
, fx m;N
yD
;
Mu yfwn f;u spfv pfpG mjzpfay:aeí aemu fx yft ylay;t &n faysmfEd kifpG
r f; r &S
M
du acs/
(c) Nylon [ polyamide ]

William Saw
Nylon is a copolymer of a diamine and a dicarboxylic acid formed by a link
between amino group (-NH2) and carbolyic acid group ( -COOH ) of each
monomer.
Edkifv G ef[ mu d kay:v D r mt r sK;t pm;x Ju condensation ay:v D
d r mjzpfw, f?r wln D wJYmonomer
ES pfckjzpfwJYt r d kifEd kt kyfpkeJYt u fq pft kyfpkaygi f;pyfjzpfay:v mwJUcsn fr Q i fwkrsm;jzpfM
u w, f/
Ed kifv Gefu d
kay:v D at r d ku fpolyamide v d v Jac:M
kY u w, f/
(d) Polyester ( terylene)
Condensation polymerization can take place between two monomers one
containing alcohol functional group and the other carboxylic functional group.
The product contains the ester functional group. The polymer so formed is
known as polyester.
Ed kifv G
efx u fyd
kN
yD ;aysmh w, fEl;n H w, fo lv Ju d
Y kay:v D r mt r sK;t pm;x Ju condensation ay:v D
d rm
jzpfw, f?r wln D wJYmonomer Ep SfckjzpfwJYalcohol functional t kyfpkeJYt u fq pft kyfpkaygi f;pyf
jzpfay:v mwJUcsn fr Q i fwkrsm;jzpfM
u w, f/ terylene v d v Jac:M
kY u w, f/
 William 28 Saw

t "d
yÜm, ft , lt q r sm;
b mo mjyeft v GJav ;r sm;
vd
kt yfcsu fu av ;awG &S
d
cJU
w, fq dk&i f
o n f;cHN
yD
;jyK
jyi fay;M
u ygv d
kY
ar wÅ
m&yfcH
ygw, fAsm/

William Saw
Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

Chapter (1)
THE ELECTRONIC STRUCTURES OF ATOMS,
PERIODIC TABLE AND CHEMICAL BONDS

နဝမတန္း ဓာတုေဗဒသင္ခန္းစာမွာ အရာဝတၳဳတိုင္းကို အက္တမ္(atoms)လိ႔ု

ေခၚတဲ့ အလြန္ေသးငယ္တဲ့အမႈနေ
္ တြနဲ႔ ဖြဲ႕စည္းထားတယ္ဆိုတာကို သင္ယူခဲ့ရၿပီး
ပါၿပီ။ အခု ဒီသင္ခန္းစာမွာ အဲ့ဒီအက္တမ္ေတြအေၾကာင္းကို အေသးစိတ္ထပ္ေလ့လာ
ရမွာပါ။ အက္တမ္ေတြကို ဘယ္လအ
ို မႈနေ
္ တြန႔ဲပါဝင္ဖ႔ြဲစည္းထားသလဲ(fundamental
particles)၊ သူတ႔ရ
ို ဲ႕အီလက္ထရြန္ဖြဲ႕စည္းပံု(electronic structures)ေတြဘယ္လိုရွိ
သလဲ၊ အလွည့္မွန္ဇယား(periodic table)ကို ဘယ္လိုစီစဥ္ထားသလဲဆိုတာေတြန႔ဲ
ဓာတုဓာတ္စည္း(chemical bonds)ေတြ ဘယ္လိုေပါင္းစပ္ျဖစ္ေပၚလာသလဲဆိုတာ
ေတြကို ေလ့လာၾကရမွာပါ။
ဒီအခန္းမွာ အထူးသတိထားရမွာကေတာ့ ခြ်င္းခ်က္ကိစၥရပ္ေတြ (exceptional
cases)ေတြပါပဲ။ ယခုသင္ခန္းစာဟာ သိမွတ္ရမယ့္အခ်က္ေတြမ်ားသေလာက္
ခြ်င္းခ်က္ေတြအမ်ားႀကီးရွိပါတယ္။ ဒါေၾကာင့္ ေယဘုယ်သတ္မွတ္ခ်က္ေတြ (genera-
-lizations)ေတြကို အရင္ေၾကညက္ေအာင္ ေလ့လာၿပီးမွ ခြ်င္းခ်က္ေတြကိုေလ့လာႏိုင္
ေအာင္ သင္ခန္းစာရဲ႕အဆံုး မွာထည့္ေပးထားပါတယ္။
တစ္ဆင့္ၿပီးတစ္ဆင့္ ေလ့လာသြားရင္ ဘယ္လိုပညာရပ္မွ ခက္ခဲတယ္ဆိုတာ
မရွိပါဘူး။ ကဲ.. ဒီေတာ့ သင္ခန္းစာကို ေလ့လာလိုက္ၾကရေအာင္။

Learn not only to find what you like,

learn to like what you find.
Anthony J. D’Angelo

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

Chapter (1)
THE ELECTRONIC STRUCTURES OF ATOMS,
PERIODIC TABLE AND CHEMICAL BONDS

Fundamental particles
All matter is made up of atoms and each atom consists of three main
fundamental particles. They are protons, neutrons and electrons.

particles Mass charge

proton (p+) 1 amu positive
neutron (n0) 1 amu negative
electron (e-) 1/1840 amu neutral

Protons
Protons are positive charged particles in the nucleus of an atom.
Neutrons
Neutrons are uncharged particles in the nucleus of an atom.
Electrons
Electrons are negative charged particles of atoms moving outside
and around the nucleus in the circular or near circular orbits.
Nucleus
Nucleus is the small, heavy and positively charged centre of atom
that contain protons and neutrons.
Atomic Number (Z)
The number of protons (or electrons) in the nucleus of an atom of an
element is known as the atomic number of that element.
Mass Number (A)
The mass number of an element is the sum of the numbers of protons
and neutrons of an atom of that element.
Isotopes
Atoms of the same element with different masses are called isotopes.

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

THE ELECTRONIC STRUCTURES OF ATOMS

Complete Electronic Structure
The arrangement of all electrons of an atom of an element in the
appropriate sub-shell is called the complete electronic structure of that
element.
Essential Electronic Structure
The arrangement of all the valance electrons of an atom of an
element in the appropriate sub-shell is called the essential electronic
structure of that element.

PERIODIC TABLE
In the modern periodic table, there are 18 vertical columns and 7
horizontal rows.

IA IIA IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB 0

1 1 2
1 H H He
1 1 2
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
2.8.1 2.8.2 2.8.3 2.8.4 2.8.5 2.8.6 2.8.7 2.8.8
Metal loids Halogen noble
19 20 gases Dimitri Mendeelev,
4 K Ca or Russian chemist, formulated
inert
2.8.8.1 2.8.8.2 gases the periodic table of
Alkali alkaline chemical elements in 1869.
Metals earth
metals
Electropositive Elements
Metals are electropositive elements. They tend to lose electrons and
form positive ions.
Electronegative Elements
Non-metals are electronegative elements. They tend to gain
electrons and form negative ions.

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

Noble Gas
The elements in group (0) are known as noble gas or inert gas.
Octet Rule
In forming a chemical bond, atoms gain or lose or share electrons in
such a way to attain the stable electronic structure of the noble gases, i.e,
to have eight electrons in the outermost shell.
Ionization Energy
The energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom to
form a gaseous ion is called ionization energy of an element.
Electron Affinity
The energy released when an electron is added to a gaseous atom to
form a gaseous ion is called electron affinity of an element.
ဖိုသတၱိ၊ အရြယ္ ဘယ္ညာငယ္
အထက္ေအာက္ဆိုရင္ႀကီး။ “နမ္းမယ္ နမ္းမယ္ ကိုကိုရယ္
မသတၱိ၊ EA, IE ဘယ္ညာႀကီး မကိုနမ္းပစ္ Ionic”
အထက္ေအာက္ဆိုရင္ငယ္။

CHEMICAL BONDS
Ionic Bond (or) Electrovalent Bond (metal + non-metal)
An ionic bond is formed when there is complete transfer of electron
or electrons from one atom to another resulting in the formation of cations
and anions. These oppositely charged ions are held together by and
electrostatic force.
Covalent Bond (non-metal + non-metal)
A covalent bond is formed between two atoms of non-metallic
elements.
In covalent bond, each electron of the shared pair passes from an
orbit controlled by the nucleus of one atom into an orbit controlled by the
nuclei of both atoms.
Metallic Bond
Metals are made up of metallic atoms. Valence electrons of metallic
atoms are loosely held and move around the metallic atoms forming
metallic lattice. Metallic ions repel each other but held together by the

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

moving electron cloud or sea of electrons. The bond between the metallic
ions and moving electron cloud is called metallic bond.
Coordinate Bond (or) Dative Bond
A coordinate bond is formed when one of the participant atoms
possesses a lone pair of electrons. This lone pair is donated to an atom
needing them to build up or complete electron octet or duplet of great
stability.
Differences between ionic compounds and covalent compounds
ionic compounds covalent compound
-contain ions -do not contain ions
-do not contain molecules -contain molecules
-are solids and do not vaporize easily -are gases or volatile liquids
-have high melting and boiling point -have low melting and boiling point
-do not dissolve in organic solvents -dissolve in organic solvents
Notes; organic solvents are benzene, carbon disulphide, etc.

Practice Questions
Section (B) Question No.6: 2 marks

Fundamental particles
1. What are charges and masses of proton, neutron and electron?
2. Give the maximum number of electrons in shell number 1, 2 and 4.
3. Give the maximum number of electrons in M shell and O shell.
4. In a neutral atom of an element, the number of a certain particle or
particles is equal to the atomic number. Name the particle or
particles.
5. Select the isotopes from the following and give reason for your
answer.
, , , , ,
6. Write down the notation of isotopes for an element ‘X’. Express the
corresponding terms.
7. Determine the number of electrons, protons and neutrons for
and write down the possible isotopes.
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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

Electronic Structures
8. Write down the complete electronic structure and essential
electronic structure of 19K and 14Si.

Periodic Table
9. Classify the following elements as alkali metal, alkaline earth metal,
halogen and noble gas.
11Na, 17Cl, 10Ne, 12Mg
10. Arrange the following elements in order of their increasing
electronegativity.
Oxygen, Carbon, Fluorine, Nitrogen
11. How many electrons are lose from K and Ca in forming K+ and Ca2+
ions?
12. Select the one which has the largest radius.
4Be, 12Mg, 20Ca and N, B, F
13. Select and give reason. Which one has the larger radius from the
following pair.
Fe, Fe2+, Fe3+ and Cl, Cl-
14. Select and give reason which one has the highest ionization energy.
3Li, 11Na, 19K
15. Explain why Be has higher ionization energy than B.
16. From the following elements, select the one which has the highest
electron affinity.
11Na, 17Cl, 18Ar
17. Explain that the halogens have the highest electron affinities
whereas the alkali metals have very low electron affinities.

Chemical Bonds
18. What type of bond is formed between 12A and 17B? Write down the
most likely formula of the compound.
19. What elements are most likely to form covalent compounds? Give
an example with the electron dot-cross formula.
20. Draw the electron dot-cross structure of BeCl2 and BF3.

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

21. What type of chemical bond is formed between :NH3 and H+ ion?
Explain.
22. Give the differences between ionic compounds and covalent
compounds based on their solubility, melting point, volatility and
electrical conductivity.
23. What type of chemical bond is formed between :NH3 and H+ ion?
Explain.

Practice Questions
Section (B) Question No.7: 4 marks

1. Write down the

(i) essential electronic structure
(ii) group number
(iii) period number
(iv) the valence for 18Ar and 15P.
2. Write down the
(i) complete electronic structure
(ii) the positions in the periodic table
(iii) chief valence and
(iv) the type of the element of X(2.8.1) and Y(2.7).
3. An atom A has an atomic number of 12 whereas an atom B has an
atomic number of 17.
(i) Write down the electronic structures of A and B.
(ii) Give the group number and period number of A and B.
(iii) What type of bond can be formed between A and B.
(iv) Write down the chemical formula of the compound formed.
4. An element E contains 2 electrons in K shell, 8 electrons in L shell
and 2 electrons in M shell. Answer the followings;
(i) the complete electronic structure,
(ii) the group number,
(iii) the chief valence and
(iv) the name of the element E.

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

5. The following information regarding elements I to IV is provided.

Element Atomic Mass Complete Electronic
Number Number Structure
I 4 9 1s2, 2s2
II 18 40 1s2, 2s2 2p6, 3s2 3p6
III 17 35 1s2, 2s2 2p6, 3s2 3p5
IV 12 24 1s2, 2s2 2p6, 3s2
(i) Which element is a noble gas?
(ii) Which element has the highest electron affinity?
(iii) Which element has 18 neutrons in each atom?
(iv) Which of the elements have a valence of 2?
6. You are given the following elements.
5A, 11X, 17Y
(i) Which two elements will combine to form a covalent
compound?
(ii) Draw the electron dot-cross formula of the compound formed.
(iii) Which two elements will combine to form an ionic
compound?
(iv) Draw the electron dot-cross formula of the compound formed.
7. A compound is formed between A(2.3) and B(2.7) elements.
(i) What type of bonding exists between A and B?
(ii) Write down the electron dot-cross structure of that compound.
(iii) What type of bond is formed between the above compound
and :NH3?
(iv) Draw the electron dot-cross formula of the compound formed.
8. (i) Arrange the following elements in order of their increasing
atomic radius.
9F, 6C, 8O, 7N
(ii) Select the one which of the following groups has the largest
ionization energy.
A(2.8.1) B(2.8.5) C(2.8.7)
(iii) Write down the electron dot-cross structure of PF5.
(iv) Give the positions in the periodic table of element 13Al.

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

Exceptions (ခြ်င္းခ်က္မ်ား)

1. hydrogen atomတြင္ neutronမပါပါ။

2. hydrogenသည္ group IAႏွင့္ VIIBတိ႔တ
ု ြင္ ပါဝင္ေသာ္လည္း alkali metal
လည္းမဟုတသ
္ လို halogenလည္းမဟုတပ
္ ါ။
3. Alသည္ darklineႏွင့္ကပ္လ်က္ရွိေနေသာ္လည္း metalloidမဟုတပ
္ ါ။ metalစစ္
စစ္သာျဖစ္ပါသည္။
4. Periodic Tableတြင္ ionization energyတစ္ခတ
ု ည္းသာ Group 0အထိမွနၿ္ ပီး
က်န္ဂုဏ္သတၱိမ်ားမွာ Group VIIအထိသာ မွနၾ္ ကသည္။
5. electron affinityအျမင့္ဆံုး elementမွာ Clျဖစ္သည္။
6. Octet Ruleကို ေသြဖ(ီ deviate)ေသာ compoundမ်ားမွာ BeCl2, BCl3, PF5,
ClF3ႏွင့္ SF6တိ႔ျု ဖစ္ၾကသည္။
7. Alသည္ F,Clတု႔ႏ
ိ ွင့္ေပါင္းစပ္ရာတြင္ chemical bondႏွစ္မ်ိဳးရႏိုင္သည္။ AlF3
သည္ ionic compoundျဖစ္၍ AlCl3သည္ covalent compoundျဖစ္သည္။
8. Beသည္ Clႏွင့္ေပါင္းစပ္ေသာအခါ covalent bondကိုရသည္။

The secret of health for both mind and body

is not to mourn for the past, nor to worry about the future,
but to live the present moment wisely and earnestly.
Buddha

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

Chapter (2)
THE GASEOUS STATE AND GAS LAWS

အခုသင္ခန္းစာမွာ ဓာတ္ေငြ႔အေျခအေနမွာရွိတဲ့ အရာဝတၳဳေတြနဲ႔ ဓာတ္ေငြ႔ေတြ

နဲ႔ဆိုင္တဲ့ နိယာမေတြအေၾကာင္းကို ေလ့လာရမွာပါ။ ဓာတ္ေငြ႕ေတြရဲ႕ တိုင္းတာလိ႔ရ
ု
တဲ့ပမာဏေတြ (measurable quantities) ကို သိရွိထားဖိ႔လ
ု ိုအပ္ၿပီး သူတ႔ေ
ို တြရဲ႕
တစ္ခုန႔တ
ဲ စ္ခု အျပန္အလွန္ဆက္သြယ္ခ်က္ေတြကိုလည္း ရွင္းလင္းစြာနားလည္ထားဖိ႔ု
လိုအပ္ပါတယ္။ အေရးႀကီးဆံုးအခ်က္က ယခုသင္ခန္းစာဟာ အေငြ႕အေျခအေနမွာ
ရွိတဲ့ အရာဝတၳဳေတြအတြက္သာ အက်ံဳးဝင္ၿပီး က်န္အေျခအေနမွာရွိတဲ့ အရာဝတၳဳ
ေတြအတြက္ အက်ံဳးမဝင္ဘူးဆိုတာကို ရွင္းရွင္းလင္းလင္းသေဘာေပါက္ ထားဖိ႔လ
ု ိုပါ
တယ္။ ပုစာၦေတြကိုတြက္ခ်က္ရတဲ့အပိုင္းမွာ ဓာတ္ေငြ႔နိယာမေတြကိုသံုးၿပီးတြက္ခ်က္ရ
တဲ့ပုစာၦေတြနဲ႔ moleကိုအေျခခံၿပီးတြက္ထုတ္ရတဲ့ပုစာၦေတြဆိုၿပီး အဓိကႏွစ္မ်ိဳးရွိပါ
တယ္။ ဒါေၾကာင့္ ဓာတ္ေငြ႔နိယာမေတြအျပင္ 1 mole မွာရွိတဲ့ ဓာတ္ေငြ႔ေတြရ႕ဲ ပမာဏ
ေတြကိုလည္း ေသေသခ်ာခ်ာသိထားဖိ႔ုလိုအပ္ပါတယ္။ ဒါ့အျပင္ စံသတ္မွတ္ထားတဲ့
အပူခ်ိန္န႔ဲ ဖိအားေတြကိုလည္း မွတ္မိသိရွိေနဖု႔ိလိုအပ္ပါတယ္။
ဓာတ္ေငြ႔ေတြရ႕ဲ သေဘာတရားကို အမွန္တကယ္နားလည္မယ္ဆို ပုစာၦေတြကို
အလြယ္တကူ စဥ္းစားႏိုင္၊ တြက္ထုတ္ႏိုင္ပါလိမ့္မယ္။

Who he opens a school door closes a prison.

Victor Hugo

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

Chapter (2)
THE GASEOUS STATE AND GAS LAWS

Measurable Quantities of Gases

mass (g), Volume (dm3),
Temperature (0C or K) Pressure (atm or mmHg)
Boyle’s Law
When the temperature of a given mass of gas is kept constant, the
volume of the gas is inversely proportional to its pressure.
Charles’ Law
When the pressure of a given mass of gas is kept constant, the
volume of the gas is directly proportional to its temperature on the Kelvin
scale.
Absolute zero temperature (-2730C or 0K)
The volume of all gases become zero at -2730C. This temperature is
assumed to be zero point of a new scale of temperature (Kelvin
temperature) and also known as absolute zero temperature.
Relation between Kelvin temperature and Celsius temperature
TK = t0C + 273
T = temperature in Kelvin
t = temperature in Celsius
Combined Gas Law
When the mass of a gas is kept constant, the volume of the gas is
inversely proportional to its pressure and directly proportional to its
temperature on Kelvin scale.
Relationship between temperature and pressure
When the volume of a given mass of gas is kept constant, the
pressure of the gas is directly proportional to its temperature on the
Kelvin scale.
STP
STP means standard temperature and pressure
standard temperature = 00C or 273 K
standard pressure = 1 atm or 760 mmHg

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures

When the temperature is kept constant, the total pressure of a gas
mixture is the sum of the partial pressures of different gases.
Gay-Lussac’s Law of Combining Volume of Gases
At the same temperature and pressure, the volume of reacting gases
and the gaseous products are in simple ratio of small whole number.
Diffusion of gases
The process by which the molecules of one gas spread through the
spaces created between the molecules of another gas is known as gas
diffusion.
Graham’s Law of Gaseous Diffusion
At the same temperature and pressure, the rate of diffusion of a gas
is inversely proportional to the square root of the density of the gas.
Relative density
The relative density of a gas is equal to the half of the relative
molecular mass of that gas.

Mole Concept
1 mole = R.M.M in g = 22.4 dm3 at STP = 6.02 x 1023 molecules

Avogadro’s Theory
At the same temperature and pressure, equal volume of all gases
contain the same number of molecules.

Ambition is the path to success.

Persistence is the vehicle you arrive in.
Bill Bradley

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

Practice Questions
Section (B) Question No.6: 2 marks

1. What are the measurable quantities of the gas?

2. Which law represent the following statement? Write down its
mathematical expression.
“When the volume of a gas is increased, its pressure decreases
under constant temperature.”
“When the temperature is kept constant, the total pressure of a gas
mixture is the sum of the partial pressures of different gases.”
3. State Gay-Lussac’s law of combining volume of gases both in words
and mathematical expression.
4. Which one diffuses faster in each of the following pairs under
comparable conditions? (C = 12, O = 16, N = 14, S = 32, H = 1)
(a) CO2 and NO2 (b) SO2 and H2S
5. The volume of the gas will become zero at -2730C. Which
temperature scale represents the above statement? Write down the
relation of Kelvin temperature and Celsius temperature scales.
6. Summarize the effect of pressure on gaseous system.
7. Total pressure of oxygen and acetylene gas storage tank is 7400
mmHg. The pressure of oxygen is 3400 mmHg. What is the pressure
of acetylene gas?
8. The pressure of hydrogen gas collected over water at 270C is 76.7
mmHg. The vapour pressure of water at 270C is 26.7 mmHg. What
is the pressure of dry hydrogen?
9. What is the relative density of CO2? (C = 12, O = 16)
10. What will be the volume of hydrogen chloride gas when 100
cm3 of hydrogen and 50 cm3 of chlorine are mixed? (All gases are
measured at the same condition.)
11. How many molecules are there in 16 g of sulphur? (S = 32)
12. How many molecules are there in 11.2 dm3 of carbon dioxide
at STP?
13. 16 g of sulphur dioxide occupies 5.6 dm3 at STP. What is the
relative molecular mass of the gas?

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

14. What is the mass of nitrogen gas enclosed in 11.2 dm3 at STP?
(N = 14)

Practice Questions
Section (B) Question No.7: 4 marks

1. The volume of a certain mass of gas occupies 965 cm3 at 51 mmHg.

What is the volume under 768 mmHg at the same temperature?
2. A certain mass of gas occupies 250 cm3 measured at 320C. At what
temperature in 0C will the gas occupy 235 cm3 under the same
pressure?
3. At 270C and 750 mmHg, a gas occupies 380 cm3. What is the volume
of the gas at STP?
4. The pressure of a gas at 370C is 760 mmHg. What is the pressure of
the gas at 970C at constant temperature?
5. 0.2 g of a gas occupies a volume of 185 cm3 measured over water at
766 mmHg and 220C. Vapour pressure of water at 220C is 21 mmHg.
What is the volume of the dry gas at STP?
6. What will be the volume of ammonia gas when 100 cm3 of nitrogen
gas and 150 cm3 of hydrogen gas are mixed? (All gases are measured
at the same condition.)
7. Helium gas diffuses twice as fast as a gas X. Calculate the molar
mass and relative density of the gas X. (He = 4)
8. What is the relative rate of diffusion of hydrogen and
oxygen?(O=16, H=1)
9. If it takes 1 minute for 50 cm3 of oxygen to diffuse through a pinhole,
how long will it take for the same volume of hydrogen to diffuse
through the same hole? (O=16, H=1)
10. A gas with the relative density of 22 is given. Find the relative
molecular mass of the gas and mass of one mole of the gas in grams.
What volume would be occupied by 12 g of the gas at STP?
11. What are the relative density of NO and CO? (N=14, O=16,
C=12)

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

12. You are provided with 44.8 dm3 of hydrogen gas at STP. Find
the amount of (i) moles (ii) molecules (iii) gram (iv) amu. (H=1)
13. 7 g of nitrogen gas is given. Calculate the moles, volume in dm3
at STP, density and relative density of gas. (N=14)
14. 10 g of calcium carbonate is treated with dilute hydrochloric
acid. The liberated gas measured at STP is 1.661 dm3. Find the
percentage purity of calcium carbonate. (C=12, O=16, H=1, Ca=40)
15. How many grams of zinc will have to be treated with dilute
hydrochloric acid to liberate 1.85 dm3 of hydrogen at 270C and 750
mmHg? (Zn=65)
16. One mole of a gas occupies 25 litres and its density is 1.82gL-1
at a particular temperature and pressure. What is the molecular
weight? What is the density of the gas at STP?

Robert Jacques John Joseph Louis Thomas Amedeo

Boyle Charles Dalton Gay-Lussac Graham Avogadro
(1627-1691) (1745-1823) (1766-1844) (1778-1850) (1805-1869) (1776-1856)
Anglo-Irish French British French British Italian
natural inventor, chemist, chemist chemist scientist
philosopher, scientist, physicist and
physicist and mathematician and physicist
chemist and balloonist meteorologist

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

Chapter (3)
STOICHIOMETRY

Stoiciometryဆိုတာ ဓာတ္ျပဳျခင္းေတြမွာပါဝင္တဲ့ ပစၥည္းေတြရ႕ဲ ပမာဏေတြရ႕ဲ

အခ်ိဳးေတြကိုေလ့လာတဲ့ ဓာတုေဗဒဘာသာရပ္ရ႕ဲ အစိတ္အပုိင္းတစ္ခပ
ု ဲျဖစ္ပါတယ္။ ဒီ
သင္ခန္းစာမွာ ေပ်ာ္ရည္ေတြရ႕ဲ ျပင္းအားေတြအေၾကာင္းနဲ႔ အဲ့ဒီျပင္းအားေတြကို
ဘယ္လိုတြက္ခ်က္ရသလဲဆိုတာအဓိကပါဝင္ပါတယ္။ ျပင္းအား (molaritry or
concentration)ဆိုတာ ပါဝင္ကိန္းပဲျဖစ္ပါတယ္။ အတိအက်ေျပာရရင္ ေပ်ာ္ရည္ 1dm3
ု ဟုတ္ 1cm3မွာ ေပ်ာ္ဝင္ပစၥည္းဘယ္ေလာက္mol သိ႔မ
သိ႔မ ု ဟုတ္ ဘယ္ေလာက္ mmol
ပါဝင္ေနသလဲဆိုတာပဲျဖစ္ပါတယ္။ ေပ်ာ္ဝင္ပစၥည္းပမာဏမ်ားရင္ ျပင္းအားမ်ား
(concentrated)တယ္လ႔ေ
ို ခၚၿပီး ပမာဏနည္းရင္ ျပင္းအားနည္း (dilute)တယ္လ႔ို
ေခၚပါတယ္။
ျပင္းအားကိုတြက္ခ်က္တဲ့နည္းလမ္းကေတာ့ titrationလုပ္ျခင္းပါပဲ။ titration
ဆိုတာဘာလဲ။ titrationဆိုတာ ထုထည္ေရာ၊ ျပင္းအားေရာအတိအက်သိတဲ့ေပ်ာ္ရည္
(standard solution)တစ္ခုကိုသံုးၿပီး ထုုထည္သာသိ၊ ျပင္းအားမသိတဲ့ေပ်ာ္ရည္
(unknown solution)ရဲ႕ျပင္းအားကို တြက္ထုတ္ရတာပါ။ standard solution
ျပဳလုပ္ျခင္းကို standardizationလိ႔ေ
ု ခၚၿပီး standardizationလုပ္ဖ႔အ
ို တြက္ primary
standard ကိုသံုးရပါတယ္။ primary standardျဖစ္ဖို႔ highest purity, stability,
absence of water, ready availability and reasonable cost, high molecular
massစတဲ့ အခ်က္(၅) ခ်က္စလံုးနဲ႔ကိုက္ညီရပါမယ္။
titrationလုပ္တဲ့ေနရာမွာ base ေရာ၊ acidေရာဟာ အေရာင္မရွိၾကတဲ့အတြက္
solutionဟာ acidဂုဏ္သတၱိရွိေနသလား၊ base ဂုဏ္သတၱိရွိေနသလား ဒါမွမဟုတ္
neutralလားဆိုတာကိသ
ု ိဖ႔အ
ို တြက္ indicator ေတြသုံးရပါတယ္။ ဒါေၾကာင့္ ဘယ္လို
indicatorေတြဟာ ဘယ္လိုsolutionမွာ ဘယ္လိုအေရာင္ျပသလဲဆိုတာကို သိထားဖို႔
လည္း အေရးႀကီးပါတယ္။ ေနာက္တစ္ခုက dilutionလိ႔ေ
ု ခၚတဲ့ ေရေရာျခင္းပါ။
ေရေရာလိုကရ
္ င္ ေပ်ာ္ရည္ ဟာ ျပင္းအားေလ်ာ့သြားပါတယ္။ သိ႔ေ
ု သာ္ ေပ်ာ္ဝင္ပစၥည္း
(solute)ပါဝင္တဲ့ ပမာဏကေတာ့ မေျပာင္းလဲပါဘူး။

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

ယခုသင္ခန္းစာဟာ mathematical chemistry (ဓာတုသခ်ၤာ)ျဖစ္တဲ့အတြက္

ပုစာၦတြက္ခ်က္ျခင္းေတြ အမ်ားဆံုးပါဝင္ပါတယ္။ ပုစာၦေတြတြက္ခ်က္ရာမွာ ပံုေသနည္း
(formulae)ေတြကို က်က္မွတ္ထားဖိ႔လ
ု သ
ို လို၊ ဓာတ္ျပဳျခင္းေတြပါဝင္တဲ့အတြက္
ဓာတုညီမွ်ျခင္းေတြကို ပိုင္ပိုင္ႏိုင္ႏိုင္ေရးတတ္ဖ႔လ
ို ည္းလိပ
ု ါတယ္။ ဘာလု႔လ
ိ ဲဆိုေတာ့
chemical equationအရ moleအခ်ိဳးေတြန႔ဲ ခ်ိန္ထိုးစဥ္းစားၿပီးမွ တြက္ထုတ္ရမယ့္
အရာေတြပါေနလိ႔ပ
ု ါပဲ။ အေရးႀကီးဆံုးက ပုစာၦေတြကိုတြက္တဲ့ေနရာမွာ ပံုစံတူ (ဆရာ
တြက္ျပတဲ့ပုံစံအတိုင္း)ၾကည့္တြက္တာမ်ိဳးမဟုတ္ဘဲ ပုစာၦက ဘာေပးထားတာလဲ၊
ဘာေမးတာလဲ၊ ဘယ္လိုတြက္လ႔ိုရမလဲစတာေတြကို ေသေသခ်ာခ်ာစဥ္းစားၿပီးမွ
တြက္ေစခ်င္ပါတယ္။ ပုစာၦေတြကုိ အမိ်ဳးအစားခြဲျခားလိုက္ရင္ ေအာက္ပါပံုစံေတြပါဝင္
ပါတယ္။
၁။ standard solution၏ gႏွင့္ dm3ေပးထားၿပီး unknown solution၏molarityကို
ရွာခိုင္းေသာပုစာၦ
၂။ ရိုးရိုးtitrationပုစာၦ (molarityကို gdm-3 ေျပာင္းခိုင္းသည္)
၃။ titrationလုပ္ၿပီး dilutionလုပ္ရေသာပုစာၦ
(titrationတြင္ molarityကိုရွာ၊ dilutionတြင္ added waterကိုရွာ)
၄။ excess acid၏ volume(cm3)ကိုရွာခိုင္းေသာပုစာၦ
၅။ dilutionလုပ္ၿပီး titrationလုပ္ရေသာပုစာၦ (original acid၏ molarityကိုရွာ)
၆။ dilutionလုပ္ၿပီး titrationလုပ္ရေသာ္လည္း သပ္သပ္စီခြဲရွာရေသာပုစာၦ
၇။ Vinegarပုစာၦ (vinegarမွာပါတဲ့ acetic acidရဲ႕ percentကိုရွာ)
၈။ ဆားႏွစ္မ်ိဳး(carbonateဆားႏွင့္ chlorideဆား)ပုစာၦ
(chloride ဆားသည္ acid ႏွင့္ ဓာတ္မျပဳ၊ ဆားေတြရဲ႕ percentကိုရွာ)
၉။ salt, sandအေရာပုစာၦ (saltနဲ႔sandရဲ႕ percentကိုရွာ)
၁၀။ limiting substanceပုစာၦ
၁၁။ anhydrous saltႏွင့္ hydrated saltပုစာၦ
၁၂။ standard solutionႏွစ္ခုေပးထားေသာပုစာၦ

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

Chapter (3)
STOICHIOMETRY

Stoichiometry
Stoichiometry is a part of chemistry which deals with the quantities
of substances taking part in a chemical reaction.
Molarity
Molarity of a solution is the quantities in moles of the solute
dissolved in 1 dm3 of the solution.
Molar solution
Molar solution of a compound is one which contains one mole of
solute in 1 dm3 of the solution.
One mole of a substance
One mole of a substance is the amount of substance that contains the
same number of particles as there are atoms in 12 g of 12C.
Molar mass
The mass of one mole of a substance is called molar mass and it is
usually expressed by gdm-3.
Titration
The term ‘titration’ is a procedure in which a solution of standard
reagent is added to a specific volume of a solution of unknown molarity.
Standardization
Determination of the concentration of standard solution
volumetrically by the use of primary standard is called standardization.
Primary standard
Primary standard is a solution of highly pure and stable compound
without water which can be used to determine the concentration of a
standard solution. (anhydrous Na2CO3, ethane dioic acid or oxalic acid)
Standard solution
A reagent of exactly known concentration that is used in titration is
called standard solution.

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

Equivalence point
The point at which a standard solution reacts with the solution of
unknown molarity in an amount of chemically equivalent is called the
equivalence point.
End point
End point is the practical measure of equivalence point. It is
determined by the physical change associated with the equivalence point.

Acid-base indicators
acid base neutral solution
methyl orange red yellow orange
phenolphthalein colourless red pink

Dilution of a solution
Addition of water to a solution is called dilution. It is carried out
when the solution is needed to reduce the concentration.
When a solution is diluted
(i) the amount of solute does not change
(ii) the molarity does change.

Formulae

Titration Dilution
= before dilution after dilution
= M1 V1 = M2 V 2
=

Equations most frequently used in this chapter

+ → + +
+ → +ℎ
+ → +
ℎ → ℎ +

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

Practice Questions
Section (B) Question No.7: 4 marks

1. Calculate the molarity of solution prepared by dissolving 0.44 g of

NaOH in 100cm3 of the solution. (H=1, O=16, Na=23)
2. What volume of 1.0 M sulphuric acid is required to react with 5.0 g
of zinc? (Zn=65)
3. Calculate the percent by mass of the element in each of the following
compound. (K=39, O=16, N=14)
Potassium oxide(K2O), Nitrogen dioxide(NO2)
4. Oxidation of 2.01 g of mercury yields 2.17 g of oxide of mercury.
What is the empirical formula of this oxide? (Hg=201, O=16)
5. If 20 cm3 of 0.5 M sulphuric acid and 60 cm3 of 0.1 M sulphuric
acid are mixed what will be the molarity of the final solution?

Practice Questions
Section (B) Question No.8: 8 marks

1. Calculate the molarity of a sodium carbonate solution prepared by

adding 50g of pure sodium carbonate and sufficient water to make
1.5 dm3 solution. 21 cm3 of this solution was needed to neutralize
24.5 cm3 of sulphuric acid. What is the concentration of sulphuric
acid solution? (C=12, O=16, S=32, H=1, Na=23)
2. 30 cm3 of a potassium carbonate solution required 27.6 cm3 of 0.6
M hydrochloric acid solution to neutralize it. Calculate the molarity
of potassium carbonate solution and convert the concentration into
g dm-3. (C=12, O=16, K=39)
3. 25 cm3 of 0.1 M sodium carbonate solution required 20 cm3 of
sulphuric acid solution. Calculate the molar concentration of
sulphuric acid. What volume of water should be added to 20 cm3 of
the sulphuric acid so that the concentration becomes exactly 0.1 M.
4. 0.24 g of magnesium was dissolved in 25 cm3 of 1.5 M hydrochloric
acid. How many cubic centimeter of 0.1 M potassium hydroxide
solution will be necessary to neutralize the excess acid? (Mg=24)

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

5. 100 cm3 of concentrated hydrochloric acid were diluted to 1 dm3

with distilled water. 29 cm3 of this diluted acid were needed to
neutralize 25 cm3 of 0.05 M sodium carbonate solution. What is the
concentration in g dm-3 of the original acid?
6. How many cubic centimeters of 1M hydrochloric acid must be
diluted with water to make 1.5 dm3 of 0.25 M solution? If 25 cm3 of
sodium hydroxide neutralizes 22 cm3 of this diluted solution, what
is the molarity of sodium hydroxide solution?
7. Vinegar contains the organic acid, acetic acid (ethanoic acid)
HC2H3O2. When 6 g of vinegar was titrated with 0.105 M sodium
hydroxide, 43 cm3 of this base had to be added to reach the
equivalence point. What is the percentage by mass of acetic acid in
this sample of vinegar? (C=12, H=1, O=16)
8. 5 g of mixture of sodium carbonate and sodium chloride were made
up to 500 cm3 of solution. 25 cm3 of this solution required 18 cm3 of
0.1 M sulphuric acid for neutralization. Calculate the percentage by
mass of sodium chloride in mixture.
9. 4 g of a mixture of sodium carbonate and sand is treated with an
excess of dilute hydrochloric acid and 0.22 g of carbon dioxide is
produced. What are the percentages of sodium carbonate and sand
in the original mixture? (Na=23, C=12, O=16)
10. 5 g of a mixture of anhydrous sodium sulphate and sodium
decahydrate on heating to constant mass produces 3.2 g of
anhydrous salt. What percentages of anhydrous and hydrated salt are
presented in the mixture.
11. To 25 cm3 of a solution of sodium hydroxide of unknown
concentration, 50 cm3 of a 0.5 M hydrochloric acid solution was
added, and the resulting solution was titrated with standard 0.25 M
sodium hydroxide solution. 22.3 cm3 of 0.25 M sodium hydroxide
was sodium hydroxide was required for neutralization. Calculate the
original concentration of the sodium hydroxide solution in g dm-3.
(Na=23, O=16, H=1)

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

Chapter (4)
ELECTROLYSIS

Electrolysisဆိုတာ electro-(လွ်ပ္စစ္)နဲ႔ -lysis(ခြဲျခမ္းျခင္း)ဆိုတဲ့ စကားလံုး ႏွစ္

ခုကို ေပါင္းစပ္ထားတာျဖစ္ၿပီး လွ်ပ္စစ္သံုး၍ ဓာတ္ေပါင္းမ်ားကိုၿဖိဳခြဲျခင္းလိ႔ု အဓိပၸာယ္
ရပါတယ္။ reactive metalမ်ားျဖစ္ၾကတဲ့ K, Na, Ca, Mg, Alစတာေတြကို သူတ႔ရ
ို ႕ဲ ျဒပ္
ေပါင္းေတြကေန ျဒပ္စင္သန္႔သန္႔ရဖို႔ အသံုးျပဳတဲ့နည္းလမ္းလည္းျဖစ္ပါတယ္။
Electrolysisလုပ္တဲ့ေနရာမွာ ၿဖိဳခြဲမယ့္ျဒပ္ေပါင္းကို အရည္ျဖစ္ေအာင္လုပ္ရပါ
တယ္။ အရည္က်ိဳ(molten or fused)ၿပီးပဲျဖစ္ျဖစ္၊ ေရထဲမွာထည့္ေဖ်ာ္(aqueous
solution)ၿပီးပဲျဖစ္ျဖစ္ အရည္ျဖစ္ေအာင္လုပရ
္ ပါတယ္။ ဘာလိ႔လ
ု ဲဆိုေတာ့ solid state
မွာ ionေတြရဲ႕ ေရြ႕လ်ားႏိုင္မႈဟာ ကန္႔သတ္ခံထားရလို႔ပါ။ အရည္ျဖစ္မွသာ ionမ်ား
ဟာ လြတ္လြတ္လပ္လပ္ေရြ႕လ်ားစီးဆင္းႏိုင္မွာ ပါ။ ionမ်ား စီးဆင္းႏိုင္တဲ့ေပ်ာ္ရည္ကို
electrolyte(လွ်ပ္လိုက္ေပ်ာ္ရည္)လိ႔ေ
ု ခၚပါ တယ္။ အဲ့ဒီလွ်ပ္လိုက္ေပ်ာ္ရည္ထဲကို လွ်ပ္
ငုတ္ႏွစ္ခုျဖစ္တဲ့ အဖိုငုတ(္ anode)နဲ႔ အမငုတ(္ cathode)ႏွစ္ခုကို ထည့္ၿပီး လွ်ပ္စစ္
ဓာတ္ကိုလႊတ္လိုက္မယ္ဆိုရင္ လွ်ပ္လိုက္ေပ်ာ္ရည္ဟာ အိုင္းယြန္းမ်ားအျဖစ္ၿပိဳကြဲ
(ionize)သြားပါတယ္။ အဖိုအိုင္းယြန္းမ်ား(cations)နဲ႔ အမအိုင္းယြန္းမ်ား(anions)မ်ား
အျဖစ္ၿပိဳကြဲသြားပါတယ္။ အဖိုအင
ို ္းယြန္းက အမငုတ္ဆီလာ၊ အမအိုင္းယြန္းက အဖို
ငုတ္ဆီလာၿပီး dischargeျဖစ္ပါတယ္။ dischargeဆိုတာ အဖိုဓာတ္(သိ႔)ု အမဓာတ္မရွိ
ေတာ့ဘဲ neutral ျဖစ္သြားတာကိုဆိုလိုတာပါ။ တနည္းအားျဖင့္ေျပာရင္ ionsေတြက
ေန atomsေတြျဖစ္သြားတာကိုဆိုလိုတာပါ။ မ်ားေသာအားျဖင့္ cathodeမွာ metal
ေတြ dischargeျဖစ္ၿပီး anodeမွာ ဓာတ္ေငြ႔တစ္ခုခုထြက္ပါတယ္။ ေရေရာထားတဲ့ dilute
acid and base solutionေတြမွာေတာ့ cathodeမွာ hydrogenထြကၿ္ ပီး anode မွာ
oxygenထြကပ
္ ါတယ္။
Electrolysisလုပ္တဲ့ေနရာမွာ သက္ေရာက္တဲ့အခ်က္(၃)ခ်က္ရွိပါတယ္။ အဲ့ဒါ
ေတြကေတာ့ (၁) electrochemical series (၂) concentration နဲ႔ (၃) nature of
electrodes တိ႔ပ
ု ဲျဖစ္ပါတယ္။ ဒီအခ်က္သံုးခ်က္ရဲ႕ သက္ေရာက္မႈေတြကုိ ရွင္းရွင္းလင္း

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

လင္းသိထားမွသာ cathode reactionနဲ႔ anode reactionေတြကုိ အလြယ္တကူေရး

ႏိုင္မွာပါ။
ဒီသေဘာတရားကိုပဲအေျခခံၿပီး chemical cellအေၾကာင္းနဲ႔ electroplating
(လွ်ပ္စစ္ဓာတ္အားကိုသံုး၍ သတၱဳတစ္ခုေပၚသိ႔ု တျခားသတၱဳအလႊာထပ္ျခင္း)
အေၾကာင္းကို ဆက္ေလ့လာရမွာပါ။
ဒီသင္ခန္းစာရဲ႕ေနာက္ဆံုးပိုင္းမွာ Michael Faraday(1791-1867)ရဲ႕ နိယာမ
မ်ားျဖစ္တဲ့ Faraday’s first law နဲ႔ Faraday’s second lawေတြကို ေလ့လာၿပီး ပုစာၦ
ေတြကို တြက္ခ်က္ရမွာျဖစ္ပါတယ္။ ပုစာၦေတြကုိ အမိ်ဳးအစားခြဲျခားလိုက္ရင္ ေအာက္ပါ
ပံုစံေတြပါဝင္ပါတယ္။
၁။ I(A)ႏွင့္ t(hour/min/sec)ေပးထားၿပီး cathodeမွာထြက္တm
ဲ့ etalရဲ့ massကို
ရွာခိုင္းေသာပုစာၦ
၂။ I(A)ႏွင့္ t(hour/min/sec)ေပးထားၿပီး anodeမွာထြက္တဲ့gasရဲ႕ volumeကို
ရွာခိုင္းေသာပုစာၦ
၃။ Faradayေပးထားၿပီး massကိုရွာခိုင္းေသာပုစာၦ
၄။ Coulombေပးထားၿပီး mass (သို႔) volumeကိုရွာခိုင္းေသာပုစာၦ
၅။ I(A)၊ t(hour/min/sec)ႏွင့္ massေပးထားၿပီး relative atomic massကိုရွာခိုင္း
ေသာပုစာၦ
၆။ massကိုေပးထားၿပီး Q (quantity of electricity)ကိုရွာခိုင္းေသာပုစာၦ
၇။ massႏွင့္ I(A)ေပးထားၿပီး t(hour/min/sec)ကိုရွာခိုင္းေသာပုစာၦ
၈။ ေပ်ာ္ရည္ႏွစ္ခုေပးထားကာ 1st cellတြင္ ထြက္လာေသာ metal၏ massကို
ေပးထားၿပီး 2nd cellတြင္ ထြက္မည့္ metal(သိ႔)ု gas၏ mass(သိ႔)ု volumeကို ရွာ
ခိုင္းေသာပုစာၦ
၉။ နံပတ္(၈)မွ အတိုင္းျဖစ္ေသာ္လည္း mass(သိ႔)ု volumeကို STPတြင္မဟုတ္ဘဲ
ေပးထားေသာ temperatureႏွင့္ pressureတြင္ ရွာခိုင္းေသာပုစာၦ
နံပါတ္(၁)မွ နံပါတ္(၇)ထိပုစာၦေတြဟာ Faraday’s first lawပုစာၦမ်ားျဖစ္ၿပီး နံပါတ္(၈)
နဲ႔(၉)ကေတာ့ Faraday’s second lawပုစာၦမ်ားျဖစ္ပါတယ္။

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

Chapter (4)
ELECTROLYSIS
Electrolysis
The decomposition of a compound in solution or in molten state,
brought about by the passage of an electric current through it, is known
as electrolysis
Conductor
A substance of solid state or molten state which conducts or allows
the passage of electricity is called a conductor.
Insulator
A solid substance that cannot conduct or allow the passage of
electricity is called an insulator or non-conductor.
Electrolyte
A substance other than metals in the molten state or solution in water
which allows the passage of electricity is called electrolyte.
Non-electrolyte
A substance of molten state or solution in water which does not
conduct electricity is called non-electrolyte.
Cation
Cation is a positively charged particle produced by the removal of
an electron or electrons from a neutral atom.
Anion
Anion is a negatively charged particle produced by the addition of
an electron or electrons to a neutral atom.
Cathode
Cathode is a negative electrode. It donates the electrons to a cation
during electrolysis.
Anode
Anode is a positive electrode. It accepts the electrons from an anion
during electrolysis.
One Faraday
The quantity of electricity to liberate one mole of univalent element
is one Faraday and it is equivalent to 96500 C.

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

Arrhenius Ionic Theory

(i) Electrolytes contain electrically charged particles called ions.
(ii) Electrolytes can conduct electricity due to the movement of
ions.
(iii) Non-electrolytes do not contain ions so they cannot conduct
electricity.

Electrolysis Silver Plating

Faraday’s first law of electrolysis

The mass of element liberated is directly proportional to the quantity
of electricity passed through the solution during electrolysis.
Faraday’s second law of electrolysis
When the same quantity of electricity is passed through the solutions
of different electrolytes, the relative number of moles of the elements
deposited are inversely proportional to the charge on the ions of each of
elements respectively,

Svante Arrhenius
(1859-1927)
Swedish physicist and chemist
Winner of the Nobel Prize for chemistry in1903

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

Electrolysis of molten salts

(1) Electrolysis of molten sodium chloride using platinum
electrodes
အိမ္သံုးဆား (NaCl)သည္ အပူခ်ိန္ 8010Cေက်ာ္လွ်င္ အရည္အျဖစ္ေျပာင္းလဲသြား
သည္။ ၎ကို လွ်ပ္စစ္သံုးၿဖိဳ ခြဲလွ်င္ ဆိုဒီယမ္သတၱဳႏွင့္ ကလိုရင္းကိုရသည္။ NaCl
သည္ အစိုင္အခဲအေျခအေနတြင္ လွ်ပ္စစ္မစီးကူးႏိုင္။ အေၾကာင္းမွာ အစိိုင္အခဲအေျခ
အေနတြင္ Na+ ionႏွင့္ Cl- ionတိ႔၏
ု ေရြ႕လ်ားႏိုင္မႈကို ကန္႔သတ္ထားေသာေၾကာင့္
ျဖစ္သည္။
Cathode reaction Anode reaction
+2 → 2 → + 2
(2) Electrolysis of molten lead (II) bromide using platinum
electrodes
Cathode reaction Anode reaction
+2 → 2 → + 2

Factors affection the electrolytic products

(i) Position of cations and anions in the electrochemical series
(ii) Concentration
(iii) Nature of electrodes
Electrochemical series
Cations and anions are arranged in order of increasingly readiness to
discharge from the solution. This arrangement is known as electrochemi-
-cal series.

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

For example, in NaOH solution, H+ ions discharge in preference to

Na+ ions. And in CuSO4 solution, OH- ions discharge in preference to
ions.
Concentration
As the concentration of an ion increases, the tendency of the ion to
discharge from solution increases.
For example, in HCl (conc) solution, Cl- ions discharge in preference
to OH- ions. If the acid is dilute, some discharge of OH- ions will also
occur.
Nature of electrodes
The nature of electrodes is the deciding factor in some cases.
For example, in the electrolysis of brine, H+ ions discharge at
cathode when platinum electrodes are used but Na+ ions discharge at
cathode when mercury electrodes are used.

Electrolysis of saturated aqueous sodium chloride solution (brine)

using platinum electrodes
Cathode reaction Anode reaction
2 +2 → 2 → + 2
Electrolysis of copper(II)sulphate solution using platinum electrodes
Cathode reaction Anode reaction
+2 → 4 → 2 + + 4
ေပ်ာ္ရည္အတြင္းမွာ H2SO4က်န္ခဲ့မည္။ acidသတၱိျပမည္။

Electrolysis of aqueous solutions of alkali and acid

using platinum electrodes
Electrolysis of dilute sulphuric acid using platinum electrodes
Cathode reaction Anode reaction
2 +2 → 4 → 2 + + 4
Electrolysis of dilute sodium hydroxide solution using platinum
electrodes
Cathode reaction Anode reaction
2 +2 → 4 → 2 + + 4

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

အက္စစ္ သိ႔မ
ု ဟုတ္ အယ္ကာလီေပ်ာ္ရည္မ်ားအား လွ်ပ္စစ္သြင္းၿဖိဳခြဲပါက
၎အတြင္းရွိေရမွ H+ ionsႏွင့္ OH- ionsမ်ားသည္ အသီးသီးဓာတ္ျ ပယ္ျပီး hydrogen
ဓာတ္ေငြ႔ ႏွင့္ oxygenဓာတ္ေငြ႔မ်ားအျဖစ္ cathodeႏွင့္ anodeတိ႔မ
ု ွ အသီးသီးထြက္
သြားၾကမည္။ က်န္ရစ္ခဲ့ေသာအက္စစ္ သိ႔မ
ု ဟုတ္ အယ္ကာလီ၏ျပင္းအားျမင့္တက္
လာမည္။
Electrolysis of copper (II) sulphate solution using copper electrodes
Cathode reaction Anode reaction
+2 → → +2
Electroplating
Electroplating is the electrical precipitation of one metal on another.
Silver plating
Cathode -the articles to be electroplated such as spoon or
ornaments made of base alloys (eg. cupronickel)
Anode -pure silver
Electrolyte -potassium argentocyanide, KAg(CN)2
Ionic reaction (ion decomposition)
( ) ⟺ + +2
Cathode reaction
+ →
Anode reaction
→ +

Chromium plating
Steel parts are chromium-plated. In chromium plating, a steel object
is first plated with copper or nickel because chromium does not stick well
onto a steel surface.
Cathode -the article to be electroplated
Anode -lead
Electrolyte -chromium sulphate in H2SO4 and water
Cathode reacton
+2 →
Anode reaction
4 → 2 + + 4
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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

Practice Questions
Section (B) Question No.6: 2 marks

1. What are the factors affecting the electrolysis products?

2. Write down the cathode and anode reactions for the electrolysis of
molten sodium chloride solution using platinum electrodes.
3. What is the net result for the electrolysis of aqueous copper (II)
sulphate solution using copper electrodes?
4. What mass of copper will be deposited during electrolysis by one
Faraday?
5. Draw the diagrams of electron flow and current flow for the
conduction in metal wire.
6. Distinguish between conductor and insulator.
7. Write down the equation for ionization of potassium argentocyanide
KAg(CN)2 solution and the reaction at the cathode for silver plating.

Practice Questions
Section (B) Question No.7: 4 marks

1. Who put forward the ionic theory about the year 1880?
2. Calculate the mass of silver in grams deposited by passing a steady
current of 0.1 A for one hour through an excess of AgNO3 solution.
(Ag=108, 1 F=96500 C)
3. A steady current of 0.5 A was switched on and allowed to flow for
one hour through a dilute sulphuric acid. Calculate the volume of
hydrogen which would be liberated at STP during the electrolysis.
(1F=96500 C, H=1)
4. What mass of copper and silver will be liberated during electrolysis
by a charge of one Faraday? (1 F=96500 C, Cu=63, Ag=108)
5. What mass of aluminium and copper will be liberated during
electrolysis by 19300 C? (Al=27, Cu=63, 1F=96500 C)
6. On passing a steady current of 0.75 A for 26 minutes through a metal
(II) sulphate solution, 0.458 g of metal is deposited. Calculate the
relative atomic mass of that metal. (one Faraday=96500 C)

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

7. What will be the quantity of electricity required for the deposition

of 1.8 g of silver on the cathode? (1F=96500 C, Ag=108)
8. Calculate the time required to discharge 0.523g of copper by passing
a current of 0.3 A through an excess of copper (II) sulphate solution.
(Cu=63.54, one Faraday=96500 C)
9. An electric current is passed in turn through solutions of silver
nitrate and copper (II) sulphate in series. If 4.5g of silver is deposited
at the cathode of the first cell, calculate the mass of copper deposited
in the second cell.
10. An electric current is passed in turn through solutions of silver
nitrate and copper (II) sulphate in series. If 0.7g of silver is deposited
at the cathode of the first cell, calculate the volume of hydrogen
liberated at 350C and 760 mmHg in the second cell.

You shall know the truth,

and the truth shall set you free.
Jesus

Michael Faraday
(1791-1867)
English scientist
Contributor to the study of electromagnetism and electrochemistry

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

Chapter (5)
OXIDATION AND REDUCTION

ဓာတ္ျပဳျခင္းေတြမွာ oxidation(ဓာတ္တိုးျခင္း)နဲ႔ reduction(ဓာတ္ေလ်ာ့ျခင္း)

ေတြရွိေနတယ္ဆိုတာကို ျပင္သစ္ဓာတုေဗဒပညာရွင္ Antoine Lavoisierက အေစာ
ဆံုးရွာေဖြေတြ႔ရွိခဲ့ပါတယ္။ ဓာတ္ျပဳျခင္းတစ္ခုမွာ တစ္ခ်ိဳ႕ဓာတ္ျပဳပစၥည္းေတြဟာ ဓာတ္
တိုးသြားၿပီး တစ္ခ်ိဳ႕ဓာတ္ျပဳပစၥည္းေတြကေတာ့ ဓာတ္ေလ်ာ့သြားပါတယ္။ oxidation
နဲ႔ reductionကို အဓိပၸါယ္သတ္မွတ္ၾကတဲ့ေနရာမွာ ပညာရွင္အမ်ိဳးမ်ိဳးက နည္းလမ္းအ
မ်ိဳးမ်ိဳးနဲ႔ သတ္မွတ္ခဲ့ၾကပါတယ္။ အဲ့ဒါေတြကေတာ့ oxygen, hydrogen, electropos-
-itive elements, electronegative elements, transfer of eletrons နဲ႔ oxidation
numberတိ႔ပ
ု ဲျဖစ္ပါတယ္။ ဓာတ္တိုးျခင္းနဲ႔ ဓာတ္ေလ်ာ့ျခင္းတၿပိဳင္နက္တည္းျဖစ္တဲ့
ဓာတ္ျပဳျခင္းေတြကို redox reaction လိ႔ေ
ု ခၚပါတယ္။ redoxဆိုတဲ့စကားလံုးဟာ
reductionမွ red- နဲ႔ oxidationမွ ox-တိ႔က
ု ို ေပါင္းစပ္ထားတာျဖစ္ပါတယ္။ chapter-4
မွာသင္ခဲ့ရတဲ့ electrolysis processေတြဟာ redox reactionေတြပဲျဖစ္ပါတယ္။
electrolysisလုပ္တဲ့အခ်ိန္မွာ cationေတြဟာ cathodeကိုသြားၿပီး ၎တိ႔မ
ု ွာရွိတဲ့
electronsေတြကိုဆံုး႐ံႈးကာ ဓာတ္တိုးသြားပါတယ္။ anionေတြကေတာ့ anodeကို
သြားၿပီး anodeကေပးတဲ့ electronsမ်ားကိုရယူကာ ဓာတ္ေလ်ာ့သြားပါ တယ္။
Redox reactionေတြမွာ oxidizing agentနဲ႔ reducting agentလိ႔ေ
ု ခၚတဲ့ agent
ႏွစ္မ်ိဳးပါပါတယ္။ oxidizing agentဆိုတာ ကိုယ္တိုင္ဓာတ္ေလ်ာ့ကာ သူန႔ဓ
ဲ ာတ္ျပဳတဲ့
ဓာတ္ျပဳပစၥည္းကို ဓာတ္တိုးေအာင္လုပ္ေပးတဲ့ ပစၥည္းျဖစ္ၿပီး reducing agentဆိုတာ
ကေတာ့ ကိုယ္တိုင္ဓာတ္တိုးကာ သူန႔ဓ
ဲ ာတ္ျပဳတဲ့ ဓာတ္ျပဳပစၥည္းကို ဓာတ္ေလ်ာ့
ေအာင္လုပ္ေပးတဲ့ ပစၥည္းပဲျဖစ္ပါတယ္။
ယခုသင္ခန္းစာမွာ ဓာတ္တိုးကိန္း(oxidation number)ေတြရ႕ဲ စည္းမ်ဥ္းေတြကို
ေသခ်ာေလ့လာၿပီး ဓာတ္တိုးကိန္းမသိတဲ့ အရာဝတၳဳေတြရဲ႕ ဓာတ္တိုးကိန္းေတြကို
တြက္ထုတ္ရမွာပါ။ ၿပီးေတာ့ balancedမညီတဲ့ redox chemical equationေတြကို
balancedညီေအာင္ညိွေပးရတဲ့ပုစာၦေတြပါဝင္ပါတယ္။ balanceညွိတဲ့အခါမွာ အသံုးျပဳ

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

တဲ့နည္းလမ္း(method)ႏွစ္ခုရွိပါတယ္။ အဲဒီနွစ္ခုကေတာ့ oxidation number

methodနဲ႔ half reaction methodလိ႔ေ
ု ခၚတဲ့ ion-electron methodတိ႔ပ
ု ဲျဖစ္ပါတယ္။
ဒါေတြအားလံုးကို ရွင္းရွင္းလင္းလင္းနားလည္မယ္ဆိုရင္ ဒီသင္ခန္းစာမွာပါဝင္
တဲ့ပုစာၦေတြကို အလြယ္တကူတြက္ခ်က္ႏိုင္မယ္ဆိုတာ ယံုၾကည္ပါတယ္။

The noblest pleasure is

The joy of understanding.
Leonardo da Vinci

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

Chapter (5)
OXIDATION AND REDUCTION

Oxidation in terms of oxygen

Oxidation is the addition of oxygen to a substance.
Reduction in terms of oxygen
Reduction is the removal of oxygen from a substance.
Oxidation in terms of hydrogen
Oxidation is the removal of hydrogen from a substance.
Reduction in terms of hydrogen
Reduction is the addition of hydrogen to a substance.
Oxidation in terms of electronegative elements
Oxidation is the addition of electronegative element to a substance.
Reduction in terms of electronegative elements
Reduction is the removal of electronegative element from a
substance.
Oxidation in terms of electropositive elements
Oxidation is the removal of electropositive element from a
substance.
Reduction in terms of electropositive elements
Reduction is the addition of electropositive element to a substance.
Oxidation in terms of electron transfer
Oxidation is the loss of electrons from an element or compound or
ion.
Reduction in terms of electron transfer
Reduction is the gain of electrons by an element or compound or ion.
Oxidation in terms of oxidation number
An element that increases in oxidation number is said to be oxidized.
Reduction in terms of oxidation number
An element that decreases in oxidation number is said to be reduced.
Redox reaction
Reactions in which one reactant is oxidized while other is reduced
are called redox reactions.

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

Oxidizing agent
An oxidizing agent causes the oxidation of another species and it in
turn is reduced. It is an acceptor of electrons. (eg, H2SO4, HNO3, KMnO4,
K2Cr2O7, CuO, O2, Cl2, non-metals)
Reducing agent
A reducing agent causes the reduction of another species and it in
turn is oxidized. It is a donor of electrons. (eg, Coke or carbon, CO,
Na2SO3, SO2, H2S, metals)

Rules for Oxidation Numbers

element (free state) = 0 monatomic ion = ion’s charge
group I A = always +1 H = +1 with metals
group II A = always +2 -1 with non-metals
halogens = usually -1, O = usually -2,
But positive with O2 -1 in peroxides
F = always -1
sum of oxidation number for a neutral compound = 0
sum of oxidation number for polyatomic ion = ion’s charge

Practice Questions
Section (B) Question No.6: 2 marks

1. What is the oxidation number for the underlined elements in each of

the following substances?
KClO3, S2O52-, FeCl3, Cr2O72-
2. Select the oxidizing agents and reducing agents from the following
list.
(a) Carbon, potassium, permanganate, chlorine, hydrogen sulphide
(b) Sodium sulphite, copper (II) oxide, potassium dichromate,
sulphur dioxide
(c) O2, H2S, CO, Cl2

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

3. (i) Does the following reaction represent oxidation-reduction

Reaction?
(ii) State which one is oxidized and which one is reduced. Give
reason for your answer.
(iii) Identify the oxidizing agents and reducing agents. Give
reason.
(a) Fe3+ + Al → Fe + Al3+
(b) 3H2O2 + Cr2O72- + 8H+ → 2Cr3+ + 3O2 + 7H2O
4. Identify the oxidizing agent and reducing agent from the following
reactions.
(i) Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2
(ii) 2KI + Cl2 → 2KCl + I2
(iii) H2O2 + 2HCl + 2KI → 2KCl + I2 + 2H2O
(iv) SO2 + H2O + NaClO → NaCl + H2SO4

Practice Questions
Section (B) Question No.7: 4 marks

Balance the following redox reactions using either oxidation number

method or ion-electron (half-reaction method).

Simple equations.
2+ -
1. Cu + I → CuI + I2
2. Fe + Al → Fe + Al3+
3+

3. Fe2+ + Cl2 → Fe3+ + Cl_

4. S2- + Cl2 → S + Cl-
5. ZnO + Cu → Zn + CuO
6. ZnO + C → Zn + CO

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

More complex equations.

7. MnO2 + HCl → MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2
8. H2SO4 + C → CO2 + SO2 + H2O
9. H2SO3 + HNO3 → H2SO4 + H2O + NO
10. H2SO4 + HI → I2 + H2S + H2O
11. H2O + Cl2 → HCl + O2
12. SO2 + H2O + NaClO → NaCl + H2SO4
13. CuO + H2 → Cu + H2O
14. Fe2O3 + CO → Fe + CO2

Equations including peroxides.

15. H2O2 + H+ + I- → H2O + I2
16. KI + HCl + H2O2 → I2 + KCl + H2O

Most complex equations.

17. H2S + KMnO4 + H2SO4 → MnSO4 + K2SO4 + H2O + S
18. Cr2O72- + I- + H+ → Cr3+ + I2 + H2O
19. H2O2 + Cr2O72- + H+ → 2Cr3+ + O2 + H2O
20. K2Cr2O7 + HI + HClO4 → KClO4 + Cr(ClO4)3 + I2 + H2O
21. Cr2O72- + H+ + SO2 → Cr3+ + SO42- + H2O
22. K2Cr2O7+H2SO4+FeSO4 → Cr2(SO4)3+Fe2(SO4)3+K2SO4+H2O

Equations needed to break apart.

23. Mg + O2 → MgO
24. Fe + Cl2 → FeCl3
25. Br2 + H2 → HBr
26. FeCl2 + Cl2 → FeCl3

Equations without O on the right side.

27. MnO4- + S2- → Mn2+ + S

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

More practice questions.

-
28. MnO4 + NO2 + H2O → MnO2 + NO3 + OH
29. MnO4- + Fe2+ + H+ → Mn2+ + Fe3+ + H2O
30. Cu + HNO3 → Cu(NO3)2 + H2O + NO
31. Cl2 + NaOH → NaCl + NaClO3 + H2O
32. H2SO4 + C → CO2 + SO2 + H2O
33. H+ + NO3- + Fe2+ → NO2 + Fe3+ + H2O
34. SO2 + Br2 + H2O → H2SO4 + HBr
35. BrO3- + I- + H+ → Br- + I2 + H2O
36. H2S + Cl2 → HCl + S
37. P4 + HNO3 → H3PO4 + NO2 + H2O

Antoine Laurent de Lavoisier

(1743-1794)
French nobleman and chemist
Showed that loss of weight
in the reduction process of metal ores to metal

Joseph Priestley
(1733-1804)
English separatist theologian, natural philosopher, chemist
Discovered oxygen which is an important step
in the understanding of redox reactions

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

Chapter (6)
RATE OF REACTION AND EQULIBRIA

ယခုသင္ခန္းစာမွာ ဓာတ္ျပဳႏႈန္းနဲ႔ ဓာတုမွ်ေျခဆိုၿပီး အပိင

ု ္း(၂)ပိုင္းပါဝင္ပါတယ္။
ဒီႏွစ္ပိုင္းစလံုးကိုနားလည္ဖ႔အ
ို တြက္ ဓာတ္ျပဳျခင္းအေၾကာင္းကို ပထမဦးစြာနားလည္
ထားဖိ႔လ
ု ိုအပ္ပါတယ္။ ဓာတ္ျပဳျခင္းဆိုတာ အရာဝတၳဳေတြ ဓာတုနည္းအရေပါင္းစပ္ၾက
တယ္ဆိုတာကို နဝမတန္းမွာ သင္ယူခဲ့ၿပီးျဖစ္ပါတယ္။ အဲဒီလိုေပါင္းစပ္ၾကတဲ့ေနရာမွာ
အရာဝတၳဳတစ္ခုန႔တ
ဲ စ္ခုဟာ ထိေတြ႔မွသာလ်င္ ေပါင္းစပ္ျခင္းျဖစ္ႏိုငပ
္ ါတယ္။ ဥပမာ-
အက္စစ္တစ္ခြက္နဲ႔ ေဗ့စ္တစ္ခြက္ကို ေဘးခ်င္းယွဥ္ထားရံုနဲ႔ ဓာတ္မျပဳႏိုင္ၾကပါဘူး။
သူတ႔အ
ို ခ်င္းခ်င္း ထိေတြ႔မွသာ ဓာတ္ျပဳၿပီး ဆားနဲ႔ေရနဲ႔ျဖစ္လာမွာပါ။ ထိေတြ႔တယ္ဆို
တာကို အေသးစိတ္ထပ္ေျပာရရင္ ဓာတ္ျပဳပစၥည္းတစ္ခုစီမွာပါတဲ့ ေမာ္လီက်ဴးအခ်င္း
ခ်င္းပြတ္တိုက(္ collide)မိတာကို ဆိုလိုတာပါ။ အဲ့ဒီလို ပြတ္တုိက္ထိေတြ႔ျခင္းကို
collisioinလိ႔ေ
ု ခၚၿပီး collisionရွိမွသာ reactionရွမ
ိ ွာျဖစ္ပါတယ္။ သိ႔ေ
ု သာ္ collision
တိုင္းဟာ reactionမျဖစ္ႏိုငပ
္ ါဘူး။ ဓာတ္ျပဳဖိ႔လ
ု ံုေလာက္တဲ့ စြမ္းအင္ပမာဏကို ရရွိတဲ့
အခါမွသာ ျဖစ္ပါတယ္္။ ဥပမာ-အိုးထဲကို ဆန္န႔ဲေရထည့္လိုက္ရံုနဲ႔ ထမင္းမရႏိုင္ပါဘူး။
အပူေပးရပါမယ္။ ေပးတဲ့အပူကလည္း ထမင္းက်က္ေအာင္ လံုေလာက္တဲ့ အပူျဖစ္ရပါ
မယ္။
ေနာက္တစ္ခုက ဓာတ္ျပဳျခင္းဆိုတာ collisionျဖစ္တာနဲ႔ တန္းျဖစ္တာမဟုတပ
္ ါ
ဘူး။ ၾကားထဲမွာ intermediate stateလိ႔ေ
ု ခၚတဲ့ ၾကားအေျခအေနတစ္ခုရွိပါတယ္။ အဲ့
ဒီအေျခအေနမွာ ေပါင္းစပ္ၾကမယ့္ ေမာ္လီက်ဴးႏွစ္ခုဟာ ေပါင္းလို႔ရမရ တစ္လံုးနဲ႔တစ္
လံုး အျပန္အလွန္အကဲခတ္ေနၾကသလိုပါပဲ။ သိ႔ေ
ု သာ္ ေပါင္းလည္းေပါင္းခ်င္ေနၿပီျဖစ္
တဲ့ ေမာ္လီက်ဴးႏွစ္လံုးဟာ highly unstableျဖစ္ေနၿပီးေတာ့ energyလည္းအျပည့္ျဖစ္
ေနပါတယ္။ အဲ့ဒါကို acitivated complexလိ႔ေ
ု ခၚၿပီး အဲ့ဒီ activated complexျဖစ္ဖို႔
အမ်ားဆံုးလိုအပ္တဲ့စြမ္းအင္ကို activating energyလိ႔ေ
ု ခၚပါတယ္။ ပထမတစ္ႀကိမ္
ဓာတ္ျပဳျခင္းစတင္လိုက္တာနဲ႔ reactionဟာ ဓာတ္ျပဳပစၥည္းမ်ားမကုန္ဆံုးမခ်င္း၊
လိုအပ္တဲ့စြမ္းအင္ပမာဏျပတ္ေတာက္မသြားမခ်င္း ေတာက္ေလွ် ာက္ျဖစ္ေတာ့တာပါ
ပဲ။

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

ေကာင္းၿပီ။ ဓာတ္ျပဳျခင္းအေၾကာင္းကို ေသခ်ာနားလည္ၿပီဆိုရင္ ဓာတ္ျပဳႏႈန္း

အေၾကာင္းကိုဆက္ရေအာင္။ ဓာတ္ျပဳႏႈန္းဆိုတာကေတာ့ သတ္မွတ္ထားတဲ့ အခ်ိန္အ
တိုင္းအတာတစ္ခုအတြင္းမွာ ဓာတ္ျပဳပစၥည္းဘယ္ေလာက္ကုန္ဆံုးသြားသလဲ (သိ႔)ု
ဓာတ္ျဖစ္ပစၥည္းဘယ္ေလာက္ျဖစ္လာသလဲဆုိတာကို ဆိုလိုတာပါ။ ကုန္ဆံုးသြားတဲ့
ဓာတ္ျပဳပစၥည္းပမာဏ (သိ႔)ု ျဖစ္ေပၚလာတဲ့ ဓာတ္ျဖစ္ပစၥည္းပမာဏမ်ားရင္ ဓာတ္ျပဳ
ႏႈန္းျမန္တယ္လို႔ သတ္မွတ္ၿပီး ဆန္႔က်င္ဘက္ဆိုရင္ေႏွးတယ္လ႔သ
ို တ္မွတ္ပါတယ္။
ဓာတ္ျပဳႏႈန္းအေပၚကို သက္ေရာက္တအ
ဲ့ ခ်က္(၆)ခ်က္ရွိပါတယ္။ အဲ့ဒါေတြကေတာ့ (၁)
temperature (၂) pressure (၃) concentration (၄) catalyst (၅) radiation နဲ႔ (၆)
surface area of reactantsတိ႔ပ
ု ဲျဖစ္ပါတယ္။ ေယဘုယ်ေျပာရရင္ အဲ့ဒီအခ်က္
ေတြထဲက တစ္ခ်က္ခ်က္ကို တိုးေပးလိုက္ရင္ ဓာတ္ျပဳႏႈန္းဟာျမန္သြားပါတယ္။ ဥပမာ
temperature effectကိုေျပာရရင္ ပိုပူတဲ့အခါမွာ ဓာတ္ျပဳမႈႏႈန္းကပိုျမန္ပါတယ္။
ဘာလိ႔လ
ု ဲဆိုေတာ့ အပူတိုးရင္ ေမာ္လီက်ဴးေတြ ပိုၿပီးျမန္ျမန္ေရြ႕လ်ားတဲ့အတြက္
collisionမ်ားလာလိ႔ပ
ု ါပဲ။ ဒါေၾကာင့္ ေႏြရာသီမွာ အစားအေသာက္ေတြပိုၿပီးသိုးလြယ္
တာျဖစ္ပါတယ္။ အပူခ်ိန္ကိုေလ်ာ့လက
ို ္တဲ့အခါ (ေရခဲေသတၱာထဲထည့္လိုက္တဲ့အခါ)
မွာေတာ့ အျပင္ဘက္အခန္းအပူခ်ိန္မွာေလာက္ အသိုးမျမန္ေတာ့ပါဘူး။ အဲ့ဒီအခ်က္
ေျခာက္ခ်က္ထဲကမွ catalystမွာေတာ့ ထူးျခားခ်က္ရွိပါတယ္။ catalystမွာ အမ်ိဳးအစား
ႏွစ္ခရ
ု ွိေနၿပီး positive catalystဟာ ဓာတ္ျပဳႏႈန္းကို ျမန္ေစကာ negative catalystက
ေတာ့ ဓာတ္ျပဳႏႈန္းကိုေႏွးေစပါတယ္။ သက္ရွိတစ္႐ွဳးေတြမွာ သဘာဝအတိုင္ေတြ႔ရတဲ့
catalystေတြကိုေတာ့ enzyme(ဇီဝဓာတ္ကူပစၥည္း)လိ႔ေ
ု ခၚပါတယ္။ လူသိမ်ားတဲ့
enzymeေတြကေတာ့ saliva(တံေတြး)မွာပါတဲ့ Ptyalinနဲ႔ gastric juice မွာပါတဲ့
pepsin စတဲ့ အစာေခ်အင္ဇိုင္းေတြပဲျဖစ္ပါတယ္။
ေနာက္ဆံုးအေနနဲ႔ ဓာတုမွ်ေျခလိ႔ေ
ု ခၚတဲ့ chemical equilibriumအေၾကာင္းကို
ေျပာၾကရေအာင္။ ဓာတုမွ်ေျခဟာ reactionတိုင္းမွာရွိေနတာမဟုတ္ဘဲ reversible
reactionေတြမွာသာ ရွိေနတာပါ။ မွ်ေျခဘယ္အခ်ိန္မွာ ျဖစ္ေပၚလာတာလဲဆိုတာကို
မေျပာခင္ reversible reactionဆိုတာဘာလဲဆတ
ို ာကို ရွင္းရွင္းလင္းလင္းသိထားဖိ႔ု
လိုပါတယ္။ reversible reactionဆိုတာ တစ္ၿပိဳင္နက္ထဲမွာ အသြားအျပန္ျဖစ္ေနတဲ့
reactionကိုေခၚတာျဖစ္ပါတယ္။ ဥပမာ Aနဲ႔ Bနဲ႔ေပါင္းလို႔ Cရတယ္ဆိုရင္ တစ္ၿပိဳင္နက္

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

ထဲမွာ Cဟာ Aနဲ႔ Bနဲ႔အျဖစ္ျပန္ျပန္ၿပိဳကြဲေနပါတယ္။ ေပါင္းစပ္ႏႈန္းနဲ႔ ၿပိဳကြႏ

ဲ ႈန္းမွ်ေနတဲ့
အတြက္ reactionဟာ ရပ္ေနတယ္လ႔ို ထင္ရပါတယ္။ ဒါေပမယ့္ မဟုတ္ပါဘူး။
reactionဟာ equilibrium state(မွ်ေျခအေျခအေန)မွာ ရွိေနတာျဖစ္ပါတယ္။ ဥပမာ-
လမ္းေလွ်ာက္စက္တစ္ခုေပၚမွာ လူတစ္ေယာက္လမ္းေလွ်ာက္ေနသလုိပါပဲ။ တစ္ခု
မွတ္ထားရမွာက reversible reactionဟာ ဓာတ္ျပဳျခင္းျဖစ္တာနဲ႔တစ္ၿပိဳင္နက္ထဲ ျဖစ္
လာတာမဟုတပ
္ ါဘူး။ Aနဲ႔Bနဲ႔ေပါင္းလို႔ Cရေနတဲ့အခ်ိန္မွာ သတ္မွတ္အေျခအေနတစ္ခု
ကိုေရာက္မွသာ Cဟာ Aနဲ႔ Bအျဖစ္ ျပန္ၿပိဳကြဲၿပီး equilibriumကိုေရာက္ပါတယ္။
ဓာတုမွ်ေျခကို သက္ေရာက္တဲ့အခ်က္ (၃)ခ်က္ရွိပါတယ္။ အဲ့ဒါကို ျပင္သစ္
ဓာတုေဗဒပညာရွင္ Henry Louis Le Chatelierက ရွာေဖြေတြ႔ရွိခဲ့တဲ့အတြက္ Le
Chatelier’s principleဆိုၿပီး ေက်ာ္ၾကားပါတယ္။ အဲ့ဒီ အခ်က္(၃)ခ်က္ကေတာ့ (၁)
temperature (၂) pressure နဲ႔ (၃) concentrationတိ႔ပ
ု ဲျဖစ္ပါတယ္။ အပူခ်ိန္သက္
ေရာက္မႈဟာ thermal reactionလု႔ေ
ိ ခၚတဲ့ အပူေျပာင္းလဲျခင္းရွိတဲ့ reactionေတြ
အေပၚမွာပဲသက္ေရာက္မႈရွိပါတယ္။ အဲ့ဒီ reactionေတြကို temperatureတိုးေပး
လိုက္ရင္ endothermic reaction(အပူစုပ္ယူဓာတ္ျပဳျခင္း)ပိုိျဖစ္ၿပီး temperatureကို
ေလ်ာ့ေပးလိုက္ရင္ exothermic reaction(အပူထုတ္ဓာတ္ျပဳျခင္း)ပိုျဖစ္ပါမယ္။
pressureရဲ႕ သက္ေရာက္မႈကေတာ့ volumeေျပာင္းလဲမႈရွိတဲ့ reactionေတြအေပၚမွာ
ပဲ သက္ေရာက္မႈရွိပါတယ္။ Boyle’s Lawအရ pressureဟာ volumeနဲ႔ ေျပာင္းျပန္
အခ်ိဳးက်ပါတယ္။ ဒါေၾကာင့္ pressureကို တိုးေပးရင္ volume decreasing reaction
ပိုျဖစ္ၿပီး pressureကိုေလ်ာ့ေပးရင္ volume increasing reactionပိုျဖစ္ပါမယ္။ သတိ
ျပဳရမွာက pressure effectပုစာၦေတြအတြက္ volumeယူရာမွာ gaseous state
အတြက္သာယူၿပီး က်န္stateေတြျဖစ္တဲ့ s, l, aqေတြအတြက္ volumeကို zero(0)
အျဖစ္သတ္မွတ္ပါတယ္။ အဲဒါဟာ က်န္stateမွာရွိတဲ့ အရာဝတၳဳေတြမွာ volumeမရွိ
ဘူးလိ႔ဆ
ု ိုလိုတာမဟုတ္ဘဲ သူတ႔ရ
ို ဲ႕volumeအေပၚကို pressureရဲ႕သက္ေရာက္မႈမရွိ
လိ႔ု ထည့္သြင္းမစဥ္းစားတာပဲျဖစ္ပါတယ္။ concentrationရဲ႕ သက္ေရာက္မႈကေတာ့
ဓာတ္ျပဳပစၥည္းရဲ႕ concentrationကိုတိုးေပးလိုက္ရင္ ဓာတ္ျပဳပစၥည္းအခ်င္းခ်င္း
collisionပိုျဖစ္ၿပီး forward reactionပိုျဖစ္မွာျဖစ္ၿပီး ေလ်ာ့ေပးရင္ ေျပာင္းျပန္သက္
ေရာက္မွာပဲျဖစ္ပါတယ္။ ကဲ.. သင္ခန္းစာကို စတင္လိုက္ရေအာင္။

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

Chapter (6)
RATE OF REACTION AND EQUILIBRIA

Reactant
The substances used up in a chemical reaction are called reactants.
Product
The substances formed in a chemical reaction are called products.
Forward reaction
The reaction directed to form the products is called the forward
reaction.
Reverse reaction
The reaction directed to reform the reactants is called the reverse
reaction.
Reversible reaction
Some chemical reactions can proceed on both forward and reverse
directions at a certain condition. These types of reactions are called
reversible reacions.
Collision Theory
The more frequent the contact between the reacting species, the
greater can be the rate of reaction.
Rate of reaction
The amount of reactant used up or product formed per unit time is
called the rate of reaction.
Catalyst
A catalyst is a substance that alters the rate of chemical reaction but
chemically remains unchanged at the end of the reaction.
Positive catalyst
A catalyst that increases the rate of reaction is called a positive
catalyst.
Negative catalyst (or) inhibitor
A catalyst that decreases the rate of reaction is called a negative
catalyst.
Enzyme
Catalysts found in living tissues are called enzymes.

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

Photochemical reaction
A photochemical reaction is a reaction which takes place only when
the reactant molecules absorb the light radiation (hv).
Activated complex (or) Transition state
An intermediate state (also known as transition state) is a species of
high energy and highly unstable which changes into products or reactants
depending on a change happening.
Activation energy
The minimum energy required to form an activation complex is
called activation energy.
Le Chatelier’s Principle
When any one of the factors affecting the equilibrium of a chemical
system such as temperature, pressure or concentration is changed, the
system reacts in such a way to nullify the effect of the change.

Practice Questions
Section (B) Question No.7: 4 marks

1. Answer the following questions.

(i) What are the factors affecting the rate of reaction.
(ii) Give four factors affecting the rate of reaction.
(iii) What are the factors affecting the chemical equilibrium.
(iv) Explain the term dynamic equilibrium.
2. What would be effect of increasing temperature on the following
equilibrium.
2 ( )+ ( ) ⇌ 2 ( )+ℎ
3. Predict the effect of decreasing temperature on the following
equilibrium.
2 ( )+ ( ) ⇌ 2 ( )+ℎ
4. What will be effect of increasing and decreasing temperature on the
following equilibrium.
2 ( )+ℎ ⇋ 2 ( )+ ( )

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

5. Predict the effect of increasing temperature on the following

equilibrium system.
2 ( ) ⇋2 ( )+ ( ) ∆ = +115
6. Using Le Chatelier’s principle, predict the effect of increasing
pressure on the following equilibrium.
( ) ⇋2 ( )
7. Predict the effect of decreasing pressure on the following
equilibrium.
( )+ ( ) ⇋2 ( )
8. How would you change the temperature and pressure on the
following equilibrium so that you could get the highest quantity of
SO3 on the right hand side?
2 ( )+ ( ) ⇋2 ( )+ℎ
9. What would be the effect of adding more Fe3+ ions and decreasing
concentration of Fe3+(aq) ions on the following equilibrium?
( )+ ( ) ⇋ ( )
10. What change will not affect the following equilibrium?
2 ( )+ ( )⇋2 ( )

All our dreams can come true

if we have the courage to pursue them.
Walt Disney

Henry Louis Le Chatelier

(1850-1936)
French chemist
Famous for devising Le Chatelier’s principle used by chemists
to predict the effect of changing condition has on a system
in chemical equilibrium

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

Chapter (7)
ENERGY CHANGES IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS

ယခုသင္ခန္းစာမွာေတာ့ ဓာတုဓာတ္ျပဳျခင္းေတြမွာ ျဖစ္ေပၚတဲ့ စြမ္းအင္ေျပာင္း

လဲျခင္းေတြကိုေလ့လာရမွာပါ။ အထူးသျဖင့္ အပူ(စြမ္းအင္)ေျပာင္းလဲျခင္းကိုေလ့လာရ
မွာပါ။ ဓာတုဓာတ္ျပဳျခင္းေတြမွာျဖစ္ေပၚတဲ့ စြမ္းအင္ေျပာင္းလဲျခင္းေတြကိုေလ့လာတဲ့
ဘာသာရပ္ကို chemical energiticsလိ႔ေ
ု ခၚပါတယ္။ စြမ္းအင္ေျပာင္းလဲျခင္းေတြ
ဘာလိ႔ျု ဖစ္သလဲဆိုရင္ ဓာတ္စည္းမ်ားကြဲထြက္ျ ခင္းနဲ႔ ျပန္လည္ေပါင္းစပ္ျခင္း(breakin-
-g and formation of bonds)ေၾကာင့္ျဖစ္တာပါ။ ဓာတ္စည္းမ်ားကြဲထြက္သြားတဲ့အခါ
စြမ္းအင္ကိုစုပ္ယၿူ ပီး ဓာတ္စည္းမ်ားအသစ္ျပန္လည္ဖ႔စ
ြဲ ည္းတဲ့အခါ စြမ္းအင္ကို
ထုတ္လႊတပ
္ ါတယ္။ သိ႔ေ
ု သာ္ စြမ္းအင္တည္ၿမဲမႈနိယာမ (Law of conservation of
energy)အရ systemတစ္ခုလံုးရဲ႕စုစုေပါင္းစြမ္းအင္ကေတာ့ မေျပာင္းလဲဘဲဆက္
လက္တည္ရွိပါတယ္။ စြမ္းအင္ေျပာင္းလဲျခင္းရဲ႕အေၾကာင္းရင္းကေတာ့ ဓာတ္ျပဳပစၥည္း
မ်ားနဲ႔ ဓာတ္ျဖစ္ပစၥည္းမ်ားမွာ သိုေလွာင္ထားတဲ့ ဓာတုစြမ္းအင္(chemical energy)
ပမာဏကြာျခားခ်က္ေၾကာင့္ပဲျဖစ္ပါတယ္။ systemရဲ႕ သိုေလွာင္ထားတဲ့ chemical
energy ပမာဏ (သိ႔)ု heat contentပမာဏကို enthalpyလိ႔ေ
ု ခၚပါတယ္။
ဓာတ္ျဖစ္ပစၥည္းေတြျဖစ္ေပၚဖိ႔အ
ု တြက္ ဓာတ္ျပဳပစၥည္းအခ်င္းခ်င္းဓာတ္ျပဳၾကတဲ့
အခ်ိန္တိုင္းမွာ သိသာထင္ရွားတဲ့ အပူေျပာင္းလဲျခင္းေတြျဖစ္ေပၚပါတယ္။ တခ်ိဳ႕ဓာတ္
ျပဳျခင္းေတြဟာ ပတ္ဝန္းက်င္ကိုအပူထုတေ
္ ပးၿပီး သူတ႔က
ို ို အပူထုတ္ဓာတ္ျပဳျခင္း
(exothermic reaction)လိ႔ေ
ု ခၚပါတယ္။ ဥပမာ-ေရထည့္ထားတဲ့ ဘီကာခြက္တစ္ခြက္
ထဲကို ဆာလ္ဖ်ဴရစ္အက္စစ္ကို ျဖည္းျဖည္းခ်င္းထည့္ၾကည့္ရင္ ဘီကာခြက္ပူလာတာ
ကိုေတြ႔ရပါမယ္။ အဲဒါဘာေၾကာင့္လဲဆိုေတာ့ ဆာလ္ဖ်ဴရစ္အက္စစ္န႔ေ
ဲ ရတိ႔ဓ
ု ာတ္ျပဳ
ျခင္းဟာ ပတ္ဝန္းက်င္ကိုအပူထုတ္ေပးလိ႔ပ
ု ဲျဖစ္ပါတယ္။
( )+ () → ( )+
တခ်ိဳ႕ဓာတ္ျပဳျခင္းေတြကေတာ့ ပတ္ဝန္းက်င္က အပူကိုစုပ္ယၿူ ပီး သူတ႔က
ို ို အပူ
စုပ္ယူဓာတ္ျပဳျခင္း(endothermic reaction)လိ႔ေ
ု ခၚပါတယ္။ ဥပမာ-ေရထည့္ထား ဘီ
ကာခြက္တစ္ခြက္ထဲကို အမိုနီယမ္ကလိုရိုဒ္ေပ်ာ္ဝင္ေစမယ္ဆိုရင္ အဲ့ဒီဘီကာခြက္ကို

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

ကိုင္ၾကည့္တဲ့အခါမွာ ေအးေနတာကိုေတြ႕ရမွာပါ။ ဒါဟာဘာေၾကာင့္လဲဆိုေတာ့ အမို

နီယမ္ကလိုရိုဒ္နဲ႔ ေရနဲ႔ဓာတ္ျပဳျခင္းဟာ ပတ္ဝန္းက်င္ကအပူကို စုပ္ယူလ႔ိုပဲျဖစ္ပါတယ္။
( )+ () + → ( )
အပူေျပာင္းလဲျခင္းေတြရ႕ဲ ယူနစ္ေတြကေတာ့ joule(J)နဲ႔ calorie(cal)တိ႔ပ ု ဲျဖစ္ပါ
တယ္။ 1J = 1V x 1C ျဖစ္ၿပီး 1 calဆိုတာကေတာ့ 1g အေလးခ်ိနရ
္ ွိတဲ့ေရကို အပူခ်ိန္
10C ျမင့္တက္ေစဖိ႔လ
ု ိုအပ္တဲ့ အပူစြမ္းအင္ပမာဏပဲျဖစ္ပါတယ္။ calကိုအစားအ
ေသာက္ေတြအတြက္သံုးၿပီး Jကိုေတာ့ က်န္တဲ့စြမ္းအင္ေျပာင္းလဲျခင္းေတြအတြက္
သံုးပါတယ္။ 1000 calကို 1 kcalလိ႔ေ
ု ခၚၿပီး calorieနဲ႔ jouleနဲ႔ဆက္သြယ္ခ်က္ကေတာ့
1calမွာ 4.18Jရွပ
ိ ါတယ္။
ဓာတုဓာတ္ျပဳျခင္းေတြရဲ႕ အပူေျပာင္းလဲမႈေတြကို “change in heat content”
ဒါမွမဟုတ္ “change in enthalpy”ဆိုတဲ့စကားလံုးနဲ႔ေဖာ္ျပပါတယ္။ ဒါေၾကာင့္ပဲ
ဖိအားကိန္းေသျဖစ္တဲ့ ဓာတ္ျပဳျခင္းတစ္ခုမွာ ထုတ္ေပးတဲ့အပူ(သိ႔)ု စုပ္ယူတဲ့အပူကို
enthalpy changeလိ႔ေ
ု ခၚၿပီး သေကၤတအေနနဲ႔ ∆H လိ႔သ
ု တ္မွတ္ပါတယ္။
ဓာတုဓာတ္ျပဳျခင္းအမ်ားစုဟာ ပံုမွန္အခန္းအပူခ်ိန္နဲ႔ ေလထုဖိအားရဲ႕ေအာက္မွာ
ျဖစ္ေပၚၾကတာပါ။ သိ႔ေ
ု သာ္အခန္းအပူခ်ိန္န႔ဲ ေလထုဖိအားဟာ အမ်ိဳးမ်ိဳးေျပာင္းလဲေန
တဲ့အတြက္ အပူေျပာင္းလဲျခင္းေတြကိုတိုင္းတာတဲ့ေနရာမွာ တည္ၿငိမ္တိက်မႈမရွိပါဘူး။
ဒါေၾကာင့္ ပညာရွင္ေတြဟာ တိက်တဲ့စမ္းသပ္မႈေတြကိုလုပ္ႏိုင္ဖ႔ို စံအပူခ်ိန္န႔ဲ ဖိအားကို
္ ေတာ့ 250C (298 K)ျဖစ္ၿပီး စံဖိအားက ေတာ့
သတ္မွတ္ခဲ့ၾကပါတယ္။ စံအပူခ်ိနက
1atm (760 mmHg)ျဖစ္ပါတယ္။ အဲ့ဒါကို standard conditionsလိ႔ေ
ု ခၚၿပီး အဲဒီ
standard conditionsမွာျဖစ္တဲ့ enthalpy changeကို standard enthalpy change
ု ခၚပါတယ္။ သေကၤတအေနနဲ႔ ∆Hθလိ႔သ
လိ႔ေ ု တ္မွတ္ပါတယ္။
အပူထုတ္လႊတ္တဲ့ exothermic reactionေတြမွာ ∆Hθရဲ႕တန္ဖိုးဟာ အႏုတ(္ -)
တန္ဖိုးျဖစ္ၿပီး အပူစုပ္ယူတဲ့ endothermic reactionေတြမွာ ∆Hθ ရဲ႕တန္ဖိုးဟာ အ
ေပါင္း(+)တန္ဖိုးျဖစ္ပါတယ္။
( )+ ( ) → ( ) ∆Hθ = −
( )+ ( ) → ( ) ∆Hθ = +

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

ဓာတုဓာတ္ျပဳျခင္းေတြမွာ ျဖစ္ေပၚတဲ့ အပူေျပာင္းလဲျခင္းေတြကို-

(၁) ေလာင္ကြ်မ္းအပူ (heat of combustion)
(၂) ျဒပ္ေပါင္းျဖစ္အပူ (heat of formation of a compound)နဲ႔
(၃) ဓာတ္ျပယ္အပူ (heat of neutralization)
ဆိုၿပီး သံုးမ်ိဳးခြဲျခားထားပါတယ္။
အရာဝတၳဳေတြ ေလ(ေအာက္စီဂ်င္)မွာ ေလာင္ကြ်မ္းတဲ့ျဖစ္စဥ္ကို ေလာင္ကြ်မ္း
ျခင္း(combustion)လိ႔ေ
ု ခၚပါတယ္။ heat of combustionဆိုတာ one moleရွိတဲ့
အရာဝတၳဳေလမွာ လံုးဝေလာင္ကြ်မ္းသြားတဲ့အခါမွာ ျဖစ္လာတဲ့ အပူေျပာင္းလဲျခင္းျဖစ္
ပါတယ္။ သေကၤတအေနနဲ႔ ∆Hθလိ႔သ
ု တ္မွတ္ၿပီး Heat of combustionတိုင္းဟာ
exothermic reactionေတြျဖစ္ပါတယ္။ တိုင္းတာတဲ့ေနရာမွာ bomb calorimeterလို႔
ေခၚတဲ့ ကိရိယာကိုသံုးပါတယ္။
Heat of formation of a compoundကေတာ့ စံအေျခအေနတစ္ခုမွာ one
moleရွိတဲ့ ျဒပ္ေပါင္းတစ္ခု ျဖစ္ေပၚဖြ႔စ
ဲ ည္းတဲ့အခါ ျဖစ္ေပၚတဲ့ အပူေျပာင္းလဲျခင္းျဖစ္ပါ
တယ္။ သေကၤတအေနနဲ႔ ∆ လိ႔သ
ု တ္မွတ္ပါတယ္။ ∆ ဟာ exothermic reaction
ျဖစ္ႏိုင္သလို endothermic reactionလည္းျဖစ္ႏိုငပ
္ ါတယ္။
Heat of neutralizationဆိုတာကေတာ့ one moleရွိတဲ့ေရကိုရဖိ႔ု အက္စစ္မွ H+
ions one moleနဲ႔ OH- ions one mole အတိအက် ဓာတ္ျပဳၾကတဲ့အခါမွာ ျဖစ္ေပၚတဲ့
အပူေျပာင္းလဲျခင္းျဖစ္ပါတယ္။ သေကၤတအေနနဲ႔ ∆Hθလိ႔သ
ု တ္မွတ္ၿပီး Heat of
neutralizationတိုင္းဟာ exothermic reactionေတြျဖစ္ပါတယ္။
Hessရဲ႕နိယာမအရ အပူေျပာင္းလဲမႈမ်ားကို ဘယ္လိုနည္းလမ္းနဲ႔ပဲ ျဖစ္ေပၚေစ
သည္ျဖစ္ေစ အသားတင္အပူေျပာင္းလဲမ(ႈ net enthalpy change)ဟာ အၿမဲတေစတူ
ညီပါတယ္။ ဥပမာ-carbonမွ carbon dioxide one mole ျဖစ္ဖ႔ိုေလမွာ ေလာင္ကြ်မ္း
တဲ့အခါ ျဖစ္ေပၚတဲ့အပူေျပာင္းလဲျခင္း(∆Hθ = −393 )ဟာ carbonမွ carbon
monoxide one moleျဖစ္ဖို႔ ေလမွာေလာင္ကြ်မ္းတဲ့အခါ ျဖစ္ေပၚတဲ့အပူေျပာင္းလဲျခင္း
(∆Hθ = −110 )နဲ႔ carbon monoxideမွ carbon dioxide one moleျဖစ္ဖို႔
ေလမွာေလာင္ကြ်မ္းတဲ့အခါ ျဖစ္ေပၚတဲ့အပူေျပာင္းလဲျခင္း(∆Hθ = −283 )
တိ႔ရ
ု ႕ဲ ေပါင္းလဒ္နဲ႔ တူညီပါတယ္။

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

ဒီနိယာမကို လက္ေတြ႔စမ္းသပ္ခ်က္ေတြန႔တ
ဲ ိုက္ရိုက္မတိုင္းတာႏိုင္တဲ့ ဓာတု
ဓာတ္ျပဳျခင္းေတြရဲ႕ enthalpy changeေတြကို တြက္ထုတ္ရာမွာ သံုးပါတယ္။ ဥပမာ
heat of formation of methaneကို calorimeterနဲ႔တိုင္းတာလိ႔မ
ု ရပါဘူး။ ဒါေၾကာင့္
heat of combustion of methane, heat of combustion of carbon, heat of
combustion of oxygenစတာေတြကို တိုင္းတာၿပီးမွ heat of formation of
methaneကို တြက္ထုတ္ႏိုင္ပါတယ္။
ဒီနိယာမနဲ႔ အထက္ပါသေဘာတရားေတြကို ေၾကညက္စြာနားလည္ထားမယ္ဆို
ယခုသင္ခန္းစာမွာပါတဲ့ ပုစာၦေတြကို အလြယ္တကူတြက္ထုတ္ႏိုင္မယ္လ႔ို ယံုၾကည္ပါ
တယ္။

Intelligence
is
the ability to adapt to change.
Stephen Hawking

Germain Henri Hess

(1802-1850)
Swiss-Russian chemist and doctor
Formulated Hess’s Law, an early principle of thermochemistry

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

Chapter (7)
ENERGY CHANGES IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Chemical energy
Chemical energy is a potential energy that depends upon the
structure of the substance.
Potential energy
Potential energy is an energy that depends upon the position and
structure of the substance.
Kinetic energy
The energy due to the moving body is called kinetic energy.
Thermal energy
The energy due to the temperature difference is called thermal
energy.
Electrical energy
The energy produced by a generator is called electrical energy.
Chemical energetics
The study of energy changes by the chemical reaction is called
chemical energetics.
Endothermic reaction
The endothermic reaction is one which absorbs heat from the
surroundings.
Exothermic reaction
An exothermic reaction is one which releases heat to the
surroundings.
Enthalpy change
The heat change by a process occurring at constant pressure is called
enthalpy change.
Standard enthalpy change
The heat change by a process occurring at standard conditions is
called standard enthalpy change.
One calorie (1 cal)
The heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 10C is
called one calorie.

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

Thermochemical equations
Chemical equations including their heat changes are called thermo-
-chemical equations.
Heat of combustion
The heat of combustion of a substance is defined as the heat change
which takes place when one mole of substance is completely burned in
oxygen.
Heat of formation of a compound
The heat of formation of a compound is defined as the heat change
when one mole of a compound is formed from its elements in their
standard state.
Heat of neutralization
The heat of neutralization is defined as the heat change when one
mole of H+ ions from an acid react with one mole of OH- ions from a
base.
Hess’s law of constant heat summation
The net enthalpy change of a given chemical reaction remains the
same no matter by what method the change is carried out.

Practice Equations
Write the equations for the heat of formation and heat of combustion
for the following compounds.
methane ethane Propane butane benzene
CH4 (g) C2H 6 (g) C3H 8 (g) C4H10 (g) C6H6 (l)
gasoline methanol ethanol ethanal dimethyl ether
C8H18 (l) CH3OH (l) C2H 5OH (l) CH3CHO (l) CH3-O-CH3 (g)
methanoic acid ethanoic acid oxalic acid sugar carbon disulphide
HCOOH (l) CH3COOH (l) C2H2O4 (s) C12H22O 11 (s) CS2 (l)

Practice Questions
Section (B) Question No.8: 8 marks

1. Calculate the heat of formation of methane, CH4 (g), if its heat of

combustion is -780 kJmol-1. The heat of formation of CO2 (g) and
H2O (l) are -388 kJmol-1 and -360 kJmol-1, respectively.

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

2. Calculate the heat of combustion of propane gas C3H8 (g) if its heat
of formation is -1800 kJmol-1. The heat of formation of CO2 (g) and
H2O (l) are -390 kJmol-1 and -275 kJmol-1, respectively.
3. Calculate the heat of combustion of benzene, C6H6 (l), if its heat of
formation is +49.0 kJmol-1. The heat of formation of CO2 (g) and
H2O (l) are -393.5 kJmol-1 and -285.5 kJmol-1, respectively.
4. Calculate the heat of formation of gasoline, C8H18 (g), if heat of
combustion of gasoline, carbon and hydrogen are -5434 kJmol-1,
-393 kJmol-1 and -286 kJmol-1 respectively.
5. Calculate the heat of formation of C2H5OH (l) if the heat of
combustion of ethanol, carbon (graphite) and hydrogen are -1500
kJmol-1, -485 kJmol-1 and -375 kJmol-1, respectively.
6. Calculate the heat of formation of ethanal, CH3CHO (l), if its heat of
combustion is -1150 kJmol-1. The heat of formation of CO2 (g) and
H2O (l) are -393 kJmol-1 and -286 kJmol-1, respectively.
7. Calculate the heat of formation of ethanoic acid, CH3COOH (l) if its
heat of combustion is -486 kJmol-1 and heats of formation of CO2
(g) and H2O (l) are -390 kJmol-1 and -286 kJmol-1, respectively.
8. Calculate the heat of formation of oxalic acid, C2H2O4 (s) if its heat
of combustion is -27 kJmol-1 and heats of combustion of carbon
(graphite) and hydrogen are -393 kJmol-1 and -286 kJmol-1,
respectively.
9. Calculate the heat of formation of sugar, C12H22O11 (s), if its heat of
combustion is -5040 kJmol-1. The heat of formation of CO2 (g) and
H2O (l) are -393 kJmol-1 and -286 kJmol-1, respectively.
10. Calculate the heat of formation of carbon disulphide, CS2 (l) if
its heat of combustion is -1106 kJmol-1. The heat of formation of
CO2 (g) and SO2 (g) are -394 kJmol-1 and -296 kJmol-1, respectively.
11. The heat evolved in the combustion of methane is -890kJmol-1.
How many grams of methane would be required and how many
grams of carbon dioxide would be formed when 445.15 kJ of heat is
evolved?

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

Chapter (13)
ACIDS, BASES AND THEIR NEUTRALIZATION

ယခုသင္ခန္းစာမွာေတာ့ အက္စစ္ေတြ၊ ေဗ့စေ

္ တြနဲ႔ သူတ႔ရ
ို ဲ႕ဓာတ္ျပယ္ျခင္းေတြ
အေၾကာင္းကို အေသးစိတ္ေလ့လာရမွာပါ။ ဒါေတြကိုမေလ့လာခင္ အက္စစ္န႔ေ
ဲ ဗ့စ္တို႔
ရဲ႕သီအိုရီေတြ ဖြ႔ၿံ ဖိဳးတိုးတက္လာပံုကို အရင္သိထားဖိ႔လ
ု ိုပါတယ္။
၁၇၇၇ခုႏွစ္မွာ ျပင္သစ္သိပၸံပညာ႐ွင္ Antoine Laurent de Lavoisierက acid
ရဲ႕အဓိပၸာယ္ကို ပထမဆံုးဖြင့္ဆိုခဲ့ပါတယ္။ non-metallic oxideေတြနဲ႔ ေရနဲ႔ဓာတ္ျပဳၾက
တဲ့အခါျဖစ္လာတဲ့ အက္စစ္အမ်ားစု(H2SO4, H2SO3, HPO3, H3PO4, H3AsO3)မွာ
ေအာက္စီဂ်င္ပါဝင္ပါတယ္။ ဒါေၾကာင့္ Lavoisierက အက္စစ္အားလံုးဟာ ေအာက္စီ
ဂ်င္ပါတယ္လို႔ အဓိပၸာယ္ဖြင့္ဆိုခဲ့ပါတယ္။
၁၈၁၆ခုႏွစ္မွာ Henry Davyက HClမွာ ေအာက္စီဂ်င္မပါဘူးဆိုတာကို သ႐ုပ္ျပ
ႏိုင္ခဲ့ၿပီး Lavoisierရဲ႕အဆိုမွားယြင္းေၾကာင္း သက္ေသျပႏိုင္ခဲ့ပါတယ္။ Davyရဲ႕အဆို
အသစ္ကေတာ့ အက္စစ္အားလံုးဟာဟိက
ု ္ဒ႐ိုဂ်င္ပါတယ္ဆိုတာပဲျဖစ္ပါတယ္။Claude
Bertholletကလည္း HCNနဲ႔H2Sတိ႔မ
ု ွာ ေအာက္စီဂ်င္မပါတာကို သတိထားမိခဲ့ပါတယ္။
၁၈၈၇ခုႏွစ္မွာ Arreheniusက သီအိုရီတစ္ခုကို ေဖာ္ထုတ္ႏိုင္ခဲ့ပါတယ္။ အဲ့ဒါက
ေတာ့ အက္စစ္ဟာ ေရပါေပ်ာ္ရည္ေတြမွာ H+ ionကိုထုတေ
္ ပးႏိုင္ၿပီး ေဗ့စ္ဟာ ေရပါ
ေပ်ာ္ရည္ေတြမွာ OH- ionကိုထုတေ
္ ပးႏိုင္တယ္ဆိုတာပဲျဖစ္ပါတယ္။ strong acidေတြ
ဟာ H+ ionေတာ္ေတာ္မ်ားမ်ားကို ထုတ္ေပးႏိုင္ၿပီး weak acidေတြကေတာ့ သိပ္နည္း
တဲ့ H+ ionပမာဏကိုသာထုတ္ေပးႏိုင္ပါတယ္။ Arrheniusအယူအဆအရ strong
acidျဖစ္တဲ့ HClဟာ ေရမွာ ionအျဖစ္လံုးဝၿပိဳကြဲႏင
ို ၿ္ ပီး weak acidျဖစ္တဲ့ CH3COOH
ကေတာ့ ေရမွာ တစ္စိတ္တစ္ပိုင္းသာ ionအျဖစ္ၿပိဳကြဲႏိုငပ
္ ါတယ္။
HCl (aq) → H (aq) + Cl (aq)
CH COOH (aq) ⇌ CH COO (aq) + H (aq)
NaOH (aq) → Na (aq) + Cl (aq)
NH (g) + H O (l) ⇌ NH OH (aq) ⇌ NH (aq) + OH (aq)
ဒါေပမယ့္ Arrheniusရဲ႕သီအိုရီဟာ အားနည္းခ်က္ေတြ႐ွိေနၿပီး အဲ့ဒီအားနည္း
ခ်က္ေတြထဲကတစ္ခုကေတာ့ သီအိုရီဟာ ေရပါေပ်ာ္ရည္ေတြအတြက္ ကန္႔သတ္ခ်က္
႐ွိေနတာပဲျဖစ္ပါတယ္။
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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

၁၉၉၂ခုႏွစ္မွာ Bronsted နဲ႔ Lowryတို႔ကသီအိုရတ

ီ စ္ခုကိုေဖာ္ထုတ္ႏိုင္ခဲ့ပါတယ္။
အဲ့ဒီသီအိုရီအရ အက္စစ္ဟာ protonထုတ္ေပးတဲ့အရာျဖစ္ၿပီး ေဗ့စ္ကေတာ့ proton
လက္ခံတဲ့အရာျဖစ္ပါတယ္။ protonဆိုတာကေတာ့ electronဆံုး႐ွံဳးသြားတဲ့ ဟိုက္ဒ႐ို
ဂ်င္အက္တမ္ကိုဆိုလိုတာျဖစ္ပါတယ္။ (ဟိုက္ဒ႐ိုဂ်င္အက္တမ္ဟာ မူလကရင္း
neutronမပါတဲ့အက္တမ္ျဖစ္တဲ့အတြက္ electronဆံုး႐ံွဳးသြားတဲ့အခါ protonတစ္လံုး
တည္းသာက်န္ခဲ့ပါတယ္။) Bronsted Theoryအရ အက္စစ္န႔ဲေဗ့စ္ကို ခြဲျခားမစဥ္းစား
ပါဘူး။ equilibriumမွာ original acidဟာ conjugate baseျဖစ္တဲ့ reverse reaction
ကbaseနဲ႔ ဆက္စပ္ေနၿပီး original baseဟာ conjugate acidျဖစ္တဲ့ reverse
reactionက acidနဲ႔ ဆက္စပ္ေနပါတယ္။
HCl (aq) + H O (l) ⇌ H O (aq) + Cl (aq)
HSO (aq) + H O (l) ⇌ H O (aq) + SO (aq)
Protonတစ္လံုးသာပါတဲ့ H+ ionဟာ သိပ္ကုေ
ိ သးပါတယ္။ အခ်င္းအားျဖင့္10-13
cmပဲ႐ွိပါတယ္။ ဒါေပမယ့္ သူ႔ရဲ႕charge densityဟာ သိပ္ျမင့္ၿပီး သူ႔ဘာသာသူရပ္
တည္လ႔မ
ို ရပါဘူး။ ဒါေၾကာင့္ ေရေမာ္လီက်ဴးရဲ႕ lone pair of electronsကို ရယူၿပီး
ေပါင္းစပ္ရပါတယ္။ အဲ့ဒီအခါ H3O+ ionရပါတယ္။ H3O+ ionကို hydroxonium ion
(သိ႔)ု hydronium ionလိ႔ေ
ု ခၚပါတယ္။
H + H O: → H O
H+ ionတစ္လံုးကို ေရေမာ္လီက်ဴးဘယ္ႏွလံုးဝန္းရံထားသလဲဆိုတာ ေျပာဖိ႔ုခက္
ပါတယ္။ H3O+ ionကို ႐ိုး႐ွင္းတဲ့ equationေတြမွာ H+ ionလိ႔ပ
ု ဲေရးပါတယ္။ ဒါေၾကာင့္
H+ ionကိုေတြ႔ရင္ အဲ့ဒါဟာ H3O+ ionဆိုတာ နားလည္ထားရပါမယ္။
၁၉၃၉ခုႏွစ္မွာ G. N. Lewisက ေဗ့စ္ဆိုတာ lone pair of electronsေပးတဲ့အရာ
ျဖစ္ၿပီး အက္စစ္ဆိုတာ lone pair of electronsရယူတဲ့အရာျဖစ္တယ္လို႔ အဓိပၸာယ္
သတ္မွတ္ခဲ့ပါတယ္။ ဒီအဓိပၸာယ္သတ္မွတ္မႈမွာ H+ ion (သိ႔)ု protonပါတဲဲ့အရာေတြ
သာ အက္စစ္မဟုတ္ပါဘူး။ အထက္ပါနည္းအတိုင္း တူညီစြာလုပ္ေဆာင္ႏိုင္တဲ့အရာ
အားလံုးအက်ံဳးဝင္ပါတယ္။ ဥပမာ-ammoniaနဲ႔ boron trifluorideဓာတ္ျပဳျခင္းဟာ
acid-base reactionျဖစ္တယ္လို႔ သူကဆိုပါတယ္။
: NH (g) + BF (s) ⇌ H N − BF

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

ယခုအခန္းမွာေတာ့ H+ ion (သိ႔)ု protonကိုသာအေျခခံၿပီး ေလ့လာရမွာျဖစ္ပါ

တယ္။ protonအလြယ္တကူဆံုး႐ွဳံးႏိုင္တဲ့ အက္စစ္(သိ႔)ု ေရတြင္ ionအျဖစ္လံုးဝၿပိဳကြဲ
ႏိုင္တဲ့ အက္စစ္ကို strong acidလိ႔ေ
ု ခၚၿပီး ၎နဲ႔ဆက္ႏႊယ္ေနေသာ baseဟာ weak
conjugate baseျဖစ္ပါတယ္။ ထိုနည္းတူ strong baseနဲ႔ ဆက္ႏႊယ္ေနတဲ့ acid ဟာ
weak conjugate acidျဖစ္ပါတယ္။ protonဆံုး႐ွံဳးရန္ခက္ခဲေသာ အက္စစ္ (သိ႔)ု
ေရတြင္ တစိတ္တပိုင္းသာ ionအျဖစ္ၿပိဳကြဲႏိုင္ေသာအက္စစ္ကို weak acidလိ႔ေ
ု ခၚၿပီး
၎နဲ႔ဆက္ႏႊယ္ေနေသာ baseဟာ strong conjugate baseျဖစ္ပါတယ္။ ထိုနည္းတူ
weak baseနဲ႔ ဆက္ႏႊယ္ေနတဲ့ acidဟာ strong conjugate acidျဖစ္ပါတယ္။
HCl (aq) + H O (l) ⇌ H O (aq) + Cl (aq)
CH COOH (aq) + H O (l) ⇌ H O (aq) + CH COO (aq)
အေတြ႔ရအမ်ားဆံုး strong acidေတြကေတာ့ HCl, H2SO4, HNO3, HBrနဲ႔ HPO3
တိ႔ျု ဖစ္ၿပီး အေတြ႔ရအမ်ားဆံုး strong baseေတြကေတာ့ethanoic acid, ethanedioic
acid, tartaric acid, citric acidနဲ႔ တျခား organic acidမ်ားျဖစ္ပါတယ္။ ေရမွာ ion
အျဖစ္ကြဲထြက္ႏိုင္မႈ အလယ္အလတ္သာ႐ွိတဲ့ အက္စစ္(ဥပမာH2SO3) ေတြကိုေတာ့
strong (သိ႔)ု weakအျဖစ္သတ္မွတ္လ႔ိုမရပါဘူး။
အက္စစ္ေပ်ာ္ရည္၊ ေဗ့စ္ေပ်ာ္ရည္ေတြလိုပဲ ေရမွာလည္း H+ ionနဲ႔ OH- ionေတြ
ပါဝင္ပါတယ္။ ေရကိုလွ်ပ္စစ္ဓာတ္စီးကူးေစျခင္းအားျဖင့္ စမ္းသပ္ၾကည့္ရာမွာ သန္႔စင္
တဲ့ေရမွာ H3O+ ionနဲ႔ OH- ionေတြပါဝင္တာကိုေတြ႔ရပါတယ္။ သိ႔ေ
ု သာ္ ပါဝင္တဲ့
ပမာဏသိပ္နည္းပါတယ္။ တကယ္လ႔ေ
ုိ ရမွာ ionေတြမပါေတာ့ဘူးဆိုရင္ လွ်ပ္စစ္ဓာတ္
စီးကူးႏိုင္မႈဟာ zeroျဖစ္သြားပါလိမ့္မယ္။ constant electrical conductivityကိုေတာ့
သန္႔စင္ေအာင္ထပ္ခါထပ္ခါေပါင္းခံထားတဲ့ ေရနဲ႔တိုင္းတာပါတယ္။
ေရေမာ္လီက်ဴးဟာ သိပ္ကိုဆန္းၾကယ္ပါတယ္။ ေရမွာ protonကိုလက္ခံႏိုင္တဲ့
(protophilic)ဂုဏ္သတၱေ
ိ ရာ protonကိုေပးစြမ္းႏိုင္တ(ဲ့ protogenic)ဂုဏ္သတၱေ
ိ ရာ ရွိ
ပါတယ္။ အဲ့ဒီလိုေမာ္လီက်ဴးမ်ိဳးကို amphiprotic moleculeလိ႔ု ေခၚပါတယ္။
H O (l) ⇌ H (aq) + OH (aq)
2H O (l) ⇌ H O (aq) + OH (aq)
Equationေရးရာမွာ အထူးကိစၥရပ္မ်ားမွလြဲ၍ က်န္အေျခအေနမ်ားတြင္ ႐ိုး႐ွင္း
လြယ္ကူတဲ့ အေပၚကequationကို အသံုးမ်ားပါတယ္။

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

[H ][OH ]
K=
[H O]
[ ] = [H ][OH ]
= [H ][OH ]
[H ] = [OH ] = 1 10 298
= 1 10
ု ခၚၿပီး H+ ionနဲ႔ OH- ion
အထက္ပါ equationကို ionic product of waterလိ႔ေ
ႏွစ္မ်ိဳးထဲက တစ္မ်ိဳးရဲ႕အေရအတြက္ေလ်ာ့သြားတဲ့အခါ က်န္တဲ့တစ္မ်ိဳးကတိုးေပးၿပီး
equilibriumကို မပ်က္ေအာင္ထိန္းေပးပါတယ္။
သန္႔စင္တဲ့ေရရဲ႕ H+ ionပါဝင္မႈႏႈန္းကို သေကၤတအားျဖင့္ [H+]လိ႔ေ
ု ဖာ္ျပၿပီး
ဂဏန္းတန္ဖိုးအေနနဲ႔ 1x10-7 moldm-3႐ွိပါတယ္။ pHတန္္ဖိုးဆိုတာက အေျခ ၁၀႐ွိတဲ့
[H+]ရဲ႕အႏုတ္ေလာ္ဂရစ္သမ္တန္ဖိုးပဲျဖစ္ပါတယ္။ pOHတန္ဖိုးကလည္း အထက္ပါ
သေဘာတရားနဲ႔ဆင္တူၿပီး pHနဲ႔pOHေပါင္းရင္ 14ရပါတယ္။
Basicity။ ။ အက္စစ္တစ္ခုရဲ႕ basicityဆိုတာကို အဲ့ဒအ
ီ က္စစ္ရ႕ဲ ေမာ္လီက်ဴး
တစ္လံုးကေန ထုတ္ေပးလိုက္တဲ့ H+ ionအေရအတြကန
္ ႔တ
ဲ ိုင္းတာပါတယ္။ ဥပမာ-
HClဟာ H+ ionတစ္လံုးထုတ္ေပးႏိုင္တဲ့အတြက္ monobasic acidလိ႔ေ
ု ခၚၿပီး သူ႕ရဲ႕
basicityက 1႐ွိပါတယ္။ H2SO4ဟာ H+ ion ႏွစ္လံုးထုတ္ေပးႏိုင္တဲ့အတြက္ dibasic
acidလိ႔ေ
ု ခၚၿပီး သူ႕ရဲ႕basicityက 2႐ွိပါတယ္။
Acidity။ ။ ေဗ့စ္တစ္ခုရဲ႕ acidityဆိုတာmonobasic acidတစ္ခုရ႕ဲ ေမာ္လီက်ဴး
အလံုးေရနဲ႔ညီမွ်တဲ့ ေဗ့စ္ေမာ္လီက်ဴးအေရအတြကက
္ ိုဆိုလိုတာပါ။ တနည္းအားျဖင့္
ေျပာရရင္ monobasic acidရဲ႕ ေမာ္လီက်ဴးဘယ္ႏွလံုးကို neutralizeျဖစ္ေစသလဲ ဆို
တာအေပၚမူတည္သတ္မွတ္တာပါ။ ဥပမာ- NaOHေမာ္လီက်ဴးတစ္လံုးဟာ HClေမာ္
လီက်ဴးတစ္လံုးကို ဓာတ္ျပယ္ေစႏိုင္ၿပီး သူ႕ရဲ႕acidityက 1႐ွိပါတယ္။ Na2CO3ေမာ္လီ
က်ဴးတစ္လံုးကေတာ့ HClေမာ္လီက်ဴးႏွစ္လံုးကို ဓာတ္ျပယ္ေစႏိုင္ၿပီး သူ႕ရဲ႕ acidityက
2႐ွိပါတယ္။
အက္စစ္မ်ားရဲ႕strengthကိုႏိႈင္းယွဥ္တဲ့နည္းလမ္း
HA (aq) + H O (l) ⇌ H O (aq) + A (aq)
[H O ][A (aq)]
K =
[HA (aq)]

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

Ka ကို dissociation constant of acidလိ႔ေ

ု ခၚၿပီး တစ္ခါတစ္ရံ logarithm scale
နဲ႔ ေဖာ္ျပပါတယ္။ အဲဒါကေတာ့ PKa = -log Ka ျဖစ္ပါတယ္။ dissociation constant
of baseကေတာ့ Kbျဖစ္ၿပီး pKb= -log Kbျဖစ္ပါတယ္။ logarithm scaleရဲ႕အားသာ
ခ်က္ကေတာ့ ႐ွဳပ္ေထြးေပြလီတဲ့ ကိန္းဂဏန္းေတြကို ႐ိုး႐ွင္း လြယ္ကူတဲ့ကိန္းဂဏန္း
မ်ားျဖစ္ေအာင္ျပဳလုပ္ႏိုင္တာပဲျဖစ္ပါတယ္။ ဥပမာ- Kaတန္ဖိုး 1.99 x 10-5 mol dm-3
ကို logarithm scaleအရ 4.7လိ႔ု ေဖာ္ျပႏိုင္ပါတယ္။ Kaတန္ဖိုးငယ္ရင္ (သိ႔)ု pKaတန္ဖိုး
ႀကီးရင္ weak acidလိ႔သ
ု တ္မွတ္ၿပီး Kaတန္ဖိုးႀကီးရင္ (သိ႔)ု pKaတန္ဖိုးငယ္ရင္ strong
acidလိ႔သ
ု တ္မွတ္ပါတယ္။ (baseအတြက္လည္း ထိုနည္းတူပဲျဖစ္ပါတယ္။)
ဆားကိုေရသြင္းၿဖိဳခြဲျ ခင္း (Salt hydrolysis)
အက္စစ္န႔ဲေဗ့စ္ကို သူတ႔ရ
ို ဲ႕ strengthေပၚမူတည္ၿပီး ခြဲျခားတဲ့အခါ strong acid,
weak acid, strong base, weak baseဆိုၿပီး ေလးမ်ိဳးရပါတယ္။ သူတ႔ေ
ို လးမ်ိဳးထဲက
အက္စစ္တစ္မ်ိဳးနဲ႔ ေဗ့စ္တစ္မ်ိဳးေပါင္းတဲ့အခါ ဆားေလးမ်ိဳးရပါတယ္။ အဲ့ဒီေလးမ်ိဳးထဲ
က strong acidနဲ႔ weak acidေပါင္းစပ္လ႔ရ
ို လာတဲ့ဆားကို ေရသြင္းၿဖိဳခြဲလိုက္တဲ့အခါ
ေပ်ာ္ရည္ဟာ အက္စစ္ဂုဏ္သတၱိျပၿပီး weak acidနဲ႔ strong acidေပါင္းစပ္လ႔ရ
ို လာတဲ့
ဆားကို ေရသြင္းၿဖိဳခြဲလိုက္တဲ့အခါ ေပ်ာ္ရည္ဟာ ေဗ့စ္(အယ္ကာလီ)ဂုဏ္သတၱိျ ပပါ
တယ္။
Buffer Solution
Buffer solutionဆိုတာကေတာ့ ေရေရာလိုက္လ႔ပ
ို ဲျဖစ္ျဖစ္၊ အက္စစ္ဒါမွမဟုတ္
ေဗ့စ္ အနည္းငယ္ကိုေပါင္းထည့္လိုက္လ႔ပ
ို ဲျဖစ္ျဖစ္ pHေျပာင္းလဲမႈကို တားဆီးေပးထား
တဲ့ေပ်ာ္ရည္ပဲျဖစ္ပါတယ္။ အထိေရာက္ဆံုးေသာ buffer solutionေတြမွာ ပမာဏတူ
ညီ တဲ့ weak acidနဲ႔ conjugate baseတိ႔ု ပါဝင္ပါတယ္။ pH အက္စစ္တန္ဖုိး(4-7)႐ွိတဲ့
ပံုမွန္buffer solutionတစ္ခုမွာ weak acidတစ္ခုနဲ႔ သူ႔ရဲ႕sodium saltတို႔ ပါဝင္ပါတယ္။
အဓိကအားျဖင့္ ethanoic acid (CH3COOH)နဲ႔ sodium ethanoate (CH3COONa)
တိ႔က
ု ို အသံုးမ်ားပါတယ္။ အဲ့ဒီ buffer solutionထဲကို strong acidျဖစ္တဲ့ HClကိုထည့္
လိုက္မယ္ဆိုရင္ HClမွ H+ ionမ်ားဟာ ေပ်ာ္ရည္က CH3COO- ionေတြန႔ဲေပါင္းသြားၿပီး
မၿပိဳကြဲႏိုင္တဲ့ ethanoic acidေမာ္လီက်ဴးေတြျ ဖစ္လာကာ pHေျပာင္းလဲမႈကို ကာကြယ္
ေပးပါတယ္။ အဲ့ဒီေပ်ာ္ရည္ထဲကိုပဲ strong base(NaOH)ထည့္လက
ို ္ရင္ strong base

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

က OH- ionေတြဟာ ေပ်ာ္ရည္က H+ ionေတြန႔ဲေပါင္းစပ္သြားၿပီး ေရေမာ္လီက်ဴးေတြ

ျဖစ္လာကာ pHေျပာင္းလဲမႈကို ကာကြယ္ေပးပါတယ္
pH ေဗ့စ္တန္ဖိုး(7-11)႐ွိတဲ့ ပံုမွန္ buffer solutionတစ္ခုမွာ weak baseတစ္ခုန႔ဲ
သူ႔ရဲ႕ conjugate acidပါဝင္ပါတယ္။ အဓိကအားျဖင့္ ammonium hydroxideနဲ႔
ammonium chlorideတိ႔က
ု ို သံုးပါတယ္။ အဲဒb
ီ uffer solutionထဲကို အယ္ကာလီ
အနည္းငယ္ ထည့္လိုက္မယ္ဆိုရင္ ေပ်ာ္ရည္ဟာ alkaliက OH- ionေတြကိုယူၿပီး မၿပိဳ
ကြဲႏိုင္တဲ့ weak baseတစ္ခုျဖစ္လာေစကာ pHေျပာင္းလဲမႈကို ကာကြယ္ေပးပါတယ္။
အဲ့ဒီ buffer solutionထဲကိုပဲ အက္စစ္တစ္ခုေပါင္းထည့္လိုက္တဲ့အခါ အဲ့ဒီအက္စစ္က
H+ ionေတြကို weak baseမွ OH- ionေတြက ရယူကာ ျပန္လည္ၿပိဳကြဲၿပီး pHေျပာင္းလဲ
မႈကို ကာကြယ္ေပးပါတယ္။
အထက္ပါသေဘာတရားေတြကို ေၾကညက္ေအာင္နားလည္ထားမယ္ဆိုပါက
အခုသင္ခန္းစာမွာပါတဲ့ ပုစာၦေတြကို အလြယ္တကူတြက္ခ်က္ႏိုင္မယ္လို႔ အခိုင္အမာ
ယံုၾကည္ပါတယ္။

Sir Humphry Claude Louis Johannes Thomas Gilber N.

Davy Berthollet Bronsted Martin Lewis
(1778-1829) (1748-1822) (1879-1947) Lowry (1875-1946)
Cornist chemist Savoyard- Danish (1874-1936) American
French physical English physical
chemmist chemist physical chemist
chemist

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

Chapter (13)
ACIDS, BASES AND THEIR NEUTRALIZATION

Acid according to Lavoisier

All acids contain oxygen.
Acid according to Davy
All acids contain hydrogen.
Acid according to Arrhenius
An acid produces H+ ion in aqueous solution.
Base according to Arrhenius
A base produces OH- ion in aqueous solution.
Bronsted acid
An acid is a proton donor.
Bronsted base
A base is a proton acceptor.
Acid according to Lewis Theory
An acid is an acceptor of lone pair of electrons.
Base according to Lewis Theory
A base is a donor of lone pair of electrons.
Strong acid
An acid which loses a proton readily and highly ionized in a dilute
aqueous solution is called a strong acid.
Weak acid
An acid which loses a proton with difficulty and only slightly
ionized in a dilute aqueous solution is called a weak acid.
Strong base
A base which accepts a proton readily and highly ionized in a dilute
aqueous solution is called a strong base.
Weak base
A base which accepts a proton with difficulty and only slightly
ionized in a dilute aqueous solution is called a weak base.
Dilute acid
An acid with a large proportion of solvent is called dilute acid.

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

Concentrated acid
A pure acid or an acid with the large proportion of acid is called
concentrated acid.
Conjugate acid
An acid produced by a base in an acid-base equilibrium is called
conjugate acid.
Conjugate base
A base produced by an acid in an acid-base equilibrium is called
conjugate base.
( ) + () ⇌ ( )+ ( )
Cl- is the conjugate base of original acid, HCl, and H3O+ is the conjugate
acid of water in the reverse reaction.
Neutralization
The reaction of an acid and a base to produce salt and water is called
neutralization.
Protophilic (proton-accepting) property
The protophilic property of a substance is a property to accept proton
by that substance.
Protogenic (proton-donating) property
The protogenic property of a substance is a property to donate proton
of that substance.
Amphiprotic molecule
A molecule that shows both proton accepting (protophlic) and
proton donating (protogenic) properties is called an amphiprotic
molecule.
pH (Hydrogen ion exponent)
pH is defined as the negative logarithm to base 10 of the molar
concentration of hydrogen ions. ( pH = -log [H+] )
pOH (Hydroxide ion exponent)
pOH is defined as the negative logarithm to base 10 of the molar
concentration of hydroxide ions. ( pOH = -log [OH-] )

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

Water neutrality
The term water neutrality refers to the situation in pure water at 298
K. The pH of pure water or neutral aqueous solution at 298 K is 7.
Neutral solution
A neutral solution is one which is neither acid nor base. It contains
equal concentration of H+ and OH- ions.
Basicity of an acid
The basicity of an acid may be defined as the number of H+ ions that
one molecule of an acid can produce.
Acidity of a base
The acidity of a base may be defined as being equivalent to the
number of molecules of a monobasic acid, like HCl which will neutralize
one molecule of the base.
Hydrolysis
The cleavage of compounds by the action of water is called
hydrolysis.

Practice Questions
Section (B) Question No.8: 8 marks

1. Show that pH + pOH = 14.

2. Calculate the pH and pOH of the aqueous solutions containing 0.25
mole of HCl per dm3 and 0.025 mole of NaOH per dm3.
3. Calculate the pH and pOH values of the solutions containing 0.315g
of HNO3 and 1.4 g of KOH per dm3 respectively.
4. Calculate the hydrogen ion concentration of the solutions having
pOH value of 7.8 and pH value of 6.5.
5. What is the hydroxide ion concentration of the solutions having the
pH value of 4.5 and pOH value of 8.9.
6. Calculate the pH of a buffer solution containing 0.2 mole of
methanoic acid (Ka = 1.8 x10-5) and 0.1 mole of sodium methanoate
per dm3.

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

7. Calculate the pOH of a buffer solution containing 0.04 mole of

ethanoic acid (pKa = 4.7) and 0.4 mole of sodium ethanoate per 500
cm3 of solution.
8. Would the pH of a solution of sodium ethanoate be greater or less
than 7? Give an explanation for this. (KW = [H+][OH-]= 1 x 10-14)
9. Some ammonium chloride was dissolved in water and the solution
has a pH of 5. Explain the result. (KW = [H+][OH-] = 10-14)
10. The pH of a solution of sodium chloride would be equal to 7.
Explain the result clearly.
11. (i) Arrange the following acids in order of increasing acid
strength. Give reasons for your arrangement.
Acid pKa
HCN 9.3
Cl-CH2COOH 2.9
CH3COOH 4.7
HCOOH 3.8
(ii) Calculate the pKa of methanoic acid (Ka = 1.8 x 10-4),
ehanoic acid (Ka = 1.8 x 10-5) and hydrogen cyanide (Ka = 1.8x10-6).
Science is what we know
and
philosophy is what we don’t know.
Bertrand Russell

သင္ဆရာ၊ ျမင္ဆရာ၊ ၾကားဆရာအားလံုး၏ ဂုဏ္ေက်းဇူးကို ေအာက္ေမ့လ်က္

♦ မ်က္ႏွာဖံုးဒီဇိုင္း ♦ ဘိုဟိန္းထက္ဦး ♦
♦ ေနာက္ေက်ာဒီဇိုင္း ♦ မင္းသန္႔ ♦
♦ ကြန္ပ်ဴတာစာစီႏွင့္ အတြင္းဒီဇိုင္း ♦ မင္းသန္႔ ♦
♦ ပံုႏွိပ္ ♦ မင္းသန္႔ ♦

Copyright © Minn Thant 2018

ဤစာအုပ္တြင္ပါရွိေသာ cover design နွင့္ layout designမ်ားအား တစိတ္တေဒသျဖစ္ေစ၊
အားလံုးကိုျဖစ္ေစ ပံုစံတူကူးခ်ျခင္း၊ ေကာ္ပီကူးယူျခင္း၊
စီးပြားျဖစ္ျပန္လည္ျဖန္႔ေဝေရာင္းခ်ျခင္းမ်ားအား လံုးဝ(လံုးဝ)ခြငမ
့္ ျပဳပါ။

60
 Chapter 6
Rates of Reactions and Equilibria
ဓာတ်ပ ြုနှုန််းမ ာ်းနှင် မျှခပြေမ ာ်း

ဓာတ်ပ ြုနှုန််းတတွေနဲ့ ဓာတုမျှတပြေတတွေကုတလေ့လာပြေင််းဟာ ဓာတုဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််းတတွေကုန ်းလည်ဖအ

ုဲ့ တွေက်
အဓကကျတေ့ အရာတတွေ ပဖစ် ါတယ်။ ဒါကုန ်းလည်ဖုဲ့ ဒီအြေျက်တတွေကု သရ ါမယ်။
(၁) ဓာတုဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််းတတွေ ဘာတ ကာငေ့်ပဖစ်ရတာလ
(၂) ဓာတုဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််းတတွေရဲ့နန
ှု ််းတတွေကု ဘယ်အြေျက်တတွေကု ကညေ့်ပ ီ်းတုင််းတာဆု်းပဖတ်ရတာလ
(၃) ဓာတုဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််းတတွေပဖစ်တေ့အြေျန်မှာ ဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််းဟာ ပ ညေ့်ပ ညေ့ဝ
် ဝပဖစ်တနသလာ်း ဒါမှမဟုတ်
မပဖစ်ဘ်းလာ်း
ဒါတတွေကု န ်းလည်ဖုဲ့အတွေက် ဓာတ်ပ ြုနှုန်း် နဲ့ ဓာတုမျှတပြေတရ
ုဲ့ ဲ့ သတဘာသဘာဝကု တလေ့လာပ ီ်းမှသာ
သနုင် ါလမေ့်မယ်။

When does a chemical reaction occur?

ဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််းဘယ်အြေ န
ျိ ်မှာပြစ်ခ ေါ် ါသလဲ
အရှင််းဆု်းတပ ာရရင် ဓာတ်ပ ြုမယေ့်အရာနှစ်ြေထ
ု တတွေဲ့မှသာ ဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််းပဖစ်တ ေါ် ါတယ်။ ဥ မာတပ ာရရင်
အက်စစ်ထညေ့်ထာ်းတေ့ ဘီကာြေွေက်တစ်ြေန
ု ဲ့ တဘေ့စ်ထညေ့်ထာ်းတေ့ဘီကာြေွေက်တစ်ြေက
ု ု တဘ်းပြေင််းယှဉ်ထာ်းရုနဲ့
ဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််း မပဖစ်တ ေါ် ါဘ်း။ အတ ကာင််းကတတာေ့ သတန
ုဲ့ ှစ်ြေုဟာ ထတတွေဲ့ပြေင််းမရှလုဲ့ ါ ။ အတသ်းစတ်တပ ာရရင်
ဓာတ်ပ ြုလုတေ့ အက်တမ်(သ)ုဲ့ တမာ်လီကျ ်း (သ)ုဲ့ အုင််းယွေန််းတတွေဟာ အြေျင််းြေျင််း ထတတွေဲ့ပြေင််းမရှလုဲ့ ါ ။ ဒါကု
အင်္ဂလ ်လု collideလုဲ့တြေေါ် ါတယ်။ ထတတွေဲ့တယ် ဒါမှမဟုတ် တု်းတုက်မတယ်လအ
ုဲ့ ဓ ပါယ်ရ ါတယ်။
ထတတွေဲ့ပြေင််းကုတတာေ့ collisionလုဲ့တြေေါ်ဆု ါတယ်။ collisionမရှရင် reactionမရှနုင် ါဘ်း။
တန က်တစ်ြေျက်က collisionပဖစ်တုင််းလည််း reactionမပဖစ်နုင် ါဘ်း။ ထမင််းြေျက်ပြေင််းကု ဥ မာအတနနဲ့
တပ ာပ ါမယ်။ ဆန်နဲ့ တရကု အု်းတစ်လု်းထမှာထည်ေ့လုက်ရန
ု ဲ့ ထမင််းပဖစ်မသွော်း ါဘ်း။ အ လတ
ုဲ့ ြေေါ်တေ့
စွေမ််းအင်လု ါတယ်။ ဟုတ် ါပ ီ။ အေ့တတာေ့ အေ့ဒထ
ီ မင််းအု်းရဲ့တအာက်မှာ တဆ်းလ ်မီ်းနတ
ဲ့ လ
ုဲ့ ုက် ါမယ်။ ဒါမှမဟုတ်
အတမွေ်းတုင်သု်းတြေျာင််းထွေန််းလုက် ါမယ်။ ထမင််းမပဖစ် ါဘ်း။ ဘာလုဲ့လဆုတတာေ့ တ ်းလုက်တေ့အ က
လုတလာက်တေ့စမ
ွေ ််းအင်မဟုတ်လုဲ့ ါ ။ ထမင််းပဖစ်ဖလ
ုဲ့ ုတလာက်တေ့ စွေမ််းအင်တ ်းမှသာ ထမင််းပဖစ် ါမယ်။ ဒါကဘာကု
ဆုလုသလဆရ
ု င် sufficient energyရှတေ့ collisionတတွေကသာ ဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််းကု ပဖစ်တစတယ်လုဲ့ ဆုလုတာပဖစ် ါတယ်။
လုံခလာက်တစွ
ဲ မ််းအင်အတ ကာင််းကုန ်းလည်ဖုဲ့ ဦ်းစွော တက်ကကွေပဒ ်တ ါင််းစ ်လတ
ုဲ့ ြေေါ်တေ့ activated complex
အတ ကာင််းကု အရင်ဆု်းန ်းလည်ရ ါမယ်။ တအာက်က ုကု ကညေ့် ါ။

SayaMinnThantChemistry/Chapter6 1
 Source: https://socratic.org/questions/58dc1b2db72cff12fd06d13e

ုမှာ COနဲ့NO2တတ
ုဲ့ ါင််းစ ် ကပ ီ်း CO2နN
ဲ့ Oပဖစ်သွော်း ုကုတဖာ်ပ ထာ်း ါတယ်။ ဒါဟာတက
ု ်ရုက်ပဖစ်တာတတာေ့
မဟုတ် ါဘ်း။ ုရဲ့အလယ်မှာ တမာ်လီကျ ်းနှစ်ြေုတရာတထွေ်းတနတေ့ တ
ု လ်း ါ ါတယ်။ အေ့ဒါကု တက်ကကွပြ ်ခ ါင််းစ ်
(activated complex)လုဲ့ တြေေါ် ါတယ်။ activated complexဆုတာကတတာေ့ reactantကတန productမပဖစ်ြေင်မာှ
တမာ်လီကျ ်း အြေျင််းြေျင််း ကာ်းဆွေအာ်းပဖစ်တ ေါ်ပ ီ်း တရာတထွေ်းတနတေ့အဆငေ့်ပဖစ် ါတယ်။ ဒီအတပြေအတနကု
ကာ်းအတပြေအတနလုဲ့တြေေါ် ါတယ်။ အင်္ဂလ ်လုတတာေ့ intermediate state လုဲ့တြေေါ်သလု transition
stateလုဲ့လည််းတြေေါ် ါတယ်။ ဒီအတပြေအတနမှာ ပဖစ်တ ေါ်တနတေ့activated complexဟာ စွေမ််းအင်ပမငေ့်မာ်းပ ီ်း
မတည်မပငမ်ပဖစ်တန ါတယ်။ ဘာဆက်ပဖစ်မလဆတ
ု ာကတတာေ့ သူ့အတ ါမှာကျွန်တတာ်တုဲ့ ဘယ်လုဆက်လု ်မလ
ဆုတာတ ေါ်မတည် ါတယ်။ activated complexပဖစ်တ ေါ်နုငဖ
် အ
ုဲ့ တွေက် အနမေ့်ဆု်းလုအ ်တေ့စွေမ််းအင်ကု activation
energyလုဲ့ တြေေါ် ါတယ်။ activation energyကု လုအ ်တာထက် အနည််းငယ် ုတ ်းမှသာ activated complexဟာ
productအပဖစ် တပ ာင််းလနင
ု ်မှာပဖစ် ါတယ်။ ဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််းမှာ collisionတတွေအမျာ်းကကီ်းပဖစ်တန ကတေ့ထမှာမှ
အနည််းငယ်သာ energyကုရရှ က ါတယ်။ ကျန်တcေ့ ollisionတတွေကတတာေ့ သတပုဲ့ ီ်းမှ energyရရှဖုဲ့ အတန က်မာှ
တစာငေ့်ဆင
ု ််းတန က ါတယ်။
ဒါကု အတုဆု်းနအ
ဲ့ ရှင််းဆု်းတပ ာရမယ်ဆုရင်တတာေ့ collisionရှမှ reactionပဖစ်တာမှနတ
် မယေ့် activation
energyထက် နည််းနည််း ုတ ်းမှ reactionပဖစ်နုင်မာှ ပဖစ် ါတယ်။

6.1 Rates of Reactions (ဓာတ်ပ ြုနှုန််းမ ာ်း)

သနလ
ဲ့ ု ်ထာ်းတေ့ အ ်တလ်းတစ်တြေျာင််းဟာ သာမန်တလထုနထ
ဲ့ တတွေဲ့တေ့အြေါ သတြေျ်းတက်ပြေင််းဟာ
တနှ်းတကွေ်းစွော ပဖစ်တ ေါ် ါတယ်။ white phosphorusတလနထ
ဲ့ တတွေဲ့တေ့အြေါ မီ်းတတာက်တစ်ြေုပဖစ်တ ေါ်နုင် ါတယ်။
ဖတယာင််းတုငမ
် ှာ ါတေ့ ဖတယာင််းသာ်းတတွေဟာ အေ့ဒဖ
ီ တယာင််းတုင်ရဲ့မီ်းစာကု မီ်းညမှသာ တလာင်ကျွမ််းနုင် ါတယ်။
ဒါတတွေအာ်းလု်းဟာ ဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််းတတွေပဖစ် ါတယ်။ အတအကျတပ ာရရင် oxygenနဲ့ တ ါင််းစ ် ကတေ့

SayaMinnThantChemistry/Chapter6 2
ဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််းတတွေပဖစ် က ါတယ်။ ဒါတ မယေ့် ဓာတ်ပ ြုနှုန််းတတွေကတတာေ့ မတညီ က ါဘ်း။ ဒီဥ မာတတွေကု
ကညေ့်ပြေင််းအာ်းပဖငေ့် ဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််းတတွေဟာ မတညီတေ့နန
ှု ််းတတွေနဲ့ ပဖစ်တတ် ကတယ်ဆုတာကု န ်းလည်နုင် ါတယ်။
Rate of reaction(ဓာတ်ပ ြုနှုန််း)ဆုတာကု န ်းလည်နုငဖ
် အ
ုဲ့ တွေက် တအာက် ါ ဥ မာက အတထာက်အက
ပဖစ်တစ ါလမေ့မ
် ယ်။
Magnesiumဟာ hydrochloric acidနဲ့ ဓာတ်ပ ြုတေ့အြေါ hydrogenဓာတ်တငွေဲ့နဲ့ magnesium chlorideတက
ုဲ့ ု
ထုတ်တ ်းနုင်တယ်ဆတ
ု ာ အာ်းလု်းသပ ီ်းပဖစ် ါတယ်။ ဒါကု equationအတနနဲ့ ဒီလုတဖာ်ပ နုင် ါတယ်။
Mg (s) + 2HCl (aq) → MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
ဒီညီမျှပြေင််းမှာ ကျွန်တတာ်တဟ
ုဲ့ ာ အတလ်းြေျန်သပ ီ်း သနဲ့်စင်တေ့ magnesiuimဖကကြု်းတလ်းတစ်ြေုကု သု်းတယ်လုဲ့
သတဘာထာ်းလုက် ါ။ အေ့ဒm
ီ agnesiumဖကကြု်းတလ်းကု hydrochloric acidထကုထညေ့်လုက်တာနဲ့ ဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််း
စတင်ပဖစ်တ ေါ် ါတယ်။ ဖကကြု်းရဲ့အတလ်းြေျန်နဲ့ အက်စစ်ရဲ့ပ င််းအာ်းတအ
ုဲ့ တ ေါ်မတည်ပ ီ်း အြေျန်အတုင််းအတာတစ်ြေု
တရာက်တေ့အြေါမှာ အေ့ဒဖ
ီ ကကြု်းတလ်းဟာ တ ျာက်ကွေယ်သွော်းတာကု ပမင်တတွေဲ့ရမှာ ါ။ တန က်ဆက်တွေအတနနဲ့
hydrogenဓာတ်တငွေဲ့ထွေက်လာတာကုလည််း တတွေဲ့ရမှာပဖစ် ါတယ်။ magnesiumဖကကြု်းတလ်း တ ျာက်ကွေယ်သွော်းတေ့
နှုန််းကု တွေက်ထုတ်ြေျင်တယ်ဆုရင် magnesiumရဲ့အတလ်းြေျန်ကု ဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််းလု်းဝပ ီ်းဆု်းဖလ
ုဲ့ ုအ ်တေ့ ကာြေျန်နဲ့
စာ်းပ ီ်းတွေက်ထုတ်နင
ု ် ါတယ်။ ဒါဟာ ဓာတ်ပ ြုနှုန််းကု ဓာတ်ပ ြု စစည််း(reactant)နဲ့ တွေက်ထုတ်တာပဖစ် ါတယ်။
ညီမျှပြေင််းကတတာေ့ ဒီလုပဖစ် ါတယ်။
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒖𝒎
Rate = = quantity of Mg reacted per unit time
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

အလာ်းတ ကျွန်တတာ်တဟ
ုဲ့ ာ ဓာတ်ပ ြုနန
ှု ််းကု ဓာတ်ပဖစ် စစည််း(product)နလ
ဲ့ ည််း တွေက်ထုတ်နုင် ါ
တသ်းတယ်။ ညီမျှပြေင််းကတတာေ့ ဒီလုပဖစ် ါတယ်။
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑯𝟐𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
Rate = = quantity of H2 produced per unit time
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

အ ကမ််းဖျဉ််းအာ်းပဖငေ့် တပ ာရမယ်ဆုရင် ဓာတုဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််းတတွေရဲ့နှုန််းထာ်းတတွေကု တုင််းတာသတ်မတ

ှ ်ရာမှာ
reactant နဲ့ productတရ
ုဲ့ ဲ့ အြေျန်အတုင််းအတာတစ်ြေုအတွေင််း မာဏတပ ာင််းလမှုနဲ့ တုင််းတာသတ်မှတ်
ရတာ ပဖစ် ါတယ်။
နမန ညီမျှပြေင််းတစ်ြေုကု ဆက်တလေ့လာ ကညေ့ရ
် တအာင်
A + B → C + D
Reactantတတွေနဲ့ နှုန််းကုတဖာ်ပ တေ့အြေါမှာ သတ်မှတ်အြေျန်တစ်ြေုအတွေင််းမှာ A ဒါမှမဟုတ် Bရဲ့ မာဏ
𝑑[𝐴] 𝑑[𝐵]
ဘယ်တလာက်ကုန်ဆု်းသွော်းသလဆတ
ု ာကု - နဲ့ - ဆုပ ီ်းတဖာ်ပ နုင် ါတယ်။ အနှုတ်လကခဏာဟာ ဆု်းရှု်းသွော်းမှု
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

ဒါမှမဟုတ် တလျှာေ့နည််းသွော်းမှုလုဲ့ အဓ ပါယ်ရပ ီ်း dကတတာေ့ သြေဂျာဘာသာရ ်ြေတစ်

ွေ ြေုပဖစ်တေ့ differential
calculusမှာသု်းတေ့အသု်းအနှုန််း ပဖစ် ါတယ်။ derivativeလုဲ့တြေေါ်ဆုပ ီ်း တပ ာင််းလပြေင််းနှုန််းတတွေကု တဖာ်ပ ရာမှာ
သု်း ါတယ်။
အလာ်းတ ါ ။ productတတွေနဲ့ နှုန််းကုတဖာ်ပ တေ့အြေါမှာ သတ်မတ
ှ ်အြေျန်တစ်ြေုအတွေင််းမှာ C ဒါမှမဟုတ်
d[C] d[D]
Dရဲ့ မာဏ ဘယ်တလာက်ပဖစ်တ ေါ်လာသလဆတ
ု ာကု + နဲ့ + ဆုပ ီ်းတဖာ်ပ နုင် ါတယ်။ အတ ါင််းလကခဏာဟာ
dt dt

ပဖစ်လာမှု ဒါမှမဟုတ် တု်းလာမှုလုဲ့ အဓ ပါယ်ရ ါတယ်။

SayaMinnThantChemistry/Chapter6 3
 d[A] d[B]
Rate = - (or) -
dt dt
d[C] d[D]
Rate = + (or) +
dt dt

ဒါတ ကာငေ့် ဓာတ်ပ ြုနှုန််းဆုတာဟာ အြေျန်အတုင််းအတာတစ်ြေုအတွေင််း reactantဘယ်တလာက်

ကုန်ဆု်းသွော်းသလ ဒါမှမဟုတ် productဘယ်တလာက်ပဖစ်လာသလဆတ
ု ာကု တဖာ်ပ ပြေင််း ပဖစ် ါတယ်။
reactantဒါမှမဟုတ် productတရ
ုဲ့ ဲ့ မာဏတတွေကု တုင််းတာရာမှာတတာေ့ အစုင်အြေဆုရင် (g), အရည်နအ
ဲ့ တငွေဲ့ဆရ
ု င်
(volume)စသပဖငေ့် ယနစ်အမျြု်းမျြု်းနဲ့ တုင််းတာ က ါတယ်။ မျာ်းတသာအာ်းပဖငေ့်တတာေ့ mol dm-3နတ
ဲ့ ုင််းတာ ါတယ်။
အြေျန်ရဲ့ ယနစ်တတွေကတတာေ့ seconds, minutes, hours, days, monthsစသည်ပဖငေ့် ပဖစ် ါတယ်။ ဒါတ ကာငေ့် rate of
reactionရဲ့ယနစ်ဟာ mol dm-3 sec-1 ဒါမှမဟုတ် mol dm-3 min-1 ဒါမှမဟုတ် mol dm-3 hr-1 စသည် ပဖငေ့်
ပဖစ် ါတယ်။

6.2 Factors influencing Reaction Rates

ဓာတ်ပ ြုနှုန််းမ ာ်းအခ ေါ် သက်ခ ာက်ခသာ အြေ က်မ ာ်း
ဓာတ်ပ ြုနှုန််းတတွေအတ ေါ်သက်တရာက်တေ့ အြေျက်စုစုတ ါင််းတပြောက်ြေျက်ရှ ါတယ်။ ဒါတတွေကတတာေ့
(1) Effect of concentration of reactants
(2) Effect of pressure
(3) Effect of temperature
(4) Effect of catalyst
(5) Effect of radiation နဲ့
(6) Effect of surface area of reactants တုဲ့ ပဖစ် ါတယ်။ အ ကမ််းဖျဉ််းအာ်းပဖငေ့်တတာေ့ ဒီသက်တရာက်မှုတတွေဟာ
ဓာတ်ပ ြုနှုန််းနဲ့ တုက်ရုက်အြေျြု်းကျ ါတယ်။ တစ်ြေုစီကု အတသ်းစတ်ရှင််းပ ါမယ်။

(1) Effect of concentration of reactants

ဓာတ်ပ ြု စစည််းနှစ်ြေု ဓာတ်ပ ြု ကတေ့အြေါမှာ သတထ
ုဲ့ က အက်တမ် (သုဲ့) တမာ်လီကျ ်း (သ)ုဲ့ အုင််းယွေန််းတတွေဟာ
တစ်ြေုနဲ့ တစ်ြေုထတတွေဲ့ပြေင််း(collision)ရှမှ ဓာတ်ပ ြုနင
ု ်တေ့အတ ကာင််းကု အတရှဲ့မှာ တပ ာပ ြေပေ့ ီ်းပဖစ် ါတယ်။ ဒါတ ကာငေ့်
ဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််းဟာ အေ့ဒအ
ီ မှုန်တတွေအြေျင််းြေျင််း ကာ်းမှာပဖစ်တ ေါ်တေ့ collisionအတ ေါ်မှာ မတည်တန ါတယ်။
ဓာတ်ပ ြုနှုန််းကု collisionနဲ့ ဆု်းပဖတ်တာကု collision theoryနဲ့ ဒီလု ရှင််းပ နုင် ါတယ်။
The more frequent the contact between reacting species, the greater can be the rate of reaction.
ဓာတ်ပ ြု စစည််း(အမှုန်)အြေျင််းြေျင််း ကာ်းက ထတတွေဲ့မှုအကကမ်ဟာမျာ်းတလတလ ဓာတ်ပ ြုနန
ှု ််းဟာ ပမန်တလတလ ါတေ့။
Concentrationဆတ
ု ာကု ပ င််းအာ်းလုဲ့ အလွေယ်ဘာသာပ န်တန ကတ မယေ့် သူ့ရဲ့ မရင််းအဓ ပါယ်ကတတာေ့
‘ ါဝင်ကန််း’ပဖစ် ါတယ်။ ဘယ်တလာက်မျာ်းမျာ်း ါဝင်သလဆတ
ု ေ့ မာဏကုတဖာ်ပ တာပဖစ် ါတယ်။ reactantတတွေရဲ့
concentrationကု တု်းတ ်းလုက်တေ့အြေါ collisionပဖစ်နင
ု ်တပြေဟာ မ
ု ျာ်း ါတယ်။ ထင်သာပမင်သာရှတေ့
ဥ မာနတ
ဲ့ ပ ာရမယ်ဆုရင် လ၅၀အတအကျဆန်တ
ဲ့ ေ့အြေန််းထမှာ လ၁၀ တယာက်ထညေ့်လုက်တာနဲ့

SayaMinnThantChemistry/Chapter6 4
လ၄၅ကုထညေ့်လုက်တာနမ
ဲ့ တ ါဘ်း။ ၄၅တယာက်ရှတေ့လတတွေဟာ တစ်တယာက်နတ
ဲ့ စ်တယာက် ုပ ီ်း
နီ်းနီ်းက ်က ်ပဖစ်တန ါလမေ့မ
် ယ်။ ဒါတ ကာငေ့် concentrationတု်းရင် collision ုပဖစ်မယ်။ collision ုပဖစ်တေ့အြေါမှာ
ဓာတ်ပ ြုနှုန််းဟာ ုပမန်လာ ါလမေ့်မယ်။ reactantတတွေရဲ့concentrationကု တလျှာေ့တ ်းလုက်တေ့အြေါမှာတတာေ့
collisionနည််းသွော်းတေ့အတွေက် rateလည််း တနှ်းသွော်း ါလမေ့်မယ်။
(2) Effect of pressure
ပဒ ်တတွေဟာ အစုင်အြေ(solid) အရည်(liquid)နဲ့ အတငွေဲ့(gas)စတေ့ ရု ်အတပြေအတနသု်းမျြု်းထက အတပြေအတန
တစ်မျြု်းမျြု်းနဲ့ ပဖစ်တည်တန ကတယ်ဆုတာကု သပ ီ်းပဖစ် ါတယ်။ ဒီအတပြေအတနတတွေထကမှ အတငွေဲ့အတပြေအတနမှာ ရှတေ့
အရာဝတထြုတတွေသာ ဖအာ်းရဲ့ သက်တရာက်မှုကု ြေ ကရတာပဖစ် ါတယ်။ အရည်၊ အစုင်အြေ ဒါမှမဟုတ်
တ ျာ်ရည်တတွေဟာ ဖအာ်းရဲ့သက်တရာက်မှုကု မြေ ကရ ါဘ်း။ အတငွေဲ့တစ်ြေုြေရ
ု ဲ့ concentrationဟာ
သူ့အတ ေါ်သက်တရာက်တေ့ ဖအာ်းနဲ့ တစတ်တ ုင််းအာ်းပဖငေ့် သက်ဆုင် ါတယ်။ အ ြေျန်သာမတပ ာင််းလဘ်းဆုရင်
အတငွေဲ့ရဲ့ concentrationမျာ်းတလတလ ဖအာ်းတု်းတလတလ ါ ။ ဒါတ ကာငေ့် အ ကမ််းဖျဉ််းအာ်းပဖငေ့်တပ ာရမယ်ဆုရင်
(ဓာတ်တငွေဲ့)ဓာတ်ပ ြုနှုန််းကု တု်းတစြေျင်တေ့အြေါ သူ့ရဲ့ သက်ဆုင်ရာဖအာ်းကု တု်းတ ်းရ ါတယ်။ ဥ မာအာ်းပဖငေ့်
သမှုနဲ့်တလ်းတတွေကု တအာက်စီင်္ျင် ၂၀% ါတေ့တလထုထမှာ ဓာတ်ပ ြုတစတေ့အြေါ တနှ်းတနှ်းတလ်း တလာင်ကျွမ််းတာကု
ပမင်တတွေဲ့ရမှာပဖစ်ပ ီ်း တအာက်စီင်္ျင် ၁၀၀%နဲ့ တလာင်ကျွမ််းတစတေ့အြေါမှာတတာေ့ မီ်း ွော်းတတွေထွေက်တေ့အထ ပ င််းထန်စွော
ဓာတ်ပ ြုတလာင်ကျွမ််းတာကု ပမင်တတွေဲ့ရမှာ ပဖစ် ါတယ်။
(3) Effect of temperature
တနွေရာသီမာှ အစာ်းအတသာက်တတွေ ု ်သု်းတာပမန်ပ ီ်း တဆာင််းတွေင််းမှာ ု ်သု်းမှုတနှ်းတာကု
လတုင််းသ က ါတယ်။ ဒါဟာ ဓာတ်ပ ြုနန
ှု ််းအတ ေါ်ကု အ ြေျန်ရဲ့ သက်တရာက်မှု ါ ။ အ ြေျန်ပမငေ့်တလတလ
ဓာတ်ပ ြုနှုန််းဟာ ပမန်တလတလ ပဖစ် ါတယ်။ ဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််းအတ ကာင််းကု တရှဲ့မှာတပ ာြေေ့တေ့အတု င််း အ ြေျန်ဟာ
activation energyထက် မ
ု ျာ်းမျာ်းရတေ့အြေါ ုပ ီ်းတတာေ့ ပမန်ပမန်ဓာတ်ပ ြု ကလုဲ့ ပဖစ် ါတယ်။ ဒီတတာေ့ အ ြေျန်ပမငေ့်ရင်
နှုန််းပမန်မယ်၊ အ ြေျန်ကျသွော်းရင် နှုန််းကလည််း တနှ်းသွော်းလမေ့်မယ်။ အ ကမ််းဖျဉ််းအာ်းပဖငေ့်တတာေ့ အ ြေျန်ကု
တစ်ဆယ်ဒီင်္ရီတု်းတ ်းတုင််း ဓာတ်ပ ြုနှုန််းဟာ နှစ်ဆပမန်တယ်လုဲ့ တလေ့လာမှုတတွေအရ သရ ါတယ်။
(4) Effect of catalyst
Catalystဟာ ဓာတ်က စစည််းလုဲ့ အဓ ပါယ်ရ ါတယ်။ ဓာတ်ပ ြုနှုန််းကု တပ ာင််းလတစဖအ
ုဲ့ တွေက်
အကအညီတ ်းတသာ စစည််းပဖစ် ါတယ်။ catalystဟာ အကအညီသက်သက်သာတ ်းတေ့ စစည််းပဖစ်ပ ီ်း
ဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််းမှာ ါဝင်ပြေင််းမရှ ါဘ်း။ ဒါတ ကာငေ့် ဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််းပ ီ်းဆု်းသွော်းတေ့အြေါ ဒီအတုင််း ကျန်ရှြေေ့ ါတယ်။ ဒါတ ကာငေ့်
reactantတတွေအမျာ်းကကီ်းကု ဓာတ်ပ ြုတစဖုဲ့ catalystအနည််းငယ်နလ
ဲ့ ည််း လုတလာက် ါတယ်။
Catalystက ဓာတ်ပ ြုနှုန််းကု တပ ာင််းလတစတေ့တနရာမှာ နှစ်မျြု်းရှ ါတယ်။ ုပ ီ်းပမန်တစတာ ဒါမှမဟုတ်
ုပ ီ်းတနှ်းတစတာ ပဖစ် ါတယ်။ ဓာတ်ပ ြုနှုန််းကု ပမန်တအာင်လု ်တ ်းတေ့ catalystကု positive catalystလုဲ့ တြေေါ် ါတယ်။
ဓာတ်ပ ြုနှုန််းကု တနှ်းတအာင်လု ်တ ်းတေ့ catalyst ကုတတာေ့ negative catalystလုဲ့တြေေါ်သလု inhibitorလုဲ့လည််း
တြေေါ် ါတသ်းတယ်။ inhibitorဆတ
ု ာကတတာေ့ တနှ ငေ့်တနှ်းတစတသာအရာလုဲ့ အဓ ပါယ်ရ ါတယ်။

SayaMinnThantChemistry/Chapter6 5
 Catalystတတွေကု ဓာတုကုန်ထုတ်လု င
် န််းတတွေနဲ့ ဓာတုတေဒဆုင်ရာသုတတသနလု ်ငန််းတတွေမှာ
တွေင်တွေင်ကျယ်ကျယ် အသု်းပ ြု က ါတယ်။ ဥ မာအာ်းပဖငေ့်
Haber Processနဲ့ ammoniaထုတ်လု ်တေ့တနရာမှာ iron ကုသု်းတာ
Contact Processနဲ့ sulphur trioxideကု ထုတ်လု ်တေ့တနရာမှာ vanadium (V) oxide သုဲ့ platinized
asbestos ကုသု်းတာ
Potassium chlorateကတန oxygenဓာတ်တငွေဲ့ကုထုတ်တဖာ်ရာမှာ manganese (IV) oxideကုသု်းတာ
တတွေ ပဖစ် ါတယ်။
သက်ရှတစ်ရှ ်းတတွေထမှာတတွေဲ့ရတေ့ catalystတတွေကုတတာေ့ enzymeလုဲ့တြေေါ် ါတယ်။ ဇီဝဓာတ်က စစည််းလုဲ့
အဓ ပါယ်ရပ ီ်း biocatalystလုဲ့လည််း သု်း ါတသ်းတယ်။ အင်ဇုင််းတတွေထက လသအမျာ်းဆု်းဥ မာတတွေကု ပ ရရင်တတာေ့
တတတွေ်းထမှာ ါတေ့ ptyalinဆုတေ့ အင်ဇုင််းနဲ့ အစာတပြေရည်မာှ ါတေ့ pepsinဆတ
ု ေ့ အင်ဇုင််းတုဲ့ ပဖစ် က ါတယ်။
ဒီအင်ဇုင််းတတွေရဲ့ အဓကလု ်တဆာင်ြေျက်ကတတာေ့ ကျွန်တတာ်တစ
ုဲ့ ာ်းလုက်တေ့ ကစီဓာတ်နဲ့ ရုတင််းစတေ့ ကကီ်းမာ်းတေ့
တမာ်လီကျ ်းတတွေကု ြေနဓ ကုယဆ
် လ်တတွေကတန အသု်းြေျလုဲ့ ရနုင်တလာက်တအာင်အထ ုပ ီ်းရု်းရှင််းတသ်းငယ်တေ့
တမာ်လီကျ ်းတတွေအပဖစ် ပဖြုြေွေပြေင််းပြေင််းကု ပမန်ဆန်တအာင် ပ ြုလု တ
် ်းတာ ပဖစ် ါတယ်။
(5) Effect of radiation
အလင််းဟာ စွေမ််းအင်ရင််းပမစ်တစ်ြေုပဖစ်ပ ီ်း တစ်ြေျြုဲ့တသာဓာတုဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််းတတွေအတ ေါ်မှာ သက်တရာက်မှုရှ ါတယ်။
ဥ မာအာ်းပဖငေ့် hydrogenနဲ့ chlorineတဟ
ုဲ့ ာ အတမှာင်ထမှာဓာတ်ပ ြုတေ့အြေါ ဓာတ်ပ ြုနန
ှု ််းဟာ သ ်တနှ်း ါတယ်။
သတ
ုဲ့ သာ်လည််း တတာက် တေ့အလင််းတရာင်ရဲ့တအာက်မှာ ဓာတ်ပ ြုတေ့အြေါမှာတတာေ့ တ ါက်ကွေတေ့အထ ဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််းဟာ
ပ င််းထန် ါတယ်။ ဒီပဖစ်စဉ်မှာ chlorine moleculeတလ်းတတွေဟာ တနတရာင်ပြေည်တ ကာငေ့် free radicalလုဲ့တြေေါ်တေ့
chlorine atomတလ်းတတွေအပဖစ်ပ ြုကွေသွော်း ါတယ်။ chlorine atomတလ်းတတွေဟာ ဓာတ်ပ ြုနင
ု ်စွေမ််းပမငေ့မ
် ာ်းတေ့
အက်တမ်တတွေပဖစ် ါတယ်။ ဒီchlorine atomတလ်းတတွေဟာ hydrogen moleculeတတွေနတ
ဲ့ ါင််းစ ်သွော်းပ ီ်း hydrogen
chloride molecule နဲ့ hydrogen atomတတွေကု ပဖစ်တစ ါတယ်။ ဒီကတနထွေက်လာတေ့ hydrogen atomဟာ chlorine
moleculeနဲ့ ပ န်တ ါင််းပ ီ်း HCl moleculeနဲ့ chlorine atomကုပဖစ်တစပ ီ်း ဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််းဟာ ဆက်ြေါဆက်ြေါပဖစ်တ ေါ်
ါတတာေ့တယ်။ ဒါကု chain reactionလုဲ့တြေေါ် ါတယ်။ chain reactionစတင်တာနဲ့ ဓာတ်ပ ြုနှုန််းဟာ
ု ုပ ီ်းပမန်လာ ါတယ်။
ℎ𝑣 (𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡)
Cl2 → Cl + Cl
Cl + H2 → HCl + H
H + Cl2 → HCl + Cl
ဒီဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််းကု အလင််းတရာင်ကု ဓာတ် စစည််းအပဖစ်သု်းတသာ ဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််း (light catalysed reaction)လုဲ့
မတြေေါ် ါဘ်း။ အလင််းဓာတုဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််း (photochemical reaction)လုဲ့ တြေေါ် ါတယ်။ photochemical
reactionဆုတာကတတာေ့ reactant moleculeတတွေဟာ အလင််းစွေမ််းအင်ကု ရရှတေ့အြေျန်မှသာ ပဖစ်တ ေါ်တေ့
ဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််းလုဲ့ ဆုလုတာပဖစ် ါတယ်။
(6) Effect of surface area of reactants

SayaMinnThantChemistry/Chapter6 6
အစုင်အြေတတွေဓာတ်ပ ြု ကတေ့ ဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််းတတွေမှာ အေ့ဒအ
ီ စုင်အြေရဲ့ အရွယ်အစာ်းဟာ အတရ်း ါ ါတယ်။
ဥ မာတပ ာရရင် ါ်းလာတေ့ aluminiumပ ာ်းတလ်းဟာ တနတေ့ sodium hydroxideနဲ့ ုမှနန
် ှုန််းနဲ့ ဓာတ်ပ ြု ါတယ်။
သုဲ့တသာ် အေ့ဒတ
ီ နရာမှာ aluminiumအမှုနဲ့်ကသ
ု ု်းမယ်ဆုရင် sodium hydroxideဟာ တအ်းတနရင်တတာင်မှ ုပ ီ်းတတာေ့
ပမန်ပမန်ဆန်ဆန် ဓာတ်ပ ြု ါလမေ့မ
် ယ်။
2Al (s) + 2NaOH (aq) + 6H2O (l) → 2NaAl(OH)4 (aq) + 3H2 (g)
ဒါဟာဘာတ ကာငေ့်ပဖစ်ရသလဆရ
ု င်တတာေ့ ဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််းတတွေဟာ ဓာတ်ပ ြု စစည််းတတွေရဲ့ မျက်နှ ပ င်မှာပဖစ် ာွေ ်းလုဲ့ ါ ။
မျက်နှ ပ င်ဧရယာ ုပ ီ်းမျာ်းတလ ဓာတ်ပ ြု စစည််းတတွေဟာ ထတတွေဲ့မှု(collision) မ
ု ျာ်းတလပဖစ်ပ ီ်း ဓာတ်ပ ြုနှုန််းကလည််း
ပမန်တလတလ ါ ။ မျက်နှ ပ င်ဧရယာကုနင
ှု ််းယှဉ်ရာမှာတတာေ့ ပဒ ်ထုအတလ်းြေျန်တရင် ုပ ီ်းတသ်းတေ့ အမှုန်တတွေရဲ့
စုစုတ ါင််းမျက်နှ ပ င်ဧရယာက ုကကီ်းတေ့အမှုန်တတွေရဲ့ စုစုတ ါင််းမျက်နှ ပ င်ဧရယာထက် ုပ ီ်းမျာ်းတာကုတတွေရမှာ ါ။
ဒါဟာ ါ်းလာတaေ့ luminiumပ ာ်းနဲ့ aluminiumအမှုနဲ့် ဥ မာကု ရှင််းပ နုင် ါလမေ့်မယ်။ ဒီထက် ုရှင််းတေ့
ဥ မာတ ်းရမယ်ဆုရင် lolipopတလ်းတတွေနဲ့ စဉ််းစာ်း ကညေ့်နုင် ါတယ်။ စက်ရုထုတ် lolipopဟာ တစ်လု်းနတ
ဲ့ စ်လု်း
အရသာအတတ ါ ။ သတ
ုဲ့ သာ် ဝါ်းစာ်းတာနဲ့ ငုထာ်းတာနဲ့ ယှဉ် ကညေ့်ရင် ဝါ်းစာ်းတာက ကုန်တာ ုပမန် ါလမေ့်မယ်။
ဒါဟာဘာလုဲ့လည််းဆုတတာေ့ ဝါ်းလုက်တေ့အြေါမှာ lollipopရဲ့မျက်နှ ပ င်ဧရယာဟာ မျာ်းလာလုဲ့ ပဖစ် ါတယ်။

6.3 Chemical Equilibria

ဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််းအမျာ်းစုဟာ အသွော်းအပ န်ရှ က ါတယ်။ ဒီလဓ
ု ာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််းတတွေကု reversible reactionလုဲ့
တြေေါ်ပ ီ်း ညီမျှပြေင််းရဲ့ ပမာ်းတနရာမှာ reversible sign(⇌)နဲ့ တဖာ်ပ ါတယ်။
A + B ⇌ AB

ုမှာ AနB
ဲ့ တ ါင််းလုဲ့ ABပဖစ်တနတာကု ပ ပ ီ်း တပ ြုင်နက်ထမှာ ABကတန AနB
ဲ့ အပဖစ် ပ န်ပ ြုကွေတနတာကု
ပ ါတယ်။
ဒီလု reactantကတန productပဖစ်တနတေ့ တြေျန်တည််းမှာ productကတန reactantပ န်ပဖစ်တနတေ့
ဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််းတတွေကု reversible reactionလုဲ့ တြေေါ် ါတယ်။
Reversibleပဖစ်ရပြေင််းရဲ့ သတဘာတရာ်းကု ပ င်သစ်ဓာတုတေဒ ညာရှင် Claude Louis Bertholletက
၁၈၀၃ြေုနှစ်စတင်မတ်ဆက်တင်ပ ြေေ့ ါတယ်။ Bertholletဟာ ဆာ်းကန်တတွေရဲ့ အစ ်မှာ sodium
carbonateပဖစ်တ ေါ်တနတာကု တတွေဲ့ရှပ ီ်းတေ့တန က် တသြေျာစ်းစမ််းြေေ့ ါတယ်။
2NaCl + CaCO3 → Na2CO3 + CaCl2
Na2CO3 + CaCl2→ 2NaCl + CaCO3
2NaCl + CaCO3 ⇌ Na2CO3 + CaCl2
ဒီဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််းနှစြေ
် ုဟာ တစ်ပ ြုင်နက်တည််းပဖစ်တနတာကု Bertholletက တတွေဲ့ရှြေေ့ ါတယ်။
ဒီအြေျန်မတုင်ြေင်ကတတာေ့ ဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််းဆုတာ reactantကတန productပဖစ်တယ်ဆုတာကု
လက်ြေထာ်းြေေ့ ကတာ ါ။ Bertholletက ဆာ်းကန်တတွေမှာ NaCl မာဏမျာ်းလာတေ့အြေါ ဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််းဟာ
တပ ာင််းပ န်ပ န်သွော်းတယ် ဆုတာကု တတွေဲ့ြေေ့ ါတယ်။

SayaMinnThantChemistry/Chapter6 7
 A + B ⇌ AB

ဒါကု န ်းလည်တအာင် ရှင််းပ ါမယ်။ ဒီဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််းမှာAနB

ဲ့ တ ါင််းသွော်းပ ီ်း ABဆုတေ့ ပဒ ်တ ါင််းကုရ ါတယ်။ Aနဲ့
Bနဟ
ဲ့ ာ collisionရှပ ီ်း activation energyထက် ုရမယ်ဆုရင် ဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််းစပဖစ် ါပ ီ။ အေ့ဒအ
ီ တပြေအတနမှာ
reactantကတန productဘက်ကု သွော်းတေ့ reaction (forward reaction) ရှ ါတသ်းတယ်။ ဒီလုနဲ့
အတပြေအတနတစ်ြေုကု တရာက်လာတေ့အြေါမှာ (ဥ မာ AB မာဏဟာ မျာ်းလာတေ့အြေါမှာ)တတာေ့ ABဟာ AနB
ဲ့ နဲ့
အပဖစ်ပ န်ပ ီ်းကွေထွေက် ါတယ်။ ဒီအြေျန်မှာ productကတန reactantဘက်ကု ပ န်သွော်းတေ့ reaction (reverse
reaction)စတင် ပဖစ်တ ေါ် ါပ ီ။ forward reactionနဲ့ reverse reaction တပ ြုင်နက်တည််းပဖစ်တ ေါ်ရင် reversible
reactionလုဲ့တြေေါ် ါတယ်။ ဒီအဆငေ့်ထလည််း equilibriumလုဲ့တြေေါ်တေ့ မျှတပြေအဆငေ့်ကု မတရာက်တသ်း ါဘ်း။
Reverse reactionစတင်ပဖစ်တ ေါ်တေ့အြေါမှာ forward reactionရဲ့နန
ှု ််းက တတာ်တတာ်ပမန်တန ါတယ်။ reverse
reactionကတတာေ့ တနှ်းတနှ်းတလ်း ရှတန ါမယ်။ တပဖည််းပဖည််းနဲ့ forward reactionရဲ့ နှုန်း် ကတလျာေ့သွော်းပ ီ်း reverse
reactionရဲ့ နှုန််းက တု်းလာတေ့အတွေက် တြေျန်မှာ အေ့ဒန
ီ န
ှု ််းနှစ်ြေုဟာ တညီလာ ါလမ်မ
ေ့ ယ်။ အေ့ဒလ
ီ ုတညီတေ့အြေါကျမှ
equilibriumအဆငေ့်ကု တရာက် ါတယ်။ equilibriumပဖစ်တေ့အြေါမှာ dynamicပဖစ်တေ့ အတပြေအတနမှာရှတန ါတယ်။
Dynamicပဖစ်တေ့ အတ ကာင််းရင််း သု်းြေျက်ရှ ါတယ်။ ဒါတတွေကတတာေ့ equilibriumတစ်ြေုမာှ
(1) ဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််းဟာ ရ ်သွော်းတာမဟုတ် ါဘ်း။ ဆက်ပဖစ်တန ါတယ်။
(2) Forwardနဲ့ reverse reactionတုဲ့ ရဲ့ နှုန််းတတွေဟာ တတန ါတယ်။
(3) Productနဲ့ reactantတရ
ုဲ့ ဲ့ မာဏတတွေဟာ မတပ ာင််းလ ကတတာေ့ ါဘ်း။
ဆုရရင် ဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််းက ပဖစ်သာပဖစ်တနတာ မပဖစ်သလု ပဖစ်တန ါတယ်။ ရှင်လျက်နဲ့ တသတနသလု ါ ။
treadmillတစ်ြေုတ ေါ်မှာ လတစ်တယာက်တပ ်းတနသလု ါ ။ treadmillလည်တနတန
ေ့ ှုန််းနဲ့ လတပ ်းတနတေ့နန
ှု ််းနဲ့ တတနရင်
အေ့ဒလ
ီ တနရာတရွဲ့မာှ မဟုတ် ါဘ်း။

6.4 Factors influencing Equilibrium – Le Chatelier’s Principle

မျှခပြေအခ ေါ်သက်ခ ာက်ခသာ အြေ က်မ ာ်း - ခလ ှာတယ်ခလယာ်း ဥ ခြသ
ဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််းတစ်ြေုဟာ မျှတပြေအဆငေ့်ကု တရာက်သွော်းတာနဲ့ တစ်ပ ြုင်နက်တည််းမှာ ပ င် အတပြေအတနတတွေကု
မတပ ာင််းမြေျင််း ဘာတပ ာင််းလပြေင််းမှ သသသာသာမပဖစ်တတာေ့ ါဘ်း။ ဒါဟာ မတကာင််းတေ့အြေျက် ပဖစ် ါတယ်။
ဘာလုဲ့လဆတ
ု တာေ့ ကျွန်တတာ်တလ
ုဲ့ ုြေျင်တေ့ စစည််းကု အပ ညေ့်အဝမထုတ်တ ်းဘ ရ ်တနသလု ပဖစ်တနတေ့
အတွေက်တ ကာငေ့် ါ ။ ပ င် အတပြေအတနတစ်ြေုြေုကုတပ ာင််းလလုက်မယ် ဆုရင်တတာေ့ မျှတပြေဟာ တစ်ဘက်ဘက်ကု
တရွဲ့သွော်း ါလမေ့်မယ်။ ဒါကု ပ င်သစ်ဓာတုတေဒ ညာရှင် Henry Louis Le Chatelierက တတွေဲ့ရှြေေ့တေ့အတွေက် Le
Chatelier’s Principle လုဲ့ အသမျာ်း ါတယ်။
Le Chatelierရဲ့ principleမှာ တတာေ့ မျှတပြေတစ်ြေုပဖစ်တေ့အြေါ အ ြေျန်၊ ဖအာ်း၊ ပ င််းအာ်း စတေ့
ပ င် အတပြေအတနတစ်ြေုြေုကု တပ ာင််းလတ ်းလုက်ရင် မျှတပြေအသစ်တစ်ြေုအပဖစ်တပ ာင််းလသွော်းတယ် လုဲ့
တဖာ်ပ ထာ်း ါတယ်။ ဒါဟာ မျှတပြေက ပ င် အတပြေအတနတပ ာင််းလမှုကု ပ န်လည်တြေျဖျက်ဖုဲ့ ကကြု်းစာ်းပြေင််းတ ကာငေ့်
ပဖစ် ါတယ်။ nullifyလု ်တယ် ဒါမှမဟုတ် counteractလု ်တယ်လုဲ့ တြေေါ် ါတယ်။

SayaMinnThantChemistry/Chapter6 8
Effect of temperature
မျှတပြေတစ်ြေုအတ ေါ်မှာ အ ြေျန်ရဲ့သက်တရာက်မှုကု မတလေ့လာြေင်မာှ အ တပ ာင််းလမှုတတွေ ါဝင်တေ့ ဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််း
(thermochemical reaction)တတွေကု သထာ်းရ ါမယ်။ ဒါတတွေကတတာေ့ အ စု ်ယဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််း (endothermic
reaction)နဲ့ အ ထုတ်လတ်ဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််း (exothermic reaction)တုဲ့ ပဖစ် ါတယ်။
အ ြေျန်တု်းတ ်းလုက်တေ့အြေါမှာ အ စု ်ယဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််း (endothermic reaction)ကု ုပဖစ်တစပ ီ်း အ ြေျန်ကု
တလျာေ့တ ်းလုက်တေ့ အြေါမှတတာေ့ အ ထုတ်လတ်ဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််း (exothermic reaction)ကု ုပဖစ်တစ ါမယ်။
ဥ မာကု ကညေ့် ါ
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ⇌ 2NH3 (g) + heat
Nitrogenနဲ့ hydrogen တ ါင််းစ ်ပ ီ်း ammoniaပဖစ်တေ့ ဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််းဟာ exothermic reactionပဖစ် ါတယ်။
ညီမျှပြေင််းကု ကညေ့်ပြေင််းအရ ဒါဟာ မျှတပြေတစ်ြေုပဖစ်တနပ ီ်း ammoniaကလည််း nitrogenနh
ဲ့ ydrogenတအ
ုဲ့ ပဖစ်ပ န်ပ ီ်း
ပ ြုကွေတန ါတယ်။ ဒါဟာတပ ာင််းပ န်သတဘာပဖစ်ပ ီ်း endothermic reactionပဖစ် ါတယ်။ အရှင််းဆု်းတပ ာရရင်
forward reactionက exothermic reactionပဖစ်ပ ီ်း reverse reactionကတတာေ့ endothermic reaction ပဖစ် ါတယ်။
အ ြေျန်ကု တု်းတ ်းလုက်တေ့အြေါ မျှတပြေဟာ ဒီတပ ာင််းလမှုကု counteractလု ် ါတတာေ့တယ်။
အ ြေျန်တု်းတ ်းလုက်တေ့အြေါမှာ အ စု ်ယဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််း (endothermic reaction)ကု ုပဖစ်တစ ါမယ်။ ဒီညီမျှပြေင််းမှာ
endothermic reaction ဟာ reverse reactionပဖစ် ါတယ်။ ဒါတ ကာငေ့် မျှတပြေဟာ ဘယ်ဘက်ကုတရွဲ့သွော်းပ ီ်း
nitrogenနဲ့ hydrogenတရ
ုဲ့ ဲ့ မာဏဟာ မျာ်းလာ ါမယ်။ ammoniaရဲ့ မာဏကတတာေ့ တလျာေ့သွော်း ါလမေ့မ
် ယ်။
တကယ်လုဲ့ ammoniaရဲ့ မာဏကု ုမျာ်းမျာ်းထွေက်လာတစြေျင်ရင်တတာေ့ forward reactionကု
ုပဖစ်တစတအာင်လု ်ရ ါမယ်။ forward reactionဟာ exothermic ပဖစ်တေ့အတွေက် အ ြေျန်ကုတလျာေ့တ ်းလုက်ရင်
ammoniaမျာ်းမျာ်း ထွေက်လာ ါလမ်ေ့မယ်။

Effect of pressure
ဖအာ်းဟာ အစုင်အြေနဲ့ အရည်တအ
ုဲ့ တ ေါ်မှာ သသာတေ့ သက်တရာက်မှုမရှ ါဘ်း။
ဖအာ်းအဓကသက်တရာက်တာက အတငွေဲ့တတွေတ ေါ်မှာ ပဖစ် ါတယ်။ ဒါတ ကာငေ့် ဖအာ်းရဲ့သက်တရာက်မှုတ ကာငေ့်
မျှတပြေတပ ာင််းလမှုကု တလေ့လာတေ့တနရာမှာ အစုင်အြေနဲ့ အရည်တက
ုဲ့ ု ထညေ့်သွေင််းစဉ််းစာ်းစရာမလု ါဘ်း။
ဖအာ်းဟာ အတငွေဲ့ရဲ့ ထုထည်တတွေအတ ေါ်မှာ သက်တရာက်တာတ ကာငေ့် ဖအာ်းအတ ကာင််းကု မတပ ာြေင်
reactantနဲ့ productတရ
ုဲ့ ဲ့ ထုထည်(volume)တတွေ ဘယ်လုတပ ာင််းလသွော်းတယ်ဆုတာကု အရင်ဆု်း သထာ်းရ ါမယ်။
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ⇌ 2NH3 (g) + heat
1 vol 3 vol 2 vol
ဒီညီမျှပြေင််းအရ reactantတရ
ုဲ့ ဲ့ စုစုတ ါင််း ထုထည်ဟာ 4volရှ ါတယ်။ productဘက်ကတတာေ့ 2 vol
ရှ ါတယ်။ ဒါတ ကာငေ့် forward reactionဟာ ထုထည်တလျာေ့သွော်းတေ့ ဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််း (volume decreasing
reaction)ပဖစ်ပ ီ်း reverse reactionကတတာေ့ ထုထည်တု်းလာတေ့ ဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််း (volume increasing reaction)
ပဖစ် ါတယ်။

SayaMinnThantChemistry/Chapter6 9
 တန က်တစ်ဆငေ့်အတနနဲ့ ဖအာ်းရဲ့ ထုထည်အတ ေါ်သက်တရာက်မှုကု တလေ့လာ ကညေ့် ါမယ်။ Bolye’s lawအရ
ဖအာ်း(pressure)ဟာ ထုထည်(volume)နဲ့ တပ ာင််းပ န်အြေျြု်းကျ ါတယ်။ ဆုလုတာက pressure ကု တု်းတ ်းလုက်ရင်
volumeက တလျာေ့သွော်းမှာပဖစ်ပ ီ်း pressureကု တလျာေ့တ ်းလုက်တေ့အြေါမှာတတာေ့ volumeကတု်းလာမှာ ပဖစ် ါတယ်။
ဒီမျှတပြေအတွေက် pressureကု တု်းတ ်းလုက်တေ့အြေါ ထုထည်တလျာေ့သွော်းတေ့ ဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််း (volume decreasing
reaction) တနည််းအာ်းပဖငေ့်တပ ာရင် forward reaction ုပဖစ်မာှ ပဖစ်ပ ီ်း pressureကု တလျှာေ့တ ်းလုက်ရင်တတာေ့
ထုထည်တု်းလာတေ့ ဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််း (volume increasing reaction) တနည််းအာ်းပဖငေ့်တပ ာရင် reverse
reaction ုပဖစ်မာှ ပဖစ် ါတယ်။
ဖအာ်းရဲ့သက်တရာက်မှုအတွေက် အထ်းမှတ်ထာ်းရမယေ့်အြေျက်ကတတာေ့ reactantနဲ့ productဘက် က
စုစုတ ါင််းထုထည်တတွေတညီတနရင်တတာေ့ ဖအာ်းဟာ သက်တရာက်မှုမရှ ါဘ်း ဆုတာ ါ ။

Effect of concentration
မျှတပြေတစ်ြေုမာှ ါဝင်တေ့reactantဘက် ဒါမှမဟုတ် productဘက်မှာရှတေ့ စစည််းတစ်ြေုြေုကု
ထ ်ပ ီ်းတ ါင််းထညေ့်တ ်းလုက်တေ့အြေါ ထ ်ထညေ့်လုက်တေ့ဘက်က ပဖစ်တေ့ ဓာတ်ပ ြုပြေင််းကု ုပဖစ်တစ ါတယ်။ ဒါကု
concentrationတု်းတ ်းတယ်လုဲ့ တြေေါ် ါတယ်။ ဒီလုမဟုတ်ဘ concentrationကု တလျှာေ့တ ်းရင်တတာေ့ တပ ာင််းပ န်
သက်တရာက်မှာ ပဖစ် ါတယ်။
တအာက် ါဥ မာကု ကညေ့် ါ။
Fe3+ (aq) + SCN- (aq) ⇌ FeSCN2+ (aq)
Pale yellow colourless red coloured complex
(thiocyanate)
ဒီမျှတပြေထကု SCN-ထ ်ထညေ့်လုက်တေ့အြေါ reactantဘက်က concentrationမျာ်းသွော်းပ ်းီ collisionလည််း
ုမျာ်းလာတေ့အတွေက် forward reaction ုပဖစ် ါမယ်။ တဖျာ်ရည်ဟာ အတရာင်တပဖည််းပဖည််းရငေ့်လာတာကု
တတွေဲ့ရမှာပဖစ် ါတယ်။ Fe3+ကု ထ ်ထညေ့်လုက်တေ့အြေါမှာလည််း ဒီလု ပဖစ် ါမယ်။ သတန
ုဲ့ ှစ်ြေုထက တစ်ြေုြေုကု
ုထညေ့်တာမဟုတ်ဘ တလျှာေ့ထညေ့်လုက်တေ့ အြေါမှာတတာေ့ တ ျာ်ရည်ဟာ အတရာင်တဖျာေ့သွော်းတာကု ပမင်တတွေဲ့ရမှာ
ပဖစ် ါတယ်။ ဒါဟာ reverse reaction ုပဖစ်ပ ီ်း FeSCN2+ ဟာ Fe3+ နဲ့ SCN-အပဖစ် ပ န်လည်ကွေထွေက်တေ့အတွေက် ါ ။

ပ ြီ်း ါပ ြီ

SayaMinnThantChemistry/Chapter6 10
Saya Minn Thant (B.Ed.) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY Chapter (8)

Chapter (8)
SOME IMPORTANT METALS AND THEIR COMPOUNDS

Activity Series
Top to bottom ► reactivity decreases
ease of extraction increases

K
Na Very reactive.
Ca Never found as free element.
Mg Extracted by electrolysis.
reactivity Al
decreases
extraction
Zn Moderately reactive. Found as oxides,
becomes Fe carbonates or sulphides.
easier Pb Extracted by reduction reaction.
Cu
Hg Not very reactive.
Ag Maybe found in nature as the free element.
Au

Reactive metals (ဓာတ္ျပဳလြယ္ေသာသတၱဳမ်ား)

1. Reactive metals ေတြကို သဘာဝမွာ freeေတြ႔ရသလား။
Reactive metals are not found free in nature.
2. Reactive metalsေတြကို သဘာဝမွာ ဘယ္လိုေတြ႔ရပါသလဲ။
Reactive metals are found as compounds in nature.
3. Reactive metal ေတြကို ဘယ္လိုextractလုပ္ပါသလဲ။
Reactive metals are extracted by electrolysis.
4. Alkali metalsေတြက ဘာေတြလဲ။
Li, Na , K (lithium, sodium, potassium)
5. Alkali metals ေတြဟာ Groupဘယ္ေလာက္ရဲ႕ membersေတြလဲ။
Alkali metals are members of Group IA.

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Saya Minn Thant (B.Ed.) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY Chapter (8)

6. Alkali metalsေတြဟာ ဘာblock elementsေတြ ျဖစ္ၾကပါသလဲ။

Alkali metals are s-block elements.
7. Alkali metalsေတြေရနဲ႔ထိရင္ဘာျဖစ္မလဲ.
Alkali metals are easily inflammable when touch to water.
8. ဘယ္ alkali metalဟာ ေရနဲ႔ျပင္းထန္စြာ ဓာတ္မျပဳတာလဲ။
Lithium
9. Alkali metals ေတြေလနဲ႔ထိရင္ဘာျဖစ္သြားသလဲ။
Alkali metals tarnish rapidly in air and form a layer of oxide.
10. Li, Na, K တို႔ကို ဘယ္မွာ storeလုပ္ထားရပါသလဲ။
Li, Na and K are so reactive that they are stored under kerosene.
11. Alkali metalsေတြဟာ reducing agentလား။ oxidizing agentလား။
Alkali metals are very good reducing agents.
Others in the Series
1. Zn, Fe, Pbတို႔ကို ဘယ္လိုနည္းနဲ႔ extract လုပ္ပါသလဲ။
Zn, Fe and Pb are extracted by reduction reaction.
2. Activity seriesရဲ႕ ေအာက္ဆံုးပိုင္းမွာရွိတဲ့ metalsေတြကို သဘာဝမွာ
freeေတြ႔ရသလား။
The metals at the lowest place of activity series may be found free
in nature.
3. Activity seriesရဲ႕ အထက္ပိုင္းမွာရွိတဲ့ metalsေတြနဲ႔ ေအာက္ပိုင္းမွာရွိတဲ့
metalsေတြမွာ ဘယ္ဟာက ပိုၿပီး extractလုပ္ရတာလြယ္ပါသလဲ။
As the reactivity decreases, extraction become easier.

Sodium and its compounds

1. Sodium နဲ႔ potassiumကို သဘာဝမွာ ဘယ္လိုေတြ႔ရသလဲ။
Sodium and potassium occur chiefly as chloride: sodium chloride
(commonsalt) and potassium chloride (carnallite).

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Saya Minn Thant (B.Ed.) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY Chapter (8)

2. သူတို႔ရဲ႕ တျခား sourcesေတြက ဘာေတြလဲ။

Other sources of sodium and potassium are soda feldspar,
Na2O.Al2O3.6SiO2, sodium carnonate, Chlile saltpetre (sodium nitrate),
potassium carbonate and potassium nitrate.
3. Sodiumကို ဘာနည္းနဲ႔ extractလုပ္သလဲ။
Sodium is extracted by the electrolysis of fused sodium chloride.
4. Sodium ဟာ မာသလား။ ေပ်ာ့သလား။
Sodium is a soft metal and may be cut easily with a knife.
5. Sodiumဟာ ဘယ္လိုအေရာင္ရွိသလဲ။
Sodium has a silvery lustre but it rapidly tarnishes in moist air.
6. Sodiumဟာ အပူနဲ႔လွ်ပ္စစ္စီးကူးႏိုင္ပါသလား။
Sodium is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
7. Sodium ေလမွာ ေလာင္ကၽြမ္းရင္ ဘာရသလဲ။
Sodium burns in oxygen to give sodium peroxide (Na2O2).
8. Sodium ဟာ mercury မွာ ေပ်ာ္ဝင္ေနရင္ ဘာျဖစ္သြားသလဲ။
Sodium dissolves in mercury to form sodium amalgam.
9. Sodiumကို ဘာအေျမာက္အမ်ားထုတ္လုပ္ရာမွာ သံုးသလဲ။
Sodium is used in large quantities of the manufacture of sodium
peroxide (Na2O2), sodium cyanide (NaCN) and sodamide (NaNH2). It
is also used in the manufacture of tetraethyl lead, an anti-knock
additive used in petrol.
10. Sodium chlorideကို ဘယ္ေနရာေတြမွာ သဘာဝအတိုင္းေတြ႕ရပါသလဲ။
Sodium chloride occurs in nature as rock salt and in sea water.
11. Sodium chlorideကို ဘယ္ေနရာေတြမွာ သံုးသလဲ။
Sodium chloride is used for the seasoning of foods.
12. အသက္ရွဴကိရိယာမွာ ဘယ္ျဒပ္ေပါင္းသံုးကို သံုးသလဲ။
Sodium peroxide (Na2O2) is used in portable breathing

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Saya Minn Thant (B.Ed.) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY Chapter (8)

13. Sodium hydroxideကုိ ဘာနည္းနဲ႔ စီးပြားျဖစ္အေျမာက္အမ်ားထုတ္လုပ္သလဲ။

Sodium hydroxide is produced commercially by the electrolysis of
saturated sodium chloride solution (brine).
14. Sodium hydroxideဟာ ဘယ္လိုပံုစံရွိသလဲ။
Sodium hydroxide is a white deliquescent solid (pellet).
15. Sodium hydroxideကို ဘယ္ေနရာေတြမွာ အမ်ားဆံုးသံုးသလဲ။
Sodium hydroxide is used in the manufacture of soap, in paper
making and dyeing industries. It is also used in refining of petroleum
and in the rubber industry.
16. Sodium hydroxideေပ်ာ္ရည္ပူနဲ႔ zincနဲ႔ ဓာတ္ျပဳရင္ ဘာရသလဲ။
The hot aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide reacts with zinc to
form sodium zincate.
17. Sodium carbonateကို ဘာနည္းနဲ႔ အေျမာက္အမ်ားထုတ္လုပ္သလဲ။
Sodium carbonate is manufactured by Solvay Process.
18. Sodium carbonateကို ဘယ္မွာ အေျမာက္အမ်ားသံုးသလဲ။
Sodium carbonate is used in large quantities for the softening of
hard water. It is also used in the manufacture of glass and water
glass.
19. Sodium carbonateကို ဘာလို႔ေခၚေသးသလဲ။
Sodium carbonate is known as soda ash.
20. Sodium carbonate decahydrate (Na2CO3.10H2O)ကို ဘာအျဖစ္ေရာင္း
သလဲ။
Sodium carbonate decahydrate (Na2CO3.10H2O) is sold as washing
soda.
21. Sodium hydrogen carbonateကို ေစ်းကြက္မွာ ဘာအျဖစ္ေရာင္းသလဲ။
Sodium hydrogen carbonate is sold as baking soda.

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Saya Minn Thant (B.Ed.) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY Chapter (8)

22. Sodium hydrogen carbonateကို ဘာကိုကုသတဲ့ေနရာမွာ သံုးသလဲ။

Sodium hydrogen carbonate is used for the correction of stomach
acidity.
23. Sodium nitrateကို ဘာအျဖစ္သံုးသလဲ။
Sodium nitrate is used as a fertilizer.
24. Glauber’s salt (Na2SO4.10H2O)ကို ေဆးဝါးမွာ ဘာအျဖစ္သံုးသလဲ။
Glauber’s salt is used as a purgative in medicine.
25. Sodium thiosulphate (Na2S2O3)ကို ဘာလို႔ေခၚေသးလဲ။
Sodium thiosulphate (Na2S2O3) is also known as photographic hypo.
26. Sodium hydrogen sulphate (NaHSO4)မွာ ဘာေၾကာင့္ အက္စစ္ဂုဏ္သတၱိ
ရွိေနတာလဲ။
Sodium hydrogen sulphate (NaHSO4) has acidic property since it
contains a replaceable hydrogen atom.

Magnesium and its compounds

1. Magnesiumနဲ႔ calciumဟာ ဘာmetalsေတြလဲ။
Magnesium and calcium are alkaline earth metals.
2. Magnesiumကို သဘာဝမွာ ဘယ္လိုေတြ႔ရသလဲ။
Magnesium is found in nature as oxide, carbonate and silicate. It is
also found as the chloride or sulphate as a constituent of sea water.
3. Magnesiumဟာ ဘယ္လိုသတၱဳမ်ိဳးလဲ။
Magnesium is a silvery white metal with a very low density.
4. Caustic alkalisေတြဟာ magnesiumနဲ႔ ဘယ္လိုဓာတ္ျပဳသလဲ။
Caustic alkalis have no reaction on magnesium.
5. Magnesium ribbonနဲ႔ wireကို ဘယ္မွာသံုးသလဲ။
Magnesium ribbon and wire are used largely by the radio industry for
de-gassing radio valves.

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Saya Minn Thant (B.Ed.) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY Chapter (8)

6. Magnesium alloysေတြကို ဘယ္ေနရာေတြမွာ သံုးသလဲ။

Magnesium alloys are used for engineering construction.
7. Basic carbonate of magnesiumကို သြားတိုက္ေဆးမွာ ဘာအျဖစ္သံုးသလဲ။
Basic carbonate of magnesium is used as fillers in tooth paste.
8. Magnesium oxideဟာ ဘယ္လိုမ်ိဳးလဲ။
Magnesium oxide is a white powder and is only slightly soluble in
water.
9. Magnesium oxideကို ဘယ္မွာသံုးသလဲ။
Magnesium oxide is used as fire resistance material.
10. Epsom saltရဲ႕ formulaက ဘာလဲ။
Formula of Epsom salt is MgSO4.7H2O.
11. Magnesium carbonateကို သဘာဝမွာ ဘယ္လိုေတြ႔ရသလဲ။
Magnesium carbonate occurs as magnesite (MgCO3) and as dolomite
(MgCO3.CaCO3).
12. Magnesium sulphateကို သဘာဝမွာ ဘယ္လိုေတြ႔ရသလဲ။
Magnesium sulphate occurs in nature as kieserite (MgSo4.H2O).
13. Epsom salt(MgSO4.7H2O)ကို ေဆးဝါးမွာ ဘာအျဖစ္သံုးသလဲ။
Epsom salt(MgSO4.7H2O) is used as purgative in medicine.
Calcium and its compounds
1. Calcium ကို သဘာဝမွာ ဘယ္လိုအမ်ားဆံုးေတြ႔ရသလဲ။
Calcium is found in limestone, CaCO3 (also known as chalk).
2. Calcium ဟာ ဘယ္လိုသတၱဳမ်ိဳးလဲ။
Pure calcium is a soft grey metal.
3. Calcium ကို ဘာျဒပ္ေပါင္း အေျမာက္အမ်ားထုတ္လုပ္ရာမွာ သံုးသလဲ။
Calcium is used in the manufacture of calcium hydride (CaH2).
4. Calcium ကို ဓာတ္ခခ
ြဲ န္းမွာ ဘာအျဖစ္သံုးသလဲ။
Calcium is used as a drying agent in the laboratory.

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Saya Minn Thant (B.Ed.) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY Chapter (8)

5. Calcium ကို ဘာနည္းနဲ႔ ရရွိပါသလဲ။

Calcium is obtained by the electrolysis of the fused anhydrous
chloride.
6. Calcium ကို extract လုပ္တဲ့ေနရာမွာ ဘာelectrodeေတြကို သံုးသလဲ။
A steel cathode and a graphite anode are used in the extraction of
calcium.
7. Calcium cyanamide နဲ႔ carbon ျဒပ္ေႏွာကို ဘာလို႔ေခၚသလဲ။
A mixture of calcium cyanamide and carbon is known as nitrolime.
8. Nitrolime နဲ႔ ေရနဲ႔ ဓာတ္ျပဳရင္ ဘာဓာတ္ေငြ႔ထြက္သလဲ။
Nitrolime liberates ammonia on reaction with water.
9. Calcium hydroxide ရဲ႕solubilityဟာ အပူခ်ိန္ျမင့္တက္လာရင္ ဘာျဖစ္သလဲ။
The solubility of calcium hydroxide decreases on increasing the
temperature.
10. ေရပါတဲ့ calcium hydroxide ေပ်ာ္ရည္ကို ဘာေခၚသလဲ။
Aqueous solution of calcium hydroxide is known as lime water.
11. Aqueous suspension of calcium hydroxide ကို ဘာေခၚသလဲ။
Aqueous suspension of calcium hydroxide is called milk of lime.
12. Slaked lime (calcium hydroxide)ကို ဘာျဒပ္ေပါင္း အေျမာက္အမ်ား
ထုတ္လုပ္ရာမွာ သံုးသလဲ။
Slaked lime is used in the manufacture of bleaching powder.
13. Calcium carbonate ကို ဘာျဒပ္ေပါင္း အေျမာက္အမ်ားထုတ္လုပ္ရာမွာ
သံုးသလဲ။
Calcium carbonate is used in the manufacture of tooth paste.
14. CaCO3 ကို ဘာလို႔ေခၚၾကသလဲ။
The limestone, CaCO3, is also known as marble as well as chalk.

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Saya Minn Thant (B.Ed.) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY Chapter (8)

15. ေရမပါတဲ့ calcium chloride ကို ဓာတ္ခခ

ြဲ န္းမွာ ဘာအျဖစ္သံုးသလဲ။
Anhydrous calcium chloride is used as a drying agent in the
laboratory.
16. CaSO4.2H2O ကို ဘာလို႔ေခၚသလဲ။
CaSO4.2H2O is known as gypsum.
17. Gypsum ကို ဘာအေျမာက္အမ်ားထုတ္လုပ္ရာမွာ သံုးသလဲ။
Gypsum is used to manufacture of plaster of paris (POP).
18. POP (plaster of paris) ရဲ႕ formula က ဘာလဲ။
The formula of POP is 2CaSO4.H2O.
19. ဓာတ္ေျမၾသဇာျဖစ္တဲ့ superphosphate ကို ဘယ္လို ထုတ္လုပ္သလဲ။
Superphosphate is made by treating phosphate with concentrated
sulphuric acid.
20. Superphosphate ဟာ ဘယ္လို mixtureလဲ။
Superphosphate is a mixture of calcium dihydrogen phosphate and
calcium sulphate. [Ca(H2PO4)2 + 2CaSO4]

Aluminium and its compounds

1. Aluminium ကို ဘဘာဝမွာ ဘယ္လိုေတြရသလဲ။
Aluminium occurs in nature as the silicate in rocks and clays.
2. Aluminium ရဲ႕ main source က ဘာလဲ။
The main source of aluminium is bauxite.
3. Aluminium ကို ဘာနည္းနဲ႔ extract လုပ္သလဲ။
Aluminium is extracted by the electrolysis of fused oxide.
4. Aluminium ကို extract လုပ္တဲ့ေနရာမွာ ဘာelectrodeေတြကို သံုးသလဲ။
Graphite electrodes are used in the extraction of aluminium.
5. Aluminium ဟာ ဘယ္လို agent မ်ိဳးလဲ။
Aluminium is a strong reducing agent.

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Saya Minn Thant (B.Ed.) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY Chapter (8)

6. Aluminium ဟာ ဘာအေရာင္႐ွိသလဲ။
Aluminium is a silvery-white metal.
7. Aluminiumရဲ႕ ductility နဲ႔ malleability ဟာနိမ့္သလား၊ ျမင့္သလား။
Aluminium has high ductility and malleability.
8. Aluminiumရဲ႕ electrical နဲ႔ thermal conductivity ေတြကေရာ ျမင့္သလား။
Aluminium has high electrical and malleability.
9. Aluminium ကို ဘယ္လိုေနရာေတြမွာ သံုးသလဲ။
Aluminium is used in food, dairy and pharmaceutical industries, in
building and architectural purposes.
10.Aluminium foil ေတြကုိ ဘာလုပ္ဖို႔သံုးသလဲ။
Aluminium foils are used for packaging of foodstuffs, sweets,
cigarrates, etc.
11.Aluminium based light alloyေတြဟာ ဘယ္ေနရာေတြမွာ အေရးပါ သလဲ။
Aluminium based light alloys are important in all branches of
engineering construction.
12. Aluminium ဟာ acid, alkali ႏွစ္မ်ိဳးစလံုးနဲ႔ ဓာတ္ျပဳႏိုင္သလား။
Aluminium can react with alkalis as well as acids.
13. Aluminium oxide (Al2O3) ကို ဘယ္လိုေခၚေသးလဲ။
Aluminium oxide is also called alumina.
14. Alumina ကို သဘာဝမွာ ဘယ္လိုေတြ႔ရသလဲ။
Alumina occurs in the nature in the forms of gems such as ruby and
sapphire.
15. Alumina ကို ဘာအျဖစ္သံုးသလဲ။
Alumina is used (i) as the source of aluminium, (ii) as an adsorbent in
chromatography and (iii) as a refractory lining in furnaces.

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Saya Minn Thant (B.Ed.) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY Chapter (8)

16. Aluminium hydroxideကို ေဆးဆိုးပန္းရိုက္လုပ္ငန္း (dyeing industries)

ေတြမွာ ဘာအျဖစ္သံုးသလဲ။
Aluminium hydroxide is used as a mordent or dye-fixing agent in the
dyeing industry.
17. Aluminium hydroxide ဟာ ဘယ္လိုhydroxideမိ်ဳးလဲ။
Aluminium hydroxide is amphoteric hydroxide.
18. ေရမပါတဲ့ aluminum chloride ဟာ ဘယ္လိုမ်ိဳးလဲ။
Anhydrous aluminium chloride is a white crystalline substance and
extremely deliquescent.
19. Anhydrous aluminium chloride ကို ဘယ္မွာသံုးသလဲ။
Anhydrous aluminium chloride is used as a catalyst in many organic
chemical reactions, and in the petroleum industries.
20. K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.24H2O ကို ဘယ္လိုေခၚသလဲ။
K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.24H2O is called common alum.
21. Common alumကို ဘာအတြက္ သံုးသလဲ။
Common alum is used for purification of water.

Lead and its compounds

1. Lead ရဲ႕ main sourceက ဘာလဲ။
The main source of lead is the lead (II) sulphide (PbS) which occurs
in nature as galena.
2. Lead ore ထုတ္လုပ္မႈမွာ ျမန္မာျပည္ဟာ ဘယ္အဆင့္မွာ ရွိပါသလဲ။
Myanmar is one of the world’s largest producers of lead ore.
3. Lead ဟာ ဘာအေရာင္႐ွိသလဲ။
Lead is a bluish-grey metal.

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Saya Minn Thant (B.Ed.) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY Chapter (8)

4. Lead ဟာ မာသလား၊ ေပ်ာ့သလား။

Lead is the softest metals in common use, and can be pressed into
any form.
5. Lead ဟာ poor conductor လား၊ good conductor လား။
Lead is a poor conductor of heat and electricity.
6. Lead ဟာ ေရနဲ႔ ဓာတ္ျပဳပါသလား။
Lead does not react with water or steam.
7. ေရဒီယိုသတၱိၾကြတဲ့အရာေတြနဲ႔ X-raysေတြကို ကာကြယ္ဖို႔ ဘာကိုသံုးသလဲ
Lead is used as a shield against radioactive material and X-rays.
8. Lead ကို ဘယ္မွာသံုးေသးလဲ။
Lead is also used in car batteries and accumulators.
9. ဘယ္လို alloyေတြမွာ lead ပါဝင္ပါသလဲ။
Lead is an important constituent in many important alloys such as
solders (lead and tin) and type metal (lead, antimony and tin) used
in printing.
10. Red lead ရဲ႕ formula က ဘာလဲ။
The formula of red lead is Pb3O4.
11. Red lead ကို ဘယ္ေနရာမွာ သံုးသလဲ။
Red lead is used in surface coating such as paints for preventing
corrosion.
12. Basic lead carbonate ကို ဘာအျဖစ္သံုးသလဲ။
Basic lead carbonate is used as a white pigment.
13. PbO နဲ႔ Pb2O3 တို႔ဟာ ဘာအမ်ိဳးအစား oxideေတြလဲ။
PbO and Pb2O3 are amphoteric oxide.

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Saya Minn Thant (B.Ed.) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY Chapter (8)

Formulae, chemical names and commercial names

of some compounds

No. Formulae Commercial names or Chemical name

1 NaCl Common salt
2 NaOH Caustic soda
3 NaNO3 Chile saltpetre
4 Na2O.Al2O3.6SiO2 Soda feldspar
5 NaHCO3 Baking soda
6 Na2CO3 Soda ash
7 Na2CO3.10H2O Washing soda (powder)
8 Na2SO4.10H2O Glauber’s salt
9 Na2S2O3.5H2O Photographic hypo
10 Na2S2O3 Sodium thiosulphate
11 Na2S2O7 Sodium pyrosulphate
12 Na2PbO2 Sodium plumbite
13 NaNH2 Sodamide
14 NaCN Sodium cyanide
15 NaHgx Sodium amalgam
16 Na2Zn(OH)4 Sodium zincate
17 NaH2PO2 Sodium dihydrogen phosphate
18 KCl Carnallite
19 KOH Caustic potash
20 MgO Magnesia
21 MgCO3 Magnesite
22 MgCO3.CaCO3 Dolomite
23 MgCO3.H2O Kieserite
24 CaO Lime/quicklime
25 Ca(OH)2 Slaked lime
26 CaCO3 Lime stone/marble/chalk
27 CaSO4.2H2O Gypsum
28 2CaSO4.H2O POP (Plaster of Paris)
29 CaCN2 Calcium cyanamide
30 CaCN2+C Nitrolime
31 CaOCl2.H2O Bleaching powder
32 CaSiO3 Slag
33 Ca(H2PO4)2.CaSO4 Superphosphate

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Saya Minn Thant (B.Ed.) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY Chapter (8)

No. Formulae Commercial names or Chemical name

34 Al2O3 Alumina/bauxite
35 Na3AlF6 Cryolite/fluorspar
36 NaAl(OH)4 Sodium aluminate
37 K2SO4.Al2(SO)4.24H2O Common alum/potash alum
38 PbS Galena
39 PbO Litharte
40 Pb3O4 Red lead
41 Pb(OH)2.2PbCO3 Basic lead carbonate
42 PbCrO4.Pb(OH)2 Basic lead chromate

Equations

Sodium reacts with (a) oxygen (b) hydrogen (c) water

(d) chlorine (e) ammonia.

(a) 4Na + O2 (limit) → 2Na2O

2Na + O2 (excess) → Na2O2
(b) 2Na + H2 → 2NaH
sodium hydride
(c) 2Na + 2H2O (cold) → 2NaOH + H2
(d) 2Na + Cl2 → 2NaCl
(e) 2Na + 2NH3 → 2NaNH2 + H2
sodamide

Sodium hydroxide reacts with

(a) carbon dioxide (b) chlorine (c) aluminium

(a) NaOH + CO2 (limit) → Na2CO3 + H2O

NaOH + CO2 (excess) → NaHCO3
(b) NaOH (cold) + Cl2 → NaCl + NaOCl + H2O
sodium
hypochlorite
6NaOH + 3Cl2 → 5NaCl + NaClO3 + 3H2O
sodium
chlorate

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Saya Minn Thant (B.Ed.) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY Chapter (8)

(c) 2Al + 2NaOH + 6H2O → 2NaAl(OH)2 + 3H2

sodium
aluminate
(a) The behaviour of sodium hydrogen carbonate when heated
(b) The behaviour of sodium on mixing with mercury
(c) The action of heat on sodium nitrate

∆
(a) 2NaHCO3 → Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2
(b) Na + xHg → NaHgx
∆
(c) 2NaNO3 → 2NaNO2 + O2

Starting from marble, the preparations of

(a) quicklime (b) slaked lime (c) nitrolime.

∆
(a) CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
marble quick lime
∆
(b) CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
marble quick lime
CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2
slaked lime
∆
(c) CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
marble quick lime
CaO + C → CaC2 + CO
calcium carbide
CaC2 + N2 → CaCN2 + C
nitrolime

Calcium carbide(CaC2) reacts with water

CaC2 + 3H2O → C2H2 + Ca(OH)2

Calcium acetylene
Carbide

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Saya Minn Thant (B.Ed.) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY Chapter (8)

Nitrolime(CaCN2) reacts with water

CaCN2 + 3H2O → CaCO3 + 2NH3

Preparation of bleaching powder(CaOCl2.H2O)

from slaked lime(Ca(OH)2)

Ca(OH)2 + Cl2 → CaOCl2.H2O

bleaching powder

Preparation of gypsum(CaSO4.2H2O) from calcium chloride(CaCl2)

CaCl2 + H2SO4 + 2H2O → CaSO4.2H2O + 2HCl

gypsum

preparation of superphosphate (Ca(H2PO4)2.2CaSO4)

Ca3(PO4)2 + 2H2SO4 → Ca(H2PO4)2.2CaSO4

superphosphate
Starting from aluminium foil, the prepartions of
(a) aluminnium chloride (b) alumina (c) potash alum

(a) 2Al + 3Cl2 → 2AlCl3

(b) 2Al + Fe2O3 → Al2O3 + 2Fe
(c) When a solution containing potassium sulphate and aluminium
sulphate in the proper proportion is evaporated colourless crystals of
the double sulphate of potassium and aluminium is obtained. This is
called potash alum, K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.

The reason why lead (II) oxide (PbO) is amphoteric.

(i) Its acidic property (the ability to react with alkalis)

PbO + NaOH → Na2PbO2 + H2O
sodium plumbite

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Saya Minn Thant (B.Ed.) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY Chapter (8)

(ii) Its basic property (the ability to react with acids)

PbO + 2HCl → PbCl2 + H2O

The reason why aluminium hydroxide (Al(OH)3) is amphoteric

(i) Its acidic property (the ability to react with alkalis)

Al(OH)3 + NaOH → NaAl(OH)4
sodium aluminate
(ii) Its basic property (the ability to react with acids)
Al(OH)3 + 3HCl → AlCl3 + 3H2O

Practice Questions
Section (A) Question No.2: 1 marks
2 marks
Fill in the blanks with the correct word(s), phrase(s), term(s), unit(s)., as
necessary.
1. The reactive metals are not found ____ in nature.
2. The reactive metals are found ____ in nature.
3. Many metals react with oxygen to form ____.
4. The elements above ____ in the electrochemical series can displace
hydrogen from acids.
5. The positions of alkali metals are ____ in the electrochemical series.
6. Reactive metals are usually manufactured by ____ .
7. Metals higher in the electrochemical series are extracted by ____.
8. The methods used to extract the metal from its ore depends on the
position of metals in the ____ series.
9. Alkali metals tarnish rapidly in ____ forming a layer of oxide.
10. The alkali metals ____ rapidly in air forming a layer of oxide.
11. Alkali metals are very good ____ agent.
12. Alkali metals are the members of Group ____ in the periodic table.
13. The Group IA elements have the one oxidation state of ____ only in
their compounds.
14. Li, Na and K are so reactive that they are stored under ____.
15. With the exception of ____, all alkali metals react vigorously with

16
Saya Minn Thant (B.Ed.) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY Chapter (8)

water.
16. Alkali metals are easily inflammable when touch to _____.
17. Sodium is a ____ metal and may be cut easily with a knife.
18. Sodium burns in excess of air giving ____.
19. Sodium and potassium are extracted by ____.
20. Brine is a ____ solution.
21. Most of sodium chloride is naturally found in ____.
22. A small amount of ____ is added to lower the melting point of
sodium chloride.
23. Sodium is extracted by the electrolysis of fused ____.
24. Sodium has a ____ but rapidly tarnishes in moist air.
25. Sodium hydroxide is commercially produced from saturated
solution of ____ using electrolysis.
26. Sodium hydroxide is a white deliquescent ____.
27. Sodium hydroxide is one of the most industrial ____.
28. Hot aqueous solution of NaOH reacts with zinc forming ____.
29. Formula of sodium zincate is ____.
30. Sodium hydrogen carbonate is sold as ____.
31. Sodium carbonate can be manufactured by the ____ process.
32. Na2CO3 is used in large quantities for the ____ of hard water.
33. Sodium dissolves in mercury to form ____.
34. The pentahydrate sodium thiosulphate is also known as _____.
35. Glauber’s salt Na2SO4.10H2O is used as a ____ in medicine.
36. Sodium nitrate is used as ____.
37. Alkaline earth metals are the members of Group ____.
38. The alkaline earth metals are placed in ____of the periodic table.
39. Limestone, CaCO3 is also known as ____.
40. Calcium is used as a ____ in the laboratory.
41. Calcium is used in the manufacture of ____.
42. In the extraction of calcium, a steel cathode and a ____ anode are
used.
43. An aqueous ____of calcium hydroxide is known as milk of lime.
44. A mixture of calcium cyanamide and carbon is known as ____.
45. Gypsum is used for the manufacture of ____.
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Saya Minn Thant (B.Ed.) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY Chapter (8)

46. The formula of POP is ____.

47. The mixture of calcium dihydrogen phosphate and calcium sulphate
is sold as ____.
48. The basic carbonates of ____ are used as filler in the tooth paste.
49. ____ is a mixture of calcium cyanamide and carbon.
50. Anhydrous calcium chloride is used as a ____ agent in the
laboratory.
51. ____ occurs in nature in the form of ruby an sapphire.
52. Aluminium occurs in nature as the ____ in rocks and clays.
53. The main source of aluminium is the naturally occurring oxide
known as ____.
54. The formula of bauxite is ____.
55. Aluminium can react with ____.
56. Magnesium is a ____ metal.
57. Magnesium and calcium are ____ metals.
58. Magnesium alloys are used for ____ construction.
59. Magnesium is a silvery white metal with a very ____ density.
60. Epsom salt is used as a ____ in medicine.
61. Myanmar is one of the world’s largest producers of ____ ore.
62. ____ is used as a shield against radioactive materials and X-rays.
63. The formula of red lead is ____.

Practice Questions
Section (A) Question No.4: 1 marks

Match each of the items in List A with the appropriate item given in List
B.
List A List B
(i) extraction of sodium (a) naturally occurring mineral
(ii) bauxite (b) Leblance Process
(iii) chalk (c) Downs Process
(iv) white pigment (d) calcium carbonate
(v) an ore (e) potassium chloride
(vi) NaHSO4 (f) aluminium oxide
(vii) carnallite (g) PbCO3
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Saya Minn Thant (B.Ed.) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY Chapter (8)

List A List B
(i) slaked lime (a) Na2S2O3.5H2O
(ii) purgative (b) strong reducing agent
(iii) photographic hypo (c) NaAl(OH)4
(iv) aluminium (d) NaCl
(v) sodium aluminate (e) manufacture of baking powder
(vi) kieserite (f) MgSO4.7H2O
(vii) rock salt (g) MgSO4.H2O

List A List B
(i) sodium (a) s-block elements
(ii) electrolytic technique (b) lead (II) oxide
(iii) dolomite (c) used in the construction of concords
(iv) lithargen (d) give the metals of high purity
(v) alkali metals (e) soft metal and may be easily cut with
a knife
(vi) magnesium (f) sodium nitrate
(vii) chile saltpetre (g) MgCO3.CaCO3

List A List B
(i) aluminium (a) bluish grey metal
(ii) soda ash (b) silvery white metal
(iii) lead (c) NaOH
(iv) slaked lime (d) slag
(v) Glauber’s salt (e) calcium hydroxide
(vi) CaSiO3 (f) Na2CO3
(vii) caustic soda (g) Na2SO4.10H2O

List A List B
(i) baking soda (powder) (a) MgSO4.7H2O
(ii) sodium hydroxide (b) amphoteric oxide
(iii) Epsom salt (c) NaHCO3
(iv) alumina (d) silvery white metal
(v) sodium chloride (e) used in manufacture of soap
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Saya Minn Thant (B.Ed.) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY Chapter (8)

(vi) alkali metals (f) employed in the seasoning of foods

(vii) magnesium (g) group IA elements having oxidation
number of +1

List A List B
(i) basic lead carbonate (a) stored under kerosene
(ii) calcium (b) Na/Hg
(iii) alumina (c) used as adsorbent in chromatography
(iv) Li, Na, K (d) K2SO4.Al2(SO)4.24H2O
(v) sodium amalgam (e) used as a whit pigment
(vi) potash alum (f) Pb3O4 (red lead)
(vii) an ingredient of paint (g) alkaline earth metal

List A List B
(i) pewter (a) a drying agent used in laboratory
(ii) Na2PbO2 (b) a silvery white metal
(iii) calcium (c) Na2O.Al2O3.6SiO2
(iv) magnesium (d) used for softening hard water
(v) soda feldspar (e) alkali metals/ grey metals/
reactive metals/ coolants for nuclear
reactors
(vi) Na2CO3 (f) sodium plumbite
(vii) sodium, potassium (g) alloy of lead, tin and antimony

Practice Questions
Section (B) Question No.6: 2 marks

1. How does sodium react with excess oxygen and what happens when
it is heated with ammonia?
2. How does sodium react with water and ammonia?
3. What happens when sodium is heated at 3000C to 4000C in gaseous
ammonia?
4. Write down the relevant equations in words and symbols for the
reaction of sodium oxide with water.
20
Saya Minn Thant (B.Ed.) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY Chapter (8)

5. How does sodium hydroxide react with the followings. Give

equations in symbols only.
(i) carbon dioxide
(ii) aluminium
6. Write balanced equations in words and symbols for the preparation
of sodium zincate.
7. Write down the relevant equations in words and symbols for the
reaction of sodium hydroxide with zinc.
8. How does sodium hydroxide react with acidic oxide?
9. Write balanced equation in words and symbols for hot aqueous
solution of sodium hydroxide with aluminium.
10.Write balanced equation in words and symbols for the preparation
of baking soda from sodium hydroxide.
11.What happens when sodium hydroxide reacts with carbon dioxide?
Give equations in words and symbols.
12.Write balanced equation in words and symbols for sulphur react with
sodium hydroxide.
13.Write down the chemical formulae for washing soda and baking
soda.
14.State the behaviour of sodium hydrogen carbonate when heated and
the action of heat on sodium nitrate with equation in symbols and
symbols only.
15.Complete the following equation in words and symbols.
Na2CO3 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g) → ?
16.What happens when sodium peroxide react with cold water. Give
relevant equations in words and symbols.
17.Complete the following equation in words and symbols.
𝑟𝑒𝑑 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
Na2S2O7 → ?
18.What happen when sodium chloride is heated with dilute sulphuric
acid by the Leblance Process. Give equations in words and symbols.
19.Write down chemical equation in words and symbols for the
preparation of sodium dihydrogen phosphate.
20.How does magnesium react with steel and concentrated nitric acid?
Give relevant equations in words and symbols.
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Saya Minn Thant (B.Ed.) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY Chapter (8)

21.What happens when magnesia (MgO) is heated with coke in a

current of chlorine. Give equation in words and symbols.
22.What happens when carbon dioxide is passed through a suspension
of magnesium carbonate in water?
23.What compound will be obtained when magnesium is heated in air?
24.Write balanced equations in words and symbols to indicate what
happens when calcium is heated in air.
25.Write down the equations in words and symbols in which chlorine
gas is passed over slaked lime at atmospheric pressure.
26.How does calcium hydroxide react with carbon dioxide and
chlorine? Give equation in symbols only.
27.Write down the relevant equation in words and symbols for the
preparation of slaked lime.
28.Write down the relevant equation in words and symbols for the
preparation of bleaching powder.
29.Write down the relevant equation in symbols only for the
preparation of nitrolime from marble.
30.How would you prepare Plaster of Paris from calcium chloride in
the laboratory?
31.Write down the relevant equation in words and symbols for the
preparation (production) of superphosphate, an important fertilizer.
32.What happens when nitrolime reacts with water. Give equation in
words and symbols.
33.What happens when silica is heated with calcium oxide. Give
equation in words and symbols.
34.Write the balanced equation in words and symbols for the reaction
of calcium carbide with nitrogen on heating.
35.How does calcium carbide reacts with water? Give equation in
words and symbols.
36.Write balanced equation in words and symbols for the preparation
of calcium silicate.
37.Write down the relevant equation in words and symbols when
calcium cyanide reacts with water.

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Saya Minn Thant (B.Ed.) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY Chapter (8)

38.Write down the relevant equations both in words and symbols for
the reaction of aluminium with aqueous sodium hydroxide solution.
39.Write down the reaction of aluminium with hot concentrated
sulphuric acid.
40.Writhe balanced equation in words and symbols for the preparation
of aluminium oxide (alumina).
41.Starting from aluminium hydroxide, how would you prepare
aluminium chloride and aluminium oxide?
42.How does aluminium reacts with iron (III) oxide. Give relevant
equation in words and symbols.
43.Lead (II) oxide is an amphoteric oxide. Explain with equations.
44.Write equation in words and symbols for the reaction of lead (II)
oxide with alkali.
45.What happens when red lead (Pb3O4) reacts with hydrochloric acid.
Give equations in words and symbols.
46.Write balanced chemical equation in words and symbols for the
preparation of lead (IV) oxide.
47.What happens when lead (II) oxide reacts with sodium hydroxide.
Give equation in words and symbols.

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) Manufactures, Extractions and Laboratory Preparations

Extraction of Sodium by Downs Process

Fig- Downs cell for the electrolytic manufacture of sodium

The more common process for the electrolysis of fused sodium
chloride to give its component elements is known as “Downs Process.”
The cell employed in this process is shown in figure. The container of the
cell B is made of steel, lined with firebrick. The anode A is made of
graphite and the cathode C is in the form of an iron ring. As the melting
point of sodium chloride is high (8040C), a small amount of calcium
chloride is added to lower the melting point which is reduced to 6000C.
The added calcium chloride does not interfere with the electrolysis of
sodium chloride. The fused electrolyte D is placed in the cell. On
electrolysis, chlorine is liberated at the anode, it escapes through the hood
G. The sodium, which is liberated at the ring cathode, rises upwards to
the electrolyte, is collected by the annular sodium collector H and then
passed through pipe I to the collector J. the chemical reactions involved
in this process are as follows:
reaction at the cathode Na+ + e− → Na
reaction at the anode Cl− → Cl + e−
Cl + Cl → Cl2
NB: potassiumဟုေမးလွ်င္ sodium(Na) ေနရာတြင္ potassium(K) အစားသြင္းေျဖပါ။

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) Manufactures, Extractions and Laboratory Preparations

Manufacture of Ammonia by Haber Process

Fig-Synthesis of ammonia

- Ammonia is obtained on an industrial scale by Haber Process.

nitrogen + hydrogen ammonia
N2 + 3H2 2NH3
- The mixture of nitrogen and hydrogen, in the ratio of one to three by
volume, is compressed to 200 atm pressure and passed over the
catalyst heated at 4500C (723 K).
- The catalyst used is usually finely divided reduced iron impregnated
with alumina, Al2O3.
- The hot gas leaving the catalyst chamber are passed through a heat
exchanger in order to preheat the incoming hydrogen-nitrogen
mixture.
- After, washing out the ammonia, or compressing and removing it as
the liquid, the residual gases are mixed with more hydrogen and
nitrogen and again passed through the catalyst chamber.
- The recirculation is repeated as required.
- The ammonia produced is liquefied and stored for further use.

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) Manufactures, Extractions and Laboratory Preparations

Manufacture of Nitric Acid by Ammonia-Oxidation Process

Fig-Catalytic oxidation of ammonia

in the manufacture of nitric acid

- The oxidation of ammonia is carried out by passing ammonia gas and

excess of air through a multilayered very fine gauze consisting of
platinum (90%) rhodium (10%) catalyst.
- The reaction is initiated by heating the catalyst to red heat. Once the
reaction is started, the heat generated maintains the reaction
temperature.
ammonia + oxygen nitrogen oxide + water
4NH3 + 5O2 → 4NO + 6H2O
- The nitrogen oxide is rapidly cooled and made to combine with
oxygen from excess of air to form nitrogen dioxide.
nitrogen oxide + oxygen → nitrogen dioxide
2NO + O2 → 2NO2
- The nitrogen dioxide in the presence of more air is then absorbed in
water to yield nitric acid.
nitrogen dioxide + oxygen + water → nitric acid
4NO2 + O2 + 2H2O → 4HNO3

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 Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) Manufactures, Extractions and Laboratory Preparations

Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid by Contact Process

Fig-Flow sheet of the Contact Process

(1) Preparation of sulphur dioxide

Sulphur or iron pyrites is burnt in excess of air in the burner to
produce sulphur dioxide.
sulphur + oxygen → sulphur dioxide
S + O2 → SO2
iron pyrite + oxygen → iron (III) oxide + sulphur dioxide
4FeS2 + 11O2 → 2Fe2O3 + 8SO2
(2) Removing impurities
The gas mixture contains impurities (especially arsenious oxide)
which might poison the catalyst. To remove these impurities the gas
mixture is passed into a wash tower.
(3) Drying the gas
The mixture of sulphur dioxide and excess air, free from impurities,
is passed into the drying tower and dried by spraying with
concentrated sulphuric acid.
(4) Oxidation of sulphur dioxide to sulphur trioxide
The sulphur dioxide mixed with excess air is passed into the catalyst
chamber where it is brought into contact with platinized asbestos or
vanadium (V) oxide, V2O5, at the temperature of 4500C-5000C to
produce sulphur trioxide.

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 Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) Manufactures, Extractions and Laboratory Preparations

sulphur dioxide + oxygen sulphur trioxide

2SO2 + O2 → 2SO3
(5) Dissolution of sulphur trioxide
Sulphur trioxide is easily dissolved in 98% concentrated sulphuric
acid. Therefore, sulphur trioxide produced in the catalyst chamber is
absorbed in 98% sulphuric acid to form oleum..
sulphur trioxide + sulphuric acid → oleum
SO3 + H2SO4 → H2S2O7 or H2SO4.SO3
The oleum is mixed with water to obtain the acid of any desired
concentration.
oleum + water → sulphuric acid
H2S2O7 + H2O → 2H2SO4

Manufacture of Sodium Carbonate (Soda ash), Na2CO3, by

Solvay Process
- Sodium carbonate is manufactured by the Solvay process.
- Sodium hydrogen carbonate is precipitated from a mixed
solution of brine (saturated NaCl solution) and ammonium
hydrogen carbonate saturated with carbon dioxide.
- On subsequent heating of this sodium hydrogen carbonate, the
normal salt is obtained.
ammonia + water + carbon → ammonium hydrogen
dioxide carbonate
NH3 + H2O + CO2 (excess) → NH4HCO3
ammonium + sodium → sodium hydrogen + ammonium
hydrogen carbonate chloride carbonate chloride
NH4HCO3 + NaCl → NaHCO3 + NH4Cl

sodium hydrogen → ∆ sodium + water + carbon

carbonate carbonate dioxide
∆
2NaHCO3 → Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2
- Anhydrous sodium carbonate is a white powder.

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) Manufactures, Extractions and Laboratory Preparations

Manufacture of Chlorine by Electrolytic Process

Fig- Manufacture of chlorine by electrolysis of

saturated sodium chloride solution

- Chlorine is manufactured by the electrolysis of saturated aqueous

sodium chloride solution.
- The reactions at electrodes:
Reaction at the cathode 2𝑁𝑎+ + 2𝑒 − → 2𝑁𝑎
Reaction at the anode 2𝐶𝑙− → 𝐶𝑙2 + 𝑒 −
- In the electrolytic process, chlorine is liberated at the graphite anode
and sodium is liberated at the mercury cathode.
- Sodium dissolves in the mercury forming as amalgam which then
flows into another cell where it reacts with water to form hydrogen
and a solution of sodium hydroxide.
amalgam + water → sodium hydroxide + mercury + hydrogen
1
Na/Hg + H2O → NaOH + Hg + 2
H2

Education is what remains

after one has forgotten
what one has learnt in school.
Albert Einstein

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) Manufactures, Extractions and Laboratory Preparations

Manufacture of Sodium Hydroxide (Caustic Soda)

by Electrolysis

- Sodium hydroxide is one of the most important industrial chemicals.

- Sodium hydroxide is prepared by the electrolysis of a saturated
solution of sodium chloride (brine).
- On electrolysis, chlorine is liberated at the graphite anode and sodium
is liberated at the mercury cathode.
- They react with mercury to form sodium amalgam.
- Then the amalgam reacts with water to form sodium hydroxide
solution and liberate hydrogen.
sodium + mercury → sodium + Chlorine
chloride amalgam
2NaCl + 2xHg → 2NaHgx + Cl2

sodium + water → sodium + hydrogen + mercury

amalgam hydroxide
2NaHgx + 2H2O → 2NaOH + H2 + 2xHg
- Sodium hydroxide is a white deliquescent solid. It is readily soluble
in water.

Extraction of Calcium

- Calcium is obtained by electrolysis of fused anhydrous chloride.

- A little calcium fluoride is added to lower the melting point and hence
lower the temperature of fusion.
- A steel cathode and a graphite anode are used.
- Calcium is deposited at the steel cathode and chlorine is liberated at
the graphite anode.

Cathode reaction Anode reaction

Ca2+ + 2e- → Ca 2Cl- → Cl2 + 2e-

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) Manufactures, Extractions and Laboratory Preparations

Extraction of Magnesium from Sea Water

- Large quantities of magnesium are extracted from sea water by
converting the salt to the insoluble magnesium hydroxide and then
heating this to give the oxide.
MgSO4 + 2NaOH → Mg(OH)2 + Na2SO4
magnesium + sodium → magnesium + sodium
sulphate hydroxide hydroxide sulphate

Mg(OH)2 → ∆ MgO + H 2O
magnesium ∆ magnesium + water
→
hydroxide oxide
- The magnesia (magnesium oxide) is heated with coke in a current of
chlorine to give magnesium chloride.
∆
MgO + C + Cl2 → MgCl2 + CO
magnesium + carbon chlorine → ∆ magnesium + carbon
oxide chloride monoxide
- Anhydrous magnesium chloride in the molten form is electrolysed.
- Magnesium is liberated at the cathode and chlorine is liberated at the
anode.
Cathode reaction Anode reaction
Mg2+ + 2e- → Mg 2Cl- → Cl2 + 2e-

Doing what you like is freedom.

Liking what you do is happiness.
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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) Manufactures, Extractions and Laboratory Preparations

Extraction of Aluminium

- Aluminium is extracted by electrolysis of fused oxide.

- Cryolite, Na3AlF6, is added to lower the temperature of fusion.
- Both electrodes are made of graphite.
- Aluminium is produced at the cathode and oxygen is liberated at the
anode.
Cathode reaction Anode reaction
3
2Al3+ + 6e- → 2Al 3O2- → 2
O2 + 6e-

Extraction of Lead from Galena Ore

- Lead is extracted by heating the galena ore in air to give the oxide
which is then reduced by heating with carbon.

lead (II) + oxygen ∆ lead (II) + sulphur

→
sulphide oxide dioxide
∆
2PbS + 3O2 → 2PbO + 2SO2

lead (II) + carbon ∆

lead + carbon
→
oxide monoxide
∆
PbO + C → Pb + CO

- Alternatively, reduction of galena to lead may take place as follows:

lead (II) + lead (II) → lead + sulphur

sulphide oxide dioxide
PbS + 2PbO → 3Pb + SO2

lead (II) + lead (II) → lead + sulphur

sulphide sulphate dioxide
PbS + PbSO4 → 2Pb + 2SO2

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) Manufactures, Extractions and Laboratory Preparations

Extraction of Wrought Iron (Pig Iron or Cast Iron)

from Haematite (Fe2O3)
- Iron is extracted mainly from its oxides, haematite (Fe2O3) or
magnetite (Fe3O4), in furnace.
- The blast furnace is steel tower approximately 30 m high lined with
heat-resistant bricks.
- It is loaded with the “charge” of iron ore (haematite), coke and
limestone.
- A blast of hot air is sent in near the bottom of the furnace through holes
burns in the preheated air.
carbon + Oxygen → carbon dioxide
C + O2 → CO2
- The limestone begins to decompose.
calcium carbonate → calcium oxide + carbon dioxide
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
- The carbon dioxide gas produced reacts with more hot coke higher up
in the furnace, producing carbon monoxide.
carbon dioxide + coke → carbon monoxide
CO2 + C → 2CO
- Carbon monoxide is a reducing agent. It reduces the iron (III) oxide
ore (Fe2O3) at about 7000C. The molten iron produced trickles to the
bottom of the furnace.
iron (III) + carbon → iron + carbon
oxide monoxide dioxide
Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2
- The calcium oxide formed from the limestone reacts with acidic
impurities such as silicon (IV) oxide (sand, SiO2) to form a liquid slag.
calcium + silicon (IV) → calcium
oxide oxide silicate
CaO + SiO2 → CaSiO3
- The liquid slag is less dense than molten iron and so it floats on top of
it. The molten iron as well as the molten slag may be tapped off at
intervals. The iron obtained by this process is known as pig or cast
iron and contains about 4% carbon.
▲ ၂၀၁၈ခုႏွစ္၊ မတ္လတကၠသိုလ္ဝင္တန္းစာေမးပြဲ အမွတ္ေပးစည္းမ်ဥ္းအတိုင္း ျဖစ္ပါသည္။ ▲

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) Manufactures, Extractions and Laboratory Preparations

Extraction of Zinc from Zinc Sulphide or Zinc Blende

- The principal source of zinc is zinc sulphide or zinc blende.

- The zinc ore is first concentrated by a process called froth flotation.
- The crushed ore is fed into tanks of water containing a chemical
collector and frothing agent.
- The collector sticks to the surface of the zinc sulphide particles giving
them a water repellent coating.
- Air is blown through so that the whole mixture froths up.
- The zinc sulphide particles are forced up the tank by the air bubbles
and are skimmed off and dried.
- This ore now contains 55-75% of zinc sulphide.
- The zinc sulphide is then heated very strongly in a current of air in a
furnace to convert it to the oxide.
zinc + oxygen → zinc + sulphur
sulphide oxide dioxide
2ZnS + 3O2 → 2ZnO + 2SO2
- The sulphur dioxide is useful co-product and is used in the manfacture
of sulphuric acid.
- The zinc oxide is mixed with powdered coke in a furnace and heated
very strongly to a temperature of approximately 14000C.
- The zinc oxide is reduced by the coke to zinc.
zinc + coke (carbon) → zinc + carbon
oxide monoxide
ZnO + C → Zn + CO
- The mixture of zinc vapour and carbon monoxide passes through an
outlet near the top of the furnace and the zinc metal cools and
condenses.
- The heating costs of the furnace are reduced by burning the carbon
monoxide which is produced.
- Zinc is used in alloys such as brass. It is also used to galvanise steel
and for electrodes in batteries.

Zinc blende ကို ၾသစေတးလ်၊ ကေနဒါႏွင့္ အေမရိကန္ျပည္ေထာင္စုတြင္ အမ်ားဆံုးေတြ႔ရသည္။

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) Manufactures, Extractions and Laboratory Preparations

Extraction of Copper from Copper Pyrites

- Copper is principally extracted from copper pyrites, CuFeS2.

- The crushed ore is concentrated by froth flotation.
- A chemical known as a collector sticks to the surface of the copper
pyrites particles, giving them a water-repellent coating.
- Detergent is added and air is blown into the mixture to make it froth.
- The copper pyrites particles are concentrated in the froth and can be
removed easily. They are then roasted in a limited supply of air to
ensure conversion of copper pyrites to copper (I) sulphide.

copper + oxygen → copper (I) + sulphur + iron (II)

pyrites sulphide dioxide oxide
2CuFeS2 + 4O2 → Cu2S + 3SO2 + 2FeO

- Silica is then added and the mixture is heated in the absence of air.
- The iron (II) oxide is converted into iron (II) silicate (FeSiO3), which
is run off.
- The remaining copper (I) sulphide is then reduced to copper by heating
In a controlled amount of air.

copper (I) + oxygen → copper + sulphur

sulphide dioxide
Cu2S + O2 → 2Cu + SO2

Never go backward.
Attempt, and do it with your might.
Determination is power.
Charles Simmons

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) Manufactures, Extractions and Laboratory Preparations

Extraction of Silver from Silver Glance

by Cyanide Process

- The crushed or fine state of silver glance ore is digested in large vats
in a sodium cyanide solution.
sodium
sodium argento sodium
silver + cyanide + water + oxygen → +
cyanide hydroxide
4Ag + 8NaCN + 2H2O + O2 → 4Na[Ag(CN)2] + 4NaOH

- Silver sulphide and silver chloride also dissolve in cyanide solution.

silver + silver → sodium + sodium

chloride cyanide argentocyanide chloride
AgCl + 2NaCN → Na[Ag(CN)2] + NaCl

silver + sodium → sodium + sodium

sulphide cyanide argentocyanide sulphide
Ag2S + 4NaCN → 2Na[Ag(CN)2] + Na2S

- The silver bearing solution is treated with zinc shavings, silver is

thrown out as a precipitate.

zinc + sodium → silver + sodium + zinc

argentocyanide cyanide cyanide
Zn + 2Na[Ag(CN)2] → 2Ag + 2NaCN + Zn(CN)2

- The silver is collected, washed and melted. It is purified

electrolytically.

Be miserable. Or motivate yourself.

Whatever has to be done,
it’s always your choice.
Wayne Dyer

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) Manufactures, Extractions and Laboratory Preparations

Extraction of Sulphur by Frasch Process

Fig-The Frasch Process of mining sulphur

- Sulphur is found in shallow or deep deposits below the earth’s
surface.
- Sulphur, which is deposited at about 700 ft below the earth’s
surface, is extracted by the Frasch Process.
The process may be summarized as followed:
- Three concentric pipes as shown in figure are driven down to
the deposit of sulphur.
- Superheated steam at about 1600C is forced down under
pressure through the outermost pipe.
- When superheated steam reaches the deposit, it melts the
sulphur, forming a pool of molten sulphur.
- Hot air under high pressure is forced down through the
innermost pipe.
- The pressure of hot air forces up the molten sulphur through
the central pipe, in between the inner and outer pipes.
- The molten sulphur is collected in wooden containers and
allowed to solidify.
- Sulphur obtained by this process is 99.5% pure.
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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) Manufactures, Extractions and Laboratory Preparations

◄ Downs cell used in the

manufacture of sodium

Chlorine industrial ►
production
Sodium metal ► ◄ Platinum-rodium gauze
Discovered in 1807 Used as a catalyst in the
Sixth most abundant production of Nitric Acid
element in the earth’scrust by Ostwald Process

◄ Ammonia Plant Fritz Haber ►

(1868-1934)
German chemist
Invented Haber process,
a method used to synthesize ammonia
from nitrogen gas.

Sodium
hydroxide
(Caustic
Soda)
◄

Asbestos ► ►
naturally occurring Vanadium (V) oxide
silicate minerals that (brown/yellow solid)
existed more than is the mose important
4,000 years ago but compound of
large scale mining vanadium and is
began at the end of widely used as
19th century. industrial catalyst.
◄Oleum ◄Chlorine gas
fuming Second lightest of
sulphuric acid, halogens,
a solution of yellow green gas
sulphur at room temperature,
trioxide and has highest
sulphuric acid electron affinity

Book cover design and layout © Minn Thant 2019: Second Edition
◙

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) Manufactures, Extractions and Laboratory Preparations

Methods of preparation of Nitrogen

Laboratory preparation of nitrogen from atmosphere

copper + air → copper (II) oxide + nitrogen

2Cu + (N2+O2) → 2CuO + N2
sodium + carbon → sodium + water
hydroxide dioxide carbonare
2NaOH + CO2 → Na2CO3 + H 2O
- The apparatus is set up as shown in figure.
- Water is allowed to flow into bottle A at a slow rate.
- Air from this bottle is displaced and made to pass through another
bottle B containing caustic soda solution to remove carbon dioxide.
- The carbon dioxide free air is then passed over heated copper which
absorbs oxygen to form copper (II) oxide.
- Nitrogen, freed from oxygen, comes out from the combustion tube.
- Since nitrogen is only slightly soluble in water, it is collected by the
downward displacement of water.

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) Manufactures, Extractions and Laboratory Preparations

- If the nitrogen is required dry, it may be passed through a U-tube

containg glass beads wetted with concentrated sulphuric acid and
then collected in a syringe.
Laboratory preparation of nitrogen from ammonium nitrate

sodium + ammonium → sodium + ammonium

nitrite chloride chloride nitrite
NaNO2 + NH4Cl → NaCl + NH4NO2
ammonium nitrite → nitrogen + water
NH4NO2 → N2 + 2H2O

- The apparatus is set up as shown in figure.

- Concentrated solution of sodium nitrite and ammonium chloride are
mixed in a round bottomed flask.
- The flask is then heated gently.
- Decomposition to nitrogen occurs as the solution becomes warm.
- Since nitrogen gas is slightly soluble in water, it may be collected
over water.
- If nitrogen is required dry, it may be passed through a U-tube
containg glass beads wetted with concentrated sulphuric acid and
then collected in a syringe.

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) Manufactures, Extractions and Laboratory Preparations

Methods of preparation of Nitrogen Compounds

Laboratory preparation of ammonia (NH3)

calcium + ammonium ∆ Calcium + water + ammonia

→
hydroxide chloride chloride
∆
Ca(OH)2 + 2NH4Cl → CaCl2 + 2H2O + 2NH3

- An excess of the slaked lime and ammonium chloride are mixed.

- The mixture is placed in a round-bottomed flask.
- The apparatus is set up as shown in figure. When this mixture is
heated, ammonia gas is evolved.
- It is dried by passage through a lime tower which contains the drying
agent, quicklime, CaO.
- Since ammonia is lighter than air and very soluble in water, it is
collected by downward displacement of air.
- The gas jar is filled with ammonia if a moist red litmus paper is
placed at the mouth of the gas jar, the paper turns blue.

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) Manufactures, Extractions and Laboratory Preparations

Laboratory preparation of dinitrogen oxide (N2O)

ammonium + potassium → ∆ ammonium + potassium

sulphate nitrate nitrate Sulphate
∆
(NH4)2SO4 + 2KNO3 → 2NH4NO3 + K2SO4

ammonium sulphate → dinitrogen oxide + water

NH4NO3 → N2O + 2H2O

- A mixture of potassium nitrate and ammonium sulphate is placed in

a flask.
- The apparatus is set up as shown in figure.
- The flask is gently heated.
- On heating, the ammonium nitrate melts and effervesces (i.e., gives
off bubles of gas).
- The gas liberated is collected over hot water.
- This gas is fairly soluble in cold water.

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) Manufactures, Extractions and Laboratory Preparations

Laboratory preparation of nitrogen oxide (NO)

Copper + nitric acid → copper (II) + Water + nitrogen

(dil) nitrate oxide
3Cu + 8HNO3 → 3Cu(NO3)2 + 4H2O + 2NO

- Some copper turnings are placed in a flat-bottomed flask. The

apparatus is set up as shown in figure.
- Dilute nitric acid, made by adding an equal volume of concentrated
nitric acid to water, is slowly added to the copper turnings.
- Vigorous effervescence occurs and the flask is filled with brown
fumes.
- These brown fumes are nitrogen dioxide, produced partly by the
action of the acid upon the copper and partly by the oxidation of the
snitrogen oxide by the oxygen of the air in the flask.
nitrogen oxide + oxygen → nitrogen dioxide
2NO + O2 → 2NO2
- The brown fumes dissolved in the water and the nitrogen oxide is
collected as a colourless gas by the downward displacement of
water.

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) Manufactures, Extractions and Laboratory Preparations

Laboratory preparation of nitrogen dioxide (NO2)

∆
copper + nitric acid → copper (II) + water + nitrogen
(conc) nitrate dioxide
∆
Cu + 4HNO3 → Cu(NO3)2 + 2H2O + 2NO2

- Some copper turnings are placed in a round bottomed flask. The

apparatus is set up as shown in figure.
- Some concentrated nitric acid is added. The flask is gently heated.
- Since nitrogen dioxide reacts with water and is heavier than air, the
gas is collected by the upward displacement of air.
- Since nitrogen dioxide is reddish brown, it is easily observed when
the jar is full.

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) Manufactures, Extractions and Laboratory Preparations

Laboratory preparation of hydrogen sulphide (H2S)

Fig. Laboratory preparation of hydrogen sulphide

iron (II) + sulphuric → iron (II) + hydrogen

sulphide acid sulphate sulphide
FeS + H2SO4 → FeSO4 + H2S

- a few piece of iron (II) sulphide are put into a flat-bottomed flask.
- The apparatus is set up as shown in figure.
- Dilute sulphuric acid is added.
- Effervescence takes place and hydrogen sulphide gas is evolved.
- The gas is soluble in water and heavier than air, so it is collected by
upward displacement of air.
- A piece of blotting paper is soaked with lead (II) oxide paper and
placed in the mouth of the gas jar.
- The paper is turned black, the gas jar is full with hydrogen sulphide.
- If the gas is required dry, it may be passed over anhydrous calcium
chloride.

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) Manufactures, Extractions and Laboratory Preparations

Laboratory preparation of sulphur dioxide

(i) By the action of dilute sulphuric acid on sodium sulphite

Fig. Laboratory prepartion of sulphur dioxide

sodium + sulphuric ∆ sodium + water + sulphur

→
sulphite acid sulphate dioxide
Na2SO4 + H2SO4 ∆ Na2SO4 + H2O + SO2
→

- Some sodium sulphite is put into a round-bottomed flask.

- The apparatus is set up as shown in figure.
- Dilute sulphuric acid is added and the flask is gently heated.
- Sulphur dioxide gas is evolved.
- The gas is very soluble in water and denser than air, so it is
collected by upward displacement of air.
- Potassium dichromate paper is placed at the mouth of the gas jar. If
the paper is turned green, the gas jar is full with sulphur dioxide.

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) Manufactures, Extractions and Laboratory Preparations

Laboratory preparation of sulphur dioxide

(ii) By the action of concentrated sulphuric acid on copper

Fig. Laboratory preparation of sulphur dioxide

copper + sulphuric → ∆ copper (II) + water + sulphur

acid (conc) sulphate dioxide
Cu + H2SO4 ∆ CuSO4 + H2O + SO2
→

- Some copper foils are put into a round-bottomed flask.

- The apparatus is set up as shown in figure.
- Concentrated sulphuric acid is added and the flask is gently heated.
- Sulphur dioxide gas is evolved.
- The gas is very soluble in water and denser than air, so it is collected
by upward displacement of air.
- A piece of plotting paper soaked in potassium dichromate solution
is placed in the mouth of the gas jar.
- The paper is turned green, the gas jar is full with sulphur dioxide.
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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) Manufactures, Extractions and Laboratory Preparations

Laboratory preparation of chlorine

(i) From concentrated hydrochloric acid and manganese (IV) oxide

Fig. Laboratory preparation of chlorine

manganese + hydrochloric → ∆ manganese + water + Chlorin

(IV) oxide acid (conc) (IV) chloride e
MnO2 + HCl ∆ MnCl4 + H 2O + Cl
→

- Concentrated hydrochloric acid is oxidized to chlorine by

manganese (IV) oxide.
- Some manganese (IV) oxide is placed in the round-bottomed flask.\
- The apparatus is set up as shown in figure.
- Concentrated hydrochloric acid is added and the flaskk is gently
heated.
- Effervescence will take place.
- A greenish yelow gas of chlorine is evolved with misty fumes.
- The gas mixture is passed into the water to remove hydrochloric acid
gas.
- Then, the gas is passed into concentrated sulphuric acid to remove
water vapour.

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) Manufactures, Extractions and Laboratory Preparations

- Chlorine gas is heavier than air, so it is collected by the upward

displacement of air.
- Chlorine gas is greenish yellow colour, it can be seen easily when
the gas jar is full of chlorine gas.

Labroratory preparation of chlorine from sodium chloride

Fig. Laboratory preparation of chlorine from sodium chloride

sodium + manganese + sulphuric ∆ sodium + manganese

chloride (IV) oxide acid (conc) → hydrogen (II)
sulphate sulphate
2NaCl + MnO2 + 3H2SO4 ∆ 2NaHSO4 + MnSO4
→
+ water + chlorine
+ 2H2O + Cl2

- Concentrated sulphuric acid reacts with sodium chloride to form

hydrogen chloride which is oxidized to chlorine by mangasese (IV)
oxide.
- The apparatus is set up as shown in figure.
- A mixture of sodium chloride and manganese (IV) oxide is placed
in the round bottom flask.
- Concentrated sulphuric acid is added and the flask is gently heated.
- Effervescence will take place.
- A greenish yellow gas of chlorine is evolved with misty fumes.
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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) Manufactures, Extractions and Laboratory Preparations

- The gas mixture is passed into the water to remove hydrochloric acid
gas.
- Then, the gas is passed into concentrated sulphuric acid to remove
water vapour.
- Chlorine gas is heavier than air, so it is called by upward
displacement of air.
- Chlorine gas is greenish yellow colour, it can be seen easily when
the gas jar is full of chlorine gas.

Physical properties

N - Colourless, ordourless, slightly less dense than air,

soluble in water, b.p 196oC and m.p -2100C, relatively
inert, does not support combustion
NH3 - Colourless gas with a pungent odour, lighter than air,
extremely soluble in water
N2O - Colourless gas with sweetishh ordour, fairly soluble in
cold water, neutral oxide, support combustion
NO - Colourless gas, insoluble in water, neutral to litmus
NO2 - Reddish brown gas, b.p 220C and m.p -100C, colourless
in solid state, pale yellow in liquid state
HNO3 - Colourless, fuming liquid
H2S - Colourless gas with rotten egg smell, poisonous, acidic,
soluble in water, heavier than air
SO2 - Colourless gas with pungernt smell, denser than air, very
soluble in water
Cl - Greenish yellow gas with choking, unpleasant smell, very
poisonous if inhealed, about 2.5 times as dense as air
Br - Heavy, red, volatile liquid with choking, irritating smell,
slightly soluble in water forming yellowish red solution
I - Black shinny solid, sublimes when heated forming violet
vapour, insoluble in water, dissolves in aqueous
potassium iodide solution, dissolves in ethanol and ether
(brownish), dissolves in carbon disulphide and carbon
tetrachloride (violet)

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) Manufactures, Extractions and Laboratory Preparations

Laboratory preparation of chlorine from bleaching powder

Fig. Laboratory preparation of chlorine from bleaching powder

beaching + nitric acid

calcium → + water + chlorine
powder (dil)nitrate
CaOCl2 + →
2HNO3Ca(NO3)2 + H 2O + Cl2
(OR)
beaching + hydrochloric → calcium + water + chlorine
powder acid (dil) chloride
CaOCl2 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H 2O + Cl2

- The apparatus is set up as shown in figure.

- Some bleaching powder is placed in the flat-bottomed flask.
- Dilute nitric acid or hydrochloric acid is added.
- Heat is not required.
- Effervescence will take place.
- A greenish yellow gas of chlorine is evolved.
- It is collected by the downward displacement of brine.

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) Manufactures, Extractions and Laboratory Preparations

Laboratory preparation of bromine

Fig. Laboratory prepartion of bromine

potassium + manganese + sulphuric ∆ potassium + manganese

bromide (IV) oxide acid (conc) → hydrogen (II)
sulphate sulphate
2KBr + MnO2 + 3H2SO4 ∆ 2KHSO4 + MnSO4
→
+ water + bromine
+ 2H2O + Br2

- A mixture of potassium bromide and manganese (IV) oxide is placed

in the retort as shown in figure.
- Concentrated sulphuric acid is added and the mixture is warmed.
- A reddish brown gas of bromine is evolved with some misty fumes
of hydrogen bromide which condense to a red liquid in the cooled
receiver.

Page-29
Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) Manufactures, Extractions and Laboratory Preparations

Laboratory preparaton of iodine

Fig. Laboratory preparation of iodine

potassium + manganese + sulphuric ∆ potassium + manganese

iodide (IV) oxide acid (conc) → hydrogen (II)
sulphate sulphate
2KI + MnO2 + 3H2SO4 ∆ 2KHSO4 + MnSO4
→
+ water + Iodine
+ 2H2O + I2

- Some potassium iodide and manganese (IV) oxide are mired and
ground in a motor and mixture is placed in a beaker.
- Concentrated sulphuric acid is added and a round-bottomed flask
with arrangements to circulate flowing of water from the tap is
placed on the beaker as shown in figure.
- The mixture is carefully warmed when violet vapours of iodine is
evolved and are condensed on the outside of the bottom of the cooled
flask, as black shiny plates.

Page-30
 B
uKd
;pm;jci f;u at mifjr i fjci f;&JU
jy, k'f

KEY CONCEPTS
FOR
CHAPTER-8

REACTIVE METALS ( "m

wfjyK
vG, fao mo wå
K
)
1. Reactive metal awG
ukdo b m
0rS
mfree awG
Y
&ygo v m
;/
Reactive metals are not found (rawG
Y
&) free in nature.
2. b , fv kd
awG
U
&o v J/
Reactive metals are found as compounds ("m
wfaygi f;u J
h
okd
Y
) in nature.
3. b , fv d
kextract (x kw fv kyf) o v J/
Reactive metals are extracted by electrolysis. (v Q
yfppfo H
k; N
zd
K
uGJapjci f;)

REACTIVE METALS
1. Alkali metals awG
[ m b mgroup &JU member (t kyfpk0i f) awG
v J/
Alkali metals are Li, Na, K in group IA (t k
yfpkIA : Li, Na, K x J)
2. a&eJUx d
&i fb mjzpfr v J/
Alkali metals are easily inflammable (t v G
, fw u l r D
;av m
i fEkd
i fao m
) when touch to
water. (a&eJ
U
xd)
3. Reducing agent ("m wfav smh ypö
n f;) v m;/ oxidizing agent (“"mwfw kd ;ypö
n f;) v m ;/
Alkali metals are very good reducing agent. (t v G efau m
i f;wJh“"mwfav smh ypö
n f;)
4. Zn, fe, Pb wkd
Yu kdb , fen f;eJYextract v kyfo v J/
Zn, fe are manufactured (extract) by reduction ("m wfav smhjci f;) reaction.
5. Reactivity series &JUat mu fq kH;ykdi f;r S
m½S
d
w Jhmetal awG u kdo b m0r S mfree awG U&v m;/
The metals at the lowest place (at m u fq kH
;ykd
i f;) of reactivity series may be found
free in nature. (o b m 0r S
m free awG U&)
6. Alkali metal awG [ m b mblock element v J/
Alkali metal awG
[ ms. block element .
7. Reactivity series r S
mt x u fykd
i f;r S
m½S
d
w Jhmetal awG
eJU
at m
u fykd
i f; rS
m½S
d
w Jhmetal awG
rS
mb , fu
extract v k yfzkd
Y
ykd
vG, fo v J/
t x u fykd
i f; (K,Na, Ca, Mg, Al-very reactive, Cu, Hg, Ag, Au- Not very reactive
reactivity decrease extraction becomes easier.
Saya Khaine Mon (8,9,10,11,12) KEY CONCEPTS

1. Reactivity series r S
mmetal awG
u kd
b , fv kd
en f;eJUpD
pOfx m;o v J
Metal are arranged in decreasing order (t pOfv k
u fav sm
d h
cs) of reactivity and inverse
(apmu fx kd
;) of ease of extraction in the reactivity series.
2. b , f alkali metal [ m a&eJU
jyi f;x efpG
m”"mwfr jyK
o v J/
With the exception of Lithium all alkali metals react vigorously with water
3. Alkali metal awG
[ mav eJU
xd&i f b m
jzpfo G
m
;v n f;
The alkali metals tarnish rapidly (t a&m
i fr S
d
efv G
, f) in air forming a layer of oxide
at mu fq kd
' ft v T
mwpfckjzpfay:/
4. a&eJY
xd&i f b mjzpfr v J/
Alkali metals are easily inflammable (t v G
, fw u lr D
;av m
i fEkd
i f)when they touch to
water.
5. b , fr S
mstore v kyfx m
;&o v J/
Li, Na, K are so reactive that they are stored under kerosene (a&eH
qDat mu f)

Sodium and its compound

1. Sodium u k d
bm en f;eJYextract v kyfo v J/
Sodium is extracted by electrolysis (v Q yfppfN
zK
d
;u G
Jjci f;) of fused sodium chloride.
(q kd
, rfu v kd
½kd
' faysmf&n f)
2. Sodium [ m r m ovm ;/aysmhovm ;/
Sodium is a soft metal (aysm h
aysmif;ao mo wåK
) and may be cut easily.
(t v G
, fw u ljzwfawm u fEkd
i f) with a knife.
3. bm t a&mifawmu fo v J/
Sodium is a silvery lustre (ai G a&mifawmu fajymif) but rapidly ternishes (t a&m i fr S
d
efv G
, f)
in moist air (av x k x J)
4. bm u kd
t ajrmu ft r sm
;x kw fv kyf&mrSo kH ;o v J/
Sodium is also used in the manufacture of tetraethyl lead.
5. t o u f½Iu d
&d, m rS
mb m j' yfaygi f;o kH
;o v J/
t o u f½Iu d
&d, m rS
m Sodium hydroxide
6. q yfjymt ajr mu ft rsm;x kwfv kyf&ef &mrS mb m j' yfaygi f;o kH
;o v J/
Sodium hydroxide (q k d
'D, rf[ kd
u f' a&m h
qd k'f) is used in the manufacture soap.
(q yfjymt ajr m
u ft r sm;x kw f)

(2)
Saya Khaine Mon (8,9,10,11,12) KEY CONCEPTS

7. a&;ap;u kda&o G
u fjzpfat mif jyK v kyf&mwG i f b mj' yfaygi f;u kd o kH
;v J/
Sodium carbonate (q d k'D
, r fu mAG efedw f) is used in large quantities for the soften of
hand water (a&ap;)
8. Sodium carbonate of b m en f;eJU
t ajr mu ft rsm;x kwfv kyfo v J/
Sodium carbonate is manufactured by the solvay process aq m h
pDjzpfpOf
9. Washing soda &J azm fjrLv m[ mb m vJ
Washingsoda = Na2CO3.10H2O q k d
'D, r fu mAG efed
w f?a&q , fv kH;aygi f;
10.. Soda ash &J U
azmfjr Lv m[ m b mv J/
Soda ash = Na 2CO3 q k d
'D
, rf u m AGefedwf
11. Baking soda &J U azmfjr Lv m[ m b mv J/
Baking soda= Na HCO3 (q k d
'D, r f[ kd
u f' ½kd
* si f u m AG
efedwf)
12. Stomach acidity t pm td r ft csOfaygu f&i fb m j' yfaygi f;o kH
;o v J/
Sodium hydrogen carbonate is used as the correction of stomach acidity
(t pmt d
r ft csOfaygu f)
13. Sodium chloride u k d
b , fr S
mawG
U
&o v J/
Sodium chloride occur in nature as rock salt (q m
;ykyf)
and it is present in sea water
14. Sodium chloride u k
d
b mt wG
u fo kH
;o v J/
Sodium chloride is used for the seasoning of foods (t pm
; t ao mu fr sm;t wG
u fo kH
;)
15. Sodium hydrogen sulphate r S
mb m
aMum
i fhacid *kP f½S
d
aeao ; wmv J/
Sodium hydrogen sulphate still has acidic property since it contains a replaceable
hydrogen atom.
16. Na2S2O3.10H2O sodium thiosuplate u k d
bm t jzpft o d
r sm;o v J/
Na2S2O3.10H2O is known as photpgraphic hypo.
17. Glauber’s salt u k
dmedicine r S
mb mt jzpfo kH
;o v J/
Glauber’s salt used as a purgative (0r f;Ek
w faq ;) in medicine

Magnesium and its compounds

18. Magnesium eJ
YCalcium [ m
b mt rsK
;t pm
d ; metal awG
v J/
Magnesium eJ
YCalcium [ malkaline earth metal (G.IIA)
19. Magnesium [ mdensity ed
r fh
v m;jr i fh
vm;/
(3)
Saya Khaine Mon (8,9,10,11,12) KEY CONCEPTS

Magnesium is a silivery white metal (ai G

jzLu Jh
o kd
Y
) with a very low density
(density t v G
efed
r fh
)
20. Magnesium alloy (o wå
K
pyf) awGu kd
b mt wG
u fo kH
;o v J/
Magnesium based alloys are used for enginnering construction
(aq mu fv kyf&;v kyfi ef;r sm
;)
21. Basic carbonate of magnesium u k
d
oGm;wkd
u faq ;r S
m b mt jzpfo kH
;o v J/
The basic carbonate of magnesium are used as fillers (zm
ax &ef) in tooth pastes
(o G
m
;wkd
u faq ;)
22. Epsom salt &J Uazmfjr Lv m
[ m b mv J/
MgSO4.7H2O is known as Epsom salt.
23. Epsom salt u k
dmedicine r S
mb mt wG
u fo kH
;o v J/
Epsom salt is used as purgative (0r f;Ek
w faq ;) in medicine.

Calcium and its compound

1. Calcium u k
d
bmj' yfaygi f;t ajr mu ft jr m;x kwfv kyf&m
rS
mo kH
;o v /J
Calcium is used in the manufacture of calcium hydride. (u r fv fq D
, r f [ kd
u f' ½kd
u f)
2. “"mwfcG
Jcef;r S
mb magent t jzpfo kH;o v J/
Calcium is used as a drying agent (t ajcm u fcHypö
n f;) in the laboratory.
3. Calcium cyanamide eJ Ycarbon t a&mu kd b , fv kd ac:o v J/
A mixture of cyanamide and carbon is known as nitrolime. (Ek d
u fx ½kd
v kd
i f;(r )f)
4. Nitrolime [ m a&eJU
”"mwfjyK
&i f b m”"mwfai GUxG u fo v J/
Nitrolime liberates (x G u f) ammonia (t r kd eD, m;) on reaction with water.
5. Calciumhydroxide &J U
aysmf0i fo wå[ mt ylcsd
d efjr i fh
v m&i f b mjzpfo G
m;v J/
The solubility of calcium hydroxide decreases (av sm h
u s) on increasing the
temperature.
6. Aqueous solution of calcium hydroxide u k
d
bmac:o v J
Aqueous solution of calcium hydroxide is known as lime water
7. Aqueous suspension of calcium hydroxide u k
d
b mac:o v J/
The aqueous suspension of calcium hydroxide is known as milk of lime.
8. Slaked lime u k
d
bmj' yfaygi f; t ajr mu ft rsm;x kw fv kyf&m
rS
mo kH
;o v J/
Slaked Lime is used in the manufacture of bleaching powdered
(t a&mifcG
sw faq ;r IefY
)

(4)
Saya Khaine Mon (8,9,10,11,12) KEY CONCEPTS

1. Calcium carbonate u k
d
bmj' yfaygi f; t ajr mu ft rsm;x kw fv kyf&m
rS
m o kH
;o v J/
Calcium carbonate is employed (t o k
;jyK
H ) in the manufacture of tooth paste
(o G
m
;wkd
u faq ;)
2. Anhydrous calcium chloride u k
d
”"m
wfcG
JrS
m b magent t jzpf o kH
;o v J/
Anhydrous calcium chloride is used as a drying agent (t ajcm
u fcH
ypö
n f;) in the
laboratory.
3. Lime stone, CaCO3 u k
d
b , fv kd
ac:ao ;o v J/
Lime stone, CaCO3 is also known as marble. (x k
H
;au smu f)
4. Sodium chloride \ melting point ed
r fh
u sap&ef b m
j' yfaygi f;eJYx n fh
ay;&o v J/
Sodium Chloride \ melting point ed
r fh
u sap&ef CaCl2 j' yfaygi f;u kdx n fh
ay;&o n f/
5. Gypsum \ azm
fjr Lv m[ m
b mv J/
CaSO4.2H2O is known as gypsum.
6. Gypsum u k
d
bmt ajr mu ft r sm; x kwfazmf&mrS
mo kH
;o v J/
Gypsum is used to manufacture of plaster of pairs. (t *F
awyv mpwm)
7. POP (plaster of pair) &J
U
azmfjr Lv m[ m
b mv J/
2CaSO4. H2O is known as plater of pairs (POP).
8. Calcium dihydrogen phosphate eJU calcium sulphate t a&m
u kd b mac:o v J/
A mixture of calcium dihydrogen phosphate and calcium sulphate is known as
superphosphate (plygazm
pzd
h wf)

Aluminium and its compounds

1. Aluminium &J U main source [ m
b mv J/
The main source of aluminium in bauxite wG
i f;x G
u fo wå
K ^ at mu fq kd
' fu d
kb , fen f;eJY
extract v k
yfo v J
Aluminium is extracted by electrolysis of the fused oxide.
(t &n faysm
faeao mat m uqd k'f)
2. electrode (2)ckv kH
;u kdb meJYv kyfx m
;o v J/
In the extraction of aluminium both electrodes are made of graphite (cJ
eu facsmif;)
3. Aluminium [ m
b magent v J/
Aluminium is a strong reducing agent.
4. Aluminium [ m b m t a&m
i f½S
d
o v J/
Aluminium is a silvery-white metal. (ai G
a&mifo wå
K
wpfr sK
;)
d

(5)
Saya Khaine Mon (8,9,10,11,12) KEY CONCEPTS

5. ductility eJ
Ymalleability jri fh
o v m;/ ed
r fh
ovm ;/
Aluminium has high ductility (eef;q G JEkd
i fpG
r f;jr i fh
) and high malieability.
(t jym;cwfEkd
i fpG
r f;jr i fh
)
6. electrical eJU thermal conductivity jri fh o v m;/ ed r fh
ovm ;/
Aluminium reacts ("m wfjyKEkd
i f) with alkalis as well as acids.
Aluminium exhibits high (t &n ft ao G ;jri fh
) electrical and.
thermal conductivities (t yleJ U
vQ yfppfpD;r I)
7. Acid, alkali ES pfr sK
;v kH
d ;eJU"mwfjyK Ekd
i fo v m;
Aluminium reacts ("m wfjyKEkd
i f) with alkalis as well as acids.

8. Aluminium u k
d
o b m0r S
mb , fv kd t o G
i feJU
awG
U
&o v J/
Aluminium occurs in nature in the form of ruby (ywå
jr m;) and sapphire. (eD
v mau smu f)
9. Chromatography r S
m b mt jzpfo kH
;o v J/
Alumia is used an absorbent (t pd
wft ykd
i f;wpfck) in chromatography.
(j' yfaygi f;wkd
Y
u kd
oD;jcm;cG
Jx kwfjci f;)
10. Aluminium hydroxide u k d dreing industry. r Smb mt jzpfo kH
;o v J/
Aluminium hydroxide is used as a mordant or dye-fixing (csK yfaq ;) agent in the
dyeing industry. (o m a&v kyfi ef;)
11. Aluminium hydroxide [ m b mt rsK ;t pm
d ; hydroxide v J/
Aluminium hydroxide is amphoteric hydroxide.
12. a&u kd
o efY
pi fzkd
Y
t wGufbm u kd
o kH
;o v J/
Alum (au sm u fcsOf) is also used for purifying of water . (a&u kd
o efU
pi fzkd
U
t wG
u f)

Lead and its compounds

1. jrefr m[ mu rÇ
mrS
mb mo wå
K
½kd
i f; t r sm;q kH
;x kw fv kyfo v J/
Myanmar is one of the world’s largest producers of lead ore. (o b m
0o wå
K
½kd
i f;)
2. Metal awG
x JrS
mb , f metal [ m
t aysmh
q kH
;o wå
Lt jzpft o kH
;r sm
;o v /J
Lead is the softest (t aysm
h
q kH
;) of the metal in co,,on use. (t o kH
;r sm;q kH
;o wå
K
r sm
;)
3. “"mwfa&mifjcn fX- ray u m
uG, fzkd
Y
b mu kd
o kH
;o v J/
Lead is used as a shield against radioactive material (a&' D
½kd o wå
d
<u t &m
0wå
K
r sm
;)
and X- rays.
4. Lead [ mpoor or good conductor v m ;/
Lead is a poor conductor (pD
;u l;rln H
) of electricity and heat (v Q
yfppfES
i fht yl)

(6)
Saya Khaine Mon (8,9,10,11,12) KEY CONCEPTS

5. Lead u kd
b , fr S
mo kH
;o v J/
Lead is also used in car batteries. (u m
;b w¬
&D
rS
m)
6. Read lead &J
U
azmfjr Lv m[ m
b mv J/
Red lead = Pb3O4
7. Red lead u k
d
b , fae&mrS
o kH
;o v J^ b mt wG
u fo kH
;o v J
Red lead is used in surface coating such as paints for preventing corrosion.
(wkd
u fpm;jci f;rS
umuG, f&ef r su fES
mjyi fzkH
;o kwfaq ; t jzpfo kH
;)
8. Basic lead carbonate u k d
bm t jzpfo kH;v J/
Basic lead carbonate is used as a white pigment. (t jzLa&m i fjc, fypö
n f;)
9. PbO eJ YPbO2 [ m b mt rsK;t pm
d ; oxide v J/
PbO eJ YPbO2 are amphoteric oxides.

CHAPTER - 9
METAL REACTIVITY
Reaction of metals
1. Metal awG
b , fv kd
”gwfjyK
w, fq kd
w mB
uKd
wi fr S
ef;q zkd
Y
t wG
u fb , fseries [ m
t o kH
;0i fo v J/
Metals high (jr i fh
) in the reactivity series have proved very difficult to isolate.
(cG
Jx kw ft v G efcu fcJ)
2. o wå K
½kd
i f;r S
o wåK
x kw fv kyf&eft o kH
;jyK
o n fen f;v r f;o n f reactivity series is useful in
predicting how metals react.
3. Electroysis (en f;jzi fh
) metal x kw fv kyfen f;o n f u kefu sp&d
w f en f;v m
;/ r sm;o v m
;/
Extraction of metal by electrolysis is expansive. (u k
efu sp&d
w fr sm
;)
4. Competition reaction u k
d
aemu fw pfr sK
d
;b , fv kd
ac:o v J/
Competition (t N
yK
d
i ft q kd
i f) reaction are also known as displacement reaction.
5. Thermit reaction (t r lx G
u f”"mwfjyK
jci f;) u kd
b , fae&mrS
m t o kH
;jyK
r v J/
Thermit reaction is used in welding of iron. (o H
u kd
* a[ aq mfjci f;)
6. Earth’s curst (u r Ç
m
ajr\ t ay:, H
vTm
) x Jw G
i fo b m0t wkd
i f; awG
U
&w Jh metal
awG
[ mb mawG v n f;/
Gold and silver (a½TES
i fh
ai G
) occur native in the earth’s crust.

(7)
Saya Khaine Mon (8,9,10,11,12) KEY CONCEPTS

Iron
1. Iron u k
d
o b m0r S
mb , fo wå
K½kd
i f;t jzpfawG
U
&o v J/
Iron (Fe) is found native as the ore (o wå K
½kd
i f;) haematite. (o H
at mu fq kd
' fo wå
K
½kd
i f;)
2. Iron ore \ t r n f[ m
b mv J/ Formula [ m b mv J/
The iron ore is haematite, Fe2O3
3. Magnetite \ formula [ m b m
v J/ yg0i fo n fhyr m
P/
The formula of magnetite is Fe3O4 contain over 80%
4. Pig iron (o G
ef;o H
(c)o H
pd
r f;)r S
t n pft aM
u ;r sm;z, f&i f b miron &o v J/
Removal of imparities from pig iron gives wrought iron (o H
M
uGwf)
5. pu fr lo kH
;o H
awG
rS
mb , firon [ m
t o efY
pi fq kH
;v J/
Wrought iron is the purest form of industrial iron.
6. Pig iron x J
rS
myg0i fwJh
t n pft aM
u ;awG
[ m
b mawG
v J/
The impurities present in pig iron are manganese (ru f? pD
?qm
? azmh
) silicon
(pD
vDuGef) sulphur (q mv zm) and phosphrous. (azmh pzm&wf)
7. Iron oxide r S
”"mwfav sm
h
en f;jzi fhiron x kw fv kyf&mwG
i fb mu kd
o kH
;o v J
Iron is extracted by reduction of its oxide with carbon monoxide.
8. Pig iron u k
d
aemu fw pfr sK
d
;b , fv kd
ac:o v J/
Pig iron of is aem
u f also known as cast iron. (o G
ef;o H
)
9. Gas cylinder awG
u kd
bmeJJU
jyK
v kyfo v J/
Gas cylinder are sometime made of cast iron.
10. Iron x k
w fv kyf&mwG
i fyg0i fao msalg \ formula [ m
b mv J/
The chemical formula of slag that comes from iron extraction is CaSiO3.

Zinc (o G
yf)
1. Zinc \ pricipal source o n fb m
v J/
The principal (yi f&i f;) source of zinc are zinc blende (Zi fAv ef) ES
i fhzinc
sulphide. (Zi fh
q mv fzd
ku f)
2. Zinc \ principal source o n f
Zinc o wå
K
½kd
i f;u kd
b , fen f;eJU
yg0i fu d
ef;jr §
i fh
o v J/
The zinc are is first concentration by a process called froth floatation.
(t jr K
yfaygav may:apen f;)

(8)
Saya Khaine Mon (8,9,10,11,12) KEY CONCEPTS

3. Steel u k
dgalvanise v kyfzkd
Y
b mu kd
o kH
;o v J/
Zn (iron) is used to galvanise steel. (o G
yf&n fpd
yfo H
rP d
)
4. Zn oxide u k
dZn t jzpfo kd
Yb meJY
”"m
wfav sm
h
o v J/
Zn is also used in alloy (aM
u ;0g) such as brass. (o wå
K
pr fr sm
;)
5. Zn u k
d
b u fx &D
awG
rS
mb mt jzpfo kH
;o v J/
Zn is also used telectrodes in batteries. (o wå
K
b u fx &D
vQyfacgi f;)
6. o ab F
mu kd
, fx n fr sm;u d
ko H
acs;rwwfat m
i f b meJYwG
Jq u fx m
;o v J/
Zinc bars are attached to the hulls of ships to prevent the hully rusting.

Copper
1. Copper ore principal source o n fb m
v J/
The principal source of copper is copper pyrites, CuFeS2.
2. Copper \ formula [ m
b mv J/
The formula of copper is CuFeS.
3. Copper ore (½k
d
i f;)u kd
yx r OD
;pG
myg0i fu d
ef;jr §
i fh
&mwG
i f b men f;u kdo kH
;o v J/
The Copper ore is frist concentrated by a process called froth floatation
(t jr §
K
yfaygav may:apao men f;)
4. Extraction r v k yfci fcopper are u kd
yg0i fu d
ef;jr§
i fh
zkd
Y
v kd
ygo v m
;/
Copper ore is necessary to be concentrated before extraction.
5. Copper u k
dheat conductor t jzpfo kH
;&i fau m
i f;o v m
;/ r au mif; b l;v m
;/
Copper is a good conductor of heat.
Copper ore wG i ft n pft aM
u ;t jzpfygao miron u kd
b , fj' yfaygi f; t jzpfz, fx kw fo v J/
Iron as impurity in copper ore may be removed as a form of iron (II) silicate.
6. Copper x k
w fv kyf&mwG
i fcopper t rIefY
r sm;t jr K
yfwG
i fu yfygv m
ap&efb magent u kd
o kH
;o v J/
Frothing agent (t jr K
yfx apao mypö n f;r sm;) is used in copper production to float the
copper bearing particle froth.
7. Copper u kd
vG, fu lpG
m
t jym;cyfjci f;eef;jr§
i fq G
Jjci f;v kyfEkd
i fo v m
;/
Copper is very malleable (yk
H
pH
x kwfv kyfEkd
i fao m
) and ductile. (BuKd
;r Q
i fjzpfEkd
i fao m)
8. vQyfppfN
yK
d
cG Jjci f;o efY
pi f&m wG
i fcrude (t M
u r f;) copper u d
kcathode ES
i fh
q u fo v m ;/
anode ES i fh
q u fo v m ;/
In electrolysis refining (vQyfokH;oefYpifjcif;)crude copper is attached to anode.

(9)
Saya Khaine Mon (8,9,10,11,12) KEY CONCEPTS

Si l v er (aiG)
1. Silver \ principal source o n fb m
v J/ Formula u b mv J/
The principal source of silver is or gentite or silver glance, Ag2S.
2. Silver o n f reactive v m
;/ unreactive v m
;/
Silver is very unreactive.
3. Recycle v k
yfo n fh
t "d
u metal awG
[ m
b mawG
v J/
Silver and gold occur in a native from as the free metal.
4. Recyle v k
yfjci f;jzi fh
b mt u keft u so u fo mo v J/
Recycling metal can save money. (ai G
u kefaM
u ;u s o u fo mv m
jci f;)

Rust (o H
acs;)
1. oH
acs; rust o n fb mt a&m i f½S
d
o v J/
Rust is orange-red power (v d ar®
mfeD
a&mift rIefU
)
2. oH
acs;wGi f b mj' yfaygi f; yg0i fo v J/
Rust is consisting mainly of hydrate iron (III) oxide. (Fe2O3.xH2O)
3. oH
acs;wwfzkd
Y
b , ft csu fawG
v kd
t yfo v J/
Both water and oxygen are essential for iron to rust.
4. qm
;o n fo H
acs;wwfzkd
Y
tm;ay;o v J/
The rusting of iron is ercouraged (t m
;ayo n f) by salt.
5. Car bumper ES
i fhpu fb D
;v u fu kd
i fr sm;u kdo H
acs;rwwfat m
i f b meJYelectroplate v kyfx m;o v J/
Some car bumpers and bicycle handlebar are electroplated with chromium to
prevent iron rusting.
6. wHw mB uD
;r sm;aq mu fv kyf&mwG i fo H
, u fr r sm;u kd
b mv kyfx m ;o v J/
Some steel girders (, u fr ) used in the construction of bridges are galvanized
(o H
jzLt v T
m ygt kyfx m;)
7. oHjzLt v T
myg;t kyfx m ;wJhsteel u kd b mt wG u fo kH
;o v J/
Painting the iron and steel structure is to prevent rusting. (o H acswwfjci f;rS
umuG
, f&ef)
8. Corrosion (wk d
u fpm;r l^o H
acs;wwfjci f;) \ awG Ujr i faeM
u ykHo @mefw pfck[ m
b mv J/
Rusting is the most common form of corrosion.
9. Reactivity series r S
mmetal wpfck[ mt x u fykd
i f;rS
m½S
d
av av wkd
u f pm;ysu fpD
;zkd
Y
vG, fu lav v m
;/
cu fcJav v m
;/

(10)
Saya Khaine Mon (8,9,10,11,12) KEY CONCEPTS

The higher the metal (v G

, fu l) is in the reactivity series the more rapidly it will
corrode (wjzn f;jzn f;ysu fpD
;)
10. aM
u ;ñ S
d
o n fb mt a&mif½S
o v J? b mcompound a&maES
d mx m;o v J/
Verdigris aMu ;ñ S
dis green in colour and is composed of mixed copper (II)
carbonate and copper (II) hydroxide (CuCO3.Cu(OH2))
11. a½T
EiSfh
yv u fw D
er f[ mreactive v m
;/ unreactive v m
;/
Gold and platinum are unreactive and do not corrode even after hundreds of
year. (ES
pfu mv M
u mN
yD
;aem
u f)

Alloys (o wå
K
pyf)
1. , aeY
t o kH
;r sm
;ao mmetallic substance awG
[ m
b mawG
v J/
The majority of the metallic substances used to day are alloys
2. Steel (o k
d
Y
) stainless steel [ m
b m&JUalloy v J/
Steel is an alloy of iron.
3. Steel t rsK
;r sK
d d
;½S
d
aewm[ mcontent u G
mjcm;aev kd
Y
v J/
There are many types of steel that differ only in their carbon content.
4. Iron u d
kstaintess steel jyK
v kyf&mwG
i fb mmetal awG
u kd
aygi f;x n fhay;&o v J/
Nickel and chromium are added to iron to make stainless steel.
5. chromium steel u k
d
bmu mu G
, fay;o v J/ nickel u b mv kyfay; o v J/
The chromium prevents the steel from rusting while the nickel make it harder.
6. , aeY
t o kH
;jyK
aeao mt a&;ygq kH
;ao malloy o n fb mv J/
The most important alloy used today is steel.
7. Copper ES
i fhZinc ygao malloy o n fb mv J/
Brass is an alloy of 65% copper and 35% Zinc.
8. Copper ES
i fh
fh tin ygao malloy o n fb m
v J/
Bronze is an alloy of 90% copper and 10% tin.
9. cG
Jpd
w fcef;o kH
;u d
&d
, mawG
u kd
bmeJY
jyK
v kyfx m;o v J/
Stainless steel is used for making surgical instruments.
10. Stainless steel &J
U
*kP fo wå
d
(2)ck[ m b mv J/
Stainless Steel is tough (ck
d
i fcH
ao m
) and does not corrode. (o H
acs;r wwfao m)
11. Steel \ *k
P fo wå
r sm
d ;[ m
b , ft ay:r S
mr lw n fo v J/

(11)
Saya Khaine Mon (8,9,10,11,12) KEY CONCEPTS

The properties of steel depend upon its composition. (aygi f;pn f;rl)
12. Steel [ miron eJ
Y
bmawG
aygi f;pyfx m
;wJhalloy v J/
Steel is an alloy of iron with carbon and other elements.
13. Stainless steel [ miron eJ
Y
bmawG
aygi f;pyfx m
;wJhalloy v J/
Stainless steel is an alloy of iron ,Chromium and nickel.
14. hard steel r S
mb m
awG
ygv J/
The typical composition of hard steel is 99% iron and 1%carbon.
15. Carbon content &m
ckd
i fEIef;b , fav m
u fyg&i f tensile strength t au mif;q kH
;v J/
Steel with carbon content of 1.5% makes the maximum tensile strength of it.

CHAPTER - 10
NITROGEN AND ITS COMPOUNDS
1. Nitrogen [ mt a&m
i f½S
ovm
d ;/ t eY
H
½S
ovm
d ;/
Nitrogen is colourless and odourless. (t a&m
i fr ½S
ES
di fh
t eH
H
Y
r ½S
d
)
2. av x JwG
i f t "d
u yg0i fao m”"mwfai G
U
u b mv J/
Nitrogen forms the major constituent of the atmosphere.
3. u kd
, fw kd
i fr D
;r av mif? r D
;av mifjci f;u kd
v n f; t m ;r ay;wJh ”"mwfai G
Uu b mv J/
Nitrogen gas is relativery inert (u k d
, fw kd
i fr D
;r av mif) and does not support
combustion. (rD ;av mifjci f;u kd
v n f;t m;r ay;)
4. Nitrogen u d kliquid air r Sb , fen f;eJUx kwfv kyfo v J/
Nitrogen is obtained in industry by fractional distillation (t &pfu saygi f;cH jci f;) of
liquid air. (ai G U&n f)
5. Nitrogen \ t "d u t o kH;jyKrlu b mv J/
The principal use of nitrogen is in the manufacture of ammonia.
6. Plant protein rS soil from plant proteins is obtained by nitrifying
(Ekd
u fx ½kd
u ft jzpfo kd
Y
ajymif;v Japo n fh
) bacteria.
7. Soil nitrate rSnitrogen t jzpfo k Y
d
NyK d
uGJq kH
;½IH
;r lu kdb , fv kd
b , fv kdb u fwD
;&D
, m
;u
aq mif½Gu fay;o v J/
Loss of nitrogen from the nitrates in the soil is done by denitrifying batteria.

(12)
Saya Khaine Mon (8,9,10,11,12) KEY CONCEPTS

Ammonia
1. Ammonia [ m
b m&JUhydride v J/
Ammonia is the hydride of nitrogen.
2. bm
en f;eJU
t ajr mu ft rsm;x kwfv kyfo v J/
Ammonia is manufacture by Haber process. (a[ ;b m
jzpfpOf)
3. v pfw r wfpu ú
Lt eD
u kd
b mt a&m
i fajymif;o v J/
Ammonia gas turns moist red litmus blue. (eDuaejym)
4. “"mwfcG
Jcef;x JrS
mb , fen f;eJUpk, lo v J/
Ammonia gas is collected by downward displacement of air.
(av u kd
at mu fo kd
Y
av smh
u sapao m en f;)
5. “mwfcG
Jcef;rS
mb mawG eJU
aygi f;N
yD
;x kwf, lo v J/
Ammonia is prepared in the laboratory by heating ammonium chloride with
slaked lime.
6. aysmf0i fo wå
u kd
d b mexperiment eJU
prf;o yfEkd
i fo v J/
The solubility of ammonia can be tested by fountain (a&yef;) experiment
7. Acid awG
eJU
"mwfjy, f&i f b mj' yfaygi f;&r v J/
Ammonia solution will neutralize acids to form ammonium salts.
8. ajcmu fao G
U
apcsi f&i fb , fx Jjzwf&o v J/
Ammonia gas is dried by passing the gas through quick lime.
9. Hydrogen chloride “"m
wfai G
U
eJU
a&m
&i fb mjzpfay:o v J/
A dense white fumes (t jzLa&m
i ft ckd
;t ai G
U
) from when ammonia is mixed with
hydrogen chloride gas.
10. b u fw D
;&D
;, m;u , l&D
;, m
;u kd
jzK
d
cG
J&i f b m”"mwfai G
U
xGu fo v J/
Bacteria decomposes the urea to ammonia.
11. Fertilizers t ajr m
u ft r sm;x kwfzkd
Y
b mu kd
o kH
;o v J/
Liquid (or) gas ammonia is used the large scale manufacture of fertilizer.

Dinitrogen oxide
1. Dinitrogen oxide o n ft a&m
i f½S
ovm
d ;/ b mt eH
U
½S
D
o v J/
Dinitrogen oxide is colourless gas (t a&m
i fr Jh
ao m”"mwfai G
U
) with a sweetish odour.
(csK
d
jrao m&eH
U
)

(13)
Saya Khaine Mon (8,9,10,11,12) KEY CONCEPTS

2. bm
”"mwfai G
U
v kd
U
ac:o v J/
Dinitrogen oxide is also named laughing gas. (&, fapao m
”"mwfai G
U
)
3. “m
wfcG
Jcef;r S
mb , fv kd
pkyf, lo v J/
Dinitrogen oxide is collected over hot water.
4. bm
t jzpfb , fae&m
rS
mt o kH
;jyK
o v J/
Dinitrogen oxide is used as anesthetic for minor surgical operation.
(t ao ;pmcG
Jpd
w fr lr sm;wGi f arh
aq ;(o d
kY
) xH kaq ;)
5. Neutral oxide v m ; acid oxide v m ;/
Dinitrogen oxide is a neutral oxide.

Nitrogen dioxide
1. Nitrogen dioxide [ m b , ft csd
efr S
mt cJt jzpf&yfw n f½S
d
o v J/
At-10C, nitrogen dioxide exists as a solid.
2. bm
t a&mif½S
d
o v J/
Nitrogen dioxide gas a reddish brown colour. (eD
nKa&mif)
d
3. b , fen f;eJU
pk, lo v J/
Nitrogen dioxide gas is collected by upward displacement at air.
(av u kd
t x u fo kd Y
z, fx kw fen f;)
4. a&r S
maysmf0i f&i fb macid awG U &v J/
Nitrogen dioxide dissolves in water to form nitrous acid and nitric acid.
5. vQ
yfpD
;v u f&i f av x kx JrS
mb m”"mwfai G
U
jzpfay:o v J/
Lightening causes some formation of nitrogen dioxide atmosphere.

Nitrogen oxide
1. Nitrogen oxide [ m
v pfw r wfpu ú
Lu kd
t a&mifajymif;Ekd
i fo v m
;/
Nitrogen oxide is neutral to litmus.
2. Iron (II)sulphate eJ
U
”"mwfjyK
&i fb m&o v J/
Nitrogen oxide gives a brown rings when reacted with iron (II) sulphate.
3. Brown rings &J
Uformula [ m
b mv J/
The brown ring FeSO4.NO is known as nitro iron (II) sulphate.

(14)
Saya Khaine Mon (8,9,10,11,12) KEY CONCEPTS

Nitric acid
1. Nitric acid u k
d
b , fen f;eJU
t ajr m
u ft r sm
;x kwfo v J/
Nitric acid can be manufactured by ammonia oxidation process.
2. “"mwfcG
Jcef;r S
mb , fv kd
x kwfo v J/
Nitric acid can be prepared by heating potassium nitrate crystal with
concentrated sulphuric acid.
3. Aqua- regia [ m b macid ES
pfck&JUt a&mv J/ b , fv kd
x kx n ft csK
; eJY
d a&mo v J/
Aqua-regia is amixture of 3 volumes of concentrated HCl and 1 volume of
concentrated HNO3 acid.
4. bm
awG
u kdt ajr mu ft r sm; x kwfv kyfo v J/
Nitric acid is used mainly for the manufacture of explosives and dyes.
(aygu fu G
Japwwfao mypö
n f;ES
i fhq kd
;aq ;r sm
;)

Nitrates
1. Nitrate t m;v kH
;[ ma&x JrS
maysmf0i fo v m;/
All nitrate are soluble in water. (a&x J wG i faysmf0i f)
2. Soluble nitrate wpfck t wG u fx i f½S
m;pr f;o u fr l[ mb mv J/
The characteristic test for a soluble nitrate is the Brown-ring test.
(t ñ kd
a&mifu G
i f;pr f;o u fcsu f)

Nitrogen cycle
1. av x kx Jw G
i f nitrogen u d
ksoil nitrate t jzpfajymif;v Jjci f;u kdb m
ac:o v J/
The conversion of atmosphere nitrogen to nitrates of the soil is termed
Nitrogen-Fixing.
2. Nitrogen of condense v k yf&i fb m
&o v J/
3. Freeze v k
yf&i fb m
&o v J/

CHAPTER - 11
SULPHUR AND ITS COMPOUNDS
1. Sulphur [ m b m t rsd
K
;t pm
; element v J
/
Sulphur is a molecular element

2. Sulphur t o G
i fu G
J b , fES
pfr sd
K
;x d
&S
d
Ed
ki fo v J/

(15)
Saya Khaine Mon (8,9,10,11,12) KEY CONCEPTS

Sulphur can exist in three allotropic (t o G

i fu G
Jo H
k;r sd
K
;) forms.
3. t oG
i fu G
Jt r sd
K
;rsd
K
;r S
m½kyf* kP fo wå
d
awG
w lo v m
;/
Sulphur can exists in different allotropic (½k
yf* kP fo wå
d
awG
r wl) forms like carbon and
oxygen.
4. Solid sulphur [ m t o G
i fu G
Jb , fES
pfr sd
K
;x d
&S
Ed
dkifo v J/
Solid sulphur can exist in two allotropic forms.
5. Monoclinic sulphur [ m b m
yH
ko @m
ef&S
d
o v J/ b mt a&m
i f&S
d
v J/
Monoclinic sulphur (rd
ked
uvd
kif;epfq mv fzm
) is long, dark yellow (&S
n fv sm;í t 0g&i fh
a&mif)
needle-like crystal. (t yfacsm
i f;ES
i fh wlo n fh
yH
kaq m
i fcJ)
6. Rohmbic sulphur (&G
r f;Apfq m
v fzm) [ m b mt a&mif&S
d
o v J/
Rohmbic sulphur is yellow solid crystal (t 0ga&m
i fyH
kaq m
i fcJ)
7. b , ft rsd
K
;t pm
; sulphur [ m t wn fN
rJq H
k; sulphur t o G
i fu G
Jv J/
Rhmbic sulphur is the most stable (t wn fN
r Jq H
k;) Form of sulphur.
8. Plastic sulphur [ m b m
t r sd
K
;t pm;t o G
i f yH
ko @mef&S
d
o v J/
Plastic sulphur is soft (El;n H
), sticky (ap;u yf), rubber like crystal (&m
h bmES
i fh
wlo n fh
yH
kaq m
i fcJ)
9. aysmh
aysmif;pD
;u yfN
yD
; &mb meJU
wlw Jhsulphur [ mb mv J/
Plastic sulphur is soft, sticky, rubber like crystal.

10. Sulphur molecule wpfck

rS
matom b , fES
pfckygo v J/
A molecule of sulphur consists of eight atoms. (t u fwr f (8)ck
)
11. r n fo n fhsulphur u d
krq d
kq lr S
w fa&mu fat mif t ylay;N
yD
; a&at ;x Jav mif;wn fh
&i f b msulphur
&o v J/
When any form of sulphur is heated almost to its boiling point and then poured
into cold water plastic sulphur is formed.
12. Sulphur [ m b , fv d
kt &n ft ao G
;&S
d
o v J/

(16)
Saya Khaine Mon (8,9,10,11,12) KEY CONCEPTS

Sulphur exhibits allotropy (&k

yfo G
i fyH
kpH
ES
pfr sd
K
;). Same element, different forms.
13. t oG
i fu JG
Sulphur u d
k b , fv d
k *kP fo wå
eJU
d jyo v J/
The different allotropic forms of sulphur show different physical properties

(rwln D
w Jh
½kyf* kP fo wå
d
)

Hydrogen sulphur
14. Hydrogen sulphide o n f b m
&JYhydride v J/
Hydrogen sulphide is the hydride of sulphur.

15. b m
t eH
&S
d
o v J/
Hydrogen sulphide has the rotten egg smell. (M
u u fOykwft eY
H
)
16. b m
t eH
Y
&S
d
o v J/
Hydrogen sulphide is collected by upward displacement of air. (av u d
k t x u fo d
kY
z, fx kw fen f;jzi fh
pkaq mif;)
17. ajcm
u fao G
Y
apcsi f&i f b , ft ay:jzwf&o v J/
Hydrogen sulphide is dried by passing over anhydrous calcium chloride.

(a&r Jh
u , fv q D
, rf u v d
k½d
k'fay:)
18. b , f* k
P fo wå
&S
dd
o v J/
Hydrogen sulphide has a weak acidic properties.

19. Lead (II) nitrate paper u d

kb m
t a&m
i fajym
i f;apo v J/
Hydrogen sulphide turns lead (II) nitrate paper black. (t r n f;a&m
i f)
20. v pfw rwft jym
udkb mt a&mifajymif;o v J/
Hydrogen sulphide turn blue litmus paper slightly pink.
21. b m
awG
ud
kreduces v kyfo v J/ halogen awG
ud
kb m
v kyfo v J/
Hydrogen sulphide reduces halogens.

(17)
Saya Khaine Mon (8,9,10,11,12) KEY CONCEPTS

22. Hydrogen sulphide wG

if[ d
ku f' ½d
k*si ft u fw r f t pm;x kd
; b , fES
pfck&S
do v J/
Hydrogen sulphide has two replaced hydrogen atoms.

Sulphur dioxide
23. Sulphur dioxide u d
k”"mwfcG
Jcef;r S
mdilute sulphuric acid eJY
bmud
k a&mN
yD
; x kw fv kyfo v J/
Sulphur dioxide can be prepared by action of dihete sulphuric acid on metallic sulphite.

24. a&r S
maysmf0i f&i fb m
t u fq pf&o v J/
Sulphur dioxide dissolves in water to form sulphurous acid.

25. t a&m
i f&S
d
ypö
n f;awG
ud
kb m
v kyfo v J/
Sulphur dioxide bleaches colouring matter by reduction. (av sm
h
en f; apjci f;)
26. b m
en f;eJY
v J/
Sulphur dioxide can be prepared by heating (t ylay;jci f;) concent-rated sulphuric acid
with copper.
27. b m
t eH
&S
d
o v J/
Sulphur dioxide has a characteristic pungent smell. (pl;&S
ao m
t eH
Y
)
28. Potassium dichromate paper u d
kb m
t a&mifajymif;o v J/
Sulphur dioxide can turn potassium dichromate paper green. (t pd
r f;a&mif)
29. Halogen awG
ud
k b mt jzpfo d
kY“"mwfav sm
h
o v J/
Sulphur dioxide reduces halogen halide. ([ d
ku f' ½d
k*si fa[ ;v d
ku f)
30. Iodine u d
kb mt jzpfo d
kY
”"mwfav smh
o v J/
Sulphur dioxide reduces iodine solution to hydriodic acid.
31. Bleaching action [ m 4i f;\ b m
*kP fo wå
aM
du i fh
v J/
Bleaching action of sulphur dioxide is due to it reducing property. (av sm
u sjci f;*kP f)
h

(18)
Saya Khaine Mon (8,9,10,11,12) KEY CONCEPTS

Sulphur trioxide
32. Sulphur trioxide [ m b m
*kP f&S
d
v J/
Sulphur trioxide is an acidic (t u fq pf) oxide.

33. b , ft ylcsd
efr S
mt jzLa&mift cJt jzpfw n f&S
d
o v J/
Sulphur trioxide is a white solid below 17C (17C at m
u fed
r fh
u sw Jht ylcsd
ef)
34. Basic oxide awG
eJY
”m
wfjyK
&i fb m
q m;awG
&o v J/
Sulphur trioxide reacts with basic oxides to form normal salts (t d
r fo H
k;q m
;)
35. a&r S
maysm
f0i f&i f b mt u fq pf&o v J/
Sulphur trioxide is the unhydrous of sulphuric acid.

36. Concentrated sulphuric acid x J

rS
m aysmf0i f&i fb m
&o o v J/
Sulphur trioxide dissolves in concentrated sulphuric acid to form oleum. (t d
kv D
, rf)

Sulphuric acid
37. Sulphuric acid o n f b , fv d
kt r sd
K
;t pm;t u fq pfv J/
Pure sulphuric acid is a colourless (t a&m
i fr Jh
) oily (q D
u Jh
odkY
) heavy liquid.
38. b m
t r sd
K
;t pm
; agent awG
v J/
Sulphuric acid is an oxidizing agent (“"m
wfw d
k;ypö
n f;) as well as a dehydrating agent
(t ajcmu fcH
ypö
n f;)
39. b , fen f;eJ
Y
t ajrmu ft rsm;x kwfo v J/
Suphuric acid is manufacture by contact process.

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Saya Khaine Mon (8,9,10,11,12) KEY CONCEPTS

CHAPTER - 12
HALOGENS
1. Halogen t m
;v kH
;[ m*kP fo wå
d
q i fw lo v m;/ x yfwlx yfr sSwln Do v m
;/
All halogens have similar (wln D
ao m
) properties but not identical.
(v kH
;0awmh
x yfr wln D
)
2. tm
;v kH
;t a&mif&S
d
ovm
;/
Halogens are all coloured. (t a&m
i f&S
d
)
3. bm
ar m
fv D
u sL;t jzpfw n f&S
d
o v J/
All halogen exist as diatomic molecules. (t u fwr fES
pfckyg0i fao m armfv D
u sL;)
4. bm
t r sK
d
;t pm
; agent v J/
Halogens are strong oxidizing agents. ("m
wfw kd
;ypö
n f;)

5. Essential electronic structure u b m

v J/
Halogen have essential electronic structure of ns2 np5.
6. t csi f;csi f;aygi f;&i f b m compound t rsK
;t pm;v J/
d
Halogen combine among themselves to give interhalogen compound.
7. depth of colour [ matomic mass jri fh
v m&i f b mjzpfo G
m;o v J/
The depth of colour of halogens increases as their relative atomic mass increases.
(EId
i f;, S
Oft u fw r ft av ;csd
efjr i fh
)
8. Reactivity av sm
h
v m&i f b mjzpfo G
m;o v J/
The reactivity of halogen decreases as their atomic mass increases.

(t u fw r ft av ;csd
efjr i fh
)
9. The most electronegative elements awG
[ m b mawG
v J/
Halogens are the most electronegative elements.
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Saya Khaine Mon (8,9,10,11,12) KEY CONCEPTS

10. Non-metal awG

x JrS
m most reactive group [ m b m
awG
v J/
Halogens are the most reactive group of non-metal.

CHLORINE
11. Chlorine gas [ mb m
t a&mif&S
o v J/ b mt eH
d &S
d
o v J/
Chlorine gas is greenish yellow colour (pd
r f;0ga&mif) with unpleasant smell.
(rG
efjyD
;r ES
pfjrd
K
sU
p&m &eH
)
12. av x u fb , fav m
u fav ;o v J/
Chlorine is about 2 times as dense as air.
13. ajcmu fao G
U
apcsi fv sS
i f b , ft x Jjzwf&o v J/
Chlorine can be dride by passing throrgh concentracted sulpuric acid.

(q m
v fzsL&i fh
pft u fq pft jyi f;)
14. t ajr m
u ft rsm;b , fen f;eJU
x kwfo v J/
Chlorine is manufacture by electrolysis (v sS
yfppfo kH
;jzd
K
cGJ)of saturated aqueous sodium
chloride. (jyn fh
0wJhq kd
'D
, rfu v kd
&kd
' f&n f)
15. en f;en f;av &Ir d
&i f b mjzpfEkd
i fo v J/
Chlorine is very poisonous (t v G
eft Eå
m&, fr sm;) if inhaled even in small quantitires.
16. a&eJU
”"m
wfjyK
&i f b mt u fq pfawG
&o v J/
Chlorine react with water forming hypochlorous acid and hydrochloric acid.
17. b magent awG
t jzpfo kH
;o v J/
Chlorine is used to sterilizing agent. (yk
d
;o wfypn f;) (bleaching agent,oxidizing agent)
18. Chlorine eJ
Uhydrogen [ m b , ft ajct ae rS
m ajz;n S
i f;pG
m “"m
wfjyK
o v J/
Chlorine and hydrogen explode (v sS
i fjr ef) in bright sunlight but react slowly.
(aES
;au G
;) in the dark.

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Saya Khaine Mon (8,9,10,11,12) KEY CONCEPTS

19. Concentrated hydrochloric acid r Su v k

d
&i f;t jzpf “mwfwkd
;zkd
Ub mj' yfaygi f;u kd
o kH
;o v J/
Concentrated hydrochloric acid is oxidized to chlorine by manganese ( IV ) oxide.
20. a&x JrS
mykd
;o wfzkd
Ub mu kd
o kH
;o v J/
Chlorine is used to sterilize water for domestic (t d
r fo kH
;) and industrial. (pu f&kH
o kH
;)
use.
21. Bleaching powder t ajr m
u ft rsm;x kwfzkd
U b mu kd
o kH
;o v J/
Chlorine is use for manufacture of bleaching powder

BROMINE
22. Bromine [ m
t cef;t ylcsd
efr S
m b , fv kd
t ajct aeeJU
wn f&S
d
o v J/
Bromine exists as liquid at room temperature.
23. bm
u kddisplace v kyfEkd
i fo v J/
Bromine can displace iodine from iodides.
24. b magent t jzpf o kH
;o v J/ effect jzpfo v m;/
Bromine is a bleaching agent (t a&m
i fcR
w fypn f;) but it is not so effective. (q kd
;u sK
d
;rjzpf)
as chlorine.
25. Yellow phosphorous eJ
U
a&m&i f b mjzpfEkd
i f o v J/
Bromine explodes (&k
w fw &u faygu fu G
JEkd
i f) when mixed yellow phosphorous.
26. t o m;ay:x d
&i fb mjzpfw wf o v J/
Liquid bromine causes burns (ysu fpD
;) on the flesh. (t o m;t &n f)

IODINE
27. Iodine [ m
t cef;t ylcsd
ef r S
mb , fv kdt ajcaeeJU
wn f&S
d
o v J/
Iodine exists as solid (t cJ
) at room temperature.
28. Starch eJ
U
”"m
wfjyK
&i f b mt a&mif&o v J/

(22)
Saya Khaine Mon (8,9,10,11,12) KEY CONCEPTS

Iodine reacts with starch to from blue colour. (t jym

a&mif)
29. Iodine csK
d
wJh
&i f b ma&m*g&Ekd
i fo v J/
A disease , goiter (v n fyi fM
uD;a&m*g), is caused due to deficiency of iodine.
30. Alcohol x J
rS
mt kd
i ft d
k'i f;azsm
fx m
;wJh
aysmf&n fu kdb mac:o v J/
A dilute solution of iodine in alcohol is known as tincture iodine.
(wi fefcsmt kd
i ft kd
' i f;)
31. Iodine [ mb magent v J
/
Iodine is a mild oxidizing agent. (v S
lyf&S
m;rIr &S
d
”"mwfw kd
;ypö
n f;)
32. Bleaching agent t jzpfo k
;Ekd
H i fo v m
;/
Iodine does not bleach. (t a&m
i fcR
wfypn f;t jzpfr o kH
;Ekd
i f)
33. Hydrogen sulphide u k
d“"mwfw kd
;&i f b mj' yfaygi f;awG
&o v J/

Iodine oxidizes hydrogen sulphide to form hydrogen iodide

([ kd
u f' &kd
* si ft kd
i ft kd
'd
ku f) and sulphur. (q mv zm)
34. jyi f;t m;t jr i fhb mawGyg0i fo v J/
Sea weeds contain high concentration of iodine.

FLUORINE
35. Fluorine [ m b m
t a&m
i f&S
d
o v J/
Fluorine is pale yellow in colour. (t 0gEk
a&mif)
36. Water vapour eJ
U
”"m
wfjyK
&i f b mawG
&o v J/
Fluorine reacts with water vapour to from oxygen (at m
u fq D
* si f) and ozone. (t kd
Zkef;)
37. t ajr mu ft rsm; b , fv kd
x kwf o v J/
Fluorine is used for manufacture by electrolysis. (v sS
yfppfo kH
;jzd
K
cGJ)
38. Most reactive halogen [ m b m
v J/
Fluorine is the most reactive halogen.

(23)
Saya Khaine Mon (8,9,10,11,12) KEY CONCEPTS

39. Most powerful oxidizing agent [ m b m

v J/
Fluorine is the most powerful oxidizing agent.
40. Most electronegetive element [ m b m
v J/
Fluorine the most electronegetive element.
41. Fluorine [ mpositive oxidation number u k
d
jyEkd
i fo v m
;/
Fluorine never shows (r jyo Ed
kif) a positive oxidation number
42. Hydrogen eJ
Ut ar S
mifx JrS
m awmifaygu fu G
J “"mwfjyK
Ekd
i fw Jhhalogen [ m
b mv J/
Fluorine explodes with hydrogen even in the dark at - 200 °C halogen.

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Chapter (14)
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
What is organic chemistry?
Organic chemistry is the chemistry of carbon compounds in which there
is at least one carbon bond (C-C) or carbon to hydrogen bond (C-H).
bond order of carbon =4
bond order of hydrogen = 1

Bond orders in organic compounds

element electronic valence bond order
structure electrons (valence)
6C 2.4 4 4
1H 1 1 1
8O 2.6 6 2
7N 2.5 5 3
16S 2.8.6 6 2
halogens ns2 np5 7 1
15P 2.8.5 5 3

Graphic formulae

H H H H
H C H N H H C C H
H H H H
methane ammonia ethane

Hydrocarbons are compounds which contain hydrogen and carbon only.

alkane alkene alkyne

Hydrocarbons

alkane saturated unsaturated unsaturated

hydrocarbon hydrocarbon hydrocarbon
alkene single bond ( ) double bond ( ) triple bond ( )
CnH2n+2 CnH2n CnH2n-2
alkyne
substitution addition reaction addition and
reaction substitution
reaction

Page 1 Organic Chemistry

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Prefixes for various numbers of carbon

C1 meth- C2 eth- C3 prop- C4 but- C5 pent-
C6 hex- C7 hept- C8 oct- C9 non- C10 dec-

Alkanes (ending with –ane)

type of hydrocarbon = saturated hydrocarbon
type of bond = single bond ( - )
general formula = CnH2n+2
type of reaction = substitution reaction

Homologous Series
A series of compounds like alkanes in which each member differs
from the preceding or succeeding one by a (-CH2-) group is known as
homologous series.

Homologous Series (Molecular Formulae and Names) of Alkanes

CH4 methane C6H14 hexane
C2H6 ethane C7H16 heptane
C3H8 propane C8H18 octane
C4H10 butane C9H20 nonane
C5H12 pentane C10H22 decane

Condensed structural Formulae of Alkanes

(i) methane = CH4
(ii) ethane = CH3-CH3
(iii) propane = CH3-CH2-CH3
(iv) butane = CH3-CH2-CH2-CH3
Try yourself from C5 to C10 .

3D models of hydrocarbons

methane ethene ethyne ethanol

CH4 CH2=CH2 CH CH CH3-CH2OH
Page 2 Organic Chemistry
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Alkyl Radicals (R- Groups) (ending with –yl)

The radicals derived from alkanes by the removal of an H atom are
called alkyl radicals or groups. (R- = CnH2n+1)
CnH2n+2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ CnH2n+1
(i) CH4 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ CH3-
methane methyl
(ii) CH3-CH3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ CH3-CH2-
ethane ethyl
(iii) CH3-CH2-CH3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ CH3-CH2-CH2-
propane n-propyl
(OR)
CH3-CH-CH3 (OR) CH3-CH
iso-propyl CH3

(iv) CH3-CH2-CH2-CH3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-

n-butane n-butyl
(OR)
CH3-CH2-CH-CH3
sec-butyl
CH3 CH3 CH3
(v) CH3-CH-CH3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ CH3-CH-CH2- (OR) CH3-C-CH2
iso-butane iso-butyl ter-butyl

Page 3 Organic Chemistry

Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

Isomers
The compounds of same molecular formula but different structural
formulae are called structural isomers. They have different physical and
chemical properties.eg. two isomers of butane = n-butane and iso-butane

Molecular formula Structural formulae

CH3-CH2-CH2-CH3
C4H10 (n-butane)
CH3-CH-CH3
CH3
2-methyl propane (iso-butane)
CH3-CH2-CH=CH2
1-butene (α-butylene)
C4H8 CH3-CH=CH-CH3
2-butene (β-butylene)
CH3-C=CH2
CH3
2-methyl propene (iso-butylene)
CH3-CH2-C≡CH
C4H6 1-butyne (ethyl acetylene)
CH3-C≡C-CH3
2-butyne (dimethyl acetylene)

Energy and persistence conquer all things.

-Benjamin Franklin-

Page 4 Organic Chemistry

Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

Nomenclature of Alkanes
Three different naming systems are currently in use. They are;
(1) Trivial System
(2) Alkanes as derivatives of methane
(3) IUPAC System (or) Geneva System
The word ‘IUPAC’ stands for ‘International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry’.

(1) Trivial System

Trivial System အရ carbon atom သံုးလံုးထက္ပိုတဲ့ alkane ေတြကို အမည္ေပးတဲ့အခါ
- Carbon atom အားလံုး တစ္တန္းတည္းျဖစ္ေနလွ်င္ n-alkane
- Carbon atom တစ္လံုးကို CH3အုပ္စုႏွစ္ခု တိုက္ရိုက္ဆက္ထားလွ်င္ iso-alkane
- Carbon atom တစ္လံုးကို CH3အုပ္စုသံုးခုတိုက္ရိုက္ဆက္ထားလွ်င္ neo-alkane
(i) CH4 = methane
(ii) CH3-CH3 = ethane
(iii)CH3-CH2-CH3 = propane
(iv) CH3-CH2-CH2-CH3 = n-butane
(v) CH3-CH-CH3 = iso-butane
CH3
(vi) CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 = n-pentane
CH3-CH-CH2-CH3 = iso-pentane
CH3
CH3
CH3-C-CH3 = neo-pentane
CH3
(2) Alkanes as derivatives of methane
(i) CH4 = methane
(ii) CH3-CH3 = methyl methane
(iii) CH3-CH2-CH3 = dimethyl methane
(iv) CH3-CH2-CH2-CH3 = ethyl methyl methane
(v) CH3-CH-CH3 = trimethyl methane
CH3

Page 5 Organic Chemistry

Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

(vi) CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 = diethyl methane

(vii) CH3
CH3-CH-CH2-CH3 = ethyl dimethyl methane
(viii) CH3
CH3-C-CH3 = tetramethyl methane
CH3
(3) IUPAC System or Geneva System
IUPAC System အရ carbon atom သံုးလံုးထက္ပိုတဲ့ alkane ေတြကို အမည္ေပးတဲ့အခါ
- အ႐ွည္ဆံုး carbon chain (ကာဗြန္ဆက္တန္း)ကို ႐ွာ
- substituent (အစားထိုးအုပ္စု)ႏွင့္ အနီးဆံုးအစြန္ကစၿပီး carbon နံပါတ္တပ္္
- မ်ိဳးတူ substituent တစ္ခုထ က္ပိုလွ်င္ di, tri, tetra ထည့္
- မ်ိဳးမတူ substituent မ်ားအတြက္ အဂၤလိပ္အကၡရာအစဥ္အတိုင္းေရး
- အ႐ွည္ဆံုး carbon chain (ကာဗြန္ဆက္တန္း)ကို -ane ႏွင့္ အဆံုးသတ္
- ဂဏန္းႏွစ္လံုးၾကား comma (,) ျခား၊ ဂဏန္းႏွင့္ စာၾကား dash (-) ျခားေပး
(i) CH4 = methane
(ii) CH3-CH3 = ethane
(iii) CH3-CH2-CH3 = propane
(iv) CH3-CH2-CH2-CH3 = n-butane
1
(v) CH3-2CH-3CH3 = 2-methyl propane
CH3
(vi) 1CH3-2CH-3CH2-4CH3 = 2-methyl butane
CH3
(vii) CH3
1
CH3- CH-3CH-4CH2-5CH3
2
= 2,3-dimethyl pentane
CH3
(viii) CH3
1
CH3-2C-3CH2-4CH3 = 2,2-dimethyl butane
CH3
(ix) CH3
4
CH3-3CH -2C-1CH3 = 2,2,3-trimethyl butane
CH3 CH3

Page 6 Organic Chemistry

Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

(x) CH3
1
CH3- CH-3CH2-4CH-5CH2-6CH3 = 4-ethyl 2-methyl hexane
2

CH2-CH3
Alkenes (ending with –ene)
type of hydrocarbon = unsaturated hydrocarbon
type of bond = double bond ( = )
general formula = CnH2n
type of reaction = addition reaction
Homologous Series (Molecular Formulae and Names) of Alkenes
C2H4 ethene C7H14 heptene
C3H6 propene C8H16 octene
C4H8 butane C9H18 nonene
C5H10 pentene C10H20 decene
C6H12 hexene
Condensed Structural Formulae of Alkenes
(i) ethene = CH2=CH2
(ii) propene = CH3-CH=CH2
(iii) butene = CH3-CH=CH-CH3 (or)
CH2=CH-CH2-CH3
Try yourself from C5 to C10 .

Nomenclature of Alkenes
Three different naming systems are currently in use. They are;
(1) Trivial System
(2) Alkenes as derivatives of ethylene
(3) IUPAC System (or) Geneva System

(1) Trivial System

Alkene မွ -ene ကိုျဖဳတ္ -ylene ျဖင့္ အဆံုးသတ္ေပး
(i) CH2=CH2 = ethylene
(ii) CH3-CH=CH2 = propylene
(iii) CH3-CH2-CH=CH2 = α-butylene (1-butylene)
CH3-CH=CH-CH3 = β-butylene (2-butylene)
Page 7 Organic Chemistry
Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

(iv) CH3
CH3-C=CH2 = iso-butylene
Notes
− −
CH4 ⎯⎯⎯ CH3- ⎯⎯⎯ CH2=
methane methyl methylidene
−
CH3-CH3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ CH3-CH2- ⎯⎯⎯ CH3-CH=
ethane ethyl ethylidene
CH2=CH2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ CH2=CH-
ethene ethenyl (vinyl)
(2) Alkenes as derivatives of ethylene
(i) CH2=CH2 = ethylene
(ii) CH3-CH=CH2 = methyl ethylene
(iii) CH3-CH2-CH=CH2 = ethyl ethylene
(iv) CH3-CH=CH-CH3 = s-dimethyl ethylene
(v) CH3-C=CH2 = uns-dimethyl ethylene
CH3
(3) IUPAC System or Geneva System.
IUPAC System အရ carbon atom သံုးလံုးထက္ပိုတဲ့ alkene ေတြကို အမည္ေပးတဲ့အခါ
- double bond ပါေသာ အ႐ွည္ဆံုး carbon chain (ကာဗြန္ဆက္တန္း)ကို ႐ွာ
- double bond ႏွင့္ အနီးဆံုး အစြန္ကစၿပီး carbonနံပါတ္တပ္
- မ်ိဳးတူ substituent တစ္ခုထ က္ပိုလွ်င္ di, tri, tetra ထည့္
- မ်ိဳးမတူ substituent မ်ားအတြက္ အဂၤလိပ္အကၡရာအစဥ္အတိုင္းေရး
- double bondပါေသာ အ႐ွည္ဆံုး carbon chain (ကာဗြန္ဆက္တ န္း) ကို double
bond ႐ွိေသာ carbonနံပါတ္ႏွင့္တြဲၿပီး -ene ႏွင့္ အဆံုးသတ္
- ဂဏန္းႏွစ္လံုးၾကား comma (,) ျခား၊ ဂဏန္းႏွင့္ စာၾကား dash (-) ျခား

(i) CH2=CH2 = ethene

(ii) CH3-CH=CH2 = propene
4
(iii) CH3-3CH2-2CH=1CH2 = 1-butene
1
(iv) CH3-2CH=3CH-4CH3 = 2-butene

Page 8 Organic Chemistry

Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

(v) CH3
3
CH3- C=1CH2
2
= 2-methyl propene
(vi) CH3
5
CH3-4C-3CH=2CH-1CH3 = 4,4-dimethyl 2-pentene
CH3
(vii) CH3 CH3
7
CH3- C- CH2- CH-3CH2-2CH=1CH2
6 5 4

CH3
4,6,6-trimethyl 1-heptene
(viii) CH3 CH2-CH3
5
CH3-4C - 3C-2CH=1CH2
CH3 CH2-CH3
3,3-diethyl 4,4-dimethyl 1-pentene
(ix) CH2-CH3
6
CH3-5CH-4C-CH3
CH3-CH2-3C-CH3
2
CH=1CH2
3,4-diethyl 3,4-dimethyl 1-hexene
(x) CH2-CH3 CH3
1
CH2= CH- C-4CH2 - 5C-6CH2-7CH3
2 3

CH3 CH2-CH3
3,5-diethyl 3,5-dimethyl 1-heptene
Alkynes (ending with –yne)
type of hydrocarbon = unsaturated hydrocarbon
type of bond = triple bond (≡)
general formula = CnH2n-2
type of reaction = addition and substitution reaction
Homologous Series (Molecular Formulae and Names) of Alkynes
C2H2 ethyne C7H12 heptyne
C3H4 propyne C8H14 octyne
C4H6 butyne C9H16 nonyne
C5H8 pentyne C10H18 decyne
C6H10 hexyne
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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

Condensed Structural Formulae of Alkynes

(iv) ethyne = CH ≡ CH
(v) propyne = CH3- C ≡ CH
(vi) 1-butyne = CH3-CH2-C ≡ CH
2-butyne = CH3-C ≡ C-CH3

Try yourself from C5 to C10 .

Nomenclature of Alkynes
Two different naming systems are currently in use. They are;
(1) Trivial System (derivatives of acetylene)
(2) IUPAC System (or) Geneva System
(1) Trivial System (derivatives of acetylene)
(i) CH ≡ CH = acetylene
(ii) CH3- C ≡ CH = methyl acetylene
(iii) CH3-CH2-C ≡ CH = ethyl acetylene
(iv) CH3-C ≡ C-CH3 = dimethyl acetylene
(2) IUPAC System or Geneva System
IUPAC System အရ carbon atom သံုးလံုးထက္ပိုတဲ့ alkyne ေတြကို အမည္ေပးတဲ့အခါ
- triple bond ပါေသာ အ႐ွည္ဆံုး carbon chain (ကာဗြန္ဆ က္တန္း)ကို ႐ွာ
- triple bond ႏွင့္ အနီးဆံုး အစြန္ကစၿပီး carbonနံပါတ္တပ္
- မ်ိဳးတူ substituent တစ္ခုထ က္ပိုလွ်င္ di, tri, tetra ထည့္
- မ်ိဳးမတူ substituent မ်ားအတြက္ အဂၤလိပ္အကၡရာအစဥ္အတိုင္းေရး
- triple bond ပါေသာ အ႐ွည္ဆံုး carbon chain (ကာဗြန္ဆ က္တန္း) ကို triple
bond ႐ွိေသာ carbonနံပါတ္ႏွင့္တြဲၿပီး -yne ႏွင့္ အဆံုးသတ္
- ဂဏန္းႏွစ္လံုးၾကား comma (,) ျခား၊ ဂဏန္းႏွင့္ စာၾကား dash (-) ျခား
(i) CH ≡ CH = ethyne
(ii) CH3- C ≡ CH = propyne
4
(iii) CH3-3CH2-2C ≡1CH = 1-butyne
1
(iv) CH3-2C ≡ 3C-4CH3 = 2-butyne

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

(v) CH3
4
CH3- CH-2C ≡ 1CH
3
= 3-methyl 1-butyne
(vi) 5CH3-4CH-3CH-2C ≡ 1CH = 3-ethyl 4-methyl 1-pentyne
CH3 CH2-CH3
(vii) CH3 CH3
6
CH3-5C -4C-3C ≡2C-1CH3 = 4,4,5,5-tetramethyl 2-hexyne
CH3 CH3
(viii) CH3
5
CH3-4CH-3CH-2C ≡ 1CH = 3,4-dimethyl 1-pentyne
CH3
(ix) CH2-CH3
4
CH3-3C-2C ≡ 1CH = 3,3-dimethyl 1-pentyne
CH3
(x) CH3
6
CH3-5CH2-4C-CH2-CH3 = 3,4-diethyl 3,4-dimethyl 1-hexyne
CH3-CH2- 3C-CH3
1
CH ≡ 2C
Alcohol (ending with –ol)
general formula = CnH2n+1OH (or) CnH2n+2O
Homologous Series (Molecular Formulae and Names) of Alcohols
methanol CH3OH propanol C3H7OH
ethanol C2H5OH butanol C4H9OH
Condensed Structural Formulae of Alcohols
(i) methanol = CH3-OH
(ii) ethanol = CH3-CH2-OH
(iii) propanol = CH3-CH2-CH2-OH
(iv) butanol = CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-OH

Nomenclature of Alcohols
Two different naming systems are currently in use. They are;
(1) Trivial System
(2) IUPAC System (or) Geneva System
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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

(1) Trivial System (alkyl alcohol)

(i) CH3-OH = methyl alcohol
(ii) CH3-CH2-OH = ethyl alcohol
(iii) CH3-CH2-CH2-OH = n-propyl alcohol
CH3-CHOH-CH3 = iso-propyl alcohol
(iv) CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-OH = n-butyl alcohol
CH3-CH2-CH2OH-CH3 = secondary butyl alcohol
CH3-CH-CH2OH = iso-butyl alcohol
CH3
CH3
CH3-C-OH = tertiary butyl alcohol
CH3
OH ႐ွိတဲ့ carbonဟာ တျခား carbon တစ္လံုးနဲ႔ဆက္ေနရင္ primary alcohol
ႏွစ္လံုးနဲ႔ ဆက္ေနရင္ secondary alcohol။ သံုးလံုးနဲ႔ ဆက္ေနရင္ tertiary alcohol

(2) IUPAC System or Geneva System

IUPAC System အရ carbon atom ႏွစ္လံုးထက္ပိုတ ဲ့ alcohol ေတြကို အမည္ေပး တဲ့အခါ
- OH ပါေသာ အ႐ွည္ဆံုး carbon chain (ကာဗြန္ဆက္တန္း)ကို ႐ွာ
- OH ႏွင့္ အနီးဆံုး အစြန္ကစၿပီး carbonနံပါတ္တပ္
- မ်ိဳးတူ substituent တစ္ခုထ က္ပိုလွ်င္ di, tri, tetra ထည့္
- မ်ိဳးမတူ substituent မ်ားအတြက္ အဂၤလိပ္အကၡရာအစဥ္အတိုင္းေရး
- OH ပါေသာ အ႐ွည္ဆံုး carbon chain (ကာဗြန္ဆက္တန္း) အတိုင္း alkane က
-e ကိုျဖဳတ္ၿပီး -ol ႏွင့္ အဆံုးသတ္
- C3 မွစ၍ OHရွိေသာနံပါတ္ကို -olႏွင့္ ေရွ႕မွ တြဲေရး (သိ႔)ု alcohol ေရွ႕မွေရး
- ဂဏန္းႏွစ္လံုးၾကား comma (,) ျခား၊ ဂဏန္းႏွင့္ စာၾကား dash (-) ျခား
(i) CH3-OH = methanol
(ii) CH3-CH2OH = ethanol
3
(iii) CH3-2CH2-1CH2OH = propan-1-ol (1-propanol)
3
(iv) CH3-2CHOH-1CH3 = propan-2-ol (2-propanol)
4
(v) CH3-3CH2-2CH2-1CH2OH = butan-1-ol (1-butanol)
4
(vi) CH3-3CH2-2CHOH-1CH3 = butan-2-ol (2-butanol)
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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

(vii) 3CH3-2CH-1CH2OH = 2-methyl propan-1-ol

CH3 (2-methyl 1-propanol)
(viii) CH3
1
CH3-2C-OH = 2-methyl propan-2-ol
3
CH3 (2-methyl 2-propanol)
(ix) 4CH3-3CH-2CHOH-1CH3 = 3-methyl butan-2-ol
CH3 (3-methyl 2-butanol)
(x) CH3
6
CH3- CH2- C - 3CH-2CH2-1CH2OH
5 4

CH3 CH3
3,4,4-trimethyl hexan-1-ol (3,4,4-trimethyl 1-hexanol)
Notes: OH တစ္လံုးပါရင္ alcohol၊ ႏွစ္လံုးပါရင္ glycol

Nomenclature of organic acids

R-COOH (carboxylic acid or alkanoic acid)
Alkane မွ -e ကို ျဖဳတ္ၿ ပီး -oic ႏွင့္ အဆံုးသတ္ေပးပါ။
(i) H-COOH = methanoic acid (formic acid)
(ii) CH3-COOH = ethanoic acid (acetic acid)
(iii) CH3-CH2-COOH = propanoic acid
Nomenclature of organic salts
R-COONa (sodium salt of carboxylic acid or sodium alkanoate)
Alkane မွ -e ကို ျဖဳတ္ၿ ပီး -oate ႏွင့္ အဆံုးသတ္ေပးပါ။
(i) HCOONa = sodium methanoate
(ii) CH3-COONa = sodium ethanoate
(iii) CH3-CH2-COONa = sodium propanoate
Nomenclature of aldehydes
R-CHO (aldehyde or alkanal)
Alkane မွ -e ကို ျဖဳတ္ၿ ပီး -al ႏွင့္ အဆံုးသတ္ေပးပါ။
(i) H-CHO = methanal (formaldehyde)
(ii) CH3-CHO = ethanal (acetaldehyde)

Hexane C6H14

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Preparations, Physical Properties and

Chemical Properties of Hydrocarbon

Preparations of alkanes
(1) heating sodium salt of carboxylic acid with soda lime
(2) reduction of alkyl halide
i. with hydrogen halide
ii. with hydrogen
(3) reduction of alkene (hydrogenation)
(1) Heating sodium salt of carboxylic acid with soda lime
soda lime = NaOH+CaO

R-COONa + NaOH CaO R-H + Na2CO3

sodium alkanoate alkane
CH3COONa + NaOH CaO CH4 + Na2CO3
sodium ethanoate methane
CH3-CH2COONa + NaOH CaO CH3-CH3 + Na2CO3
sodium propanoate ethane
(2) Reduction of alkyl halides
i. Reduction of alkyl halides with hydrogen halide (Hydro-
halogenation)
R-X + HX ⎯⎯ R-H + X2
alkyl halide alkane
CH3I + HI ⎯⎯ CH4 + I2
methyl iodide methane
CH3-CH2I + HI ⎯⎯ CH3-CH3 + I2
ethyl iodide ethane
ii. Reduction of alkyl halides with hydrogen using platinum (Pt) or
palladium (Pd) catalyst (Hydrogenation)

R-X + H2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ R-H + HX

alkyl halide alkane

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

CH3I + H2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ CH4 + HI

methyl iodide methane
CH3-CH2I + H2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ CH3-CH3 + HI
ethyl iodide ethane
(3) Reduction of alkene with hydrogen using nickel catalyst at 3000C
(Hydrogenation)
R-CH=CH2 + H2 ,
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
R-CH2-CH3
alkene alkane
CH2=CH2 + H2 ,
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
CH3-CH3
ethene ethane
CH3-CH=CH2 + H2 ,
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
CH3-CH2-CH3
propene propane
CH3-CH2-CH=CH2 + H2 ,
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
CH3-CH2-CH2-CH3
1-butene n-butane
CH3-CH=CH-CH3 + H2 ,
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
CH3-CH2-CH2-CH3
2-butene n-butane
Physical Properties of Alkanes
C1 to C4 = colourless gases
C5 to C17 = colourless liquids
C18 and above = solids
Boiling points, melting points, viscocity and refractive indexes
increase as the numbers of carbon atoms increase.

Chemical Properties of Alkanes

(1) Combustion of alkanes
(2) Substitution reaction or Chlorination

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

(1) Combustion of alkanes

Alkanes can burn in air and give water and carbon dioxide.
∆
CH4 + 2O2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ CO2 + 2H2O
methane
(2) Substitution reaction or Chlorination
Chlorination may be brought about by light, heat or catalyst.
CH4 + Cl2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ CH3Cl + HCl
methane methyl
chloride
CH3Cl + Cl2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ CH2Cl2 + HCl
methylene
chloride
CH2Cl2 + Cl2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ CHCl3 + HCl
chloroform
CHCl3 + Cl2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ CCl4 + HCl
carbon
tetrachloride
Preparations of alkenes
(1) Dehydration of alcohols
i. Heating alcohol with concentrated sulphuric acid at 1600C
ii. Passing alcohol vapour over alumina catalyst heated at 3500C
(2) Dehydrohalogenation of alkyl halide
(1) Dehydration of alcohol
i. Heating alcohol with concentrated sulphuric acid at 1600C
Two stages
R-CH2-CH2OH + H2SO4 ⎯⎯⎯
R-CH2-CH2SO4H + H2O
alcohol alkyl hydrogen
sulphate

R-CH2-CH2SO4H ⎯⎯⎯
R-CH=CH2 + H2SO4
alkene

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

One stage
( )
R-CH2-CH2OH ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ R-CH=CH2 + H2O
0
alcohol 160 alkene

CH3-CH2OH + H2SO4 ⎯⎯⎯

CH3-CH2SO4H + H2O
ethanol ethyl hydrogen
sulphate
CH3-CH2SO4H ⎯⎯⎯ CH2=CH2 + H2SO4
alkene
( )
CH3-CH2OH ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ CH2=CH2 + H2O
1600
ethanol alkene
( )
CH3-CH2-CH2OH ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ CH3-CH=CH2 + H2O
1600
propan-1-ol propene
( )
CH3-CHOH-CH3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
0
CH3-CH=CH2 + H2O
160
propan-2-ol propene
ii. passing alcohol vapour over alumina catalyst heated at 3500C
R-CH2-CH2OH ⎯⎯⎯⎯ R-CH=CH2 + H2O
alcohol alkene

CH3-CH2OH ⎯⎯⎯⎯ CH2=CH2 + H2O

ethanol ethene

CH3-CH2-CH2OH ⎯⎯⎯⎯ CH3-CH=CH2 + H2O

propan-1-ol propene
CH3-CHOH-CH3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ CH3-CH=CH2 + H2O
propan-2-ol propene
(2) Dehydrohalogenation of alkyl halide
Heating alkyl halide with an alcoholic solution of potassium
hydroxide on a water bath
ethanol
R-CH2-CH2X + KOH R-CH2=CH2 + KX + H2 O
alkyl halide alkene

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

ethanol
CH3-CH2Cl + KOH CH2=CH2 + KCl + H2 O
ethyl chloride ethene
ethanol
CH3-CH2-CH2Cl + KOH CH3- CH=CH2 + KCl + H2O
n-propyl chloride propene
ethanol
CH3-CHCl-CH3 + KOH CH3- CH=CH2 + KCl + H2O
iso-propyl chloride propene

Physical Properties of Alkenes

C2 to C4 = gases
C5 to C15 = liquid
C16 and above = solids at room temperature and
insoluble in water
Chemical Properties of Alkenes
(1) Combustion of alkenes
(2) Addition reaction
i. Hydrogenation (addition of hydrogen)
ii. Halogenation (addition of halogen)
iii. Hydrohalogenation (addition of hydrogen halide)
(a) Symmetrical alkenes (one product)
(b) Unsymmetrical alkenes (two products)
(3) Ozonolysis (formation of ozonide)
(4) Hydroxylation of alkene
(5) Polymerization of alkene
(1) Combustion of alkenes
Alkenes can burn in air and give water and carbon dioxide.
∆
CH2=CH2 + 3O2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 2CO2 + 2H2O
methane
(2) Addition reaction
i. Hydrogenation (Addition of hydrogen)
Using nickel catalyst heated at 200-3000C
R-CH=CH2 + H2 ,
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
R-CH2-CH3
alkene alkane

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

Using platinum or palladium catalyst

R-CH=CH2 + H2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ R-CH2-CH3
alkene alkane
CH2=CH2 + H2 ,
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
CH3-CH3
ethene ethane
CH3-CH=CH2 + H2 ,
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
CH3-CH2-CH3
propene propane
CH2=CH2 + H2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ CH3-CH3
ethene ethane
CH3-CH=CH2 + H2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ CH3-CH2-CH3
propene propane
ii. Halogenation (Addition of halogen)
R-CH=CH2 + X2 ⎯⎯ R-CHX-CH2X
alkene alkene dihalide
CH2=CH2 + Cl2 ⎯⎯ CH2Cl-CH2Cl
ethene ethene dichloride
(1,2-dichloro ethane)
CH3-CH=CH2 + Cl2 ⎯⎯ CH3- CHCl-CH2Cl
propene propene dichloride
(1,2-dichloro propene)
CH2=CH2 + Br2 ⎯⎯ CH2Br-CH2Br
ethene (1% solution) ethene dibromide
(colourless)
CH3-CH=CH2 + Br2 ⎯⎯ CH3- CHBr-CH2Br
propene (reddish brown) propene dibromide
(colourless)
iii. Hydrohalogenation (Addition of alkyl halide/halogen acid)
(a) Symmetrical alkene (ethene)
CH2=CH2 + HX ⎯⎯ CH3-CH2X
ethene ethyl halide
CH2=CH2 + HCl ⎯⎯ CH3-CH2Cl
ethene ethyl chloride
CH2=CH2 + HBr ⎯⎯ CH3-CH2Br
ethene ethyl bromide
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CH2=CH2 + HI ⎯⎯ CH3-CH2I
ethene ethyl iodide
(b) Unsymmetrical alkene (propene)
CH3-CH=CH2 + HX ⎯⎯ CH3-CHX-CH3 + CH3-CH2-CH2X
propene iso-propyl halide n-propyl halide
(unsymmetrical) (major product) (minor product)

CH3-CH=CH2 + HBr ⎯⎯ CH3-CHBr-CH3 + CH3-CH2-CH2Br

propene iso-propyl n-propyl bromide
(unsymmetrical) bromide
(major product) (minor product)
Markownikoff’s Rule
When an unsymmetrical addendum (HX) adds onto an
unsymmetrical alkene, two products are possible, but that product where
the negative part of the addendum adds onto the carbon with the least
number of hydrogen atoms is the major product.
(3) Formation of ozonide (Ozonolysis)
O
CH2=CH2 + O3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ CH2 CH2
O O
ethene ethene ozonide

O
CH2 CH2 + H2O ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 2HCHO + H2O2
O O
ethene ozonide methanal
(formaldehyde)
O
CH3-CH=CH2 + O3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ CH3-CH CH2
O O
propene propene ozonide
O
CH3-CH CH2 + H2O ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ CH3-CHO+ HCHO + H2O2
O O
propene ozonide ethanal methanal
(acetaldehyde) (formalde
hyde)

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(4) Hydroxylation of alkene

When ethene is passed into cold dilute 1% KMnO4 solution, the violet
colour of KMnO4 solution is discharged and ethene glycol is formed.
CH2=CH2 + H2O + [O] CH2OH-CH2OH
1%
(violet)
ethene ethene glycol
(colourless)
CH3-CH=CH2 + H2O + [O] CH3-CHOH-CH2OH
1%
(violet)
propene propene glycol
(propane-1,2-diol)
(colourless)
(5) Polymerization
When ethene is passed over heated catalyst under high pressure,
polyethene is formed.
n(CH2=CH2) > 1000 ( CH2-CH2 ) n
∆
ethene polyethene
(monomer) (polymer)
n(CH3-CH=CH2) > 1000 (CH3- CH2 -CH2 ) n
∆
propene polypropene
(monomer) (polymer)

Uses of Ethenes
Ethene is used
- for ripening fruits
- industry in the manufacture of chemical solvent and
- in the manufacture of plastics

Preparations of alkynes
(1) Laboratory method to prepare ethyne or acetylene from coke (C)
(2) Dehydrohalogenation of alkene dihalide or alkylidene halide

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(1) Laboratory method to prepare ethyne or acetylene from coke

When coke and calcium oxide are heated in an electric furnace,
calcium carbide is formed.
CaO + 3C CaC2 + CO
coke calcium
carbide
CaC2 + 2H2O Ca(OH)2 + CH ≡ CH
ethyne or
acetylene
(2) Dehydrohalogenation of alkene dihalide or alkylidene halide
ℎ
R-CHX-CH2X + 2KOH ∆
R-C≡CH + 2KX + 2H2O
alkene dihalide alkyne
ℎ
R-CH2-CHX2 + 2KOH ∆
R-C≡CH + 2KX + 2H2O
alkylidene halide alkyne
ℎ
CH2Br-CH2Br + 2KOH ∆
CH≡CH + 2KBr + 2H2O
ethene ethene
dibromide
ℎ
CH3-CHBr2 + 2KOH ∆
CH≡CH + 2KBr + 2H2O
ethylidene ethyne
bromine
Chemical Properties of Alkynes
(1) Addition reaction
i. Hydrogenation or reduction (addition of hydrogen)
ii. Halogenation (addition of halogen)
iii. Hydrohalogenation (addition of hydrogen halide)
iv. Hydration
(2) Substitution
i. With sodium
ii. With ammoniacal copper (I) chloride solution
iii. With ammoniacal silver oxide solution

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(1) Addition reaction

i. Hydrogenation or reduction
CH≡CH +H CH2=CH2 +H CH3-CH3
Pt or Pd Pt or Pd
ethyne ethene ethane
CH3- C≡CH +H CH3-CH=CH2 +H CH3-CH2-CH3
Pt or Pd Pt or Pd
propyne propene propane
ii. Halogenation (Cl2, Br2, I2)
(a) Addition of chlorine, Cl2
CH≡CH + Cl2 light CHCl=CHCl
ethyne ℎ
ethyne dichloride
CHCl=CHCl + Cl2 light CHCl2 - CHCl2
ethyne dichloride ℎ
ethyne tetrachloride
(b) Addition of bromine liquid, Br2 (l)
CH≡CH + Br2 (l) ethanol CHBr=CHBr
ethyne ethyne dibromide
CHBr=CHBr + Br2 (l) ethanol CHBr2 - CHBr2
ethyne dichloride ethyne tetrabromide
(c) Addition of aqueous bromine, Br2 (aq)
CH≡CH + Br2 (aq) CHBr=CHBr
ethyne ethyne dibromide
(d) Addition of iodine
CH≡CH + I2 ethanol CHI=CHI
ethyne ethyne di-iodide
iii. Hydrohalogenation
Addition of hydrogen halide or hydrogen acid (HCl, HBr, HI)
CH≡CH + HBr ethanol CH2=CHBr
ethyne vinyl bromide
symmetrical
CH2=CHBr + HBr ethanol CH3-CHBr2
vinyl bromide ethylidene bromide
unsymmetrical

Page 23 Organic Chemistry

Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

iv. Hydration
When ethyne (acetylene) is passed into dilute sulphuric acid
containing mercury (II) sulphate at 600C, ethanol is formed.
CH≡CH + H2 O , 60 [CH2=CHOH] CH3-CHO
ethyne vinyl alcohol ethanol
(unstable) (acetyldehyde)
(2) Substitution reactions
The hydrogen atom on a triple bonded carbon can be replaced by
metals such as Na, Cu and Ag.
i. With sodium (Na)
When acetylene gas is passed over heated sodium, the acetylenic
hydrogen atoms are substituted by sodium.
∆
CH≡CH + Na CH≡C-Na + H2
ethyne monosodium acetylide
∆
CH≡C-Na + Na Na-C ≡ C-Na + H2
monosodium disodium acetylide
acetylide
ii. With ammoniacal copper (I) chloride solution (Cu2Cl2)
When ethyne is passed into ammoniacal copper (I) chloride solution,
red precipitate of dicopper acetylide is formed.
2CH≡CH + Cu2Cl2 + 2NH3 2CH ≡ C-Cu ↓ + 2NH4Cl
acetylene monocopper (I)
acetylide
(red p.p.t)
2CH≡C-Cu + Cu2Cl2 + 2NH3 2Cu-C ≡ C-Cu ↓ + 2NH4Cl
monocopper dicopper (I)
acetylide acetylide
(red p.p.t)
2CH3-C≡CH + Cu2Cl2 + 2NH3 2CH3-C≡C-Cu ↓ + 2NH4Cl
methyl copper (I)
acetylene methyl acetylide
(propyne) (red p.p.t)

Page 24 Organic Chemistry

 Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

2CH3-CH2-C≡CH + Cu2Cl2 + 2NH3 2CH3-CH2-C≡C-Cu ↓ + 2NH4Cl

ethyl acetylene copper (I) ethyl
(1-butyne) acetylide
(red p.p.t)
CH3-C ≡ C-CH3 + Cu2Cl2 + NH3 no reaction
dimethyl
acetylene
(2-butyne)
iii. With ammoniacal silver oxide solution (Ag2O)
When ethyne is passed into ammoniacal solution of silver oxide,
white precipitate of disilver acetylide is formed.
2CH ≡ CH + Ag2O + NH3 2CH≡C-Ag↓ + NH4OH
acetylene monosilver
(ethyne) acetylide
(white p.p.t)
2CH≡C-Ag + Ag2O + NH3 2Ag-C≡C-Ag ↓ + NH4OH
monosilver disilver
acetylide acetylide
(white p.p.t)
2CH3-C≡CH + Ag2O + NH3 2CH3-C≡C-Ag ↓ + NH4OH
methyl silver methyl
acetylene acetylide
(propyne) (white p.p.t)

2CH3-CH2-C≡CH + Ag2O + NH3 2CH3-CH2-C≡C-Ag ↓ + NH4OH

ethyl acetylene copper (I) ethyl
(1-butyne) acetylide
(white p.p.t)

CH3-C ≡ C-CH3 + Ag2O + NH3 no reaction

dimethyl
acetylene
(2-butyne)

Page 25 Organic Chemistry

Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

Uses of ethynes
- oxy-acetylene flame in welding and cutting steels.
- an important starting material in manufacture of plastic.

Preparations of Alcohols
(1) by the hydrolysis of alkyl halides
(2) by the hydrolysis of alkyl hydrogensulphate
(3) manufacture of ethanol from petroleum refinery products
(4) manufacture of ehanol by fermentation (fermentation method)
(1) By the hydrolysis of alkyl halides
Alkyl halides are heated under reflux with an aqueous solution of
sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or potassium hydroxide (KOH).

R-CH2X + NaOH reflux R-CH2OH + NaX

alkyl halide alkyl alcohol

CH3-CH2Cl + NaOH reflux CH3 -CH2OH + NaCl

ethyl chloride ethanol

(2) By the hydrolysis of alkyl hydrogensulphate

Alkyl hydrogensulphate is heated under reflux with water.

R-CH2-SO4H + H2O reflux R-CH2OH + H2SO4

alkyl alkyl alcohol
hydrogensulphate

CH3-CH2-SO4H + H2O reflux CH3-CH2OH + H2SO4

ethyl ethanol
hydrogensulphate

Page 26 Organic Chemistry

Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

(3) Manufacture of ethanol from petroleum refinery products

When ethene is passed into sulphuric acid, ethyl hydrogensulphate
and diethyl sulphate are formed.
hydrocarbon ,
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ alkanes + ethene
(very high (C5H12 to C9H20) (by product)
molecular weight)
CH2=CH2 + H2SO4 CH3-CH2SO4H
ethene ethyl hydrogensulphate
CH2=CH2 + CH3-CH2SO4H (CH3-CH2)2 SO4
ethene diethyl sulphate
Hydrolysis of ethyl hydrogensulphate and diethyl sulphate give
ethanol.
CH3-CH2SO4H + H2O CH3-CH2OH + H2SO4
ethyl ethanol
hydrogensulphate
(CH3-CH2)2 SO4 + 2H2O 2CH3-CH2OH + H2SO4
diethyl sulphate ethanol
Ethanol formed is fractionally distilled.
(4) Manufacture of ethanol by fermentation (fermentation method)
Potatoes, maize, rice and other starchy cereals contain starch is
pressure-cooked, cooled and then treated with freshly germinated barley
(which is called malt) for one hour at 600C.
The enzyme diastase in malt breaks down the starch into sugar called
maltose.
(C6H10O5)n + H2O
C12H22O11
starch maltose
Yeast (maltase) is added to the maltose at room temperature and
maltose decomposes into glucose.
.

C12H22O11 + H2 O ( )
2C6H12O6
maltose glucose
Yeast (zymase) is added to the glucose at room temperature and
glucose decomposes into ethanol.

Page 27 Organic Chemistry

Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

C6H12O6 ( ) 2CH3-CH2OH + 2CO2 ↑

glucose ethanol
The product contains about 11% ethanol.
It is fractionally distilled to yield the rectified spirit (about 95%
ethanol).
Physical properties of Alcohols
C1 to C4 = mobile liquids
C5 to C11 = oily liquids
C12 and above = usually solids
Methanol and ethanol are miscible with water in any proportion.
Methanol is the most toxic.
Chemical Properties of Alcohols
(1) reaction with metallic sodium
(2) reaction with phosphorus (V) chloride (PCl5)
(3) reaction with sulphuric acid
(4) formation of esters (esterification)
i. inorganic ester
ii. organic ester
(5) oxidation of alcohols
i. dehydrogenation with copper
ii. oxidation with acidified K2Cr2O7
(1) Reaction with metallic sodium (Na)
R-CH2OH + Na R-CH2ONa + H2
alcohol sodium alkoxide

CH3-CH2OH + Na CH3-CH2ONa + H2
ethanol sodium ethoxide
(2) Reaction with phosphorus (V) chloride (PCl5)
R-CH2OH + PCl5 R-CH2Cl ↑ + POCl3 + HCl ↑
alcohol alkyl chloride

CH3-CH2OH + PCl5 CH3-CH2Cl ↑ + POCl3 + HCl ↑

ethanol ethyl chloride

Page 28 Organic Chemistry

Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

(3) Reaction with sulphuric acid (H2SO4)

When ethanol is heated with an excess of concentrated sulphuric acid
at 1600C, ethene is the product.
CH3-CH2OH ( )160 CH2=CH2 + H2O
ethanol ethene
When ethanol is heated a smaller proportion of concentrated sulphuric
acid at 1400C, diethyl ether is formed.
CH3-CH2OH + H2SO4 100 CH3-CH2SO4H + H2 O
ethanol ethyl hydrogen
sulphate
CH3-CH2OH + CH3-CH2SO4H 140 CH3-CH2-O-CH2-CH3 + H2SO4
ethanol diethyl ether

R-O-R = ether, R-COO-R = ester

(4) Formation of ester (esterification)
i. Inorganic ester
When alcohols are reacted with inorganic acid (HSO, HI, HBr, HCl)
inorganic esters are formed.
CH3-CH2OH + H2SO4 CH3-CH2SO4H + H2 O
ethanol ethyl hydrogen
sulphate
(inorganic ester)
CH3-CH2OH + HI CH3-CH2I + H2 O
ethanol ethyl iodide
(inorganic ester)
CH3-CH2OH + HCl ZnCl2
CH3-CH2Cl + H2 O
ethanol ethyl chloride
(inorganic ester)
ii. Organic ester
When ethanoic acid (acetic acid) reacts with ethanol in the presence
of small amount of concentrated sulphuric acid, organic ester (ethyl
ethanoate) is formed.
An ester has a pleasant fruit odour.

Page 29 Organic Chemistry

Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

( )
CH3-COOH + CH3-CH2OH CH3-COO-CH2-CH3 + H2O
ethanoic ethanol ethyl ethanoate
acid (ethyl acetate)
(organic ester)

(5) Oxidation of alcohols

i. Dehydrogenation (with copper)
When ethanol vapour is passed over freshly over reduced copper
heated 3000C, removal of hydrogen occurs with formation of ethanol or
acetaldehyde.
CH3-CH2OH , 300 CH3-CHO + H2
ethanol ethanal
(vapour)
CH2-CH2-CH2OH , 300 CH3-CH2-CHO + H2
n-propanol propanal
(vapour)
ii. Oxidation with acidified K2Cr2O7
When primary alcohol is oxidized, the first product will be an
aldehyde which go on further oxidation. The product will be the acids
containing the same number of carbon atoms.
CH3-CH2OH + [O] CH3-CHO + H2O
( )
ethanol ethanal
CH3CHO + [O] CH3COOH
( )
ethanal ethanoic acid

Page 30 Organic Chemistry

Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

Practice Questions
1. Give the IUPAC names for the following compounds.
(a) CH3
CH3-CH-CH2-CH3
(b) CH3
CH3-C-CH2-CH3
CH3
(c) CH3
CH3-C - CH-CH3
CH3 CH3
(d) CH3
CH3-CH-CH2-CH2-CH3
(e) CH3
CH3-C-CH2-CH2-CH3
CH3
(f) CH3
CH3-C - CH-CH2-CH3
CH3 CH3
(g) CH3 CH3
CH3-CH-CH-CH-CH3
CH3
(h) CH3
CH3-CH-CH-CH2-CH3
CH2-CH3
(i) CH3
CH3- C -CH2-CH2-CH3
CH3
(j) CH3
CH3 - C - CH-CH2-CH2-CH3
CH3 CH3

Page 31 Organic Chemistry

Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

(k) CH3 CH3

CH3-CH-CH2-CH2-C-CH3
CH3
(l) CH3
CH3-C - CH-CH2-CH2-CH3
CH3 CH2-CH3
(m) CH3
CH3-C - CH-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3
CH3 CH2-CH3
(n) CH3
CH3-CH2-CH-CH2-CH2-CH-CH2-CH3
CH2-CH3
(o) CH3
CH3-CH2-C-CH2-CH3
CH2-CH3
(p) CH3
CH3-CH-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3
(q) CH3
CH3-CH2-CH-CH2-CH2-CH3
(r) CH3
CH3-CH-CH-CH2-CH2-CH3
CH3
(s) CH3 CH2-CH3
CH3-CH-CH2-CH-CH2-CH3
(t) CH3
CH3-CH-CH-CH2-CH2-CH3
CH2-CH3
(u) CH3 CH2-CH3
CH3-CH-CH2-CH2-CH-CH3
(v) CH3
CH3-CH2-CH-CH-CH2-CH3
CH2-CH3

Page 32 Organic Chemistry

Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

(w) CH3
CH3 - C - CH-CH2-CH-CH3
CH3 CH3
(x) CH3
CH3-C-H
CH3
(y) CH3 CH3
CH - CH
CH3 CH3
(z) CH3
CH3-C-CH3
CH2-CH3
(aa) CH3
CH3 - C - CH - CH2-CH2-CH-CH3
CH3 CH2-CH3
(bb) CH3
CH3-C - CH-CH2-CH2-CH3
CH3 CH3
(cc) CH3 CH3
CH3-C - CH2-CH-CH2-CH3
CH2-CH3
(dd) CH2-CH3
CH3-CH -C-CH2-CH2-CH3
CH3 CH2-CH3
(ee) CH2-CH3
CH3-CH -C-CH2-CH2-CH3
CH3-CH2 CH3
(ff) CH3-CH2 CH3
CH3-C - C-CH2-CH2-CH3
CH3-CH2 CH2-CH3

Page 33 Organic Chemistry

Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

(gg) CH3CH2-CH2-CH3
CH-CH-CH2-CH3
CH-CH3
CH3
(hh) CH3-CH2-CH2
CH2-CH2
CH2-CH2
CH2-CH2
CH3
(ii) CH3-CH2-CH2
CH=CH2
(jj) CH3
CH3-CH-CH=CH2
(kk) CH3
CH3-C=CH-CH3
(ll) CH2-CH3
CH3-CH-CH-CH=CH2
(mm) CH2-CH3
CH3-CH-CH-CH=CH2
CH3
(nn) CH3
CH3-C-CH=CH2
CH3
(oo) CH3
CH3-C - C=CH2
CH3 CH3
(pp) CH3
CH3-CH2-CH2-CH=CH2

Page 34 Organic Chemistry

Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

(qq) CH3
CH3-CH-CH=CH2-CH3
(rr) CH3
CH3-C-CH2-CH2-CH=CH2
CH3
(ss) CH3
CH3 - C - CH-CH=CH-CH3
CH3 CH3
(tt) CH3
CH3 - C - CH-CH2-CH=CH2
CH3 CH2-CH3
(uu) CH3
CH3-C-CH=CH-CH3
CH3
(vv) CH3
CH3 - C - C=CH-CH3
CH3 CH3
(ww) CH3 CH3
CH2=C-CH-CH-CH3
CH3
(xx) CH3
CH3-CH2-C-CH=CH2
CH2-CH3
(yy) CH3 CH2-CH3
CH3-CH-CH=C-CH2-CH3
(zz) CH3
CH2=CH-CH-CH2 -C-CH3
CH2-CH3 CH3

Page 35 Organic Chemistry

Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

(aaa) CH3
CH3-C-H
CH=CH2
(bbb) CH3-CH2 CH3
CH2=CH - C - CH - CH-CH2 - CH-CH3
CH2-CH3 CH2-CH3 CH3
(ccc) CH3-CH2-CH-CH2-CH2-CH3
CH=CH2
(ddd) CH3
CH3-CH2-C = C
CH3 CH2-CH2-CH3
(eee) CH3-CH2-CH2
CH2-C ≡ CH
(fff) CH3
CH3-CH2-CH2-C≡CH
(ggg) CH3
CH3-CH-C≡C-CH3
(hhh) CH3
CH3-C-CH2-C≡CH
CH3
(iii) CH3 CH3
CH3 - C - CH-C≡CH
CH3
(jjj) CH3
CH3-CH-CH-CH2-C≡CH
CH2-CH3

Page 36 Organic Chemistry

Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

(kkk) CH3
CH3 - C - CH-CH2-C≡CH
CH3 CH2-CH3
(lll) CH3
CH3-CH2-C-C≡CH
CH2-CH3
(mmm) CH3 CH2-CH3
CH3-C - C- C ≡ CH
CH3 CH2-CH3
(ooo) CH3
CH3-C-CH-C ≡ CH
CH3
(ppp) CH3
CH3-CH-C ≡C-C-CH3
CH3 CH3
(qqq) CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2OH
(rrr) CH3
CH3-CH-CH2OH
(sss) CH3
CH3-CH2-CHOH
(ttt) CH3
CH3-C-CH3
OH
(uuu) CH3
CH3-CH-CH2-CH2OH
(vvv) CH3
CH3-CH2-CH-CHOH-CH3

Page 37 Organic Chemistry

Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

(www) CH3
CH3-C-CH2-CH2-CHOH-CH3
CH2-CH3
(xxx) CH3
CH3-CH-CHOH-CH2-CH3
(yyy) CH3
CH3-CH2-C-CH2-CH2-CH2OH
CH2-CH3
(zzz) CH3-CH2-CH2-CHOH-CH2OH
(aaaa) CH3 CH3
CH3-C - CH-CHOH-CH2OH
CH3
(bbbb) CH3-CH2
CH3-CH2-C - CH-CH2-CH2OH
CH3 CH3
(cccc) CH3
CH3-C-CHOH-CH2-CH3
CH3
2. Draw the structural formulae of the following compounds.
(a) n-butane
(b) iso-butane
(c) neo-pentane
(d) 2-methyl butane
(e) 2-methyl pentane
(f) 3-methyl pentane
(g) 2-methyl hexane
(h) 3-methyl hexane
(i) 2,2-dimethyl butane
(j) 2,2-diethyl butane
(k) 2,2-dimethyl pentane

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

(l) 2,3-dimethyl pentane

(m) 2,2-dimethyl hexane
(n) 2,5-dimethyl heptane
(o) 2,2,3-trimethyl butane
(p) 2,2,3-trimethyl pentane
(q) 2,3,4-trimethyl pentane
(r) 2,2,3-trimethyl hexane
(s) 2,2,5-trimethyl hexane
(t) 2,2,3-trimethyl heptane
(u) 4,4,5-trimethyl nonane
(v) 3-ethyl 2-methyl pentane
(w) 3-ethyl 2-methyl hexane
(x) 3-ethyl 2-methyl heptane
(y) 3-ethyl 6-methyl octane
(z) 3-ethyl 3-methyl pentane
(aa) 4-ethyl 2-methyl hexane
(bb) 3-ethyl 2-methyl hexane
(cc) 3-ethyl 4-methyl hexane
(dd) 3-ethyl 2,2-dimethyl hexane
(ee) 3-ethyl 2,2-dimethyl heptane
(ff) 4-ethyl 2,2-dimethyl heptane
(gg) 3-ethyl 3-methyl butane
(hh) 1-butylene
(ii) 2-butylene
(jj) iso-butylene
(kk) s-dimethyl ethylene
(ll) uns-dimethyl ethylene
(mm) 3-methyl 1-butene
(nn) 4-methyl 1-pentene
(oo) 4-methyl 2-pentene
(pp) 3-methyl 1-butene
(qq) 2-methyl 2-butene
(rr) 3,3-dimethyl 1-butene
(ss) 5,5-dimethyl 1-hexene

Page 39 Organic Chemistry

Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

(tt) 4,4-dimethyl 1-pentene

(uu) 4,4-dimethyl 2-pentene
(vv) 4,4-dimethyl 3-heptene
(ww) 3,4-dimethyl 1-pentene
(xx) 2,4-dimethyl 1-butene
(yy) 2,3,4-trimethyl 2-hexene
(zz) 5,6,6-trimethyl 3-heptene
(aaa) 2,3,4-trimethyl 1-pentene
(bbb) 4,5,5-trimethyl 2-hexene
(ccc) 2,3,3-trimethyl 1-butene
(ddd) 3-ethyl 3-methyl 1-pentene
(eee) 3-ethyl 4-methyl 1-pentene
(fff) 4-ethyl 5-methyl 1-heptene
(ggg) 3-methyl 4-ethyl 2-octene
(hhh) 3-methyl 4-ethyl 1-hexene
(iii) 2-ethyl 5-methyl 1-hexene
(jjj) 2-methyl 4-ethyl 3-hexene
(kkk) 5-ethyl 3,4-dimethyl 2-heptene
(lll) 3-ethyl 5,5-dimethyl 1-hexene
(mmm) 4-ethyl 5,5-methyl 1-hexene
(nnn) methyl acetylene
(ooo) ethyl acetylene
(ppp) dimethyl acetylene
(qqq) n-propyl acetylene
(rrr) iso-propyl acetylene
(sss) methyl ethyl acetylene
(ttt) 1-hexyne
(uuu) 3-methyl 1-butyne
(vvv) 4-methyl 1-pentyne
(www) 4-methyl 2-pentyne
(xxx) 4-ethyl 5-methyl 1-hexyne
(yyy) 4-ethyl 5-methyl 1-heptyne
(zzz) 3-ethyl 3-methyl 1-pentyne
(aaaa) 3-ethyl 4-methyl 1-propyne

Page 40 Organic Chemistry

Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

(bbbb) 5-ethyl 2-methyl 3-heptyne

(cccc) 4-ethyl 5,5-dimethyl 1-hexyne
(dddd) 5-ethyl 4,6-dimethyl 2-heptyne
(eeee) 4,5-dimethyl 2-heptyne
(ffff) 3,4,4-trimethyl 1-pentyne
(gggg) 5,6,6-trimethyl 3-heptyne
(hhhh) 4,4-dimethyl 2-pentyne
(iiii) 3,4,5,5-tetramethyl 1-hexyne
(jjjj) 1-propanol (propan-1-ol)
(kkkk) 2-propanol (propan-2-ol)
(llll) 1-butanol (butan-1-ol)
(mmmm) 2-methyl propanol
(nnnn) 2-butanol
(oooo) 2-methyl 2-propanol
(pppp) 4-methyl 1-pentanol
(qqqq) 3-methyl 2-pentanol
(rrrr) 5,5-dimethyl 1-heptanol
(ssss) 2-methyl 3-pentanol
(tttt) 4-ethyl 4-methyl 1-hexanol
(uuuu) 3-methyl butan-1-ol
(vvvv) 4,4-dimethyl pentan-2-ol
(wwww) 3,3,4-trimethyl hexan-1-ol
(xxxx) 4,5,5-trimethyl heptan-1-ol
(yyyy) pentan-1,2-diol
3. Complete the following reactions.
∆
(a) R-COONa + NaOH
∆
(b) CH3COONa + NaOH
∆
(c) CH3-CH2COONa + NaOH
∆
(d) C3H7-COONa + NaOH
(e) R-I + HI
(f) CH3-CH2I + HI
(g) CH3-CH2-CH2I + HI
(h) CH3I + H2
(i) CH3-CH2I + H2

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

(j) CH2=CH2 + H2 , 3000

(k) CH3-CH=CH2 + H2 , 3000

H SO (conc)
(l) CH3-CH2OH 160 C
H SO (conc)
(m) CH3-CHOH-CH3 160 C
Al O
(n) CH3-CH2OH 350 C
Al O
(o) CH3-CH2-CH2OH 350 C
ℎ
(p) CH3-CH2Cl + KOH ∆
ℎ
(q) CH3-CH2-CH2Cl + KOH ∆
, 300
(r) R-CH=CH2 + H2
, 300
(s) CH3-CH=CH2 + H2
ℎ
(t) R-CH=CH2 + X2
ℎ
(u) CH2=CH2 + Cl2
ℎ
(v) CH3-CH=CH2 + Br2
ℎ
(w) CH2=CH2 + HX
ℎ
(x) CH2=CH2 + HCl
ℎ
(y) CH2=CH2 + HBr
ℎ
(z) CH3-CH=CH2 + HBr
ℎ
(aa) CH2=CH2 + O3
(bb) CH3-CH=CH2 + O3
1%
(cc) CH2=CH2 + H2O + [O]
1%
(dd) CH3-CH=CH2+H2O + [O]
(ee) CaO + C
(ff) CaC2 + H2O
ℎ
(gg) R-CHX-CH2X + KOH ∆
ℎ
(hh) CH2Br-CH2Br + KOH ∆
ℎ
(ii) CH3-CHBr + KOH ∆
(jj) CH≡CH + H2
(kk) CH3-C ≡ CH + H2
ℎ
(ll) CH ≡ CH + Cl2
ℎ
(mm) CH ≡ CH + Br2(l)
(nn) CH ≡ CH + Br2(aq)
ℎ
(oo) CH ≡ CH + I2
ℎ
(pp) CH ≡ CH + HBr
ℎ
(qq) CH3-C ≡ CH + HBr
Page 42 Organic Chemistry
Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

(rr) CH ≡ CH + H2O , 60

(ss) CH ≡ CH + Na
(tt) CH ≡ CH + Cu2Cl2 + NH3
(uu) CH3-CH2-C ≡ CH + Cu2Cl2 + NH3
(vv) CH ≡ CH + Ag2O + NH3
(ww) CH3-CH2-C ≡ CH + Ag2O + NH3
(xx) CH3-CH2Cl + NaOH reflux

(yy) CH3-CH2-SO4H + H2O reflux

(zz) CH2=CH2 + H2SO4

(aaa) CH2=CH2 + CH3-CH2SO4H
(bbb) (CH3-CH2)2SO4 + H2O
(ccc) C6H12O6
(ddd) CH3-CH2OH + Na
(eee) CH3-CH2OH + PCl5
( )
(fff) CH3-CH2OH
160
(ggg) CH3-CH2OH + H2SO4 100

(hhh) CH3-CH2OH + CH3-CH2SO4H 140

(iii) CH3-CH2OH + H2SO4

(jjj) CH3-CH2OH + HBr
(kkk) CH3-CH2OH + HCl
( )
(lll) CH3-COOH + CH3-CH2OH
(mmm) CH3-CH2OH , 300

(ooo) CH3-CH2OH + [O] ( )

4. What happen when

(a) sodium ethanoate is heated with soda lime?
(b) sodium propanoate is heated with soda lime?
(c) ethyl iodide is tested with hydrogen iodide?
(d) n-propyl chloride is treated with hydrogen chloride?
(e) methyl iodide is reacted with hydrogen in the presence of Pt?
(f) iso-propyl bromide is reacted with hydrogen using Pt catalyst?
(g) methane is mixed with chlorine in diffused sunlight?
(h) ethanol is passed over alumina, Al2O3 heated at 3500C?
(i) passing iso-propyl alcohol over alumina, Al2O3 heated at 3500C?
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 Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

(j) propan-1-ol is heated with concentrated sulphuric acid at 1600C?

(k) ethanol is heated with H2SO4 (conc) at 1600C?
(l) propan-1-ol is heated with H2SO4 (conc) at 1600C?
(m) propan-2-ol is heated with H2SO4 (conc) at 1600C?
(n) ethanol reacts with concentrated sulphuric acid at 1000C?
(o) 1-propanol reacts with concentrated sulphuric acid at 1000C?
(p) 2-propanol reacts with concentrated sulphuric acid at 1000C?
(q) ethyl chloride is heated with alcoholic potassium hydroxide?
(r) n-propyl chloride is heated with alcoholic KOH?
(s) iso-propyl chloride is heated with alcoholic potassium hydroxide
solution?
(t) ethene is passed into 1% bromine in CCl4?
(u) propene is passed into 1% bromine in CCl4?
(v) ethene reacts with hydrogen iodide?
(w) propene reacts with hydrogen chloride?
(x) hydrogen bromide is added to propene?
(y) ethene is passed into 1% KMnO4 solution?
(z) propene is passed into 1% KMnO4 solution?
(aa) ozonized oxygen is passed into ethene in chloroform and the product
is decomposed by water?
(bb) ethene ozonide is decomposed with water?
(cc) propene ozonide is decomposed with water?
(dd) calcium oxide reacts with coke?
(ee) calcium carbide is treated with water?
(ff) ethene dibromide is heated with alcoholic KOH?
(gg) ethlidene chloride is heated with alcoholic potassium hydroxide?
(hh) ethyne is reacted with excess hydrogen in the presenceof Pt of Pd?
(ii) ethyne reacts with chloride in sunlight?
(jj) ethyne reacts with liquid bromine in the absence of solvent?
(kk) ethyne reacts with aqueous bromine in the absence of solvent?
(ll) ethyne reacts with an excess of HBr in the presence of light and
metallic halide?
(mm) vinyl bromide reacts with hydrogen bromide?

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 Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

(nn) ethyne is passed into dilute sulphuric acid containing mercury (II)
sulphate ar 600C?
(oo) ethyne is passed into ammoniacal copper (I) chloride solution?
(pp) methyl acetylene is passed into ammoniacal copper (I) chloride
solution?
(qq) ethyl acetylene is passed into ammoniacal solution of silver oxide?
(rr) ethyne is passed into ammoniacal solution of silver oxide?
(ss) methyl acetylene is passed into ammoniacal solution of silver oxide?
(tt) ethyl acetylene is passed into ammoniacal solution of silver oxide?
(uu) ethyl chloride is passed into reflux with an aqueous solution of
KOH?
(vv) ethyl hydrogen sulphate is passed into reflux with water?
(ww) maltose is treated with enzyme maltase?
(xx) glucose is treated with zymase which is present in yeast?
(yy) ethanol is passed over freshly reduced Cu at 3000C?
(zz) a piece of sodium is added to ethanol?
(aaa) Ethanol reacts with phosphorus (V) chloride?
(bbb) ethanol is heated with concentrated sulphuric acid at 1000C?
(ccc) ethanol is heated with small amount of sulphuric acid?
(ddd) ethyl hydrogensulphate is treated with ethanol at 1400C?
(eee) ethanol is heated with a mixture of potassium dichromate and dilute
sulphuric acid?
(fff) ethanol is treated with hydrogen chloride in the presence of zinc
chloride?
(ggg) the reaction of ethanol with ethanoic acid?
5. How would you prepare
(a) ethane from ethene?
(b) methane from methyl iodide?
(c) ethane from ethyl iodide?
(d) ethyl chloride from ethene?
(e) methane from sodium ethanoate?
(f) ethane from sodium propanoate?
(g) ethane from ethene?
(h) methanol from ethene?
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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

(i) propene from iso-propyl chloride?

(j) ethanal from ethyne?
(k) ethyne from ethylidene chloride?
(l) ethyne from ethene di bromide?
(m) dicopper acetylide from acetylene?
(n) ethanol from ethyl chloride?
(o) ethanal (acetaldehyde) from ethanol?
(p) ethanoic acid from ethanol?
(q) dimethyl ether from ethanol?
(r) diethyl ether from ethanol?
(s) ethyl ethanoate (ethyl acetate) from ethanol?
(t) maltose from starch?
(u) glucose from maltose?
(v) ethanol from glucose?
(w) sodium ethoxide from ethanol?
6. Illustrate the following reactions (alkanes):
(a) soda lime reaction
(b) reduction of alkyl halide by hydrogen halide
(c) reduction of alkyl halide by hydrogen
(d) chlorination of methane
(e) combustion of propane
7. Illustrate the following reactions (alkenes):
(a) Dehydration of n-propyl alcohol
(b) Dehydrohalogenation of iso-propyl chloride
(c) Dehydrohalogenation of n-propyl chloride
(d) Halogenation of ethene
(e) Hydrogenation of propene
(f) Formation of ozonide (ozonolysis)
(g) Hydroxylation of propene
8. Illustrate the following reactions (alkynes):
(a) Hydration
(b) Hydrogenation
(c) Halogenation

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 Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

(d) hydrohalogenation
(e) Formation of silver acetylide
(f) Hydrohalogenation of alkyne
9. Illustrate the following reactions (alcohols):
(a) dehydrogenation of ethanol
(b) esterification (formation of ester)
(c) oxidation of alcohol
10. Answer the following questions.
(a) A gas X is obtained by heating a mixture of sodium ethanoate and
soda lime. What is gas X? Write down the equation.
(b) Gas X can be obtained by hydrogenation of alkyl halide using a
palladium catalyst. Name the alkyl halide. Write down the equation.
(c) A gas Y is obtained by heating a mixture of sodium propanoate and
soda lime. What is gas Y? Write down the equation.
(d) Gas Y can also be obtained by hydrogenation of alkyl halide using
a palladium catalyst. Name the alkyl halide. Write down the
equation.
(e) Gas Y can also be obtained by hydrogenation of an alkene using a
nickel catalyst at 3000C. Name the alkene. Write down the equation.
(f) A gas X is obtained by heating a mixture of Y and soda lime. Y may
be obtained from the reaction between NaOH and acetic acid. Write
down a balanced equation in symbols for the first reaction only and
name the compound X and Y.
Is gas X saturated or unsaturated hydrocarbon?
Does gas X undergo addition?
Write down the general formula.
(g) A gas Y is obtained by heating a mixture of ethanol and concentrated
sulphuric acid at 1600C. What is gas Y? Write down the chemical
equation.
(h) Gas X is obtained by passing the vapour of ethanol over alumina,
Al2O3, at 3500C. What is gas X? Write down the chemical equation.
(i) A gas G is obtained by heating the ethyl chloride with an alcoholic
potassium hydroxide on the water bath. What is gas G? Write down
the chemical reaction.
Page 47 Organic Chemistry
Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

(j) A gas B is obtained by heating normal propyl bromide with an

alcoholic potassium hydroxide on the water bath. What is gas B?
Write down the chemical reaction.
(k) A gas A is obtained by heating a mixture of propanol and alumina,
Al2O3, at 3500C. What is gas A? Write down the chemical reaction.
(l) When the compound X undergoes ozonolysis, the final product is
methanol. What is compound X? Write down the relevant equation.
(m) When the compound Y undergoes ozonolysis, the final product is
ethanol. What is compound Y? Write down the relevant equation.
(n) A gas X is obtained by heating ethylidene chloride with alcoholic
potassium hydroxide. What is gas X? Write down the equation.
(o) A gas Y is obtained by heating ethene dichloride with alcoholic
potassium hydroxide. What is gas Y? Write down the equation.
(p) A gas B is obtained by heating propene dibromide with an alcoholic
potassium hydroxide solution. What is gas B? Write down the
chemical equation.
(q) When gas A is passed into dilute sulphuric acid containing mercury
(II) sulphate at 600C, the final product is ethanol. What is gas A?
Write down the equation.
(r) A gas G is obtained by heating the calcium carbide with water. What
is gas G? Write down the equation.
(s) When ethyl hydrogensulphate is reflux with aqueous solution of
sodium hydroxide, compound X is formed. What is compound X?
write down the reaction.
(t) Compound Y can be formed by the fermentation of glucose with
enzyme zymase. What is compound Y? Write down the equation.
(u) The compound X is obtained by passing ethene into cold dilute
potassium permanganate solution. What is compound X? Write
down the equation.
(v) When compound Z is treated with PCl5, ethyl chloride is obtained.
What is compound Z? write down the equation.
(w) When phosphorous (V) chloride reacts with ethnol at room
temperature. Gas B is liberated. What is the Gas B? Write down the
chemical equation.

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 Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

(x) A compound X is obtained by the reaction of ethanol with HCl in

the presence of anhydrous zinc chloride. What is compound X?
Write down the equation?
(y) A compound B undergoes esterification with ethnoic acid and the
final product is ethyl acetate. What is compound B? Write down the
relevant equation.
(z) A compound X is formed by passing ethanol over freshly reduced
copper heated at 3000C. What is compound X? Write down the
equation.
(aa) A gas Z is liberated by adding a piece of sodium to ethanol at room
temperature. What is gas Z? Write down the equation.
11. How would you differentiate (distinguish) between alkene and
alkane? (ethane and ethane; propane and propene; iso-butane and iso-
butene)
Example:
R-CH=CH2 + H2O + [O] R-CHOH-CH2OH
alkene 1% ( ) alkene glycol
(colourless)
R-CH3-CH2 + H2O + [O] No decolourization
alkane 1% ( )
12. How would you differentiate (distinguish) between:
(a) Alkene and alkyne [ethene(ethylene) and ethyne(acetylene),
propene and propyne]
R-C≡CH + Cu2Cl2 + 2NH3 2R-C≡C-Cu ↓ + 2NH4Cl
alkyl copper (I) alkyl
acetylene acetylide
(propyne) (red p.p.t)
R-CH=CH2 + Cu2Cl2 + NH3 no reaction
alkene (no p.p.t)
(b) Alkane and alkyne [ethane and ethyne(acetylene), propane and
propyne, n-butane and 1-butyne]
R-C≡CH + Cu2Cl2 + 2NH3 2R-C≡C-Cu ↓ + 2NH4Cl
alkyl copper (I) alkyl
acetylene acetylide
(propyne) (red p.p.t)
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 Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

R-CH2-CH3 + Cu2Cl2 + NH3 no reaction

alkane (no p.p.t)
(c) 1-butyne and 2-butyne (distinguishes between C4H6 isomers)
CH3-CH2-C≡CH + Cu2Cl2 + 2NH3 2CH3-CH2-C≡C-Cu ↓ + 2NH4Cl
ethyl acetylene copper (I) ethyl
(1-butyne) acetylide
(red p.p.t)

CH3-C ≡ C-CH3 + Cu2Cl2 + NH3 no reaction

dimethyl acetylene (no p.p.t)
(2-butyne)

Fig. Fractional distillation process in a refinery

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

Alkanes
Preparations of Alkanes

(1) Heating sodium salt of carboxylic acid with soda lime

R-COONa + NaOH CaO R-H + Na2CO3
sodium alkanoate alkane

(2) Reduction of alkyl halides

i. With hydrogen halide (Hydrohalogenation)

R-X + HX ⎯⎯ R-H + X2
alkyl halide alkane
ii. With hydrogen using platinum(Pt) or palladium(Pd) catalyst
(Hydrogenation)
R-X + H2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ R-H + HX
alkyl halide alkane
iii. Reduction of alkene with hydrogen
(Hydrogenation)
R-CH=CH2 + H2 ,
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
R-CH2-CH3
alkene alkane

Chemical Properties of Alkanes

(1) Combustion of alkanes

∆
R-H + O2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ CO2 + H2O
alkane

(2) Chlorination of methane (Substitution reaction)

CH4 + Cl2 → CH3Cl → CH2Cl2 → CHCl3 → CCl4
methane methyl methylene chloroform carbon
chloride chloride tetrachloride
diffused sunlight

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Alkenes
Preparations of Alkenes

(1) Dehydration of alcohol

i. Heating alcohol with concentrated sulphuric acid at 1600C
Two stages
R-CH2-CH2OH + H2SO4 ⎯⎯⎯
R-CH2-CH2SO4H + H2O
alcohol alkyl hydrogen
sulphate

R-CH2-CH2SO4H ⎯⎯⎯
R-CH=CH2 + H2SO4
alkene
One stage
( )
R-CH2-CH2OH ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
0
R-CH=CH2 + H2O
alcohol 160 alkene
ii. Passing alcohol vapour over alumina catalyst heated at 3500C
R-CH2-CH2OH ⎯⎯⎯⎯ R-CH=CH2 + H2O
alcohol alkene
(2) Dehydrohalogenation of alkyl halide
ethanol
R-CH2-CH2X + KOH R-CH2=CH2 + KX + H2 O
alkyl halide alkene

Chemical Properties of Alkenes

(1) Combustion of alkenes
∆
R-CH=CH2 + O2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ CO2 + H2O
alkene
(2) Addition reaction
i. Hydrogenation (Addition of hydrogen)
R-CH=CH2 + H2 ,
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
R-CH2-CH3
alkene alkane
ii. Halogenation (Addition of halogen)
R-CH=CH2 + X2 ⎯⎯ R-CHX-CH2X
alkene alkene dihalide

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iii. Hydrohalogenation (Addition of alkyl halide or halogen acid)

(a) Symmetrical alkenes
CH2=CH2 HX ⎯⎯ CH3-CH2X
ethene (symmetrical) ethyl halide
(b) Unsymmetrical alkenes
CH3-CH=CH2 + HX ⎯⎯ CH3-CX-CH3 + CH3-CH2-CH2-X
propene iso-propyl halide n-propyl halide
(unsymmetrical) (major product) (minor product)
(3) Ozonolysis (Formation of ozonide)
O
CH2=CH2 + O3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ CH2 CH2
O O
ethene ethene ozonide
O
CH2 CH2 + H2O ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 2HCHO + H2O2
O O
ethene ozonide methanal
(formaldehyde)
(4) Hydroxylation
R-CH=CH2 + H2O + [O] R-CHOH-CH2OH
Alkene 1% alkene glycol
(violet) (colourless)
(5) Polymerization
n(CH2=CH2) > 1000 ( CH2-CH2 ) n
ethene ∆ polyethene
(monomer) (polymer)

....................................................................................................................
Alkynes
Preparations of Alkynes
(1) Laboratory method to prepare ethyne or acetylene from coke
CaO + 3C CaC2 + CO
coke calcium
carbide
CaC2 + 2H2O Ca(OH)2 + CH ≡ CH
ethyne

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(2) Dehydrohalogenation of alken dihalide or alkylidene halide

ℎ
R-CHX-CH2X + 2KOH ∆
R-C≡CH + 2KX + 2H2O
alkene dihalide alkyne
ℎ
R-CH2-CHX2 + 2KOH ∆
R-C≡CH + 2KX + 2H2O
alkylidene halide alkyne

Chemical Properties of Alkynes

(1) Addition reaction
v. Hydrogenation or reduction
CH ≡ CH +H CH2=CH2 +H CH3-CH3
ethyne Pt or Pd ethene Pt or Pd ethane
vi. Halogenation
CH ≡ CH + Cl2 ℎ CHCl=CHCl
ethyne ℎ ethyne dichloride

CHCl=CHCl + Cl2 ℎ CHCl2 - CHCl2

ethyne dichloride ℎ ethyne tetrachloride
Notes; Br(aq) has only one stage
vii. Hydrohalogenation
CH ≡ CH + HBr CH2=CHBr
ethyne vinyl bromide
(symmetrical)
CH2=CHBr + HBr CH3-CHBr2
vinyl bromide ethylidene bromide
(unsymmetrical)
viii. Hydration
CH≡CH + H2O , 60 CH2=CHOH CH3-CHO
ethyne vinyl alcohol ethanol
(unstable)
(2) Substitution reaction
i. sodium
∆
CH ≡ CH + Na CH ≡ C-Na + H2
ethyne monosodium acetylide
∆
CH ≡ C-Na + Na Na-C ≡ C-Na + H2
monosodium disodium acetylide
acetylide

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ii. With ammoniacal copper (I) chloride solution

2CH ≡ CH + Cu2Cl2 + 2NH3 2CH≡C-Cu ↓ + 2NH4Cl
acetylene monocopper (I)
acetylide
(red p.p.t)

2CH ≡ C-Cu + Cu2Cl2 + 2NH3 2Cu-C ≡ C-Cu ↓ + 2NH4Cl

monocopper dicopper acetylide
acetylide (red p.p.t)

2CH3-C≡CH + Cu2Cl2 + 2NH3 2CH3-C≡C-Cu ↓ + 2NH4Cl

methyl acetylene copper (I) methyl
(propyne) acetylide
(red p.p.t)

2CH3-CH2-C≡CH + Cu2Cl2 + 2NH3 2CH3-CH2-C≡C-Cu ↓ + 2NH4Cl

ethyl acetylene copper (I) ethyl acetylide
(1-butyne) (red p.p.t)

CH3-C ≡ C-CH3 + Cu2Cl2 + NH3 no reaction

dimethyl acetylene (no p.p.t)
(2-butyne)

iii. With ammoniacal silver oxide solution

2CH ≡ CH + Ag2O + NH3 2CH ≡ C-Ag↓ + NH4OH

acetylene monosilver acetylide
(ethyne) (white p.p.t)

2CH≡C-Ag + Ag2O + NH3 2Ag-C≡C-Ag ↓ + NH4OH

monosilver disilver acetylide
acetylide (white p.p.t)

2CH3-C ≡ CH + Ag2O + NH3 2CH3-C≡C-Ag ↓ + NH4OH

methyl acetylene silver methyl acetylide
(propyne) (white p.p.t)

2CH3-CH2-C≡CH + Ag2O + NH3 2CH3-CH2-C≡C-Ag ↓ + NH4OH

ethyl acetylene silver ethyl acetylide
(1-butyne) (white p.p.t)

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

CH3-C C-CH3 + Ag2O + NH3 no reaction

dimethyl acetylene (no p.p.t)
(2-butyne)

Special Notes for Naming Radicals

CH3-CH3 CH3-CH2Cl CH3-CHCl2

ethane ethyl chloride ethylidene chloride
CH2Cl-CH2Cl
ethene dichloride
CH3-CH2-CH3 CH3-CH2-CH2Cl CH3-CH2-CHCl2
propane n-propyl chloride n-propylidene chloride
CH3-CHCl-CH3 CH3-CCl2-CH3
iso-propyl chloride iso-propylidene chloride
CH3-CHCl-CH2Cl
propylene dichloride
CH2=CH2 CH2=CHCl
ethene ethenyl chloride
(vinyl chloride)
CH3-CH=CH2 CH3-CH=CHCl
propene n-propenyl chloride
(2-methyl vinyl chloride)
CH3-CHCl=CH2
iso-propenyl chloride
(1-methyl vinyl chloride)

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Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

Alcohols
Preparations of Alcohols
(1) Hydrolysis of alkyl halide
R-CH2X + NaOH reflux R-CH2OH + NaX
alkyl halide alkyl alcohol

(2) Hydrolysis of alkyl hydrogen sulphate

R-CH2-SO4H + H2O reflux R-CH2OH + H2SO4
alkyl alkyl alcohol
hydrogensulphate
(3) Manufacture of ethanol from petroleum refinery products
hydrocarbon ,
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ alkanes + ethene
(very high (C5H12 to C9H20) (by product)
molecular weight)
CH2=CH2 + H2SO4 CH3-CH2SO4H
Ethene ethyl hydrogensulphate
CH2=CH2 + CH3-CH2SO4H (CH3-CH2)2 SO4
ethene diethyl sulphate
CH3-CH2SO4H + H2O CH3-CH2OH + H2SO4
ethyl ethanol
hydrogensulphate
(CH3-CH2)2 SO4 + 2H2O 2CH3-CH2OH + H2SO4
diethyl sulphate ethanol

(4) Manufacture of ethanol by fermentation (fermentation method)

(C6H10O5)n + H2O ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ C12H22O11
starch maltose

+ H2O Yeast (maltase)

2CH3-CH2OH + 2CO2 yeast (zymase) C6H12O6

ethanol glucose
Chemical properties of Alcohols
(1) Reaction with metallic sodium
R-CH2OH + Na R-CH2ONa + H2
alcohol sodium alkoxide

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(2) Reaction with phosphorous (V) oxide, PCl5

R-CH2OH + PCl5 R-CH2Cl ↑ + POCl3 + HCl ↑
alcohol alkyl chloride
(3) Reaction with sulphuric acid
R-CH2-CH2OH + H2SO4 ⎯⎯⎯
R-CH2-CH2SO4H + H2O
alcohol alkyl hydrogen
sulphate

R-CH2-CH2SO4H ⎯⎯⎯
R-CH=CH2 + H2SO4
alkene

CH3-CH2OH + H2SO4 100 CH3-CH2SO4H + H2 O

ethanol ethyl hydrogen
sulphate
CH3-CH2OH + CH3-CH2SO4H 140 CH3-CH2-O-CH2-CH3 + H2SO4
ethanol diethyl ether

(4) Formation of ester (esterification)

i. Inorganic ester
CH3-CH2OH + H2SO4 CH3-CH2SO4H + H2 O
ethanol ethyl hydrogen
sulphate
(inorganic ester)
ii. Organic ester
( )
CH3-COOH + CH3-CH2OH CH3-COO-CH2-CH3 + H2O
ethanoic acid ethanol ethyl ethanoate
(ethyl acetate)
(organic ester)
(5) Oxidation of alcohols
i. Dehydrogenation with copper at 3000C
CH3-CH2OH , 300 CH3-CHO + H2
ethanol ethanal
(vapour)
ii. Oxidation with acidified K2Cr2O7
CH3-CH2OH + [O] CH3-CHO + H2O
ethanol ( ) ethanal
CH3CHO + [O] CH3COOH
ethanal ( ) ethanoic acid

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 Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre

Alkanes
I. Complete the following reactions and name the organic
compounds.
1. R-COONa + NaOH → 11. CH3Br + H2 →
2. CH3-COONa + NaOH → 12. CH3-CH2I + H2 →
3. CH3-CH2-COONa + NaOH → 13. CH3-CH2-CH2I + H2 →
4. C3H7-COONa + NaOH → 14. CH3-CHBr-CH3 + H2 →
5. RX + HX → 15. R-CH=CH2 + H2 →
6. CH3Cl + HCl → 16. CH2=CH2 + H2 →
7. CH3-CH2Cl + HCl → 17. CH3-CH=CH2 + H2 →
8. CH3-CH2-CH2Cl + HCl → 18. CH4 + O2 →
9. CH3-CHCl-CH3 + HCl → 19. CH3-CH3 + O2 →
10. RX + H2 → 20. CH4 + Cl2 →
II. What product would you expect when (OR) what happens when
1. sodium ethanoate is heated with soda lime?
2. sodium propanoate is heated with soda lime?
3. sodium butanoate is heated with soda lime?
4. methyl iodide is reduced with hydrogen iodide?
5. ethyl chloride reacts with hydrogen chloride?
6. n-propyl iodide is reduced with hydrogen iodide?
7. iso- propyl bromide reacts with hydrogen iodide?
8. methyl iodide is reduced with hydrogen?
9. ethyl chloride is reduced with hydrogen?
10. n-propyl iodide is reduced with hydrogen?
11. iso-propyl iodide is reduced with hydrogen?
12. ethene reacts with hydrogen in the presence of Ni at 3000C?
13. propene reacts with hydrogen using platinum or palladium catalyst?
14. methane is burnt in air?
15. methane is mixed with chlorine in diffused sunlight?
III. Write equation to illustrate each of the following reactions.
1. soda lime reaction
2. reduction of alkene
3. combustion of methane

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4. chlorination of methane
5. substitution reaction of methane
6. chlorination of methyl chloride
7. chlorination of methylene chloride
8. chlorination of chloroform
IV. How would you prepare
1. methane from sodium ethanoate?
2. ethane from sodium propanoate?
3. propane from sodium butanoate?
4. methane from methyl chloride?
5. ethane from ethyl bromide?
6. propane from n-propyl chloride?
7. propane from iso-propyl iodide?
8. ethane from ethene?
9. propane from propene?
10. carbon tetrachloride from methane?
V. Answer the followings.
1. A gas A is obtained by heating a mixture of sodium ethanoate and soda
lime. What is gas A? Write down the equation.
Gas A can also be obtained by hydrogenation of an alkyl halide using
a palladium catalyst. Name the alkyl halide. Write down the equation.
Is gas is saturated or unsaturated hydrocarbon?
2. A gas B is obtained by heating a mixture of sodium propanoate and
soda lime. What is gasB? Write down the equation.
3. A gas Y can be obtained by hydrogenation of methyl chloride. What is
gas Y? Write down the equation.
4. A gas X can be obtained by hydrogenation of ethyl bromide. What is
gas X? Write down the equation.
5. A gas A can be obtained by hydrogenation of n-propyl iodide. What is
gas A? Write down the equation.
6. A gas A can be obtained by hydrogenation of iso-propyl chloride. What
is gas A? Write down the equation.
7. A gas C can be formed by hydrogenation of ethene using a nickel
catalyst at 3000C. Name the gas C. Write down the equation.
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8. A gas Y can be formed by hydrogenation of propene using platinum or
palladium catalyst. Name the gas Y. Write down the equation.
9. A gas A can be obtained by hydrogenation of 1-butene using a nickel
catalyst at 3000C. Name the gas A. Write down the equation.
10. A gas B can be obtained by hydrogenation of 2-butene using a nickel
catalyst at 3000C. Name the gas B. Write down the equation.
11. A gas X is obtained by heating a mixture of Y and sodalime. Y may be
obtained for the first reaction, NaOH and acetic acid. Write down a
balanced equation in symbols for the first reaction ONLY, and name
the compound X and Y.
……………………………………………………………………………..
Alkenes

I. Complete the following reactions and name the organic compounds.

( ),
1. R-CH2-CH2OH ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
( ),
2. CH3-CH2OH ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
( ),
3. CH3-CH2-CH2OH ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
( ),
4. CH3-CHOH-CH3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
5. CH3-CH2OH + H2SO4 (conc) ⎯⎯
6. CH3-CH2-CH2OH + H2SO4 (conc) ⎯⎯
7. CH3-CH2-CH2SO4H ⎯⎯
8. CH3-CH2-CH2-SO4H ⎯⎯
,
9. CH3-CH2OH ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
,
10. CH2-CH2-CH2OH ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
,
11. CH3-CHOH-CH3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
12. R-CH2X + KOH →
13. CH3-CH2Cl + KOH →
14. CH3-CH2-CH2Cl + KOH →
15. CH3-CHCl-CH3 + KOH →
16. CH2=CH2 + O2 →
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17. CH3-CH=CH2 + O2 →
18. CH2=CH2 + H2 →
19. CH3-CH=CH2 + H2 →
20. CH2=CH2 + Cl2 →
21. CH2=CH2 + Br2 →
22. CH2=CH2 + HX →
23. CH2=CH2 + HCl →
24. CH3-CH=CH2 + HX →
25. R-CH=CH2 + HCl →
26. R-CH=CH2 + HBr →
27. CH3-CH=CH2 + HBr →
28. CH3-CH=CH2 + HCl →
29. CH2=CH2 + O3 →
30. CH3-CH=CH2 + O3 →
31. CH2=CH2 + H2O + [O] ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
( )

32. CH3-CH=CH2 + H2O + [O] ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯

( )
33. CH2=CH2 →
34. CH3-CH=CH2 →
II. What product would you expect when (OR) what happens when
1. ethyl alcohol (ethanol) is heated with concentrated sulphuric acid at
1600C?
2. propan-1-ol (n-propyl alcohol) is heated with H2SO4 (conc) at 1600C?
3. propan-2-ol (iso-propyl alcohol) is heated with H2SO4 (conc) at 1600C?
4. ethanol is passed over alumina heated at 3500C?
5. propan-1-ol is passed over alumina heated at 3500C?
6. propan-2-ol is passed over alumina heated at 3500C?
7. The vapour of propanol is passed over alumina heat at 3500C.
8. ethyl chloride is heated with an alcoholic potassium hydroxide solution
on a water bath?
9. n-propyl chloride is heated with an alcoholic potassium hydroxide
solution on a water bath?
10. iso-propyl chloride is heated with an alcoholic potassium hydroxide
solution on a water bath?

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11. An alkyl halide is heated with alcoholic potassium hydroxide solution
on a water bath?
12. Ethene is passed into aqueous bromine in CCl4?
13. propene is passed into liquid bromine in CCl4?
14. Ethene is passed into cold dilute 1% potassium permanganate solution?
15. Propene is passed into cold dilute potassium permanganate solution?
16. Ozonide oxygen is passed into a solution of ethene in chloroform and
the product formed is decomposed by water?
17. Ozonide oxygen is passed into a solution of propene in chloroform and
the product formed is decomposed by water?
18. Propene reacts with hydrogen bromide?
19. Propene reacts with hydrochloric acid?
20. Iso-butene would react with HBr?
21. Ethene polymerizes to a polymer?
III. Write equations to illustrate each of the following reactions.
1. Dehydration
2. Dehydration of ethanol
3. Dehydration of n-propyl alcohol
4. Dehydration of iso-propyl alcohol
5. Dehydrohalogenation
6. Dehydrohalogenation of alkyl halide
7. Dehydrohalogenation of ethyl chloride
8. Dehydrohalogenation of n-propyl chloride
9. Dehydrohalogenation of iso-propyl chloride
10. Hydrogenation
11. Hydrogenation of alkene
12. Hydrogenation of ethene
13. Hydrogenation of propene
14. Hydrogenation of 1-butene
15. Hydrogenation of 2-butene
16. Halogenation of ethene
17. Chlorination of ethene
18. Bromination of thene
19. Hydrohalogenation

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20. Hydrohalogenation of alkene
21. Hydrohalogenation of ethene
22. Hydrohalogenation of propylene
23. An addition reaction of alkene to illustrate Markownikoff’s rule
24. An addition of hydrogen chloride to propylene
25. An addition of hydrogen bromide to propene
26. Ozonolysis
27. Ozonolysis of ethene
28. Ozonolysis of propene
29. Formation of ozonide
30. Hydroxylation
31. Hydroxylation of ethene
32. Hydroxylation of propene
33. Addition reation of ethene
34. Polymerization of ethene
35. Polymerization of propene
IV. How would you prepare (obtain)
1. Alkene from alcohol?
2. Ethene (ethylene) from ethanol (ethyl alcohol)?
3. Propene (propylene) from n-propyl alcohol (propan-1-ol)?
4. Propene (propylene) from iso-propyl alcohol (propan-2-0l)?
5. Alkene from alkyl halide?
6. Ethene from ethyl chloride?
7. Propene from n-propyl chloride?
8. Propene from iso-propyl chloride?
9. Ethene from ethyl bromide?
10. Propene from n-propyl bromide?
11. Propene from iso-propyl bromide?
12. Propane from propylene (propene)?
13. Methanal from ethene (ethylene)?
14. Ethene ozonide from ethene?
15. Ethanal from propene?
16. ethene glycol from ethene?
17. Propene glycol from propene?

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V. Answer the followings.
1. A gas G is obtained by passing the vapour of ethanol over alumina at
3500C. What is gas G? Write down the chemical equation.
Gas G can also be produced by heating an alkyl halide with alcoholic
potassium hydroxide. Name the alkyl halide. Write down the equation.
Is the gas G saturated or unsaturated hydrocarbon? Give a chemical
equation to support your answer.
2. A compound X is obtained by heating ethanol with concentrated
sulphuric acid at 1600C. What is compound X? Write down the
chemical equation.
3. A compound X is obtained by heating 1-propanol with concentrated
sulphuric acid at 1600C. What is compound X? Write down the
chemical equation.
4. A compound X is obtained by heating 2-propanol with concentrated
sulphuric acid at 1600C. What is compound X? Write down the
chemical equation.
5. A gas B is obtained by heating a mixture of propanol and alumina at
3500C. What is gas B? Write down the chemical equation.
6. A gas X is obtained by heating ethyl chloride with alcoholic potassium
hydroxide on a water bath. What is gas X? Write down the chemical
equation.
7. A gas X is obtained by heating n-propyl bromide with alcoholic
potassium hydroxide on a water bath. What is gas X? Write down the
chemical equation.
……………………………………………………………………………
Alkynes
I. Complete the following compounds and name the organic
compounds.
1. C + CaO →
2. CaC2 + H2O →
3. CH2Br-CH2Br + KOH →
4. CH ≡ CH + O2 →
5. CH ≡ CH + H2 →

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6. CH2=CH2 + H2 →
7. CH3-C≡CH + H2 →
8. CH3-CH=CH2 + H2 →
9. CH≡CH + Cl2 →
10. CH≡CH + Br2 (l) →
11. CH≡CH + Br2 (aq) →
12. CH≡CH + I2 (l) →
13. CH≡CH + HCl →
14. CH2=CHCl + HCl →
15. CH≡CH + H2O →
16. CH≡CH + Na →
17. CH≡CNa + Na →
18. CH3-CH2-C≡CH + Na →
19. CH≡CH + Cu2Cl2 + NH3 →
20. CH3-C≡CH + Cu2Cl2 + NH3 →
21. CH≡CCu + Cu2Cl2 + NH3 →
22. CH3-CH2-C≡CH + Cu2Cl2 + NH3 →
23. CH≡CH + Ag2O + NH3 →
24. CH3-C≡CH + Ag2O + NH3 →
25. CH≡CCu + Ag2O + NH3 →
26. CH3-CH2-C≡CH + Ag2O + NH3 →

II. What product would you expect when (OR) what happens when:
1. calcium oxide is heated with coke in an electric furnace?
2. calcium carbide is treated with water?
3. ethene dibromide is heated with an alcoholic solution of KOH?
4. 1,2-dibromo propane is heated with alcoholic potassium hydroxide?
5. ethen dichloride is heated with an alcoholic solution of KOH?
6. ethylidene chloride is heated with an alcoholic solution of potassium
hydroxide?
7. ethylidene bromide is heated with an alcoholic solution of potassium
hydroxide?
8. ethyne reacts with an excess of hydrogen in the presence of Pt or Pd?
9. propyne reacts with an excess of hydrogen in the presence of Pt or
Pd?
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10. ethyne react with cholrine in the dark by the presence of catalyst?
11. acetylene reacts with liquid bromine in the absence of solvent?
12. acetylene is passed into dilute sulphuric acid containing mercury (II)
sulphate at 600C?
13. ethyne reacts with hydrogen bromide?
14. 1-butyne reacts with an excess of hydrogen bromide?
15. acetylene (ethyne) is passed over heated sodium?
16. methyl acetylene (propyne) is passed over heated sodium?
17. ethyl acetylene (1-butyne) is passed over heated sodium?
18. dimethyl acetylene (2-butyne) is passed over heated sodium?
19. acetylene (ethyne) is passed into an ammonical solution of Cu2Cl2?
20. methyl acetylene is passed into an ammonical solution of copper (I)
chloride?
21. ethyl acetylene is passed into an ammonical solution of Cu2Cl2?
22. dimethyl acetylene is passed into an ammonical solution of Cu2Cl2?
23. acetylene is passed into an ammonical solution of silver oxide?
24. methyl acetylene is passed into an ammonical solution of Ag2O?
25. ethyl acetylene is passed into an ammonical solution of Ag2O?
26. dimethyl acetylene is passed into an ammonical solution of silver
oxide?

III. Write to illustrate each of the following reactions.

1. dehydrohalogenation of ethene dibromide
2. dehydrohalogenation of ethene dichloride
3. dehydrohalogenation of ethylidene bromide
4. dehydrohalogenation of ethylidene chloride
5. hydrogenation of ethyne
6. hydrogenation of propyne
7. chlorination of ethyne
8. bromination of ethyne
9. hydrohalogenation of ethyne
10. hydration of ethyne
11. hydration of propyne (methyl acetylene)
12. substitution reaction of alkyne
13. substitution reaction of acetylene
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14. substitution reaction of methyl acetylene
15. substitution reaction of ethyl acetylene
IV. How would you prepare (obtain)
1. ethyne (acetylene) from coke (carbon)?
2. ethyne (acetylene) from calcium carbide?
3. ethyne from ethene dibromide?
4. ethyne from ethene dichloride?
5. ethyne from ethylidene bromide?
6. ethyne from ethylidene chloride?
7. ethane from ethyne?
8. propane from propyne?
9. ethylidene bromide from ethyne?
10. ethyne dibromide from ethyne?
11. ethyne tetrabromide from ethyne?
12. ethanal from ethyne?
13. sodium methyl acetylide from propyne?
14. sodium ethyl acetylide from 1-bytyne?
15. dicopper acetylide from acetylene?
16. monocopper methyl acetylide from propyne?
17. monocopper ethyl acetylide from 1-butyne?
18. monosilver acetylide from ethyne?
19. disilver acetylide from ethyne?
20. monosilver methyl acetylide from methyl acetylene?
21. monosilver ethyl acetylide from ethyl acetylene?
V. Answer the following questions.
1. A gas X is obtained by treating calcium carbide with water. What is
gas X? Write down the equation.
Gas X can also be obtained by heating alkene dibromide and alcoholic
potassium hydroxide. Name the alkene dibromide. Write down the
equation.
Is the gas X saturated or unsaturated hydrocarbon? What type of
reaction can undergo (addition or substitution)?
2. A gas B is obtained by treating calcium carbide with water. What is
gas B? Write down the chemical equation.
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3. A gas Y is obtained by heating ethene dichloride with alcoholic
potassium hydroxide. What is gas Y? Write down the equation in
words and symbols.
4. A gas A is obtained by heating propene dibromide with alcoholic
potassium hydroxide. What is gas A? Write down the equation in
words and symbols.
5. A gas A is obtained by heating ethylidene bromide with alcoholic
potassium hydroxide. What is gas A? Write down the equation in
words and symbols.
6. A gas Y is obtained by heating n-propylidene bromide with alcoholic
potassium hydroxide. What is gas Y? Write down the equation in
words and symbols.
Alcohols
I. Complete the following compounds and name the organic
compounds.
1. CH3-CH2Cl + KOH ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
2. CH3-CH2- CH2Cl + KOH ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
3. CH3-CH2-CH2SO4H + H2O ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
4. CH3-CHSO4H-CH3 + H2O ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
5. CH2=CH2 + H2SO4 →
6. CH2=CH2 + CH3-CH2SO4H →
7. CH3-CH2SO4H + H2O →
8. (CH3-CH2)2SO4 + H2O →
9. C6H10O5 + H2O →
10. C12H22O11 + H2O →
11. C6H12O6 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
12. CH3-CH2OH + Na →
13. CH3-CH2-CH2OH + Na →
14. CH3-CH2OH + PCl5 →
15. CH3-CH2-CH2OH + PCl5 →
,
16. CH3-CH2OH ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
17. CH3-CH2OH + H2SO4 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
18. CH3-CH2SO4H + CH3-CH2OH ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯

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19. CH3-CH2OH + HCl →
( )
20. CH3-CH2OH + CH3COOH ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
21. CH3-CH2OH ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
22. CH3-CH2-CH2OH ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
23. CH3-CH2OH + [O] ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
( )

24. CH3-CHO + [O] ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯

( )

II. What product would you expect when or what happen when
1. ethyl chloride is passed into reflux with an aqueous solution of KOH?
2. ethyl hydrogen sulphate is passed into reflux with water?
3. hydrocarbons with high molecular weight are cracked?
4. ethene reacts with concentrated sulphuric acid at 1600C?
5. ethene reacts with ethyl hydrogen sulphate?
6. ethyl hydrogen sulphate undergoes hydrolysis?
7. diethyl hydrogen sulphate undergoes hydrolysis?
8. the cooked starch is treated with malt for an hour at 600C?
9. starch is broken down with diastase?
10. maltose is hydrolyzed using yeast (maltase)?
11. glucose is broken down using yeast (zymase)?
12. a piece of sodium is added to ethanol?
13. ehanol reacts with PCl5 at room temperature?
14. ethanol reacts with hydrogen chloride in the presence of anhydrous
zinc chloride?
15. ethanol is heated with hydrogen chloride?
16. ethanol is heated with ethanoic acid in the presence of concentrated
sulphuric acid?
17. ethnol vapour is passed over freshly reduced copper at 3000C?
18. 1-propanol vapour is passed over freshly reduced copper at 3000C?
19. ethanol is oxidized with a mixture of potassium dichromate and dilute
sulphuric acid?
20. ethanal is oxidized with a mixture of potassium dichromate and dilute
sulphuric acid?

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III. Write equations to illustrate each of the following reactions.
1. Hydrolysis of ethyl bromide
2. Hydrolysis of ethyl hydrogen sulphate
3. Manufacture of ethanol from petroleum refinery products
4. Fermentation of maltose
5. Fermentation of glucose
6. Inorganic esterification (formation of inorganic ester)
7. Organic esterification (formation of organic ester)
8. Dehydrogenation of ethanol with copper
9. Oxidation of ethanol with acidified K2Cr2O7
IV. How would you prepare
1. ethanol from ethyl iodide?
2. propanol from iso-propyl hydrogen sulphate?
3. ethyl hydrogen sulphate from ethene?
4. diethyl sulphate from ethene?
5. ethanol from ethyl hydrogen sulphate?
6. ethanol from diethyl sulphate?
7. maltose from starch?
8. glucose from maltose?
9. ethanol from glucose?
10. sodium ethoxide from ethanol?
11. sodium propanoxide from 1-propanol?
12. ethyl chloride from ethanol?
13. ethene from ethanol?
14. diethyl ether from ethanol?
15. ethyl iodide from ethanol?
16. ethyl ethanoate from ethanol?
17. ethanal from ethanol?
18. propanal from 1-propanol?
19. ethanoic acid from ethanol?
V. Answer the following questions.
1. When ethyl iodide is refluxed with aqueous sodium hydroxide
solution, compound X is formed. What is compound X? Write down
the equation.

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2. When ethyl hydrogen sulphate is hydrolyzed, compound Y is formed.
What is compound Y? Write down the equation.
3. Compound A is obtained as a by product in cracking hydrocarbon with
very high molecular weight. What is compound A? Write down the
equation.
4. Compound B is formed when ethene reacts with ethyl hydrogen
sulphate. What is compound B? Write down the equation.
5. Compound X can be formed by the fermentation of starch with
enzyme, diastase. What is compound X? Write down the equation.
6. Compound A can be formed by the fermentation of maltose with
enzyme, maltase. What is compound A? Write down the equation.
7. A compound V is formed by adding sodium to ethanol at room
temperature. What is compound V? Write down the equation.
8. When compound B is treated with phosphorous (V) oxide, ethyl
chloride is obtained. What is compound B? Write down the equation.
9. Compound Y undergoes esterification with ethanoic acid and the final
product is ethyl acetate. What is compound Y? Write down the
equation.
10. Compound A is formed by the reaction of ethanol with hydrochloric
acid in the presence of zinc chloride. What is compound A? Write
down the equation.
11. When compound X is dehydrogenated using copper catalyst at 3000C,
ethanal is formed. What is compound X? Write down the equation.
12. The vapour of B gives ethanal when passed over freshly heated reduced
copper heated at 3000C.

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PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
AND
PETROCHEMICALS
(Crude Oil and other Fossil Fuels)
1. What is a fuel?
Fuel is a substance which stores the large amount of potential
energy.
2. What are the three major fossil fuels?
The three major fossil fuels are;
(i) crude oil (petroleum),
(ii) natural gas and
(iii) coal.
3. How are fossil fuels formed? Are these fuels renewable or non-
renewable resources?
Fossil fuels were formed in the earth’s crust from dead plants
and marine microorganisms under high temperature and pressure by
bacterial acting over millions of years. These fuels are non-renewable
and finite resources.
4. What are the sources of crude oil and natural gas, and coal?
The source of crude oil and natural gas is the dead bodies of
marine microorganisms. The source of coal is fossil plant materials.
5. What is crude oil?
Crude oil is one of the earth’s major natural resources. Crude
oil is a mixture of many different hydrocarbon molecules. In a refinery,
it is used to make fuels.
6. Explain the uses of crude oil?
Most of the crude oil is used to make fuel. Around 10% of
crude oil is used as feedstock or raw material in the chemical industry.
7. How do you separate the crude oil?
At a refinery, crude oil is separated into different fractions
consisting of groups of hydrocarbons that have different boiling points.

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8. What is the process used for the separation of crude oil? Which
type of apparatus is used in this separation?
The process used for the separation of crude oil is fractional
distillation process. The apparatus used is a fractional distillation
column or fractionating tower.
9. What are the various crude oil fractions?
Describe the various crude oil fractions by fractional distillation of
crude oil?
The various crude oil fractions are refinery gas, petrol
(gasoline), naphtha, paraffin (kerosene), diesel oil (gas oil), lubricating
oil, bitumen residue.
10. Describe the different fractions consisting of groups of
hydrocarbons. (OR)
What are the principal fractions obtained by the fractional
distillation of crude oil (petroleum)?

refinery gas (C1-C4) below 250C

viscosity increasing
petrol (gasoline) (C4-C12) 40-100

Boiling point and

Naphtha (C7-C14) 90-150
Paraffin (kerosene) (C9-C16) 150-240
diesel oil (gas oil) (C15-C25) 220-250
lubricating oil (C20-C70) 255-350
Bitumen (above C70) above 350

11. Mention the uses of petroleum gas, petrol, naphtha, paraffin, diesel
oil, lubricating oil and bitumen residue.
Fracitons Uses
Petroleum gas used as fuel
Petrol used as fuel in petrol engines
Naphtha used to make chemicals
Paraffin used as fuel in jet engines and for lighting and
heating
Diesel oil used as fuel in diesel engines
Lubrication oil used as engine oils
Bitumen residue used to make bitumen for surfacing roads

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12. Give the different terms used in the USA of the following names:
“crude oil”(UK), “petrol”(UK), “paraffin”(UK)
The different terms are used in UK and USA.
- “crude oil”(UK) is the same as “petroleum” in the USA.
- “petrol” (UK) is the same as “gasoline” in the USA.
- “paraffin” (UK) is the same as “kerosene” in the USA.

13. Arrange ‘kerosene, petrol, diesel oil’ in the increasing order of

their boiling points. Give ONE example of use for EACH of them.
petrol, kerosene, diesel oil
boiling point increases
Petrol (gasoline) is used as fuel in cars (petrol engines).
Kerosene (paraffin) is used as fuel in jet engines.
Diesel oil (gas oil) is used as fuel in diesel engines.
14. Arrange ‘lubricating oil, bitumen residue, naphtha’ in increasing
order of their boiling points and viscosity. Give ONE example of
use for EACH of them.
naphtha, lubricating oil, bitumen residue
boiling point and viscosity increase
Naphtha is used to make chemicals.
Lubricating oil is used as engine oils.
Bitumen residue is used to make bitumen for surfacing roads.
15. Describe how petrol is obtained from crude oil.
Petrol is obtained by the fractional distillation of crude oil
using fractionating distillation column or fractionating tower. Crude oil
is preheated to 350-4000C and pumped into the base of tower. As it
boils, the vapour passes up the tower. Crude oil is separated into
different fractions that have different boiling points. The different
fractions cool and condense at different temperatures. Petrol is
obtained from the top of the tower at the boiling range 40-1000C.
16. How do you understand by the term ‘diesel’?
Diesel is a heavy liquid fuel containing hydrocarbon molecule
(consisting of between 14 to 20 carbon atoms) which can power the
diesel engine.

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 Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre
17. What is ‘catalytic cracking (cat cracking)?
The process in which large molecules from heavier fractions
can be broken down into smaller, more valuable molecules using
catalyst made of powdered minerals such as silica, alumina and zeolites
at a temperature around 5000C in huge reactor is called ‘catalytic
cracking (cat cracking).
18. Describe two types of products from all cracking reactions and
mention their uses.
All cracking reactions give two types of products:
(i) an alkane with a shorter chain than the original and
(ii) a shorter chain alkene molecule.
The shortened alkanes can be blended with gasoline fraction
to enrich the petrol. The alkenes are useful as raw materials for making
several important products.
19. Write equation to indicate how ethane can be made from petrol.
ℎ
C8C18 4C2H4 + H2
petrol ethene
20. What happen when decane is cracked? Write equation in words
and symbols.
ℎ
C10C22 C8H18 + C2H4
decane octane ethene
21. Write down the names of products which are made from ethene
produced by catalytic cracking?
The names of products which are made from ethene produced
by catalytic cracking are
(i) ethanol
(ii) polyethene (PE) or polyethylene
(iii) poly vinyl chloride (PVC) or chloroethene
(iv) polystyrene (PS) or phenylethene
22. What compound is added to gasoline to prevent engine knocking?
Tetraethyl lead is added to gasoline to prevent engine knocking.

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 Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre
23. What is meant by ‘flash point’?
Flash point is the temperature at which the vapour will ignite
in air in the presence of a flame. This temperature is usually low for a
fuel. It is 110C for methanol.
24. What is meant by ignition temperature?
Ignition temperature is the temperature at which fuel/air
mixture ignites without a flame. It is 5500C for petrol. The flash point
is very much lower than the ignition temperature.
25. What are car exhaust fumes composed of?
Car exhaust fumes are composed of carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide, unburnt hydrocarbons (HC), oxides of nitrogen and very
little sulphur dioxide. These fumes are reduced by fitting a catalytic
converter to the car exhaust.
26. What is meant by the terms ‘zeolite’ and ‘ZSM-5’?
Zeolite is one of a large group of alumino-silicates of sodium,
potassium, calcium and barium.
ZSM-5 is an artificial zeolite composed of aluminum, silicon
and oxygen.
27. How would you prepare the hydrocarbon (gasoline) from
methanol?
Methanol is first converted to methanol. The methanol
produced is then turned into hydrocarbons (gasoline) using zeolite
ZSM-5 catalyst.
( )
nCH3OH ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ (CH2)n + nH2O
methanol Gasoline water
28. What is meant by the term ‘biodiesel’? Mention its uses.
Biodiesel is derived from plant seed oil and animal oil. It can
be used as a substitute for diesel fuel. These oils have to be converted
to biodiesel by the chemical process known as “Transesterification”.
In Myanmar, it is used in power tractor engines, petrol-diesel
engines and electricity generating engines.
29. What are the alternative transport fuels?
Alternative transport fuels are biodiesel, diesel, LPG, CNG and
gasoline from methanol.

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 Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre
30. Give the name of process which is used for conversion of biodiesel
from seed oil.
The process which is used conversion of biodiesel from seed
oil is “Transesterification”.
31. Explain the terms: transesterification and fractional distillation
Transesterification
In organic chemistry, tranesterification is the process of
exchanging the alkoxy group of an ester compound by another alcohol.
Fractional distillation
Fractional distillation is the separation of a liquid mixture into
fractions differing in boiling point by means of distillation using a
fractionating column.
32. What is petroleum gas?
Petroleum gas is a mixture of LPG (liquid petroleum gas) and
CNG (compressed natural gas).
33. What do the terms ‘LPG’ and ‘CNG’ stand for? Write their
compositions.
The term ‘LPG’ stands for liquid petroleum gas. It is composed
of propane and butane. The term ‘CNG’ stands for compressed natural
gas. It is composed of 90% methane gas.
34. What are the uses of LPG and CNG in Myanmar?
LPG is used in households, restaurants, hotels and motels for
cooking, frying and other heating systems. CNG is used in taxis, buses
and vehicles.
35. What is meant by the term ‘biomass’?
Biomass is the organic waste. When it decays in the absence
of air, methane is produced.
36. What is meant by the term ‘biogas’? How would you produce it?
Biogas is a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide. It is
produced naturally from the decay of cow dung and organic waste in
the absence of air by the help of anaerobic bacteria.
37. Mention the uses of biogas in Myanmar?
In Myanmar, biogas is used as a fuel for local industry and
used to power the electricity generating engines.

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 Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre
38. There are FOUR stages in the conversion of fats or oil to biodiesel.
Explain each stage.
First Stage - preparation of nearly 100% pure methanol or
ethanol.
Second Stage - the addition of potassium hydroxide or sodium
hydroxide basic catalyst to the prepared pure
methanol or ethanol.
Third Stage - the treatment of the seed oil with the prepared
basic catalyst solution and the solution is heated
to 600C which is Transesterification Process
producing methyl or ethyl ester as the product
(biodiesel) of the reaction.
Fourth Stage - the removal of glycerine and sodium or
potassium salt of fatty acid (soap) from the
reaction mixture by washing with water and pure
biodiesel is separated out by using the biodiesel
processor.
39. How do you understand the term ‘coal’?
Coal is our most abundant fossil fuel. Coal is not a single
substance. It is a complex mixture of compounds that occur naturally
in varying grades. It has the approximate composition formula
C135H96O9NS.
40. What are the different kinds of coals?
Four different kinds of coals are;
(i) peat,
(ii) lignite (brown coal),
(iii) bituminous coal (soft coal) and
(iv) anthracite (hard coal).
41. Give the types of four steps in the coal-forming process.
ℎ ℎ ℎ
peat lignite bituminous Anthracite
coal
(not a (brown (soft coal) (hard coal)
coal) coal)

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 Saya Minn Thant (Bachelor of Education) GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY The Power of Wisdom Education Centre
42. Name the chemicals which can obtained from coal and mention
their uses.
The chemicals which can obtained from coal and their uses
are as follows:
(i) ammonia – for fertilizer
(ii) coal gas – for industrial heating
(iii) coal tar – for paints, dyes, creosote and pitch
(iv) coke – for iron and steel making, for home and
industrial heating
43. (i) Give a balanced symbolic equation for the complete
combustion of petrol (octane, C8H18).
(ii) What is the mass of one mole of octane C8H18?
(iii) The combustion of one mole of octane is 5500 kJ. The density
of octane is 0.7 gdm-3. Calculate the energy produced by one
litre (1000cm3) of octane.

(i) C8H18 + O2 8CO2 + 9H2O

(ii) the relative molecular mass of C8H18 = 8(12) + 18(1)

= 114
mass of one mole of C8H18 = 114 g

(iii) mass of octane = density x volume

= 0.7 gdm-3- x 1000cm3
= 700 g
mole of octane =
=
= 6.14 mol
1 mol of octane = 5500 kJ of energy
.
6.14 mol of octane = 5500 kJ x
= 33771 kJ

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ORGANIC CHEMISTRY SUMMARY SAYA MINN THANT (B.Ed)

Alkanes
Preparations of Alkanes

(1) Heating sodium salt of carboxylic acid with soda lime

R-COONa + NaOH CaO R-H + Na2CO3
sodium alkanoate alkane

(2) Reduction of alkyl halides

i. With hydrogen halide (Hydrohalogenation)

R-X + HX → R-H + X2
alkyl halide alkane
ii. With hydrogen using platinum(Pt) or palladium(Pd) catalyst
(Hydrogenation)
𝑃𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑑
R-X + H2 → R-H + HX
alkyl halide alkane
iii. Reduction of alkene with hydrogen
(Hydrogenation)
R-CH=CH2 + H2 𝑁𝑖,3000𝐶 R-CH2-CH3
→
alkene alkane

Chemical Properties of Alkanes

(1) Combustion of alkanes

∆
R-H + O2 → CO2 + H2O
alkane

(2) Chlorination of methane (Substitution reaction)

CH4 + Cl2 → CH3Cl → CH2Cl2 → CHCl3 → CCl4
methane methyl methylene chloroform carbon
chloride chloride tetrachloride
diffused sunlight

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ORGANIC CHEMISTRY SUMMARY SAYA MINN THANT (B.Ed)

Alkenes
Preparations of Alkenes

(1) Dehydration of alcohol

i. Heating alcohol with concentrated sulphuric acid at 1600C
(Two stages)
0𝐶
R-CH2-CH2OH + H2SO4 100
→
R-CH2-CH2SO4H + H2O
alcohol alkyl hydrogen
sulphate

R-CH2-CH2SO4H 1600𝐶
→
R-CH=CH2 + H2SO4
alkene
(One stage)
𝑯𝟐 𝑺𝑶𝟒 (𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒄)
R-CH2-CH2OH → R-CH=CH2 + H2O
alcohol 1600 𝐶 alkene
ii. Passing alcohol vapour over alumina catalyst heated at 3500C
𝑨𝒍𝟐 𝑶𝟑
R-CH2-CH2OH →
𝟎
R-CH=CH2 + H2O
alcohol 𝟑𝟓𝟎 𝑪 alkene
(2) Dehydrohalogenation of alkyl halide
ethanol
R-CH2-CH2X + KOH R-CH=CH2 + KX + H2O
alkyl halide alkene

Chemical Properties of Alkenes

(1) Combustion of alkenes
∆
R-CH=CH2 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
alkene
(2) Addition reaction
i. Hydrogenation (Addition of hydrogen)
R-CH=CH2 + H2 →𝑁𝑖,200−3000𝐶 R-CH2-CH3
alkene alkane
ii. Halogenation (Addition of halogen)
R-CH=CH2 + X2 → R-CHX-CH2X
alkene alkene dihalide

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ORGANIC CHEMISTRY SUMMARY SAYA MINN THANT (B.Ed)

iii. Hydrohalogenation (Addition of alkyl halide or halogen acid)

(a) Symmetrical alkenes
CH2=CH2 HX → CH3-CH2X
ethene (symmetrical) ethyl halide
(b) Unsymmetrical alkenes
CH3-CH=CH2 + HX → CH3-CX-CH3 + CH3-CH2-CH2-X
propene iso-propyl halide n-propyl halide
(unsymmetrical) (major product) (minor product)
(3) Ozonolysis (Formation of ozonide)
O
𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
CH2=CH2 + O3 → CH2 CH2
O O
ethene ethene ozonide
O
𝑍𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡
CH2 CH2 + H2O → 2HCHO + H2O2
O O
ethene ozonide methanal
(formaldehyde)
(4) Hydroxylation
R-CH=CH2 + H2O + [O] 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 R-CHOH-CH2OH
alkene 1%𝐾𝑀𝑛𝑂4 alkene glycol
(violet) (colourless)
(5) Polymerization
n(CH2=CH2) > 1000 𝑎𝑡𝑚 ( CH2-CH2 ) n
ethene ∆ polyethene
(monomer) (polymer)

....................................................................................................................
Alkynes
Preparations of Alkynes
(1) Laboratory method to prepare ethyne or acetylene from coke
CaO + 3C 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 CaC2 + CO
coke 𝑓𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑐𝑒 calcium
carbide
CaC2 + 2H2O Ca(OH)2 + CH ≡ CH
ethyne

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ORGANIC CHEMISTRY SUMMARY SAYA MINN THANT (B.Ed)

(2) Dehydrohalogenation of alken dihalide or alkylidene halide

𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙
R-CHX-CH2X + 2KOH ∆
R-C≡CH + 2KX + 2H2O
alkene dihalide alkyne
𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙
R-CH2-CHX2 + 2KOH ∆
R-C≡CH + 2KX + 2H2O
alkylidene halide alkyne

Chemical Properties of Alkynes

(1) Addition reaction
i. Hydrogenation or reduction
CH ≡ CH + H2 CH2=CH2 + H2 CH3-CH3
ethyne Pt or Pd ethene Pt or Pd ethane
ii. Halogenation
CH ≡ CH + Cl2 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 CHCl=CHCl
ethyne 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑒 ethyne dichloride

CHCl=CHCl + Cl2 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 CHCl2 - CHCl2

ethyne dichloride 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑒 ethyne tetrachloride
Notes; Br(aq) has only one stage
iii. Hydrohalogenation
CH ≡ CH + HBr CH2=CHBr
ethyne vinyl bromide
(symmetrical)
CH2=CHBr + HBr CH3-CHBr2
vinyl bromide ethylidene bromide
(unsymmetrical)
iv. Hydration
CH≡CH + H2O 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 , 600 𝐶 CH2=CHOH CH3-CHO
𝐻𝑔++
ethyne vinyl alcohol ethanol
(unstable)
(2) Substitution reaction
i. sodium
∆
CH ≡ CH + Na CH ≡ C-Na + 1
2
H2
ethyne monosodium acetylide

∆
CH ≡ C-Na + Na Na-C ≡ C-Na + 1
2
H2
monosodium disodium acetylide
acetylide

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ORGANIC CHEMISTRY SUMMARY SAYA MINN THANT (B.Ed)

ii. With ammoniacal copper (I) chloride solution

2CH ≡ CH + Cu2Cl2 + 2NH3 2CH≡C-Cu ↓ + 2NH4Cl
acetylene monocopper (I)
acetylide
(red p.p.t)

2CH ≡ C-Cu + Cu2Cl2 + 2NH3 2Cu-C ≡ C-Cu ↓ + 2NH4Cl

monocopper dicopper acetylide
acetylide (red p.p.t)

2CH3-C≡CH + Cu2Cl2 + 2NH3 2CH3-C≡C-Cu ↓ + 2NH4Cl

methyl acetylene copper (I) methyl
(propyne) acetylide
(red p.p.t)

2CH3-CH2-C≡CH + Cu2Cl2 + 2NH3 2CH3-CH2-C≡C-Cu ↓ + 2NH4Cl

ethyl acetylene copper (I) ethyl acetylide
(1-butyne) (red p.p.t)

CH3-C ≡ C-CH3 + Cu2Cl2 + NH3 no reaction

dimethyl acetylene (no p.p.t)
(2-butyne)

iii. With ammoniacal silver oxide solution

2CH ≡ CH + Ag2O + NH3 2CH ≡ C-Ag↓ + NH4OH
acetylene monosilver acetylide
(ethyne) (white p.p.t)

2CH≡C-Ag + Ag2O + NH3 2Ag-C≡C-Ag ↓ + NH4OH

monosilver disilver acetylide
acetylide (white p.p.t)

2CH3-C ≡ CH + Ag2O + NH3 2CH3-C≡C-Ag ↓ + NH4OH

methyl acetylene silver methyl acetylide
(propyne) (white p.p.t)

2CH3-CH2-C≡CH + Ag2O + NH3 2CH3-CH2-C≡C-Ag ↓ + NH4OH

ethyl acetylene silver ethyl acetylide
(1-butyne) (white p.p.t)

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ORGANIC CHEMISTRY SUMMARY SAYA MINN THANT (B.Ed)

CH3-C C-CH3 + Ag2O + NH3 no reaction

dimethyl acetylene (no p.p.t)
(2-butyne)

Special Notes for Naming Radicals

CH3-CH3 CH3-CH2Cl CH3-CHCl2

ethane ethyl chloride ethylidene chloride
CH2Cl-CH2Cl
ethene dichloride
.

CH3-CH2-CH3 CH3-CH2-CH2Cl CH3-CH2-CHCl2

propane n-propyl chloride n-propylidene chloride
CH3-CHCl-CH3 CH3-CCl2-CH3
iso-propyl chloride iso-propylidene chloride
CH3-CHCl-CH2Cl
propylene dichloride
CH2=CH2 CH2=CHCl
ethene ethenyl chloride
(vinyl chloride)
.

CH3-CH=CH2 CH3-CH=CHCl
propene n-propenyl chloride
(2-methyl vinyl chloride)
CH3-CHCl=CH2
iso-propenyl chloride
(1-methyl vinyl chloride)

Typing and page layout

Minn Thant
Copyright©Minn Thant.2020

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ORGANIC CHEMISTRY SUMMARY SAYA MINN THANT (B.Ed)

Alcohols
Preparations of Alcohols
(1) Hydrolysis of alkyl halide
R-CH2X + NaOH reflux R-CH2OH + NaX
alkyl halide alkyl alcohol

(2) Hydrolysis of alkyl hydrogen sulphate

R-CH2-SO4H + H2O reflux R-CH2OH + H2SO4
alkyl alkyl alcohol
hydrogensulphate
(3) Manufacture of ethanol from petroleum refinery products
5200 𝐶,12 𝑎𝑡𝑚
hydrocarbon → alkanes + ethene
(very high (C5H12 to C9H20) (by product)
molecular weight)
CH2=CH2 + H2SO4 CH3-CH2SO4H
ethene ethyl hydrogensulphate
CH2=CH2 + CH3-CH2SO4H (CH3-CH2)2 SO4
ethene diethyl sulphate
CH3-CH2SO4H + H2 O CH3-CH2OH + H2SO4
ethyl ethanol
hydrogensulphate
(CH3-CH2)2 SO4 + 2H2O 2CH3-CH2OH + H2SO4
diethyl sulphate ethanol
(4) Manufacture of ethanol by fermentation (fermentation method)
n diastase 𝑛
(C6H10O5)n + 2 H2O → 2
C12H22O11
starch maltose

+ H2O Yeast (maltase)

2CH3-CH2OH + 2CO2 yeast (zymase) C6H12O6

ethanol glucose
Chemical properties of Alcohols
(1) Reaction with metallic sodium
R-CH2OH + Na R-CH2ONa + 1
H2
alcohol sodium alkoxide 2

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ORGANIC CHEMISTRY SUMMARY SAYA MINN THANT (B.Ed)

(2) Reaction with phosphorous (V) oxide, PCl5

R-CH2OH + PCl5 𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑚 R-CH2Cl + POCl3 + HCl
𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
alcohol alkyl chloride
(3) Reaction with sulphuric acid
0𝐶
R-CH2-CH2OH + H2SO4 100
→
R-CH2-CH2SO4H + H2O
alcohol alkyl hydrogen
sulphate

R-CH2-CH2SO4H 1600𝐶
→
R-CH=CH2 + H2SO4
alkene

CH3-CH2OH + H2SO4 1000 𝐶 CH3-CH2SO4H + H2O

ethanol ethyl hydrogen
sulphate
CH3-CH2OH + CH3-CH2SO4H 1400 𝐶 CH3-CH2-O-CH2-CH3 + H2SO4
ethanol diethyl ether
(4) Formation of ester (esterification)
i. Inorganic ester
CH3-CH2OH + H2SO4 CH3-CH2SO4H + H2O
ethanol ethyl hydrogen
sulphate
(inorganic ester)
ii. Organic ester
CH3-COOH + CH3-CH2OH 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐) CH3-COO-CH2-CH3 + H2O
𝐻+
ethanoic acid ethanol ethyl ethanoate
(ethyl acetate)
(organic ester)
(5) Oxidation of alcohols
i. Dehydrogenation with copper at 3000C
CH3-CH2OH 𝐶𝑢, 3000 𝐶 CH3-CHO + H2
ethanol ethanal
(vapour)
ii. Oxidation with acidified K2Cr2O7
CH3-CH2OH + [O] 𝐾2 𝐶𝑟2 𝑂7 CH3-CHO + H2O
ethanol 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 (𝑑𝑖𝑙) ethanal
CH3CHO + [O] 𝐾2 𝐶𝑟2 𝑂7 CH3COOH
ethanal 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 (𝑑𝑖𝑙) ethanoic acid

Page-8
SAYA MINN THANT (B.Ed.) PRACTICE QUESTIONS ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1
SAYA MINN THANT (B.Ed.) PRACTICE QUESTIONS ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

ALKANES ALKENES
General CnH2n+2 CnH2n
formula
Functional C-C (singe bond) C=C (double bond)
group
HC Saturated hydrocarbon Unsaturated hydrocarbon

Physical C1 to C4 (colourless gases) C2 to C4 (gases)

properties C5 to C17 (colourless liquids) C5 to C15 (liquids)
C18 and above (solids) C16 and above (solids)

Preparation (1) heating sodium salt of (1) dehydration of alcohol

carboxylic acid with i. heating alcohol with
soda lime concentrated sulphuric
(2) reduction of alkyl halide acid at 1600C
i. with hydrogen ii. passing alcohol vapour
ii. with hydrogen halide over alumina heated at
(3) reduction of alkene 3500C
(2) dehydrohalogenation of
alkyl halide

Chemical Substitution Reaction Addition Reaction

properties - chlorination - Hydrogenation
- Halogenation
- Hydrohalogenation
- Ozonolysis
- Polymerization

Uses Used for fuel Ethene is used for ripening

fruits, manufacture of
chemical solvents and
plastics

2
SAYA MINN THANT (B.Ed.) PRACTICE QUESTIONS ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

ALKYNES ALCOHOLS
CnH2n-2 CnH2n+1OH (or) R-OH

C≡C (triple bond) C-O-H

Unsaturated hydrocarbon Saturated hydrocarbon

C2 – C4 (gases) C1 to C4 (mobile liquids)

C5 – C12 (l) C5 to C11 (oily liquids)
C13 – above (s) C12 and above (solids)

(1) laboratory method to prepare (1) hydrolysis of alkyl halides

ethyne from coke (C) (2) hydrolysis of alkyl hydrogen
(2) dehydrohalogenation of sulphate
alkene dihalide or alkylidene (3) manufacture of ethanol
halide from petroleum refinery
products (or) from ethene
(4) manufacture of ethanol by
fermentation (fermentation
method)

Addition Reaction Substitution Reaction

- Hydrogenation - Reaction with sodium
- Halogenation - Reaction with PCl5
- Hydrohalogenation - Reaction with H2SO4
- Hydration - Esterification (organic, inorganic)
Substitution Reaction - Oxidation (Cu, K2Cr2O7)
- Na, Cu2Cl2, Ag2O

Ethyne is used in the oxy- Methanol and ethanol are miscible

acetylene flame for cutting and with water in any proportion.
welding steels and in the Methanol is toxic.
manufacture of plastics

3
SAYA MINN THANT (B.Ed.) PRACTICE QUESTIONS ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

ALKANES
1. Complete the following reactions and name the organic
compounds.
∆
(a) R-COONa + NaOH
∆
(b) CH3COONa + NaOH
∆
(c) CH3-CH2COONa + NaOH
∆
(d) C3H7-COONa + NaOH
(e) CH3-I + HI
(f) CH3-CH2Cl + HCl
(g) CH3-CH2-CH2Br + HBr
(h) CH3-CHI-CH3 + HI
𝑃𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑑
(i) CH3Cl + H2
𝑃𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑑
(j) CH3-CH2I + H2
𝑃𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑑
(k) CH3-CHCl-CH3 + H2
𝑃𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑑
(l) CH3-CH2-CH2Br + H2
𝑃𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑑
(m) CH3-CHI-CH3 + H2
(n) CH2=CH2 + H2 𝑁𝑖, 3000 𝐶

(o) CH3-CH=CH2 + H2 𝑁𝑖, 3000 𝐶

(p) CH3-CH2-CH=CH2 + H2 𝑁𝑖, 3000 𝐶

(q) CH3-CH=CH-CH3 + H2 𝑁𝑖, 3000 𝐶

(r) CH3-CH3 + O2
(s) C4H10 + O2
diffused
(t) CH4 + Cl2 sunlight

2. What happen when (OR)

What product would you expect when
(a) sodium ethanoate is heated with soda lime?
(b) sodium propanoate is heated with soda lime?
(c) sodium butanoate is heated with soda lime?
(d) methyl chloride is reduced with hydrogen chloride?
(e) methyl iodide is reduced with hydrogen iodide?
(f) ethyl iodide is tested with hydrogen iodide?
4
SAYA MINN THANT (B.Ed.) PRACTICE QUESTIONS ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

(g) ethyl chloride reacts with hydrogen chloride?

(h) n-propyl chloride is treated with hydrogen chloride?
(i) iso-propyl bromide is treated with hydrogen bromide?
(j) methyl iodide is reacted with hydrogen in the presence of Pt?
(k) iso-propyl bromide is reacted with hydrogen using Pt catalyst?
(l) n-propyl chloride is reacted with hydrogen using Pt or Pd catalyst?
(m) methane is burnt in oxygen?
(n) propane is burnt in oxygen?
(o) methane is mixed with chlorine in diffused sunlight?

3. How would you prepare

(a) methane from sodium ethanoate?
(b) ethane from sodium propanoate?
(c) propane from sodium butanoate?
(d) methane from methyl iodide?
(e) ethane from ethyl iodide?
(f) propane from n-propyl chloride?
(g) propane from iso-propyl iodide?
(h) ethane from ethene?
(i) propane from propene?
(j) n-butane from 1-butene?
(k) methyl chloride from methane?
(l) methylene chloride from methyl chloride?
(m) chloroform from methylene chloride?
(n) carbon tetrachloride from chloroform?

4. Illustrate the following reactions: (OR)

Write equations to illustrate the followings:
(a) Soda lime reaction
(b) Reduction of alkyl halide by hydrogen halide (hydrohalogenation)
(c) Reduction of alkyl halide by hydrogen (hydrogenation)
(d) Reduction of alkene by hydrogen
(e) Combustion of alkane

5
SAYA MINN THANT (B.Ed.) PRACTICE QUESTIONS ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

(f) Substitution reaction of alkane

(g) Chlorination of methane
(h) Chlorination of methyl chloride
(i) Chlorination of methylene chloride
(j) Chlorination of chloroform

5. Answer the following questions.

(a) A gas X is obtained by heating a mixture of sodium ethanoate and
soda lime. What is gas X? Write down the equation.
Gas X can also be obtained by hydrogenation of an alkyl halide
using a palladium catalyst. Name the alkyl halide. Write down the
equation. Is gas is saturated or unsaturated hydrocarbon?
(b) A gas X is obtained by heating a mixture of Y and soda lime. Y may
be obtained from the reaction between NaOH and acetic acid. Write
down a balanced equation in symbols for the first reaction only and
name the compound X and Y.
Is gas X saturated or unsaturated hydrocarbon?
Does gas X undergo addition?
Write down the general formula.
(c) A gas B is obtained by heating a mixture of sodium propanoate and
soda lime. What is gas B? Write down the equation.
(d) Gas X can be obtained by hydrogenation of alkyl halide using a
palladium catalyst. Name the alkyl halide. Write down the equation.
(e) A gas Y can be obtained by hydrogenation of methyl chloride. What
is gas Y? Write down the equation.
(f) A gas X can be obtained by hydrogenation of ethyl bromide. What
is gas X? Write down the equation.
(g) A gas A can be obtained by hydrogenation of n-propyl iodide. What
is gas A? Write down the equation.
(h) A gas P is obtained by hydrogenation of iso-propyl iodide. What is
gas P? Write down the equation.
(i) A gas A is obtained by hydrohalogenation of ethyl iodide. What is
gas A? Write down the equation.

6
SAYA MINN THANT (B.Ed.) PRACTICE QUESTIONS ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

(j) A gas B is obtained by hydrohalogenation of n-propyl chloride.

What is gas B? Write down the reaction.
(k) A gas G is obtained by hydrohalogenation of iso-propyl bromide.
What is gas G? Write down the reaction. Gas G can also be obtained
by hydrogenation of an alkene using a nickel catalyst at 3000C.
Name the alkene. Write down the equation.
(l) Gas D can be obtained by hydrogenation of propene using a nickel
catalyst at 3000C. What is gas D? Write down the equation.
(m) Gas A can be obtained by hydrogenation of 1-butene using a nickel
catalyst at 3000C. What is gas A? Write down the equation.
(n) Gas B can be obtained by hydrogenation of 2-butene using a nickel
catalyst at 3000C. What is gas B? Write down the equation.
(o) Gas C can be obtained by hydrogenation of iso-butene using a nickel
catalyst at 3000C. What is gas C? Write down the equation.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

ALKENES

1. Complete the following reactions and name the organic

compounds.
H2 SO4 (conc)
(a) R-CH2-CH2OH 1600 C
H2 SO4 (conc)
(b) CH3-CH2OH 1600 C
H2 SO4 (conc)
(c) CH3-CHOH-CH3 1600 C
H2 SO4 (conc)
(d) CH3-CH2-CH2OH 1600 C
(e) CH3-CH2OH + H2SO4 (conc) 1000 𝐶

(f) CH3-CHOH-CH3 + H2SO4 (conc) 1000 𝐶

(g) CH3-CH2-CH2OH + H2SO4 (conc) 1000 𝐶

1600 𝐶
(h) CH3-CH2SO4H
1600 𝐶
(i) CH3-CHSO4H-CH3
CH3-CH2-CH2 SO4H 1600 𝐶
(j)
Al2 O3
(k) CH3-CH2OH 3500 C
Al2 O3
(l) CH3-CH2-CH2OH 3500 C
Al2 O3
(m) CH3-CHOH-CH3 3500 C

7
SAYA MINN THANT (B.Ed.) PRACTICE QUESTIONS ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙
(n) CH3-CH2I + KOH ∆
𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙
(o) CH3-CH2-CH2Cl + KOH ∆
𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙
(p) CH3-CHBr-CH3 + KOH ∆
(q) CH2=CH2 + O2
(r) CH3-CH=CH2 + O2
𝑁𝑖, 3000 𝐶
(s) CH2=CH2 + H2
𝑁𝑖, 3000 𝐶
(t) CH3-CH=CH2 + H2
𝑁𝑖, 3000 𝐶
(u) CH3-CH2-CH=CH2 + H2
𝑁𝑖, 3000 𝐶
(v) CH3-CH=CH-CH3 + H2
𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙
(w) R-CH=CH2 + X2
𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙
(x) CH2=CH2 + Cl2
𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙
(y) CH3-CH=CH2 + Br2
𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙
(z) CH2=CH2 + HX
𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙
(aa) CH2=CH2 + HCl
𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙
(bb) CH3-CH=CH2 + HI
𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙
(cc) CH3-CH=CH2 + HBr
(dd) CH3
CH3-C=CH2 + HCl 𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙

𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
(ee) CH2=CH2 + O3
𝐶𝐻𝐶𝑙3
(ff) CH3-CH=CH2 + O3
1%𝐾𝑀𝑛𝑂4
(gg) CH2=CH2 + H2O + [O]
1%𝐾𝑀𝑛𝑂4
(hh) CH3-CH=CH2+H2O + [O]
> 1000 𝑎𝑡𝑚
(ii) n(CH2=CH2) ∆
> 1000 𝑎𝑡𝑚
(jj) n(CH3-CH=CH2) ∆

2. What happen when (OR) What product would you expect when
(a) ethanol is heated with H2SO4 (conc) at 1000C?
(b) propan-1-nol is heated with H2SO4 (conc) at 1000C?
(c) propan-2-nol is heated with H2SO4 (conc) at 1000C?
(d) ethyl hydrogen sulphate is heated at 1600C
(e) n-propyl hydrogen sulphate is heated at 1600C?
(f) iso-propyl hydrogen sulphate is heated at 1600C?
(g) ethanol is heated with H2SO4 (conc) at 1600C?
(h) propan-1-ol is heated with concentrated sulphuric acid at 1600C?
8
SAYA MINN THANT (B.Ed.) PRACTICE QUESTIONS ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

(i) propan-2-ol is heated with concentrated sulphuric acid at 1600C?

(j) ethanol is passed over alumina, Al2O3, heated at 3500C?
(k) n-propyl alcohol is passed over alumina, Al2O3, at 3500C?
(l) iso-propyl alcohol is passed over alumina, Al2O3, at 3500C?
(m) ethyl chloride is heated with alcoholic potassium hydroxide solution
on a water bath?
(n) n-propyl chloride is heated with alcoholic potassium hydroxide
solution on a water bath?
(o) iso-propyl iodide is heated with alcoholic potassium hydroxide
solution on a water bath?
(p) ethene is passed into chlorine?
(q) ethene is passed into aqueous bromine in CCl4?
(r) propene is passed into liquid bromine in CCl4?
(s) ethene reacts with hydrogen iodide?
(t) ethene reacts with hydrogen chloride?
(u) propene reacts with hydrogen chloride?
(v) propene reacts with hydrogen iodide?
(w) hydrogen bromide is added to propene?
(x) iso-butene reacts with hydrogen bromide?
(y) ozonized oxygen is passed into ethene in chloroform and the product
is decomposed by water?
(z) ozonized oxygen is passed into propene in chloroform and the
product is decomposed by water?
(aa) ethene ozonide is decomposed with water?
(bb) propene ozonide is decomposed with water?
(cc) ethene is passed into 1% dilute potassium permanganate solution?
(dd) propene is passed into 1% dilute potassium permanganate solution?
(ee) ethene is polymerized into polymer?
(ff) propene is polymerized into polymer?

3. How would you prepare

(a) ethene from ethanol?
(b) propene from iso-propyl alcohol?
(c) propene from 1-propanol?
9
SAYA MINN THANT (B.Ed.) PRACTICE QUESTIONS ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

(d) n-propyl hydrogen sulphate from propan-1-ol?

(e) iso-propyl hydrogen sulphate from propan-2-ol?
(f) ethene from ethyl iodide?
(g) propene from n-propyl chloride?
(h) propene from iso-propyl bromide?
(i) ethene dichloride form ethene?
(j) propene dibromide from propene?
(k) ethyl iodide from ethene?
(l) n-propyl chloride and iso-propyl chloride from propene?
(m) ethene ozonide from ethene?
(n) propene ozonide from propene?
(o) methanal from ethene?
(p) methanal and ethanal from propene?
(q) ethene glycol from ethene?
(r) propene glycol from propene?
(s) polyethene from ethene?
(t) polypropene from propene?

4. Illustrate the following reactions: (OR)

Write equations to illustrate the followings:
(a) Dehydration of alcohol
(b) Dehydrohalogenation of alkyl halide
(c) Addition reaction of alkene
(d) Hydrogenation of alkene
(e) Halogenation of alkene
(f) Hydrohalogenation of alkene
(g) Addition reaction of alkene to illustrate Markownikoff’s rule
(h) Formation of ozonide (ozonolysis)
(i) Hydroxylation of alkene
(j) Polymerizationo of alkene

10
SAYA MINN THANT (B.Ed.) PRACTICE QUESTIONS ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

5. Answer the following questions.

(a) A gas Y is obtained by heating a mixture of ethanol and concentrated
sulphuric acid at 1600C. What is gas Y? Write down the chemical
equation.
(b) A gas A is obtained by heating a mixture of propan-1-ol and
concentrated sulphuric acid at 1600C. What is gas A? Write down
the chemical equation.
(c) A gas B is obtained by heating a mixture of iso-propyl alcohol and
concentrated sulphuric acid at 1600C. What is gas B? Write down
the chemical equation.
(d) Gas X is obtained by passing the vapour of ethanol over alumina,
Al2O3, at 3500C. What is gas X? Write down the chemical equation.
Gas X can also be obtained by heating an alkyl halide with alcoholic
potassium hydroxide. Name the alkyl halide. Write down the
equation.
(e) Gas Y is obtained by passing the vapour of n-propyl alcohol over
alumina, Al2O3, at 3500C. What is gas Y? Write down the chemical
equation.
(f) A gas G is obtained by heating the ethyl chloride with an alcoholic
potassium hydroxide on the water bath. What is gas G? Write down
the chemical equation.
(g) A gas B is obtained by heating normal propyl bromide with an
alcoholic potassium hydroxide on the water bath. What is gas B?
Write down the chemical equation.
(h) A gas B is obtained by heating iso-propyl bromide with an alcoholic
potassium hydroxide on the water bath. What is gas B? Write down
the chemical equation.
(i) When the compound A undergoes chlorination, the final product is
ethene dichloride. What is compound A? Write down the chemical
equation.
(j) When the compound B undergoes bromination, the final product is
propene dibromide. What is compound B? Write down the chemical
equation.

11
SAYA MINN THANT (B.Ed.) PRACTICE QUESTIONS ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

(k) When hydrogen iodide is added to the compound A, ethyl iodide is

obtained. What is compound A? Write down the chemical equation.
(l) When hydrogen iodide is added to an unsymmetrical alkene, two
products are obtained. Name the alkene and two products which are
major and minor.
(m) When the compound X undergoes ozonolysis, the final product is
methanal. What is compound X? Write down the relevant equation.
(n) When the compound Y undergoes ozonolysis, the final product is
ethanal. What is compound Y? Write down the relevant equation.

ALKYNES

1. Complete the following reactions and name the organic

compounds.

𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐
(a) CaO + C 𝑓𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑐𝑒
(b) CaC2 + H2O
𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙
(c) R-CHX-CH2X + KOH ∆
𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙
(d) CH2Br-CH2Br + KOH ∆
𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙
(e) CH3-CHBr2 + KOH ∆
𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙
(f) CH2Cl-CH2Cl + KOH ∆
𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙
(g) CH3-CHI-CH2I + KOH ∆
(h) CH≡CH + O2
𝑃𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑑
(i) CH≡CH + H2
(j) CH3-C ≡ CH + H2 𝑃𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑑
𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
(k) CH ≡ CH + Cl2 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑖 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑒
𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙
(l) CH ≡ CH + Br2(l)
(m) CH3-C ≡ CH + Br2(aq)
𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙
(n) CH ≡ CH + I2
𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙
(o) CH ≡ CH + HCl
𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙
(p) CH3-C ≡ CH + HBr
𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙
(q) CH3-C ≡ CH + HCl
(r) CH ≡ CH + H2O 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 , 600 𝐶
𝐻𝑔++
(s) CH ≡ CH + Na
12
SAYA MINN THANT (B.Ed.) PRACTICE QUESTIONS ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

(t) CH ≡ CNa + Na
(u) CH ≡ CH + Cu2Cl2 + NH3
(v) CH3-C ≡ CH + Cu2Cl2 + NH3
(w) CH3-CH2 -C≡ CH + Cu2Cl2 + NH3
(x) CH3-C≡C-CH3 + Cu2Cl2 + NH3
(y) CH≡CCu + Cu2Cl2 + NH3
(z) CH ≡ CH + Ag2O + NH3
(aa) CH3-C ≡ CH + Ag2O + NH3
(bb) CH3-CH2-C ≡ CH + Ag2O + NH3
(cc) CH≡CAg + Ag2O + NH3
(dd) CH3-C≡C-CH3 + Ag2O + NH3

2. What happen when (OR)

What product would you expect when
(a) calcium oxide reacts with coke?
(b) calcium carbide is treated with water?
(c) ethene dibromide is heated with alcoholic KOH?
(d) ethlidene chloride is heated with alcoholic potassium hydroxide?
(e) propylene dibromide is heated with alcoholic potassium hydroxide?
(f) n-propylidene iodide is heated with alcoholic potassium hydroxide?
(g) iso-propylidene chloride is heated with alcoholic KOH?
(h) ethyne is reacted with excess hydrogen in the presenceof Pt or Pd?
(i) propyne is reacted with excess hydrogen in the presence of Pt or Pd?
(j) ethyne reacts with chlorine in the presence of light and metallic
halide?
(k) propyne reacts with chlorine in the presence of light and metallic
halide?
(l) ethyne reacts with liquid bromine in the absence of solvent?
(m) ethyne reacts with aqueous bromine in the absence of solvent?
(n) ethyne reacts with hydrogen bromide?
(o) propyne reacts with hydrogen chloride?
(p) vinyl bromide reacts with hydrogen bromide?
(q) methyl vinyl bromide reacts with hydrogen bromide?
(r) ethyne is passed into dilute sulphuric acid containing mercury (II)
sulphate ar 600C?
13
SAYA MINN THANT (B.Ed.) PRACTICE QUESTIONS ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

(s) acetylene is passed over heated sodium?

(t) propyne is passed over heated sodium?
(u) ethyne is passed into ammoniacal copper (I) chloride solution?
(v) methyl acetylene is passed into ammoniacal copper (I) chloride
solution?
(w) ethyl acetylene is passed into ammoniacal solution of copper (I)
chloride?
(x) dimethyl acetylene is passed into ammoniacal solution of copper (I)
chloride?
(y) ethyne is passed into ammoniacal solution of silver oxide?
(z) methyl acetylene is passed into ammoniacal solution of silver oxide?
(aa) ethyl acetylene is passed into ammoniacal solution of silver oxide?
(bb) dimethyl acetylene is passed into ammoniacal solution of silver
oxide?

3. How would you prepare

(a) ethyl from calcium oxide?
(b) ethyne from ethene dichloride?
(c) ethyne from ethylidene bromide?
(d) ethane from ethyne?
(e) ethyl dichloride from ethyne?
(f) propyl tetrabromide from propylene?
(g) vinyl bromide from symmetrical alkyne?
(h) ethylidene bromide from vinyl bromide?
(i) ethanal from ethyne?
(j) propanal from propyne?
(k) monosodium acetylide from ethyne?
(l) disodium acetylide from ethyne?
(m) monocopper (I) acetylide from acetylene?
(n) dicopper (I) acetylide from monocopper (I) acetylide?
(o) monocopper (I) methyl acetylide from methyl acetylene?
(p) monocopper (I) ethyl acetylide from 1-butyne?
(q) monosilver acetylide from acetylene?
(r) disilver acetylide from monosilver acetylide?
14
SAYA MINN THANT (B.Ed.) PRACTICE QUESTIONS ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

(s) monosilver methyl acetylide from methyl acetylene?

(t) monosilver ethyl acetylide from ethyl acetylene?

4. Illustrate the following reactions: (OR)

Write equations to illustrate the followings:
(a) Laboratory method to prepare ethyne (acetylene) from coke (C)
(b) Dehydrohalogenation of alkene dihalide
(c) Dehydrohalogenation of alkylidene halide
(d) Hydrogenation of alkyne
(e) Halogenation of alkyne
(f) Chlorination of alkyne
(g) Bromination of alkyne
(h) Iodination of alkyne
(i) Hydration of alkyne
(j) Substitution reaction of alkyne with sodium
(k) Substitution reaction of alkyne with ammoniacal copper (I)
chloride solution
(l) Substitution reaction of alkyne with ammoniacal silver oxide
solution

5. Answer the following questions.

(a) A gas G is obtained by heating the calcium carbide with water. What
is gas G? Write down the equation.
Gas G can also be obtained by heating alkene dihalide and alcoholic
potassium hydroxide. Name the alkene dihalide. Write down the
equation.
Is the gas G saturated or unsaturated hydrocarbon? What type of
reaction can undergo: addition or substitution?
(b) A gas Y is obtained by heating ethene dichloride with alcoholic
potassium hydroxide. What is gas Y? Write down the equation.
(c) A gas X is obtained by heating ethylidene chloride with alcoholic
potassium hydroxide. What is gas X? Write down the equation.

15
SAYA MINN THANT (B.Ed.) PRACTICE QUESTIONS ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

(d) A gas B is obtained by heating propene dibromide with an alcoholic

potassium hydroxide solution. What is gas B? Write down the
chemical equation.
(e) A gas B is obtained by heating n-propylidene bromide with an
alcoholic potassium hydroxide solution. What is gas B? Write down
the chemical equation.
(f) A gas X can be formed by hydrogenation of 2-butyne using platinum
catalyst. What is gas X? Write down the chemical equation.
(g) A gas A is produced by chlorination of ethyl acetylene in the
presence of light and metallic halide. What is gas A? Write down the
chemical equation.
(h) Compound X undergoes hydrobrominaition and the final product is
ethylidene bromide. What is compound X? Write down the chemical
equation.
(i) Compound C undergoes hydrochlorination and the final product is
n-propylidene chloride. What is compound C? Write down the
chemical equation.
(j) When gas A is passed into dilute sulphuric acid containing mercury
(II) sulphate at 600C, the final product is ethanal. What is gas A?
Write down the equation.
(k) When acetylene is passed over heated sodium, a compound X is
formed. What is compound X? Write down the chemical reaction.
(l) When methyl acetylene is passed over heated sodium, a compound
X is formed. What is compound X? Write down the chemical
reaction.
(m) When ethyl acetylene is passed over heated sodium, a compound B
is formed. What is compound B? Write down the chemical reaction.
(n) When ethyne is passed into ammoniacal copper (I) chloride solution,
a compound Y is precipitated in red colour. What is compound Y?
Write down the chemical equation.
(o) When propyne is passed into ammoniacal copper (I) chloride
solution, a compound D is precipitated in red colour. What is
compound D? Write down the chemical equation.

16
 SAYA MINN THANT (B.Ed.) PRACTICE QUESTIONS ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

(p) When 1-butyne is passed into ammoniacal copper (I) chloride

solution, a compound Y is precipitated in red colour. What is
compound Y? Write down the chemical equation.
(q) When ethyne is passed into ammoniacal silver oxide solution, a
compound B is precipitated in white colour. What is compound B?
Write down the chemical equation.
(r) When propyne is passed into ammoniacal silver oxide solution, a
compound A is precipitated in white colour. What is compound A?
Write down the chemical equation.
(s) When ethyl acetylene is passed into ammoniacal silver oxide
solution, a compound E is precipitated in white colour. What is
compound E? Write down the chemical equation.

DISTINGUISHING HYDROCARBONS
How would you differentiate (distinguish) between:
(a) alkene and alkane
R-CH=CH2 + H2O + [O] 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 R-CHOH-CH2OH
alkene 1%𝐾𝑀𝑛𝑂4 (𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑡) alkene glycol
(colourless)
R-CH3-CH2 + H2O + [O] 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 no reaction
alkane 1%𝐾𝑀𝑛𝑂4 (𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑡)
(no decolourization)
(b) alkene and alkyne
R-C≡CH + Cu2Cl2 + 2NH3 2R-C≡C-Cu ↓ + 2NH4Cl
alkyl acetylene copper (I) alkyl
(propyne) acetylide
(red p.p.t)

R-CH=CH2 + Cu2Cl2 + NH3 no reaction

alkene (no p.p.t)
(c) alkane and alkyne
R-C≡CH + Cu2Cl2 + 2NH3 2R-C≡C-Cu ↓ + 2NH4Cl
alkyl acetylene copper (I) alkyl
(propyne) acetylide
(red p.p.t)
R-CH2-CH3 + Cu2Cl2 + NH3 no reaction
alkane (no p.p.t)

17
 SAYA MINN THANT (B.Ed.) PRACTICE QUESTIONS ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

(d) 1-butyne and 2-butyne (distinguishes between C4H6 isomers)

CH3-CH2-C≡CH + Cu2Cl2 + 2NH3 2CH3-CH2-C≡C-Cu ↓ + 2NH4Cl
ethyl acetylene copper (I) ethyl acetylide
(1-butyne) (red p.p.t)

CH3-C ≡ C-CH3 + Cu2Cl2 + NH3 no reaction

dimethyl acetylene (no p.p.t)
(2-butyne)

How would you distinguish between (OR)

How would you differentiate between
(a) alkane and alkene
(b) saturated hydrocarbon and unsaturated hydrocarbon
(c) ethane and ethene
(d) ethane and ethyne
(e) ethane and acetylene
(f) propane and propene
(g) propane and propyne
(h) propene and propyne
(i) two isomeric compounds of C4H6
(j) n-butane and 1-butyne
(k) iso-butane and iso-butene
(l) 1-butene and 1-butyne
(m) 1-butyne and 2-butyne
(n) 2-butene and 1-butyne
(o) 1-butene and n-butane
(p) 1-pentyne and 2-pentyne
(q) propane and methyl acetylene
(r) methyl acetylene and dimethyl acetylene
(s) ethyl acetylene and dimethyl acetylene
(t) acetylene and dimethyl acetylene
(u) 2-methyl propane and 2-methyl propene

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SAYA MINN THANT (B.Ed.) PRACTICE QUESTIONS ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

ALCOHOLS

1. Complete the following reactions and name the organic

compounds.

(a) CH3Br + NaOH reflux

(b) CH3-CH2Cl + NaOH reflux

(c) CH3-CH2-CH2I + KOH reflux

(d) CH3-CHCl-CH3 + KOH reflux

(e) CH3SO4H + H2O reflux

(f) CH3-CH2SO4H + H2O reflux

(g) CH3-CH2-CH2SO4H + H2O reflux

(h) CH3-CHSO4H -CH3 + H2O reflux

(i) CH2=CH2 + H2SO4

(j) CH2=CH2 + CH3-CH2SO4H
(k) (CH3-CH2)2SO4 + H2O
(l) C6H10O5 + H2O diastse

(m) C12H22O11 + H2O yeast

𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡
(n) C6H12O6 𝑧𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑒
(o) CH3-CH2OH + Na
(p) CH3-CH2-CH2OH + Na
(q) CH3-CH2OH + PCl5
(r) CH3-CH2-CH2OH + PCl5
(s) CH3-CH2OH 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐 )
1600 𝐶
(t) CH3-CH2OH + H2SO4 1000 𝐶

(u) CH3-CH2OH + CH3-CH2SO4H 1400 𝐶

(v) CH3-CH2OH + H2SO4

(w) CH3-CH2OH + HBr
𝑍𝑛𝐶𝑙2
(x) CH3-CH2OH + HCl
𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐)
(y) CH3-COOH + CH3-CH2OH
𝐻+
(z) CH3-CH2OH 𝐶𝑢, 3000 𝐶

19
SAYA MINN THANT (B.Ed.) PRACTICE QUESTIONS ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

(a) CH3-CH2-CH2OH 𝐶𝑢, 3000 𝐶

𝐾2 𝐶𝑟2 𝑂7
(b) CH3-CH2OH + [O] 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 (𝑑𝑖𝑙)
𝐾2 𝐶𝑟2 𝑂7
(c) CH3-CHO + [O] 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 (𝑑𝑖𝑙)

2. What happen when

(a) methyl chloride is passed into refluxed with an aqueous solution of
potassium hydroxide?
(b) ethyl chloride is passed into refluxed with an aqueous solution of
sodium hydroxide?
(c) n-propyl bromide is passed into refluxed with an aqueous solution
of potassium hydroxide?
(d) iso-propyl iodide is passed into refluxed with an aqueous solution of
sodium hydroxide?
(e) methyl hydrogen sulphate is passed into reflux with water?
(f) ethyl hydrogen sulphate is passed into reflux with water?
(g) n-propyl hydrogen sulphate is hydrolyzed in a reflux?
(h) iso-propyl hydrogen sulphate is hydrolyzed in a reflux?
(i) ethene reacts with sulphuric acid?
(j) ethene reacts with ethyl hydrogen sulphate?
(k) diethyl sulphate is hydrolyzed?
(l) the cooked starch is treated with malt for an hour at 600C?
(m) starch is broken down by the enzyme called diastase?
(n) maltose is treated with enzyme maltase in yeast?
(o) glucose is treated with zymase which is present in yeast?
(p) ethanol is passed over freshly reduced Cu at 3000C?
(q) a piece of sodium is added to ethanol?
(r) ethanol reacts with phosphorus (V) chloride?
(s) ethanol is heated with concentrated sulphuric acid at 1600C?
(t) ethanol is heated with sulphuric acid at 1000C?
(u) ethyl hydrogensulphate is treated with ethanol at 1400C?
(v) ethanol is heated with a mixture of potassium dichromate and dilute
sulphuric acid?

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SAYA MINN THANT (B.Ed.) PRACTICE QUESTIONS ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

(w) ethanol is treated with hydrogen chloride in the presence of zinc

chloride?
(x) ethanol reacts with ethanoic acid?
(y) ethanol is passed over copper heated at 3000C?
(z) propan-1-ol is passed over copper heated at 3000C?
(aa)
3. How would you prepare
(a) methanol from methyl bromide?
(b) ethanol from ethyl iodide?
(c) propan-1-ol from n-propyl chloride?
(d) iso-propyl alcohol from iso-propyl chloride?
(e) methanol from methyl hydrogen sulphate?
(f) ethanol from ethyl hydrogen sulphate?
(g) n-propyl alcohol from n-propyl hydrogen sulphate?
(h) propan-2-ol from iso-propyl hydrogen sulphate?
(i) ethene from petroleum?
(j) ethyl hydrogen sulphate from ethene?
(k) diethyl sulphate from ethene?
(l) ethanol from ethyl hydrogen sulphate?
(m) ethanol from diethyl sulphate?
(n) maltose from starch?
(o) glucose from maltose?
(p) ethanol from glucose?
(q) sodium ethoxide from ethanol?
(r) sodium propanoxide from 1-propanol?
(s) ethyl chloride from ethanol?
(t) ethene from ethanol?
(u) diethyl ether from ethanol?
(v) ethyl iodide from ethanol?
(w) ethyl ethanoate from ethanol?
(x) ethanal from ethanol?
(y) propanal from 1-propanol?
(z) ethanoic acid from ethanol?

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SAYA MINN THANT (B.Ed.) PRACTICE QUESTIONS ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

4. Illustrate the following reactions: (OR)

Write equations to illustrate the followings:
(a) Hydrolysis of alkyl halide
(b) Hydrolysis of alkyl hydrogen sulphate
(c) Manufacture of ethanol from petroleum refinery products
(d) Fermentation of maltose
(e) Fermentation of glucose
(f) Reaction of alcohol with metallic sodium
(g) Reaction of alcohol with PCl5
(h) Reaction of alcohol with sulphuric acid
(i) Inorganic esterification (formation of inorganic ester)
(j) Organic esterification (formation of organic ester)
(k) Dehydrogenation of ethanol with copper
(l) Oxidation of ethanol with acidified K2Cr2O7
5. Answer the following questions.
(a) When methyl chloride is reflux with aqueous solution of sodium
hydroxide, compound X is formed. What is compound X? Write
down the reaction.
(b) When ethyl iodide is reflux with aqueous solution of sodium
hydroxide, compound B is formed. What is compound B? Write
down the reaction.
(c) When n-propyl bromide is reflux with aqueous solution of sodium
hydroxide, compound X is formed. What is compound X? Write
down the reaction.
(d) When methyl hydrogensulphate is hydrolyzed, compound A is
formed. What is compound A? Write down the reaction.
(e) When ethyl hydrogensulphate is hydrolyzed, compound X is
formed. What is compound X? Write down the reaction.
(f) When n-propyl hydrogensulphate is hydrolyzed, compound X is
formed. What is compound X? Write down the reaction.
(g) Compound Y can be formed by the fermentation of glucose with an
enzyme called zymase. What is compound Y? Write down the
equation.

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SAYA MINN THANT (B.Ed.) PRACTICE QUESTIONS ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

(h) The compound X is obtained by passing ethene into cold dilute

potassium permanganate solution. What is compound X? Write
down the equation.
(i) When compound Z is treated with PCl5, ethyl chloride is obtained.
What is compound Z? Write down the equation.
(j) When phosphorous (V) chloride reacts with ethnol at room
temperature. Gas B is liberated. What is the Gas B? Write down the
chemical equation.
(k) A compound X is obtained by the reaction of ethanol with HCl in
the presence of anhydrous zinc chloride. What is compound X?
Write down the equation?
(l) A compound B undergoes esterification with ethnoic acid and the
final product is ethyl acetate. What is compound B? Write down the
relevant equation.
(m) A compound X is formed by passing ethanol over freshly reduced
copper heated at 3000C. What is compound X? Write down the
equation.
(n) A gas Z is liberated by adding a piece of sodium to ethanol at room
temperature. What is gas Z? Write down the equation.

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SAYA MINN THANT (B.Ed.) PRACTICE QUESTIONS ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

24
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY FOR MATRIC STUDENTS SAYA MINN THANT (B.Ed)

SHORT QUESTIONS

FOSSIL FUELS
1. What is a fuel?
Fuel is a substance which stores the large amount of potential
energy.
2. What are the three major fossil fuels?
The three major fossil fuels are;
(i) crude oil (petroleum),
(ii) natural gas and
(iii) coal.
3. How were fossil fuels formed? Are these fuels renewable or non-
renewable resources?
Fossil fuels were formed in the earth’s crust from dead plants
and marine microorganisms under high temperature and pressure by
bacterial acting over millions of years. These fuels are non-renewable
and finite resources.
4. What are the sources of crude oil and natural gas, and coal?
The source of crude oil and natural gas is the dead bodies of
marine microorganisms. The source of coal is fossil plant materials.

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 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY FOR MATRIC STUDENTS SAYA MINN THANT (B.Ed)

CRUDE OIL
5. What is crude oil?
Crude oil is one of the earth’s major natural resources. Crude
oil is a mixture of many different hydrocarbon molecules. In a refinery,
it is used to make fuels.
6. Explain the uses of crude oil?
Most of the crude oil is used to make fuel. Around 10% of
crude oil is used as feedstock or raw material in the chemical industry.
7. How do you separate the crude oil?
At a refinery, crude oil is separated into different fractions
consisting of groups of hydrocarbons that have different boiling points.
8. What is the process used for the separation of crude oil? Which
type of apparatus is used in this separation?
The process used for the separation of crude oil is fractional
distillation process. The apparatus used is a fractional distillation
column or fractionating tower.
9. What are the various crude oil fractions?
The various crude oil fractions are refinery gas, petrol
(gasoline), naphtha, paraffin (kerosene), diesel oil (gas oil), lubricating
oil, bitumen residue.
10. Describe the different fractions consisting of groups of
hydrocarbons.
refinery gas (C1-C4) below 250C
viscosity increasing

petrol (gasoline) (C4-C12) 40-100

Boiling point and

Naphtha (C7-C14) 90-150

Paraffin (kerosene) (C9-C16) 150-240
diesel oil (gas oil) (C15-C25) 220-250
lubricating oil (C20-C70) 255-350
…
Bitumen (above C70) above 350

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 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY FOR MATRIC STUDENTS SAYA MINN THANT (B.Ed)

11. Mention the uses of petroleum gas, petrol, naphtha, paraffin, diesel
oil, lubricating oil and bitumen residue.
Fracitons Uses
Petroleum gas used as fuel
Petrol used as fuel in petrol engines
Naphtha used to make chemicals
Paraffin used as fuel in jet engines and for lighting and
heating
Diesel oil used as fuel in diesel engines
Lubrication oil used as engine oils
Bitumen residue used to make bitumen for surfacing roads
12. Give the different terms used in the USA of the following names:
“crude oil”(UK), “petrol”(UK), “paraffin”(UK)
The different terms are used in UK and USA.
- “crude oil”(UK) is the same as “petroleum” in the USA.
- “petrol” (UK) is the same as “gasoline” in the USA.
- “paraffin” (UK) is the same as “kerosene” in the USA.
13. Arrange ‘kerosene, petrol, diesel oil’ in the increasing order of
their boiling points. Give ONE example of use for EACH of them.
petrol, kerosene, diesel oil
boiling point increases
Petrol (gasoline) is used as fuel in cars (petrol engines).
Kerosene (paraffin) is used as fuel in jet engines.
Diesel oil (gas oil) is used as fuel in diesel engines.
14. Arrange ‘lubricating oil, bitumen residue, naphtha’ in increasing
order of their boiling points and viscosity. Give ONE example of
use for EACH of them.
naphtha, lubricating oil, bitumen residue
boiling point and viscosity increase
Naphtha is used to make chemicals.
Lubricating oil is used as engine oils.
Bitumen residue is used to make bitumen for surfacing roads.

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 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY FOR MATRIC STUDENTS SAYA MINN THANT (B.Ed)

15. Describe how petrol is obtained from crude oil.

Petrol is obtained by the fractional distillation of crude oil
using fractionating distillation column or fractionating tower. Crude oil
is preheated to 350-4000C and pumped into the base of tower. As it
boils, the vapour passes up the tower. Crude oil is separated into
different fractions that have different boiling points. The different
fractions cool and condense at different temperatures. Petrol is
obtained from the top of the tower at the boiling range 40-1000C.

Fig. Fractional distillation process in a refinery

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 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY FOR MATRIC STUDENTS SAYA MINN THANT (B.Ed)

CATALYTIC CRACKING
16. What is ‘catalytic cracking (cat cracking)?
The process in which large molecules from heavier fractions
can be broken down into smaller, more valuable molecules using
catalyst made of powdered minerals such as silica, alumina and zeolites
at a temperature around 5000C in huge reactor is called ‘catalytic
cracking (cat cracking).
17. Describe two types of products from all cracking reactions and
mention their uses.
All cracking reactions give two types of products:
(i) an alkane with a shorter chain than the original and
(ii) a shorter chain alkene molecule.
The shortened alkanes can be blended with gasoline fraction
to enrich the petrol. The alkenes are useful as raw materials for making
several important products.
18. Write equation to indicate how ethane can be made from petrol.
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
C8C18 𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑠𝑡
4C2H4 + H2
petrol ethene
19. What happen when decane is cracked? Write equation in words
and symbols.
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
C10C22 𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑠𝑡
C8H18 + C2H4
decane octane ethene
20. Write down the names of products which are made from ethene
produced by catalytic cracking?
The names of products which are made from ethene produced
by catalytic cracking are
(i) ethanol
(ii) polyethene (PE) or polyethylene
(iii) poly vinyl chloride (PVC) or chloroethene
(iv) polystyrene (PS) or phenylethene

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 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY FOR MATRIC STUDENTS SAYA MINN THANT (B.Ed)

21. What compound is added to gasoline to prevent engine knocking?

Tetraethyl lead is added to gasoline to prevent engine knocking.
22. What is meant by ‘flash point’?
Flash point is the temperature at which the vapour will ignite
in air in the presence of a flame. This temperature is usually low for a
fuel. It is 110C for methanol.
23. What is meant by ignition temperature?
Ignition temperature is the temperature at which fuel/air
mixture ignites without a flame. It is 5500C for petrol. The flash point
is very much lower than the ignition temperature.
24. What are car exhaust fumes composed of?
Car exhaust fumes are composed of carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide, unburnt hydrocarbons (HC), oxides of nitrogen and very
little sulphur dioxide. These fumes are reduced by fitting a catalytic
converter to the car exhaust.

ALTERNATIVE TRANSPORT FUELS

25. What is meant by the terms ‘zeolite’ and ‘ZSM-5’?
Zeolite is one of a large group of alumino-silicates of sodium,
potassium, calcium and barium.
ZSM-5 is an artificial zeolite composed of aluminum, silicon
and oxygen.
26. How would you prepare the hydrocarbon (gasoline) from
methanol?
Methanol is first converted to methanol. The methanol
produced is then turned into hydrocarbons (gasoline) using zeolite
ZSM-5 catalyst.
𝒁𝑺𝑴−𝟓 (𝒛𝒆𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒆)
nCH3OH → (CH2)n + nH2O
methanol Gasoline water
27. How do you understand by the term ‘diesel’?
Diesel is a heavy liquid fuel containing hydrocarbon molecule
(consisting of between 14 to 20 carbon atoms) which can power the
diesel engine.
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 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY FOR MATRIC STUDENTS SAYA MINN THANT (B.Ed)

28. What is meant by the term ‘biodiesel’? Mention its uses.

Biodiesel is derived from plant seed oil and animal oil. It can
be used as a substitute for diesel fuel. These oils have to be converted
to biodiesel by the chemical process known as “Transesterification”.
In Myanmar, it is used in power tractor engines, petrol-diesel
engines and electricity generating engines.
29. What are the alternative transport fuels?
Alternative transport fuels are biodiesel, diesel, LPG, CNG and
gasoline from methanol.
30. There are FOUR stages in the conversion of fats or oil to biodiesel.
Explain each stage.
First Stage - preparation of nearly 100% pure methanol or
ethanol.
Second Stage - the addition of potassium hydroxide or sodium
hydroxide basic catalyst to the prepared pure
methanol or ethanol.
Third Stage - the treatment of the seed oil with the prepared
basic catalyst solution and the solution is heated
to 600C which is Transesterification Process
producing methyl or ethyl ester as the product
(biodiesel) of the reaction.
Fourth Stage - the removal of glycerine and sodium or
potassium salt of fatty acid (soap) from the
reaction mixture by washing with water and pure
biodiesel is separated out by using the biodiesel
processor.

31. Give the name of process which is used for conversion of biodiesel
from seed oil.
The process which is used conversion of biodiesel from seed
oil is “Transesterification”.

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 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY FOR MATRIC STUDENTS SAYA MINN THANT (B.Ed)

32. Explain the terms: transesterification and fractional distillation.

Transesterification
In organic chemistry, tranesterification is the process of
exchanging the alkoxy group of an ester compound by another alcohol.
Fractional distillation
Fractional distillation is the separation of a liquid mixture into
fractions differing in boiling point by means of distillation using a
fractionating column.
33. What is petroleum gas?
Petroleum gas is a mixture of LPG (liquid petroleum gas) and
CNG (compressed natural gas).
34. What do the terms ‘LPG’ and ‘CNG’ stand for? Write their
compositions.
The term ‘LPG’ stands for liquid petroleum gas. It is composed
of propane and butane. The term ‘CNG’ stands for compressed natural
gas. It is composed of 90% methane gas.
35. What are the uses of LPG and CNG in Myanmar?
LPG is used in households, restaurants, hotels and motels for
cooking, frying and other heating systems. CNG is used in taxis, buses
and vehicles.
COAL
36. How do you understand the term ‘coal’?
Coal is our most abundant fossil fuel. Coal is not a single
substance. It is a complex mixture of compounds that occur naturally
in varying grades. It has the approximate composition formula
C135H96O9NS.
37. What are the different kinds of coals?
Four different kinds of coals are;
(i) peat,
(ii) lignite (brown coal),
(iii) bituminous coal (soft coal) and
(iv) anthracite (hard coal).

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 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY FOR MATRIC STUDENTS SAYA MINN THANT (B.Ed)

38. Give the types of four steps in the coal-forming process.

ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
peat 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
lignite 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
bituminous 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
Anthracite
coal
(not a (brown (soft coal) (hard coal)
coal) coal)

39. Name the chemicals which can obtained from coal and mention
their uses.
The chemicals which can obtained from coal and their uses
are as follows:
(i) ammonia – for fertilizer
(ii) coal gas – for industrial heating
(iii) coal tar – for paints, dyes, creosote and pitch
(iv) coke – for iron and steel making, for home and
industrial heating
BIOGAS
40. What is meant by the term ‘biomass’?
Biomass is the organic waste. When it decays in the absence
of air, methane is produced.

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 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY FOR MATRIC STUDENTS SAYA MINN THANT (B.Ed)

41. What is meant by the term ‘biogas’? How would you produce it?
Biogas is a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide. It is
produced naturally from the decay of cow dung and organic waste in
the absence of air by the help of anaerobic bacteria.
42. Mention the uses of biogas in Myanmar?
In Myanmar, biogas is used as a fuel for local industry and
used to power the electricity generating engines.
43. (i) Give a balanced symbolic equation for the complete
combustion of petrol (octane, C8H18).
(ii) What is the mass of one mole of octane C8H18?
(iii) The combustion of one mole of octane is 5500 kJ. The density
of octane is 0.7 gdm-3. Calculate the energy produced by one
litre (1000cm3) of octane.

25
(i) C8H18 + 2
O2 8CO2 + 9H2O

(ii) the relative molecular mass of C8H18 = 8(12) + 18(1)

= 114
mass of one mole of C8H18 = 114 g

(iii) mass of octane = density x volume

= 0.7 gdm-3- x 1000cm3
= 700 g
mass
mole of octane = molar mass
700 g
= 114 gmol−1
= 6.14 mol
1 mol of octane = 5500 kJ of energy
6.14 mol
6.14 mol of octane = 5500 kJ x 1 mol
= 33771 kJ

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Saya Minn Thant (B.Ed.) MATRICULATION CHEMISTRY Chemistry in Society

Chapter (15)
CHEMISTRY IN SOCIETY

Chemistry in modern agriculture

Elements required by Plants

Plants required at least 22 elements for their growth. Ten elements
which are required in significant quantities are C, H, O, N, P, K, Ca, S,
Mg and Fe. The other elements are required in very small traces.
Sources of Plant Nutrients
Plants get their nutrient elements from three sources; air, water and
soil. Plants get carbon and oxygen from air, hydrogen and oxygen from
water, and other elements such as nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium,
calcium, sulphur, etc., from the soil.
How plants obtain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen from air and water
Air is a gaseous mixture of nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Plants get carbon dioxide from the air and water from the soil.

Photosynthesis Reaction
sun light in green plants
6CO2 (g) + H2O (l) → C6H12O6 (s) + 6O2 (g)

Sugar is a compound of carbon,

hydrogen and oxygen.
With the exception of carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen, all the other
elements are obtained from the soil.

Soil
The soil is the source of plant
nutrients. It supplies water and other
elements to the plants. Plants absorb
their mineral nutrients from the soil
in the form of dissolved salts.

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Saya Minn Thant (B.Ed.) MATRICULATION CHEMISTRY Chemistry in Society

Fertilizers
Fertilizers are substances that supply nutrients to plants. They may
be classified as natural and chemical fertilizers.
Natural Fertilizers
There are two types of natural fertilizers.
- manure and
- humus.
Manure
Manure is obtained by the decomposition of animal dung and urine.
Humus
Humus comes from plant residues.
The Reason of Using Chemically synthesized Fertilizers
Although natural fertilizers are excellent nutrients for plants, these
are not enough for adequate yields. Therefore chemically synthesized
fertilizers are used to supplement this need.

Chemical Fertilizers
Chemical fertilizers are salts and other compounds containing
elements necessary for plant growth. Roots of plants absorb the food from
the soil in the form of soluble salts.
Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium (NPK)
The most important elements required by plants from the soil are
nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (NPK) because these elements are
essential for the growth of plants. The basic composition of chemical
fertilizers may constitute any one, two or all three of these elements.
Effects of Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium on Plants
Nitrogen and phosphorus are essential and important constituents of
plant’s body. Potassium is not a constituent element of the plant. It occurs
in plants as soluble salts. Its role is catalytic.

NPK Fertilizer Urea Superphosphate Potassium IAA NAA

sulphate

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Saya Minn Thant (B.Ed.) MATRICULATION CHEMISTRY Chemistry in Society

Requirement of NPK by Plants

Nature of plants N P K
leaf crops (cabbage) abundant fair amount not much
root crops (sweet photato) very little fair amount good amount
seed bearing plants little good amount good amount
(peas, beans, tomatoes)
flowering plants (rose) little good amount fair amount
fruit (apple) little - higher amount
seed (sweet pea seed) little - higher amount

Classification of Chemical Fertilizers

Chemical fertilizers are Nitrogen fertilizers, Phosphorus fertilizers
and Phosphorus fertilizers.
Nitrogen Fertilizers
The important nitrogen fertilizers are urea, ammonium sulphate,
ammonium nitrate, sodium nitrate and calcium nitrate.
Urea
Urea, CO(NH2)2, contain 46 % of nitrogen. It has an acid reaction
and the application of urea to the soil increases the acidity of the soil.
Production of Urea
Urea is manufactured on a very large scale by heating ammonia and
carbon dioxide under pressure with a suitable catalyst.
∆ pressure, catalyst
CO2 (g) + 2NH3 (g) → CO(NH2)2 (s) + H2O (l)
The urea fertilizer is produced as white pellets.

Reaction in the soil

In the soil, urea reacts with water to form ammonia and carbon dioxide.
CO(NH2)2 (s) + H2O (l) → CO2 (g) + 2NH3 (g)
The bacteria in the soil converts ammonia to nitrites and then to
nitrates.
bacteria bacteria
ammonia → nitrites → nitrates
The plants absorb soluble nitrogen in the form of NH4+ and NO3-
ions which are dissolved in the soil.
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Saya Minn Thant (B.Ed.) MATRICULATION CHEMISTRY Chemistry in Society

Ammonium Sulphate, (NH4)2SO4

It contains 21 % nitrogen. It has an acid reaction and so it increases
the acidity of the soil.
Ammonium Nitrate, NH4NO3
It contains 34.35 % nitrogen.
Calcium Nitrate, Ca(NO3)2
Commercial calcium nitrate fertilizer contains 13-16% of nitrogen.

Phosphate Fertilizers
Superphosphate
The important phosphate fertilizer is superphosphate.
The formula of superphosphate is Ca(H2PO4).2CaSO4.
Superphosphate is marketed in two grades containing 18 and 42
percent phosphoric acid respectively.
18% superphosphate contains 18 % P4O10 solution in water.
42% superphosphate contains 42 % P4O10 solution in water.
Superphosphate is a white or grey powder or granule.
Bone Meal
It is not a chemical fertilizer. It is prepared by crushing defatted
bones. It contains about 3 % nitrogen and 22 % phosphoric acid.
Therefore it is used as phosphate fertilizer.

Potassium Fertilizers
The important potassium fertilizers are potassium chloride and
potassium sulphate.
Test for Soil Reaction
Soil reaction is easily tested by litmus paper.
Acidity and Alkalinity of the Soil
Acidity and alkalinity of the soil is one of the important factors
because the plants do not grow well on the soil of high acidity and
alkalinity.
Neutralization of Soil Acids
Lime is added to the soil to neutralize the soil acids. Lime is usually
supplied to the soil as limestone(CaCO3), quicklime (CaO) and slaked
lime (Ca(OH)2).
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Saya Minn Thant (B.Ed.) MATRICULATION CHEMISTRY Chemistry in Society

Neutralization of Soil Alkali

Gypsum, CaSO4.2H2O, is added to neutralize soil alkali.
Insecticides
Insecticides are chemicals that kill insects. Example of insecticides
are benzene hexachloride, C6H6Cl6(BHC or Gammaxene), Endrin, Aldrin
and Dieldrin.
BHC is used for cotton. Endrin is toxic to mammals and should be
used with caution. Andrin and Dieldrin are used as soil fumigant.
Growth Substances
Growth substances are used to induce flower initiation, fruit
development, to delay leaf fall and fruits drops and to produce seedless
fruits. e.g- IAA and NAA
Indole acetic acid (IAA) is the principle chemical substance which
activates the growth of leaves, stems, roots, flowers, fruits and seeds.
Naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) is cheaper than IAA because it could be
manufactured more cheaply. It is successfully used for promoting
simultaneous fruiting in pineapple plantations.

Think thousand times before taking a decision

But after taking decision
Never turn back
Even if you get thousand difficulties.
… Adolf Hitler …

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Saya Minn Thant (B.Ed.) MATRICULATION CHEMISTRY Chemistry in Society

Cement Production

Cement
Cement is a grey powder which is used in construction of building.
It is used as binder in construction works. It is mixed with sand and water,
and sometimes with quicklime, CaO.

Chief Compounds in Cements

The chief compounds in cement are lime, alumina, silica and iron
(III) oxide composed as
(i) tetracalcium alumino ferrate, 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3
(ii) dicalcium silicate, 2CaO.SiO2
(iii) tricalcium silicate, 3CaO.SiO2 and
(iv) tricalcium aluminate, 3CaO.Al2O3.

Raw Materials used in Cement

The raw materials used in cement are-
(i) haematite, Fe2O3
(ii) limestone, CaCO3
(iii) clay (silicon dioxide, SiO2 and alumina, Al2O3).
These raw materials are ground and heated in a special furnace
called Rotary Kiln.

Manufacturing Process of Cement

Four main stages in the manufacturing process of cement are-
(i) mixing,
(ii) heating,
(iii) cooling and
(iv) grinding.

Cement Cement POP Gypsum Rotary Kiln

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Saya Minn Thant (B.Ed.) MATRICULATION CHEMISTRY Chemistry in Society

(i) Mixing
Limestone, haematite and clay are finely ground and mixed in the
right proportions.
(ii) Heating
The ground mixture is fed continuously from the top end of the
Rotary Kiln and heated by the burning gas at the lower end of the Kiln.
As the mixture moves slowly down the inclined Kiln, it meets an
increasingly higher temperature. The roasted product which is called
clinker comes out from the lower end of the Kiln.
(iii) Cooling
The roasted clinker is allowed to cool in a rotation cylinder by cool
air.
(iv) Grinding
After cooling, the clinker is mixed with the right percentage of
gypsum, CaSO4.2H2O, and ground in a grinding mill. The resultant
powder is cement. The gypsum regulates the setting time of cement.

Plaster of Paris (POP)

POP
Plaster of Paris (POP) is a fine white powder which is used for
making cast of various objects and for cementing glass to metals. It is
hydrated calcium sulphate (2CaSO4.H2O).
POP is obtained by heating gypsum, CaSO4.2H2O to about1250C.

∆ 1250 𝐶
2CaSO4.2H2O → 2CaSO4.H2O + 2H2O
gypsum POP

When POP is mixed with water, it forms a paste which hardens

quickly, expanding in the process as a result of crystallization.

Usage of POP
POP is used for making casts and for cementing glass to metals.

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Saya Minn Thant (B.Ed.) MATRICULATION CHEMISTRY Chemistry in Society

Salt Production

Dissolved and Undissolved Substances in Sea Water

Undissolved Substances Dissolved Substances
Suspensions NaCl

solubilities
Al2O3 KCl

Increasing
CaCO3 MgSO4
CaSO4 MgCl2
MgBr2

About 3.5 % by weight of salts are dissolved in sea water out of

which 2.7 % is common salt, NaCl.

Salt Production Areas

The principle areas for the production of salts from sea water are
coastal regions.

Two Types of Salt Production

There are two types of salt production.
- Traditional method of production
- Salt production by solar evaporation

Traditional Method of Production

Common salt obtained by traditional method or production is not
pure, since dissolved substances such as MgSO4 and MgCl2 together with
small amounts of CaSO4 remain mixed with common salt.
Pure sodium chloride is not a deliquescent substance. But it is found
that common salt becomes damp when it is exposed to air for some time.
The dampness is due to the presence of magnesium chloride as one of the
impurities. Magnesium chloride is hygroscopic and can absorb moisture
from the atmosphere.

Disadvantages of traditional method of production

(i) The percentage of impurities is high in the common salt and it
is not very suitable for industrial use.

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Saya Minn Thant (B.Ed.) MATRICULATION CHEMISTRY Chemistry in Society
(ii) Wood fires are used and considerable areas of forest are
destroyed yearly. Approximately, 15,000 acres of forest are
depleted every year due to the use of firewood in this method.

Prevention of Forest
Prevention of unnecessary wastage of forests may be achieved by
using solar evaporation for production of salt.

Salt Production by Solar Evaporation

The production of salt by solar evaporation may be carried out only
during the dry, hot season (December to middle of May).
A series of impermeable solar ponds, usually 5 in number, is made
on the selected ground.
1st pond undissolved suspensions settle down
2ndpond Al2O3 settle down
3rdpond CaCO3 settle down
4thpond CaSO4 starts to crystallize out
5thpond NaCl crystallizes
In the first three ponds, undissolved particles are removed and
evaporation takes place. In the fourth pond, crystallization of undissolved
substances starts to take place. During the day, evaporation takes place
and crystallization occurs mainly at night when the temperature drops.
After the crystallization of NaCl is complete, the water in which
KCl, MgSO4, MgCl2 and MgBr2 are still dissolved is allowed to flow out
from the pond. The crystals of NaCl are scooped out, washed whith
concentrated salt solution to clean them and dried in the sun.
In this way, 99.5 % of pure solar evaporated sodium chloride is
obtained.

Bittern
The water that flows out from the fifth solar pond consists of
dissolved MgSO4, MgCl2 and MgBr2. This water is called bittern. Bittern
is the source from which MgSO4, MgCl2 and MgBr2 can be extracted.

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Saya Minn Thant (B.Ed.) MATRICULATION CHEMISTRY Chemistry in Society

Plastics and Polymers

All living things contain polymers. Proteins, carbohydrates, wood

and natural rubbers are all polymers.

Synthesis Polymers
Synthesis polymers called plastic are to be found everywhere in
modern technological societies, made into bulky objects, films and fibers.
They have properties to suit particular need, ranging from car and aircraft
components, to packaging and clothing.

Polymers
Polymers are large organic macromolecules. They are made up of
small repeating units known as monomers.

Homopolymers
Homopolymers are polymers just containing one monomer.
Poly(ethene), poly(propene) and poly(chloroethene) are examples of
homopolymers.

Copolymers
Copolymers are made of two or more different types of monomers.
For example, nylon is made from two monomers, and biological proteins
are made from 20 different monomers, the amino acids.

Addition Polymerization
(1) Ethene to Polyethene (Polyethylene)

high pressure
ethene heat,catalyst polyethene
H H H H
high pressure
n C C heat,catalyst C C
H H H H n

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Saya Minn Thant (B.Ed.) MATRICULATION CHEMISTRY Chemistry in Society

(2) Propene to polypropene (Polypropylene) (PP)

propene polypropene
H H H H
n C C C C
H CH3 H CH3 n

(3) Chloroethene (vinyl chloride) to polychloroethene (polyvinyl

chloride) (PVC)

chloroethene polychloroethene
(vinyl chloride) (PVC)
H H H H
n C C C C
H Cl H Cl n

(4) Tetrafluoroethene to polytetrafluoroethene (PTFE)

tetrafluoroethene poly(tetrafluoroethene)
F F F F
n C C C C
F F H F n

Polymer and Trade Name, their Monomer, Properties and uses

1. Polyethene or polyethylene
monomer - ethene CH2=CH2
properties - tough, durable
uses - plastic bags, bowls, bottles, packaging
2. Polypropene or polypropylene (PP)
monomer - propene CH2-CH=CH2
properties - tough, durable
uses - crates and boxes, plastic rope

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Saya Minn Thant (B.Ed.) MATRICULATION CHEMISTRY Chemistry in Society
3. Polychloroethene or polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
monomer - vinyl chloride CH2=CHCl
properties - strong, hard
uses - insulation, pipes and guttering
4. Polytetrafluoroethene or polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)
monomer - tetrafluoroethene CF2=CF2
properties - non-stick surface, withstand high temperature
uses - non-stick frying pans, non-stick taps and joints
5. Polyphenylethene or polystyrene (PS)
monomer - phenylethene or syrene C6H5-CH=CH2
properties - light, poor conductor or heat
uses - insulation, packaging (foam)

Synthesis polymers Polypropene (PP) Crate Non-stick tap Packaging foam

Condensation Polymerization
Nylon (polyamide)
Nylon is a copolymer of two different monomers, a diamine and a
dicarboxylic acid. Each monomer consists of a chain of carbon atoms. At
both ends of the monomers are functional groups. An amine group
(NH2) on the first monomer reacts with a carboxylic acid group ( -COOH)
on the second monomer to make a link between the two molecules. Each
time a link is made, a water molecule is lost:
These type of polymer is known as a condensation polymer.
Because an amide link (or peptide link) is formed during polymerization,
nylon is known as polyamide. A version of nylon polymerization can be
carried out in the laboratory.

Polyethene or Polyethylene (PE) Polypropene or Polypropylene (PP)

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Saya Minn Thant (B.Ed.) MATRICULATION CHEMISTRY Chemistry in Society

Reaction Formation of Polyamide (Nylon)

+ H2O + H2O + H2O

Polyester
Condensation polymerization can also be used to make other
polymer with properties different from those of nylon. Polyester are
condensation copolymers made from two monomers. One monomer has
an alcohol group (-OH) at each end. The other monomer has a carboxylic
acid group (-COOH) at each end. When the monomers react, an ester
link is formed, with water being lost each time.
One such polymer has the trade name of terylene. Like nylon,
terylene can be turned into fibres and woven into clothing. Terylene
clothing is generally softer than that made from nylon.

Polychloroethene or polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Polytetrafluoroethene (or)

Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)

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Saya Minn Thant (B.Ed.) MATRICULATION CHEMISTRY Chemistry in Society

Reaction Formation of Polyester

Methods for recycling plastic waste:

(a) Thermoplastic polymers
(i) heat at low temperature
(ii) obtain molten of softened polymer
(iii) re-mould into new thermoplastic product(s)
(b) Thermosetting polymers
(i) heat at high temperature (7000C) in the absence of air
(ii) obtain now monomers and other chemicals
(iii) re-polymerize into new product(s)

Soap and Detergents

Soaps
Soap is manufactured by heating natural fats and oils of either plants
on animals with a strong alkali. The fats and oils, called triglycerides, are
complicated ester molecules.
Saponification
Fat is boiled with aqueous sodium hydroxide to form soap. The
esters are broken down in the presence of water-hydrolysed. This type of
reaction is called saponification.

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Saya Minn Thant (B.Ed.) MATRICULATION CHEMISTRY Chemistry in Society

Reaction between glyceryl tristearate and sodium hydroxide

H35C17-COOCH2 HO-CH2
H35C17-COOCH + 3NaOH → 3C17H135COONa + HO-CH
H35C17-COOCH2 HO-CH2

Cleaning Action of soap

The cleaning properties of the soap or detergent depend on its
structure and bonding. Soap consists of a long chin hydrocarbon which is
hydro phobic (water hating) to an ionic head which is hydrophilic (water
loving).
Covalent compounds are generally insoluble in water but they are
more soluble in organic solvents. Inorganic compounds are generally
water soluble but tend to be insoluble in organic solvents. When soap is
put into water which has greasy dish in it, the hydrocarbon chain on each
soap molecule become attached to the grease and become embedded.

Soapless Detergent
Soapless detergents do not form scum with hard water since they do
not react with Ca2+ and Mg2+ present in such water. Furthermore, these
soapless detergent molecules have been designed so that they are
biodegradable. Bacteria readily break down these new molecules so that
they do not persist in the environment.

……………………………………………………………………………
Chapter (15)
CHEMISTRY IN SOCIETY
Compiled by
Minn Thant
Reference
Grade 11 Chemistry Text
Chemistry in Society by Dr. Soe Kyaw Kyaw
Second time edition published at
FUTURE LIGHT
Cover design and Layout
Minn Thant

15
Saya Minn Thant (B.Ed.) MATRICULATION CHEMISTRY Chemistry in Society

PRACTICE QUESTIONS (Fertilizers)

1. Name the elements which are required in significant quantities for

plant growth.
2. What are sources of plant nutrients and what does each of them supply
to plants?
3. Explain how plants obtain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen from air and
water.
4. Write an overall equation for photosynthesis.
5. Write down the photosynthesis reaction in words and symbols.
6. What are fertilizers? Name two types of fertilizers.
7. How many types of fertilizers are there? What are these?
8. What are the natural fertilizers?
9. What are the chemical fertilizers? Name the two elements that are
essential for plants. Classify the chemical fertilizers.
10. Chemically synthesized fertilizers are used as supplements for plants.
Why?
11. What are fertilizers? Give relevant explanation for the addition of
lime and also of gypsum to the soil?
12. Write down equation in words and symbols for the production of urea.
13. What is the reason for the addition of ureas to the soil?
14. What is meant by NPK? Write equation for the reaction of soil urea
with water.
15. What are effect of NPK on the plant body.
16. Which element: N or P or K is the most suitable for fruiting and for
leaf crops?
17. Which element: N or P or K is the most suitable for growing root
crops and seed bearing plants?
18. Which element: N or P or K is the most suitable for growing cabbage?
19. Which element: N or P or K is the most suitable for seed bearing
plants and for leaf crops?
20. Which element: N or P or K is the most suitable for growing tomato?
21. How many amounts of N, P, K are required for root crops?
22. Express NPK requirements for flowering and fruiting.
23. Which nitrogen fertilizers are increasing the acidity of soil?
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Saya Minn Thant (B.Ed.) MATRICULATION CHEMISTRY Chemistry in Society
24. Write the names and formulae of two important phosphate fertilizers.
25. What are the long forms of (i) NPK (ii) BHC (iii) IAA and (iv) NAA?
26. What are the important nitrogen fertilizers?
27. Write down name and composition of phosphate fertilizer.
28. How would you prepare the bone meal? Is it a chemical fertilizer?
29. Describe the substances contained in the bone meal.
30. What are the important potassium fertilizers?
31. How can you test the soil reaction? Explain it.
32. Explain why acidity and alkalinity of the soil is one of the most
important factors?
33. Describe how would you neutralize the soil acid and soil alkali.
34. Write down the chemical formulae only for urea and gypsum.
35. Write down the photosynthesis reaction in words and symbols.
36. What are insecticides? What are they?
37. What are insecticides? What is the long form of BHC?
38. What is the short form of Gammaxene? Mention its use.
39. Express the uses of growth substances in agriculture.
40. Give the names of growth substances?

CALCUALTIONS FOR FERTILIZERS

1. Calculate the percentage of nitrogen in the following nitrogen

fertilizer. (C=12, N=14, H=1, O=16, S=32, Na=23, Ca=40)
urea, ammonium nitrate, ammonium sulphate, sodium nitrate,
calcium nitrate
2. Calculate the percentage of potassium in potassium sulphate. (K=39)
3. A field of rice needs 15 kg nitrogen per acre. How many kilograms of
ammonium nitrate are required for 10 acres? (N=14, H=1, O=16)
4. A field of rice needs 20 kg nitrogen per acre. How many kilogram of
Urea are required for 50 acres? (N=14, C=12, O=16)
5. A field of rice needs 10 kg nitrogen per acre. How many kilograms of
ammonium sulphate are required for 100 acres. (N=14, O=16, S=32)
6. The price of 100 kg of sodium nitrate is 15000 kyats and the price of
100 kg of urea is 4000 kyats.
(a) What is the price of 1kg of nitrogen in ammonium sulphate?
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Saya Minn Thant (B.Ed.) MATRICULATION CHEMISTRY Chemistry in Society
(b) What is the price of 1kg of nitrogen in urea?
7. The price of 100 kg of sodium nitrate is 80000 kyats. The price of 100
kg of urea is 40000 kyats. Which fertilizers will you buy for nitrogen?
Give reason.
8. If 20 kg of nitrogen is taken by crops and 3 kg of nitrogen is carried
away by running water from one of soil, how much of urea should be
added to the soil to recover its original nitrogen contents?

PRACTICE QUESTIONS (Cement & POP)

1. What is cement?
2. Name the four main stages in the manufacturing process of cement.
3. What are the raw materials used in the manufacturing process of
cement?
4. What are the chief compounds present in cement?
5. Why is gypsum mixed with clinker and ground in the final stage of
cement production?
6. Write down the chemical composition of POP. Illustrate its uses.
7. What is POP? Describe how POP is obtained from gypsum.
8. Why is gypsum mixed with clinker and ground in the final stage of
cement production?
9. Explain the usage of Plaster of Paris.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS (Salt Production)

1. What are the undissolved substances in sea water?

2. What are the dissolved substances in sea water?
3. Describe the substances that separate out from sea water before the
crystallization of sodium chloride.
4. Describe the substances that remain in solution after the crystallizat-
-ion of sodium chloride from sea water.
5. Arrange substances that dissolve in sea water according to their
increasing solubility.

The only real failure in life is not to be true to the best one knows. (Buddha)

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Saya Minn Thant (B.Ed.) MATRICULATION CHEMISTRY Chemistry in Society
6. Name the principal areas for the production of common salt from
sea water. What is the major impurity that causes common salt to
become damp?
7. Why does common salt become damp when it is exposed to the air?
8. What are the disadvantages for the production of common salt by
the traditional method?
9. Why is common salt obtained by traditional method not very stable
for industrial use?
10. Common salt obtained by traditional method is not pure? Why?
11. Describe the substances that remain in the solution after the
crystallization of sodium chloride.
12. What is bittern? What compounds can be extracted from the bittern?
13. In the traditional method of salt production, considerable areas of
forest are destroyed. How would you prevent it?
14. Write down the advantages of salt production by solar evaporation.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS (Polymers)

1. What is meant by the term ‘Polymer’? Give any two examples of

natural polymers.
2. Explain about the addition polymerization.
3. Describe the homopolymer with examples.
4. Explain the terms ‘thermoplastic polymer’ and ‘thermosetting
polymer’ with example.
5. What are the long form of the followings?
(i) PS (ii) PVC (iii) PE (iv) PP (v) PTFE
6. What are the properties of the followings?
(i) PS (ii) PVC (iii) PE (iv) PP (v) PTFE
7. What are the uses of the following?
(i) PS (ii) PVC (iii) PE (iv) PP (v) PTFE
8. Draw the structures of the following isomers.
(i) PS (ii) PVC (iii) PE (iv) PP (v) PTFE
9. What are the methods for the recycling wastes for thermosetting
polymer?

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Saya Minn Thant (B.Ed.) MATRICULATION CHEMISTRY Chemistry in Society
10. What monomer will polymerize to produce PVC? Write the
equation. What type of polymerization would chloroethene
undergo?
11. Draw the structural formula of tetrachloroethene and suggest the
name of the polymer formed from it. Write down the equation.
Draw the structural formula and suggest the trade name of the
polymer formed from tetrafluoroethene.
12. (i) What type of polymerization would CH3CH=CH2 undergo?
Write down the equation.
(ii) What type of polymerization can occur for the following
compounds can undergoes? Write down the equations.
CH3-CH=CH2, CF2=CF2, C6H5CH=CH2, OH-CH2-CH2
HOOC-CH2-CH2-COOH, HOCH2CH2OH
13. What type of polymerization can occur for the following
compounds? Write down the equations.
H2N NH2 and HOOC COOH
14. How do you understand the term ‘polyester’?
15. Draw the structural formulae of nylon and terylene.
16. What are the differences between ‘polyamides’ and ‘polyesters’?
17. Discuss any two properties of addition polymers.
18. What are the methods for recycling plastic wastes?
19. Classify the type of nylon based on the type of reaction, type of bond
formed and monomers used. Define the type of bond formed.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS (Soap and Detergent)

1. What is soap? Explain with suitable example. Give the chemical

name and formula.
2. Explain the term ‘soapless detergent’.
3. Explain that soapless detergent do not form scum with hard water
and they do not persist in the environment.
4. Discuss the cleaning action of soap.

20
 CHEMISTRY
PUZZLE QUESTIONS
CHAPTER (1)
1. What are the charges and masses of neutrons and electrons?
Ans:
Particles Charges Masses
Neutron no charge 1mau
Electron negative amu
2. Give the maximum number of electrons in number 2 shell and number 4 shell.
Ans:
Shell number Maximum number of electrons
2 2×22 = 8
4 2×42 = 32
3. Give the maximum number of electrons in L shell and M shell.
Ans:
Shell number Maximum number of electrons
L 2×22 = 8
M 2×32 = 18

 1 shell or K shell 2×12 = 2
 2 shell or L shell 2×22 = 8
 3 shell or M shell 2×32 = 18
4 shell or N shell 2×42 = 32
4. What type of chemical bond is formed between NH3 and H+ion? Explain.
Ans:
A coordinate bond is formed between NH3 and H+ion.
Nitrogen atom shares its lone pair electrons to H+ ion.
5. What elements are the most likely to form covalent compounds? Give an example with the electron dot-cross
formula.
Ans:
Non-metals elements are the most likely to form covalent compound.
Example;

6. Write down the complete and essential electronic structure of Si 14. Find the value of n in the
compound of Si(2.8.4), SiHn and draw the electron dot-cross structure of the compound.
Ans:
Complete electronic structure of Si14 = 1s22s22p63s23p2
Essential electronic structure of Si14 = 3s23p2
The value of n in SiHn =4
Electron dot-cross structure =

7. What are the trends( ) of ionization energy in the periodic table? Name one element
 which has the lowest ionization energy.
Ans:
Ionization energy (i) increase from left to right across a period.
(ii) decrease from top to bottom in a group of the periodic table.
The element with the ionization energy is caesium.
8. Explain why the noble gases are neither electropositive nor electronegative.
Ans:
Noble gases are stable by electron duplet or octet. They have little tendency to gain or lose electrons. They
are not likely to form ions. So they are neither electropositive nor electronegative.
9. Give the differences between ionic and covalent compounds based on solubility and melting point.
Ans:

Ionic compound Covalent compound

(i) Soluble in polor solvents. (i) Soluble in non-polor
(ii) High melting points. (organic) solvents.
(ii) Low melting points.

10. How are the elements arranged in the modern periodic table?
Ans:
Elements are arranged according to the increasing order of atomic number so that the elements with the
similar electronic structures fall under one another in a column or group.
CHAPTER (4)
1. Identify the following substances whether it is conductor or non-conductor or electrolyte or non-
electrolyte.
Alcohol, Mercury, Copper (II) sulphate, Wood
Alcohol = Non-electrolyte
Mercury = Conductor
Copper (II) sulphate solution = Electrolyte
Wood = Non-conductor
2. What are the factors affecting the electrolysis products?
Ans:
Factors affecting the electrolysis products
(i) Position of cations and anions in the electrochemical series
(ii) Concentration
(iii) Nature of electrodes
3. Write the differences between conductors and non-conductors.
Ans:
Conductor Non-conductor ႕Definitions
4. Write the differences between electrolytes and non-electrolytes.
Ans:
Differences between electrolytes and non-electrolytes

Electrolytes Non-electrolytes
(1) Electrolytes contains electrically charged (1) Non-electrolytes do not contain ions.
particles called ions. (2) They cannot conduct electricity.
(2) They can conduct electricity by moving (3) Non-electrolytes are covalent
Electrons. compounds.
(3) Electrolytes are ionic compounds.

5. Distinguish between electrolysis and electrolyte.

Ans:
Electrolysis Electrolyte ႕Definitions
6. Give the names of electrodes used as cathode and anode in chromium plating and write down the
cathode reaction of it.
Ans:
In the equilibrium, it may change in total volume and heat. Any change ( temperature, pressure and
concentration ) can affect the above equilibrium.
Chromium plating
Cathode is the object to be chromium plated.
Anode is lead metal.
Cathode reaction Cr3+ + 3ē Cr
7. Write down the electrochemical series.
Ans:
K+
Ca2+
Na+
Increasingly easier Mg2+
discharge Zn2+
Fe2+ to the cathode
2+
Pb
H+
Cu2+
Ag+

to the anode

8. Name the solution that is used in silver plating. Write down the cathode reaction for silver plating.
Ans:
Potassium argentocyanide solution is used in silver plating.
Cathode reaction Ag+ + ē Ag
9. Write down the equation for ionization of potassium argentocyanide KAg(CN) 2 solution and the reaction at the
anode for silver plating.
Ans:
KAg(CN)2 (aq) K+(aq) + Ag+(aq) + 2 (aq)
Anode reaction
Ag(s) Ag+(aq) + ē
10. Name the main cathode product and anode product during the electrolysis of sodium hydroxide
solution.
 Ans:
Cathode product = 2 volume of hydrogen
Anode product = 1 volume of oxygen
CHAPTER (6)
1. In the manufacture of sulphuric acid by the following exothermic reaction the conditions in
(i) and (ii) are necessary. Explain why each condition is necessary.
2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)
(i) An excess of air (ii) A temperature of about 450
Ans:
(i) Number of collisions between SO2 and O2 will increase when excess air is used. Forward reaction will
favour. Equilibrium concentration of SO3 will increase.
(ii) The reaction mixture is necessary to heat at 450 for the required activation energy.
2. Predict the effect of increasing concentration of SC ions on the following equilibrium.
3+
Fe (aq) + SC (aq) FeSC (aq)
Ans:
Number of collisions between Fe3+ and SC will increase by increasing concentration of SC . Forward
reaction will favour. Equilibrium concentration of FeSC will increase.
3. What will be the effect of decreasing concentration of Fe3+ on the following equilibrium?
Fe3+ (aq) + SC (aq) FeSC (aq)
Ans:
Number of collisions between Fe3+ and SC will decrease. Reverse reaction will favour. Equilibrium
concentration of FeSC will decrease.
4. Give reason for this statement “Aluminium foil reacts moderately with sodium hydroxide solution
only when warmed, but aluminium powder reacts readily in the cold.”
Ans:
Powder aluminium has the larger surface area than the aluminium foil. Therefore aluminium powder reacts
readily with sodium hydroxide even in the cold.
5. Which change will not affect the following equilibrium?
2NO (g) + (g) 2NO (g)
Ans:
In the equilibrium, it may change in total volume and heat. Any change ( temperature, pressure and
concentration ) can affect the above equilibrium.
CHAPTER (7)
1. What equipment can be used to measure heat of combustion?
Ans:
Bomb calorimeter can be used to measure heat of combustion.
2. Define the heat of combustion with example.
Ans:
The heat of combustion (Definition )
Example:
C (graphite) + O2 (g) CO2 (g) = 339 kJ =( )
3. State heat of formation of a compound. Express the symbol of it.
Ans:
The heat of formation (Definition )
Example:
 H2(g) + O2(g) H2O( ) = 286 kJ = (+) or ( )
4. Write down the relation between calorie and joule.
Ans:
The relation between calorie and joule
1 cal = 4.18 J
5. Example of heat of neutralization.
Ans:
Example:
H+ (aq) + (aq) H2O( ) = 57 kJmo =

CHAPTER (13)
1. Show that pH + pOH = 14 for aqueous solution at 25 .
Ans:
- -14 -6
Kw = [H+] [OH ] = 1×10 mol dm at 25
- -14
[H+] [OH ] = 1×10
- -14
log[H+] + log[OH ] = log1×10
- -14
-log[H+] + {-log[OH ]} = -log (1×10 )
pH + pOH = 14

2. In aqueous solution of acid HA, the equilibrium is represented as

+ -
HA (aq) + H2O ( ) H3O (aq) + A (aq)
Write down the mathematical equation for dissociation constant of acid. What is its unit?
Ans;
+ -
HA (aq) + H2O ( ) H3O (aq) + A (aq)
Dissociation constant of (Ka) of acid HA is
[ ][ ]
Ka =
[ ]
The unit of is (M).
3. What is meant by the quantity „ ‟ ? Give the numerical value.
Ans:

is the ionic product of water.

=[ ][ ]
= 1× at 25
4. Derive the expression for calculation of pH for a buffer solution containing acetic acid and sodium ethanoate.
Ans:
(aq) (aq) + (aq)
(aq) (aq) + (aq)
[ ][ ]
=
[ ]
[ ]
= .
[ ]
[ ]
[ ] = .
[ ]
[ ]
pH =
[ ]
 [ ]
=p +
[ ]
[ ]
=p +
[ ]
5. Describe the basicity of hydrochloric acid.
Ans:
Basicity of HCl = 1
6. Define the “Lewis base” by giving a suitable example. Write an appropriate acid-base reaction by using the example
you have provided.
Ans:
Lewis base
A base is a donor of lone pair electrons.
: is a Lewis base.
+ : :
(Lewis acid) (Lewis base)
7. Define the following terms in mathematically : , pOH.
Ans:
=[ ][ ]
pOH = [ ]
 1

definition

Section (A) Section (B)

Chapter 1

fundamental particles
proton neutron nucleus
nucleus
electron proton

atomic number atomic

number (Z) proton definition
nucleus electron
nucleus (concentrate)
mass number(A) electron
nucleus number of proton number of neutron Mass Number
definition

Isotopes same element different

masses same atomic number→same number of proton→same number of
electron different mass number→different numbers of neutron
Objective question Possible isotope atomic number
mass number

nucleus electron K, L, M, N Main shell

nucleus electron energy (potential energy)
higher electron shell shell number = 1 shell number = 4 energy value
energy stability Higher electron shell
energy value stability

Main shell maximum number of electrons 2n2

main shell s, p, d, f sub-shell maximum number of
electrons s2, p6, d10, f14 (fully-filled structure) s1, p3, d5, f7 (half-filled structure)
 2

Ionization energy 4Be 5B

7N 8O

Electron main shell/ sub-shell electronic structure

Valence, Period, Group Periodic Table Group
electronic structures, valences, chemical properties (S,V,P
Period Number of shell/ outermost shell number

Period Table dark line broken line metal non-metal

Dark line L.H.S metal R.H.S Non-metal Dark line
Boron (5B) Silicon (14Si)
metalloids Noble gas Non-metal
Electropositive Electronegative Give
reason/Why?

essential electronic structure (e.g., 3s2 3p2) (or) electronic structure expressed as integer
(e.g., 2.8.4) Period Table element Group No. & Period No. valence
e.g., Group = IV B; period No. = 3; valence = 4

Ionization energy electron

Definition example equation Na Physical
state gas endothermic process
Ionization energy atomic size
Periodic Table Left to Right Ionization energy Noble
gases stable electronic structure electron
difficult to remove electron Highest ionization energy
He noble gas outermost shell main shell
main shell No. =1 sub-shell (sub-shell ‘s’) closed
structure
Ionization energy

Electron Affinity gaseous atom free electron

definition example equation
Cl(g) Cl2 exothermic process
Noble gas Stable electronic structure electron
Noble gas electron affinity
outermost shell electron Halogen electron
stable anion with noble gas structure Halogen
highest electron affinity Fluorine (F)
electron affinity chlorine
Anomalous behaviour of fluorine

Metal electropositive element

complete transfer positive ion (cation) Non-
metal electronegative element negative ion (anion)
cation anion electrostatic force
Ionic compound melting point/boiling point
 3

Ionic compound NaCl → Ionic compound

Non-metal electronegativity
share ion
group of atoms joined together→molecule molecule
nucleus
van der Waals force melting
point/boiling point Covalent compound
Iodine sublimation
O2, N2, NH3, CO2

electron dot/cross Octet Rule BeCl2,

BF3 central atom (Be or B) electron
Octet structure He electron duplet
structure Covalent bond Coordinate (or) dative bond
NH3 H+ NH3 BF3 electron dot/cross structure
graphical structure Covalent bond
coordinate (or) dative bond electron
NH3 BF3 Chapter 13 Lewis
acid-base theory

Metal atom outermost shell

valence electron metal ion metal ion
electron electron cloud metal ion
moving electron cloud/ sea of electrons
metal good conductor electron cloud
metal malleability ductility

Atom electron gain lose

share Octet Rule covalent
molecule formation ionic compound formation electron dot/cross structures
Octet Rule obey

Chapter 2 molecule Noble gases (He, Ne,

Ar) individual atom Graham’s Law
measurable quantity
Gas Law in words in
mathematical expression constant factor state the name of the Law
Gas Law Initial state, final
o
state unit C to Kelvin temperature
collected over water/measured over water Graham’s Law
second Law mathematical formula
Gay-Lussac’s Law Limiting amount
reactant limiting substance [( e.g., Chlorine is a limiting
substance) (OR) limiting amount ( e.g., 50 cm3 of chlorine is a limiting
amount)] The Mole Concept mole
-1
Molar mass g mol Formula mass
 4

amu Relative atomic or molecular mass

Chapter 3 solvent, water solute,

solution mass (g) mole
Molarity (M)
conversion factor (1 mol=1000 mmol; 1 dm3
= 1000 cm3 dm3 L (litre) cm3 mL (millilitre)
Dilution before dilution (M1, V1) after dilution (M2, V2)
Dilution Molarity M2<M1 volume of solution V2>V1 (V2-V1)
amount or mole of solute
evaporation Molarity volume of solution
amount or mole of solute dilution

standard solution titration

primary standard standardization
Primary standard anhydrous sodium carbonate(Na2CO3), oxalic acid (H2C2O4)
sodium hydroxide (NaOH) concentrated sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
Primary standard

Titration Apparatus Burette, pipette, conical flask

Burette, pipette Conical flask reactants (e.g.,
acid, base, etc.) container

Indicator end point (practical concept- )

Equivalence point theory/ stoichiometric equation theoretical concept
end point equivalence point not identical Stoichiometric chemical equation
Formula Balanced equation
concept map (OR) plan

100 cm3 of concentrated hydrochloric acid was diluted with distilled water to make 1 dm3
of solution. 21 cm3 of this diluted acid was neutralized with 25 cm3 of 0.5 M sodium carbonate solution.
Calculate the concentration of original acid in g dm-3. concept map

100 cm3 of HCl (conc.) ⎯dilute

⎯ ⎯→ 1 dm3 of HCl(dil)


21 cm3 HCl (dil)  25 cm3 of 0.5M Na2CO3
concept map titration Na2CO3
Na2CO3 mmol Na2CO3 HCl 1:2 HCl
3
mmol 21 cm HCl (dil) molarity concept map molarity
3
1 dm of HCl(dil) dilution
1 dm3 of HCl(dil) molarity M2 1 dm3 V2
100 cm3 V1 M1V1 = M2V2 M1
original acid HCl(conc.) molarity HCl molar mass (g
-1
mol ) g dm-3 concentration

Chapter 4: Electrolysis medium

 5

Conductor electron electrolyte ion

mercury (liquid) metal non-metal graphite Chapter 1
metal free moving electron/ moving electron cloud

molten aqueous ionic compound ion

Ionic Theory Solid ionic compound
ion cannot be mobile/cannot move

Electrolytic cell
reactivity metal
Chemical cell electrical energy
chemical energy electrolytic cell chemical energy electrical energy
chemical cell energy transfer

Electrolytic cell battery negative terminal

electron conductor (metal wire) cathode cation (positive ion)
cation cathode electron reduction
C-C-R = Cations move to the Cathode and occur Reduction Chapter 5
The gain of electrons by an element, compound, or ion is called reduction

battery electron anion

(negative ion) anode electron
oxidation A-A-O = Anions move to the Anode and occur Oxidation

Reactions at cathode and anode Molten state aqueous solution

control factor Positions of metals or groups in the electrochemical series
concentration nature of electrode- Pt or graphite electrodes
(Inert electrodes) aqueous or dilute electrochemical series
ion discharge

Pt (or) graphite electrodes saturated (or) concentrated solution anode

electrochemical series Mercury cathode
cathode reaction electrochemical series
Copper, silver (reactive electrodes) anode cathode electrode
reaction electrochemical series mercury cathode copper, silver anodes

Chemical cell more electropositive zinc electrode less electropositive

copper electrode conductor (wire), bulb electron
zinc electrode electron
Zn(s) →Zn2+(aq)+ 2e
Copper electrode electron copper electrolyte (dilute
+
sulphuric acid) H (aq) copper electrode H2(g)
2H (aq) + 2e → H2(g)
+

H2 copper electrode adhere copper

electrode electrolyte cell polarization
chemical cell
 6

Electroplating cell electrolytic cell

crude metal anode electrolysis purified metal cathode

Faraday Laws electrode reactions electrode products

Quatitative determination Faraday time Chapter 2
second (s) Faraday’s Second Law charge to mole ratio
electrode reactions

Chapter 5 Oxidation
oxygen addition of oxygen to a substance
oxygen hydrogen removal of hydrogen from
a substance oxygen electronegative element addition of electronegative
element to a substance Chapter 4 anode reaction
anion anode electron
Oxidation is defined as the loss of electrons by an element, compound or ion
Reduction

See-saw
oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction reactant
electron
electron Oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction (definition)

oxidizing agent
oxidizing agent
Oxidizing agent is an acceptor of electrons
Reducing agent is a donor of electrons

Underlined element Oxidation number

NaHCO3

+1+1+C+3(-2)=0 Redox equation

Balance element atom Oxidation number
charge Oxidation
number method
Redox equation

Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 14

Organic Chemistry Chapter 6, Chapter 7 Chapter 2 Chapter 4
Physical Chemistry Organic Chemistry

Chapter 6 Rate of reaction Equilibrium

reactant effective collision
Collision Theory Collision Theory Rate of
reaction Effect of concentration/pressure/ temperature
Number of collision reaction rate
 7

Number of collision reaction rate light-catalysed

reaction photochemical reaction

Surface area Number of collision

2g

Catalyst Activation energy

Positive catalyst Negative catalyst/ inhibitor
tissue biocatalyst enzyme

rate reactant
-d[reactant]/dt product
+d[product]/dt

One way reaction

reversible reaction Reversible reaction forward rate
reverse rate reactant product
Equilibrium
Dynamic equilibrium

nullify Le Chatelier’s Principle

Chapter 2 Boyle’s Law

reactant, product physical state

initial state final state reactant product ZERO

gaseous state
Increasing pressure favour the volume decreased reaction
reactant product gaseous states total mole(total volume) of
reactants total mole (total volume) of products There is
no pressure effect on the rquilibrium

temperature heat transfer

surroundings
30oC 80oC when the
temperature is increased/raised heat transfer
heat is absorbed endothermic reaction
Endothermic reaction is favoured
Chapter 7 exothermic reaction, endothermic reaction
enthalpy change, H standard enthalpy change,
H exothermic reaction (-) sign endothermic reaction (+) sign
types of heat change

1 mole Heat of
combustion Bomb calorimeter
H
 8

standard states 1 mole

heat of formation of a
compound Hf

H+ ion 1 mole OH- ion 1mole

Heat of neutralization H

(Hess’s Law)
H
kJ mol-1 kJ
reverse H 
mol -1
heat of
formation Hf f

Chapter 8 Chapter 9
Activity Series or Reactivity Series
K-potassium Cu, Ag, Au
decreasing order of reactivity K Al
ore electrolysis
moderate reactivity Zn, Fe, Pb
reduction Ag Cyanide Process

Physical property
uses Objective type question
Downs process Solvay process Extraction of caustic soda from brine
extraction
Process
Chemical name Common name Na2CO3 chemical
name sodium carbonate common name soda ash Na2CO3.10H2O chemical name
sodium carbonate decahydrate common name washing soda
Questions and Problems

Chapter 9 Activity Series

Questions and Problems backward

design Chapter 8 name of ore and chemical formula
process

Competition reaction solid state Thermite reaction aqueous state

displacement reaction Chapter 8 calcium hydroxide
Aqueous calcium hydroxide Lime water Suspension of
calcium hydroxide Milk of lime

Chapter 10, Chapter 11, Chapter 12

neutral gases acidic gases alkaline gases

Neutral gases N2 N2O NO

downward displacement of water N2O
 9

downward displacement of hot water NO downward

displacement of cold water when all the water in the
gas jar is displacced the gas jar is filled with/ full of [the gas]

Acidic gases NO2 SO2 H2S Cl2 soluble

in water heavier than air upward displacement of air
NO2 Cl2 SO2
acidified potassium dichromate (soaked) paper
H2S lead (II) nitrate (soaked) paper
Cl2 upward displacement of air downward displacement
of brine

alkaline gas NH3

downward displacement of air moist red litmus paper
Fountain experiment

N2 % %
N2 fractional distillation of liquid air
N2 Ar inert gas

N2O NO NO2

N2O sweetish smell

anesthetic for minor surgical operation
Hysteria Laughing gas
NO O2
confuse
NO2 pungent smell 22oC -10oC

N2 N2O NH3
NO
NO2 SO2 Cu NO NO2 HNO3(dil) HNO3(conc)
SO2 H2SO4(conc) SO2 Na2SO3 H2SO4(dil)
Cl2, Br2, I2 (Halogens) NaCl, KBr, KI MnO2,
H2SO4(conc) H2SO4(conc) oxidizing agent
H2SO4 acidic property oxidizing agent dehydrating agent
H2SO4 Oxidizing agent SO2
Cu H2SO4 (conc) Dehydrating agent Chapter 14 ethene
dehydration of alcohol

FeS H2SO4(dil) H2S rotten egg smell H2S

SO2 reducing agent H2S halogen SO2 brown iodine solution

Society N2 NH3 NH3 HNO3

HNO3 explosives, dyes fertilizer Cl2
domestic and industrial water sterilize
bleach I2 antiseptic property
mild oxidizing property ethanol Tincture of iodine
 10

I2 goitre

Halogens Group VII B electronegativity electron affinity

F2 electronegativity electron affinity chlorine
Chapter 5 F2 electronegativity oxidation
number -1

Physical property Cl2 choking unpleasant smell)

greenish yellow gas Br2 choking irritating
smell) reddish brown liquid heavy, red, volatile liquid
I2 black shiny solid Sublimation KI solution
KI3 I2 ethanol ether
brown solution CS2 CCl4 violet
solution Cl2 strong oxidizing agent I2 mild
oxidizing agent

Chapter 13
H+ Arrhenius
+ -
theory H acid OH base
base alkali
H+, OH- completely ionize strong acid, strong base
→ partially ionize weak acid, weak base

Pure acid predominantly large proportion Concentrated

acid relatively small amount of acid Dilute acid base

Brönsted and Lowry Theory H+ proton proton

acid proton base H2O proton proton proton
- +
OH proton H3O (hydronium ion) H2O
Amphiprotic molecule conjugate concept HA
+ - +
HA H A H
H3O+ HA H+ acid H2O H+ base
- + +
A H3O H base HA
-
A conjugate acid
base “A strong acid has a weak conjugate base and vice versa”

Arrhenius theory Brönsted and Lowry

Theory all solvents

Lewis Acid-Base Theory NH3 NH3

Chapter 1 electron dot structure N-atom lone pair of electrons
Chapter 10 property of ammonia N-atom electron
pair (electron deficient species) Chapter 1
BF3 NH3 Lewis Base Octet structure
BF3 Lewis Acid Lewis Acid-Base Theory
 11

covalent molecule 25oC

(298K) [H+]= 1 x 10-7M [OH-]=1 x 10-7M ionic dissociation

Kw = ionic dissociation of water = [H+][OH-] = 1 x 10-14 M2 at 298K

Kw equilibrium constant 298K
1 x 10-14 M2
Aqueous solution [H+] negative logarithm pH (hydrogen ion
+
exponent) pH = -log10[H ] pH range (pH 0 14
Acidic range 0 to less than 7) Basic (Alkaline) range greater than 7 to 14)
Pure water neutral aqueous solution (e.g., aqueous NaCl, sugar solution, urea solution) pH
-
7 pOH = -log[OH ] pH+pOH=14
Acid HA reversible process
HA(aq) H+(aq) + A-(aq)
[H + ][A − ]
Ka =
[HA]
Acid strength HA Ka

negative logarithm pKa = -log Ka

1
acid strength K a 
pKa
pH
Buffer solution (1) acidic condition (pH 4
– 7); (2) alkaline condition (pH 7 – 11) Buffer solution Acidic condition (pH 4 – 7)
weak acid (e.g., CH3COOH) conjugate base CH3COONa
alkaline condition (pH 7 – 11) weak base (e.g., NH4OH) conjugate
acid NH4Cl
Buffer action H+ acidic buffer (pH 4 – 7)
-
CH3COO CH3COOH undissociated molecule alkaline
buffer (pH 7 – 11) NH4OH H2O undissociated molecule

OH- acidic buffer (pH 4 – 7) CH3COOH

H2O undissociated molecule alkaline buffer (pH 7 – 11) NH4+
NH4OH undissociated molecule Buffer solution
pH

strong acid weak acid

strong base weak base
neutralization
neutral condition (pH=7)
Hydrolysis pH =7 Salt hydrolysis

Strong acid Strong base NaCl, KCl, Na2SO4, NaNO3

[H+] [OH-] molar concentration
1x10-7M pH 7

Strong acid Weak base NH4Cl, (NH4)2SO4, NH4NO3

OH- NH4+ Kw
H+ H +
ionic equilibrium
1x10-7M pH 7 acidic
 12

Weak acid Strong base CH3COONa, HCOONa, Na2C2O4

H+ CH3COO-, HCOO-, C2O42-
Kw OH- OH-
ionic equilibrium 1x10-7M pH 7 alkaline
condition

Weak acid Weak base CH3COONH4, HCOONH4,

+ -
H OH conjugate species (CH3COO-, HCOO-)
ionic equilibrium Hydrolysis Weak acid Weak base
molar concentration Hydrolysis pH 7

Chapter 14 (Organic Chemistry)

“Organic chemistry is the chemistry of carbon compounds in

which there is at least one carbon to carbon bond or carbon to hydrogen bond”
6C=2.4 covalent bond

electron dot structure graphical structure

Hydrocarbon
Saturated hydrocarbon Unsaturated hydrocarbon

Saturated hydrocarbon Alkane Carbon to carbon Single Bond

(C-C)
relatively inert to other substance Substitution reaction
General molecular formula CnH2n+2
(n> 1) Fuel Alkane Homologous series
Alkane molecule Alkyl
radical (R-) ane yl

Alkane (CnH2n+2) Alkyl (CnH2n+1) (R-)

CH4 (methane) CH3- (methyl)
C2H6/CH3-CH3(ethane) C2H5-/CH3-CH2-(ethyl)
CH3-CH2-CH2-(n-propyl)
CH -CH-
CH -CH-CH 3
3 3
C3H8/CH3-CH2-CH3(propane)
CH
(or) 3

(CH3)2-CH- (iso-propyl)

Unsaturated hydrocarbon Alkene Alkyne Carbon to carbon

Double Bond(C=C), Carbon to carbon Triple Bond(CC) General molecular
formula CnH2n (n> 2) CnH2n-2 (n> 2)
Addition reaction Alkyne addition reaction acidic
hydrogen atom substitution reaction Acidic hydrogen atom
Acidic hydrogen atom Na, Cu, Ag

Alcohol Alkane Derivative General molecular formula

CnH2n+2O (or) CnH2n+1OH (n > 1) ethanol Methanol
Toxic alcohol
 13

Alkane
Sodium salt of carboxylic acid (RCOONa) soda-lime (a mixture of caustic soda(NaOH) and
quicklime (CaO)) Alkyl iodide HI Alkyl halide H2
Alkene H2 H2 Pt or Pd (at room temperature)
o
Ni, 300 C

Alkene Dehydration of alcohol removal of water from alcohol

Dehydrohalogenation of alkyl halide (removal of hydrogen halide from alkyl halide)
H2SO4, 160oC Al2O3, 350oC
hydrogen halide (HX) Alcohol/ethanol KOH ethanolic solution of KOH

Alkyne from coke Dehydrohalogenation of alkene

dihalide/dihalo alkane CaO
electric furnace calcium carbide (CaC2) ethyne (acetylene)
Alkene hydrogen halide (HX) Alcohol/ethanol
KOH ethanolic solution of KOH

Alcohol Hydrolysis of alkyl halide under reflux comdition

From petroleum refinery by-product (ethene) Fermentation of starch

Naming reaction
-ane/-ene/-yne/-ol Hydrogenation(-ene/-yne)
Dehydrogenation/Oxidation of alcohol (-ol) Hydration (-yne) Dehydration (-ene)
Halogenation (-ene/-yne) Hydrohalogenation (-ene/-yne) (Markownikoff’s Rule
ene) Dehydrohalogenation (-ene/-yne) Hydroxylation (-ene) Ozonolysis (-ene)
Substitution reaction of alkane/Chlorination of methane (-ane) Substitution reaction of
alkyne (-yne) Esterification (-ol) Oxidation of alcohol by oxidizing mixture (-ol)
Fermentation (-ol)

Conversion Preparation method Naming reaction

Preparation P , Naming N

methane from sodium ethanoate (Alkane P( ))

ethane from sodium propanoate (Alkane P( ))
Ethene from ethanol (Alkene P( ))
ethene from ethyl chloride (Alkene P( ))
ethyne from coke (Alkyne P( ))
ethyne/acetylene from ethene dibromide/ethylidene bromide (Alkyne P( ))
ethanol from ethene (Alcohol P( ))
ethanal from ethyne (N( ))
methanal from ethene (N( ))
ethanol from glucose (N( ))-
Distinguish Differentiate ( ) alkane and alkene
alkane and alkyne alkene and alkyne different alkynes
Reddish brown colour Bromine solution
alkene (or) alkyne Bromine solution
alkene and alkyne Reddish brown bromine solution
alkyne acidic hydrogen atom ammoniacal copper (I)
chloride solution 1-butyne
 14

(ethyl acetylene) 2-butyne (dimethyl acetylene) 1-butyne acidic hydrogen atom

Cu2Cl2 Cu 2-butyne acidic
hydrogen atom

Preparations Naming reactions

Conversion

Petroleum Industry and petrolchemicals Fuel Fossil

fuel coal from plant residues; crude oil and natural gas from marine microorganisms
heat/pressure/bacteria prehistoric/geology period/million years ago
non-renewable/finite resource coal is more abundant fossil fuel

Coal peat→lignite→bituminous coal→anthracite Coal

C135H96O9NS coal chemicals (ammonia, coal gas, coal tar,
coke)

Crude oil (Petroleum) fractional distillation Crude oil

component different boiling points fractional distillation column/fractionating tower
refine by-product ethene
(ethylene) ethene ethanol, polythene, PVC, PS

Octane C6-C20
Catalytic cracking heat and
catalyst gasoline/petrol knocking
anti-knocking agent tetra ethyl lead blending exhaust emission
carbon monoxide (CO), unburnt hydrocarbons (HC) and oxides of nitrogen (NOx)
catalytic converter flash point ignition temperature

methanol ZSM-5 gasoline

transesterification biodiesel LPG-Liquid
Petroleum Gas CNG-Compressed Natural Gas
LPG propane butane CNG 90%
methane

Marsh gas methane

anaerobic fermentation methane biogas methane
carbon dioxide gas biogas digester residue
fertilizer

Chapter 15 Agriculture
N, P, K, C, H, O, S, Mg, Ca, Fe
air water soil

chlorophyll Photosynthesis
glucose

fertilizer natural fertilizer

 15

chemical fertilizer
Humus Manure

NPK-Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium

leaf crop abundant N, a fair amount of P e.g., cabbage

root crop good amount of K, fair amount of P
seed bearing plant good amount of P and K peas, beans, tomatoes
flowering fair amount of P and K
fruiting and seed formation higher K banana/sunflower seeds

nitrogen fertilizer urea(CO(NH2)2) NH4)2SO4 NH4NO3 NaNO3 Ca(NO3)2

N Haber Process NH3
CO2 urea urea
NH3 CO2 NH3 bacteria
NO2- nitrite NO3- nitrate

Phosphate fertilizer Superphosphate Ca(H2PO4)2.2CaSO4

P4O10 bone meal about 3% of
nitrogen and 22% phosphoric acid)
catalytic role

acidic soil lime

alkaline soil gypsum-CaSO4.2H2O

Insecticide BHC benzene hexa

chloride, C6H6Cl6 Endrin Aldrin and Dieldrin IAA Indole
Acetic Acid NAA Naphthalene Acetic Acid

Cement Haematite(Fe2O3), limestone (CaCO3),

clay(Al2O3 and SiO2) Raw materials rotary kiln
mixing heating cooling
grinding clinker gypsum,
CaSO4.2H2O the setting time
regulate the setting time

Gypsum 125oC 1½ POP(Plaster of Paris)

2CaSO4.H2O making cast
cementing glass to metal

suspension Al2O3, CaCO3, CaSO4 NaCl, KCl, MgSO4, MgCl2,

MgBr2 common salt (NaCl) NaCl

solar evaporation
deforestation disadvantage
 16

NaCl deliquescent substance

MgCl2 impurity MgCl2 (hygroscopic substance)

Society Polymer Occurrence Natural polymer

Synthetic Polymer (Plastics) Composition
monomer Homopolymer monomer Copolymer

Preparation unsaturated hydrocarbons Addition

Polymerization monomer Condensation
Polymerization

ethene, propene, vinyl chloride, tetrafluoro ethene, styrene monomer addition

polymerization PE, PP, PVC, PTFE, PS

Condensation Polymerization

Diamine (H2N- -NH2) dicarboxylic acid(HOOC- -COOH)

Nylon Amide (peptide) link (CO-NH) Polyamide
polyamide (or) polypeptide trade name Nylon diol (dialcohol)
molecule dicarboxylic acid Terylene polyester
trade name terylene

Thermoplastic Thermosetting polymer Thermoplastic

Thermosetting polymer
Recycle 700oC monomer
polymerize

soap
detergent bonding
structure cleaning property Sodium stearate
long chain hydrocarbon ionic head Long chain hydrocarbon
hydrophobic ionic head
hydrophilic hydrophobic
hydrophilic

sample question

email: [email protected]
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