Drishti IAS Presents...

2025

S cience and T echnology (January 2024 — January 2025)

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Contents
General Science........................................ 4 ESA and Twelve Countries Sign the
Dark Matter and Dark Energy...................................... 4 Zero Debris Charter................................................... 32
Installation of X-Band Radar........................................ 6 NASA’s PREFIRE Mission............................................ 32
Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) Gliese 12 b Potentially Habitable
and Cerebellum........................................................... 7 Exoplanet near Earth................................................. 32
Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2024.................................... 8 NASA’s Mars Sample Return Program....................... 33
Nobel Prize 2024 in Physiology or Medicine............... 9 Statio Shiv Shakti as Name of the
The Nobel Prize in Physics 2024 ............................... 12 Chandrayaan-3 Landing Site...................................... 33
SAKHI: Enhancing Astronaut Capabilities
Space Technology................................... 14 for Gaganyaan Mission.............................................. 33
ISRO’s SpaDeX........................................................... 14
GSAT-20 (GSAT-N2) Aboard SpaceX’s Falcon-9......... 34
NASA’s Parker Solar Probe........................................ 15
India to Join SKAO as a Full Member......................... 34
Quantum Satellite..................................................... 16
Axiom-4 Mission........................................................ 17 Nanotechnology .................................... 36
Global Cooperation in Space Debris Management... 17
Nanoplastics Causing Antibiotic Resistance.............. 36
MACE Telescope in Ladakh........................................ 20
Moiré Materials and Superconductivity.................... 38
Black Hole Triple System .......................................... 21
Security Alert System Based on
Bhartiya Antriksh Station, Moon &
Piezoelectric Polymer Nanocomposite..................... 38
Venus Mission and NGLV.......................................... 22
Reusable Launch Vehicle - RHUMI-1......................... 23 Information Technology: AI,
Completion of SSLV Development Project................ 23
Blockchain, Cyber Security...................... 41
Astronauts Stuck in ISS.............................................. 24
Global Cybersecurity Outlook 2025 .......................... 41
Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT)................................... 25
Pegasus Spyware....................................................... 43
Kodaikanal Solar Observatory................................... 26
Large Language Models ............................................ 43
Earth’s Ancient Magnetic Field.................................. 28
PRATUSH Telescope.................................................. 29 Carbon Footprint of Artificial Intelligence................. 44

India’s Satellite Launch by SpaceX............................. 30 Google DeepMind’s SIMA and AlphaGeometry........ 46

Space Based Surveillance (SBS) Mission.................... 30 BharatGen ................................................................ 47
Launch of Tanager-1.................................................. 30 International Year of Quantum Science
Japan’s SLIM Moon Mission...................................... 31 and Technology......................................................... 47
JUICE Probe’s Double Slingshot Manoeuvre............. 31 AI Krish and AI Bhoomi.............................................. 47
Successful Launch of Ariane 6 Rocket....................... 31 IRIS: India’s First AI Teacher Robot............................ 48
India’s First 3D-Printed Rocket Launched................. 32 Chakshu and the Digital Intelligence Platform.......... 48

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Biotechnology: Genetic Engineering, DBS Brain Implant Surgery for Epilepsy

Treatment................................................................. 82
Vaccines, GM Crops................................ 49
Mosquitofish ............................................................ 83
Twigstats................................................................... 49
CAR-T Cell Therapy.................................................... 83
India’s Genomic Data Set.......................................... 50
Typbar Typhoid Vaccine............................................ 85
RNA Editing................................................................ 52
Snake Venom Neutralising Antibody......................... 86
BioE3 Policy and Biotechnology in India................... 53
Mpox Virus................................................................ 87
Nitrogen Use Efficiency and Biofortification............. 55
Prostate Cancer......................................................... 88
Efficacy of Liquid Nano Urea .................................... 57
West Nile Fever......................................................... 89
Nano DAP.................................................................. 58
Developments in HIV Vaccine Research.................... 90
Last Universal Common Ancestor (LUCA)................. 59
HMPV Virus............................................................... 90
Obelisks..................................................................... 59
Marburg Virus Disease (MVD) Outbreak................... 91
Gene Therapy for Hemophilia A................................ 61
World Diabetes Day 2024.......................................... 91
Bone Grafting Technology ........................................ 62
World AIDS Day 2024................................................ 92
Discoveries in Biology Using C. elegans..................... 63
Eliminating Kala-azar................................................. 92
Food of the Future.................................................... 63
India Eliminates Trachoma as a
Bio-RIDE Scheme....................................................... 63
Public Health Problem............................................... 92

Health and Diseases .............................. 65 International Thalassemia Day.................................. 93

Sickle Cell Eradication................................................ 65

Scientific Innovations............................. 95
Stem Cell Transplants................................................ 69
Gravity Energy Storage.............................................. 95
Precision Medicine and Biobanks.............................. 69
Thorium-based Nuclear Energy Production.............. 97
Parkinson’s Disease................................................... 70
4th Nuclear-Powered Ballistic Missile Submarine..... 97
Night Light Pollution Linked to Alzheimer’s Risk....... 71
Discovery of Dark Oxygen......................................... 98
High Altitude Pathogens ........................................... 73
Criticality of Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor............ 99
Leptospirosis Outbreak in Kerala.............................. 73
Tardigrades Genes
Subclinical Tuberculosis............................................ 75 for Innovation.......................................................... 102
Wolbachia-Infected Mosquitoes for
Dengue Control......................................................... 77 Miscellaneous...................................... 103
Hayflick Limit............................................................. 79 Centenary of Bose-Einstein Statistics ..................... 103
Sucralose: A Promising Sweetener for Diabetics....... 80 One Nation One Time.............................................. 103
Electroencephalography (EEG).................................. 81 67th Foundation Day of DRDO............................... 104

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General Science
Dark Matter and Dark Energy
Why in News?
Recently, physicists revised the minimum mass of dark matter and pushed it up to 2.3 × 10-30 proton masses.
‹ For decades scientists thought this minimum mass was about 10-31 times the mass of a proton.
Note: In 1922, Dutch astronomer Jacobus Kapteyn concluded the density of “dark matter” (using that term for
one of the first times) must be 0.0003 solar masses per cubic light year.

What is Dark Matter?

‹ About: Dark matter is a form of matter that is entirely invisible, emitting no light or energy, making it undetectable
by conventional sensors and detectors.
v Dark matter doesn’t interact with electromagnetic forces, so it neither absorbs, reflects, nor emits light,
making it hard to detect.
v Dark matter makes up about 27% of the universe, outweighing visible matter six to one, while visible matter
accounts for only 5%.
v Visible matter (Baryonic matter) consists of subatomic particles like protons, neutrons, and electrons.

‹ Composition of Dark Matter: Dark matter is thought to consist of non-baryonic WIMPs (weakly interacting massive
particles), 10-100 times the mass of a proton, but weakly interacts with normal matter, making detection difficult.
Among WIMPs are:
v Neutralinos: They are hypothetical particles (not yet been observed) that are heavier and slower than neutrinos.

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v Sterile Neutrinos: Sterile neutrino is proposed as v IceCube Neutrino Observatory, Antarctica: The
a dark matter candidate as it only interacts with IceCube Neutrino Observatory is investigating
regular matter through gravity. Also, neutrinos the possibility of sterile neutrinos—hypothetical
are particles that don’t form regular matter. particles that only interact with regular matter via
‹ Origin of Dark Matter: gravity and could be a form of dark matter.
v Big Bang Theory: Dark matter may have formed v Particle Colliders at CERN, Switzerland: CERN’s
during the Big Bang and concentrated into black Large Hadron Collider (LHC) conducts high-energy
holes, where their gravitational forces trap dark particle collisions to probe the fundamental particles
matter particles.
of the universe. The LHC also looks for potential
v Stellar Remnants: Stellar remnants such as white signs of dark matter by analyzing the aftermath
dwarfs and neutron stars are also thought to of particle collisions.
contain high amounts of dark matter.
v James Webb Space Telescope (JWST): JWST is
F Brown dwarfs (failed stars) that didn’t
expected to provide valuable insights into how
accumulate enough material to kick-start nuclear
galaxies and cosmic structures developed, which
fusion in their cores can also be a source of
dark matters. could help us understand the role of dark matter
in their formation.
‹ Evidence of Dark Matter:
v Galaxy Rotation Curves: According to Newtonian Note: Antimatter consists of particles that are essentially
gravity, objects at the edge of galaxies should be the same as visible matter particles but with opposite
moving slower than those near the center. electrical charges.
F Observations show stars on galaxy edges ‹ These particles are called antiprotons and positrons
move faster than expected, suggesting unseen (or antielectrons).
mass—attributed to dark matter—provides ‹ Antimatter is not the same as dark matter.
extra gravitational pull.
v Gravitational Lensing: Gravitational lensing occurs
What is Dark Energy?
when light is bent by a massive object’s gravity, ‹ Dark energy is a mysterious form of energy that
revealing more mass than visible, suggesting the makes up about 68% of the universe. It is thought
presence of dark matter. to be responsible for the accelerated expansion of
v Galaxy Formation: Galaxies’ distribution and the universe.
motion over time suggest dark matter, as it ‹ It is distributed evenly throughout the universe, not
enables galaxies to clump together and form only in space but also in time i.e., its effect is not
current structures. diluted as the universe expands.
‹ Projects to Study Dark Matter: There are some key
‹ The even distribution means that dark energy does
projects designed to shed light on dark matter.
not have any local gravitational effects, but rather
v Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS): The AMS is
a global effect on the universe as a whole.
an experiment mounted on the International Space
v This leads to a repulsive force, which tends to
Station which has detected an excess of positrons
(the antimatter counterpart to electrons), which accelerate the expansion of the universe.
may be a signature of dark matter. ‹ The rate of expansion and its acceleration can be
v XENON1T: The XENON1T experiment in the Italian measured by observations based on the Hubble law.
Gran Sasso Laboratory aims to detect dark matter v Hubble’s Law states that galaxies move faster
by observing the interactions of WIMPs with away from Earth as they are farther, implying the
xenon atoms. universe is expanding.

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Installation of X-Band Radar

Why in News?
Recently, the Ministry of Earth Sciences approved an X-band radar to be installed in Kerala’s Wayanad district
after devastating floods and landslides.
What are Key Facts About X-Band Radars?
‹ About Radar: Radar is a device that uses radio waves to detect and locate objects by measuring the reflection
of the waves.
v Radar stands for radio detection and ranging.
‹ Working of Radar: The radar device comprises a transmitter that emits a signal aimed at an object whose
characteristics are to be ascertained (e.g., cloud in meteorology).
v A part of the emitted signal is echoed by the object back to the device, where a receiver tracks and analyses it.
‹ Applications in Meteorology: Doppler radars (weather radar) reveal how fast a cloud is moving and in which
direction based on the cloud’s relative motion changes the frequency of the radiation striking it.
v A Pulse-Doppler radar can measure the intensity of rainfall by emitting radiation in pulses and tracking how
often they’re reflected to the receiver.
v Doppler effect is the change in frequency of sound waves as their source moves towards and away from a listener.
v Doppler radars rely on Rayleigh scattering in which light or other electromagnetic radiation is scattered by
particles much smaller than the wavelength of the light.
v Modern Doppler radars can monitor weather conditions and anticipate new wind patterns, the formation of
storms, etc.
‹ X-Band Radar: An X-band radar is radar that emits radiation in the X-band of the electromagnetic spectrum (8-12
GHz) corresponding to wavelengths of around 2-4 cm (this is in the microwave part of the spectrum.)
v It uses radiation of lower wavelengths to observe smaller particles like rain droplets or fog.
v The smaller wavelengths allow the radar to produce images of higher resolution but X-band radars have a
relatively shorter range.
‹ Role of X-Band Radar in Wayanad: It will monitor soil particle movements, assisting in the issuance of landslide
warnings.
v It will conduct high temporal sampling, allowing for rapid detection of changes in particle movement over
brief periods.

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How Many Radars Does India Have?

‹ Historical Context: The India Meteorological Department (IMD) began using radar for weather in the early 1950s.
v In 1970, it installed the first indigenously designed X-band storm detection radar in New Delhi. By 1996, IMD
upgraded 10 outdated X-band radars to digital versions.
‹ Types of Radar Network: In its X-band radar network, India has both wind-finding and storm-detecting radars,
and some with dual capabilities.
v India also uses S-band radars (2-4 GHz) for long-range detection.
v The first S-band cyclone detection radar was installed in Visakhapatnam in 1970 and the first locally made
variant was commissioned in Mumbai in 1980.
‹ Recent Initiatives: As of September 2024, India plans to install 56 additional Doppler radars, part of the Rs
2,000-crore Mission Mausam initiative aimed at enhancing meteorological infrastructure by 2026.
v The government is also in the process of acquiring and installing 10 X-band Doppler radars in northeastern
states and Himachal Pradesh’s Lahaul and Spiti district.
v A C-band radar (4-8 GHz) with an observational range of 250 km will be installed in Mangaluru.

Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and Cerebellum

Why in News?
A recent study found that individuals with Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) may experience significant
decreases in both gray and white matter volume in their cerebellum.

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‹ This could affect their cognitive functions and ‹ One half of the prize was given to David Baker for
emotional responses, among other aspects. computational protein design while the other half
was jointly given to Demis Hassabis and John M.
Note: Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), is a mental
Jumper for protein structure prediction.
health condition that occurs after a person experiences
or witnesses a traumatic event, such as war, violence, What is the Contribution of David Baker?
abuse, or natural disaster.
‹ Revolutionising Protein Engineering: Baker’s research
‹ These symptoms can interfere with their daily group has used computational methods to design
functioning and quality of life. novel proteins from scratch, reshaping the possibilities
‹ PTSD can be treated with psychotherapy, medication, of protein engineering.
or both. v By manipulating the 20 different amino acids that

What is Cerebellum and form proteins, his team has created new proteins
that do not exist in nature.
Other Parts of the Brain?
‹ Applications in Medicine and Technology: These
‹ The brain comprises three primary components: the artificially designed proteins have vast potential,
cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem. particularly in the development of pharmaceuticals,
‹ Cerebellum: The brain region traditionally associated vaccines, nanomaterials, and biosensors.
with motor control, but now increasingly recognised v Baker has successfully designed proteins with new
for its role in higher cognitive and emotional functions. functions, like degrading plastics or performing
v It is located at the back of the head, just below tasks beyond the capabilities of natural proteins.
the cerebrum and behind the brain stem. Also ‹ First Breakthrough in 2003: Baker’s first major success
called a “little brain” due to its similar but smaller came in 2003 when his team designed a protein
structure than the cerebrum. completely different from any found in nature.
‹ Cerebrum: The largest part, consists of right and left
hemispheres, playing a key role in higher functions like
What is the Contribution of Demis Hassabis
interpreting sensory information, speech, reasoning, and John Jumper?
emotions, learning, and precise movement control. ‹ Protein Folding Problem: Since the 1970s, scientists
‹ Brainstem: Functioning as a relay centre connecting have struggled to predict how strings of amino acids
the cerebrum, cerebellum, and spinal cord. It oversees fold into their three-dimensional shapes.
automatic processes such as breathing, heart rate, v The structure of a protein is crucial because it
sleep-wake cycles, digestion, and various reflex actions determines its function.
like sneezing, coughing, vomiting, and swallowing. v Understanding these structures is essential for
‹ Hypothalamus: Situated below the thalamus and advances in fields like drug discovery, disease
regulates functions including body temperature, treatment, and biotechnology.
hunger, thirst, fatigue, sleep, and circadian rhythms. ‹ Breakthrough with AlphaFold2: In 2020, Hassabis and
It is also involved in the release of hormones by the Jumper introduced AlphaFold2, an AI-driven system
pituitary gland. that revolutionised protein structure prediction.
v The model was able to predict the structure of
Nobel Prize in nearly every known protein, approximately 200
million.
Chemistry 2024 v This achievement solved a 50-year-old problem
in structural biology.
Why in News?
v Traditional approaches to decoding protein
Recently, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences structures, such as x-ray crystallography, are slow,
awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2024. laborious, and time-consuming.

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‹ Widespread Use and Impact: AlphaFold2 has been used by over two million researchers worldwide, enabling
breakthroughs in numerous fields.
v For example, it has been instrumental in understanding antibiotic resistance and creating enzymes capable
of breaking down plastics.
What are Key Facts About Proteins?
‹ Amino Acids as Building Blocks: Proteins are made up of long chains of amino acids, which are organic molecules
containing carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and sometimes sulphur.
v There are 20 different amino acids, and different combinations of these, folded into three-dimensional
structures, form the various proteins needed for biological processes.
‹ Structural Role of Proteins: The three-dimensional structure of a protein determines its function.
v In 1972, Nobel Prize in Chemistry was given to Christian Anfinsen for his work on ribonuclease, especially
concerning the connection between the amino acid sequence.
‹ Proteins as Essential Molecules: Proteins are fundamental to virtually every biological process in living organisms
and perform diverse functions such as speeding up biochemical reactions, providing structural support, aiding
in immune responses, and storing nutrients.

Nobel Prize 2024 in Physiology or Medicine

Why in News?
Recently, the 2024 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to Victor Ambros and Gary Ruvkun by
the Nobel Assembly at Karolinska Institutet in Stockholm, Sweden.
‹ The scientists won the esteemed prize for the discovery of microRNA and its role in post-transcriptional gene
regulation.
Note:
‹ The 2023 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to Katalin Karikó and Drew Weissman for their
work on messenger Ribonucleic Acid (mRNA).
‹ The 2024 Nobel Prize in Physics has been awarded to John J. Hopfield and Geoffrey E. Hinton, for modern
artificial neural networks (ANNs) and machine learning (ML).

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What Discovery of microRNA

led to the Nobel Prize?
‹ Early Research:
v C. elegans Model: Ambros and Ruvkun studied the roundworm C. elegans to understand tissue development.
v Mutant Strains: They analyzed mutant strains lin-4 and lin-14 with abnormalities in their genetic programming.
‹ Ambros’ Research:
v Ambros found that lin-4 suppressed lin-14 activity but couldn’t determine how.
v He cloned lin-4 and discovered a short RNA molecule without protein-coding potential. It suggested the RNA
molecule might inhibit lin-14.
‹ Ruvkun’s Research:
v He found that lin-4 didn’t block lin-14 mRNA production but regulated it later by inhibiting protein production.
A short lin-4 sequence matched key complementary segments in lin-14 mRNA.
‹ Ambros and Ruvkun found that lin-4 microRNA attaches to lin-14 mRNA and blocks protein production.
‹ Significance:
v let-7 discovery: Ruvkun’s group later discovered let-7, a microRNA present throughout the animal kingdom.
v Current understanding: The microRNAs are abundant and play a crucial role in gene regulation across multicellular
organisms.

Note:
‹ Lin-4: It is a microRNA, identified from a study of developmental timing in the nematode Caenorhabditis
elegans. It was the first to be discovered of the miRNAs, a class of non-coding RNAs involved in gene regulation.
‹ lin-14: It is a heterochronic gene that controls the timing of developmental events in the nematode Caenorhabditis
elegans.
v Heterochronic genes are genes that control the timing of cell and tissue development in an organism.

What are microRNAs?

‹ The body synthesizes proteins through a complex process involving two main steps: transcription and translation.
‹ In the transcription step, a Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) sequence in the cell nucleus is copied into messenger
Ribonucleic Acid (mRNA).
v The mRNA then exits the nucleus, moves through the cell fluid, and attaches to a ribosome.

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‹ In the translation step, transfer RNA (tRNA) delivers specific amino acids to the ribosome, where they are linked
together in the sequence dictated by the mRNA to form the protein.
‹ Micro RNA (miRNA) plays a regulatory role in protein production by binding to and silencing mRNA at a specific
stage in the process.
v This regulation occurs through a mechanism called post-transcriptional gene regulation, ensuring protein
synthesis is controlled.
About the Winners
‹ Ambros and Ruvkun are both American biologists. Ambros currently works at the Programme in Molecular
Medicine at the University of Massachusetts.
‹ Ruvkun is a professor of genetics at Harvard Medical School and conducts research on microRNA and RNA
interference.
‹ H. Robert Horvitz, under whom both biologists worked as postdoctoral fellows, won the Nobel Prize in Physiology
or Medicine in 2002.
‹ Ambros was the first to clone a microRNA, and Ruvkun cloned the second, marking significant milestones in
the field.

What are the applications of the Discovery?

‹ Abnormal Regulation and Diseases:
v Cancer: Abnormal microRNA regulation can contribute to cancer development.
v Mutations: Mutations in microRNA genes have been linked to conditions like hearing loss, eye, and skeletal
disorders.
‹ Future Applications:
v While microRNAs hold great potential, there are currently no direct clinical applications.
v Further research and a deeper understanding of microRNAs are necessary for future applications.

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The Nobel Prize in Physics 2024

Why in News?
The 2024 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences to John J. Hopfield and
Geoffrey E. Hinton, two pioneers whose groundbreaking work laid the foundation for modern artificial neural networks
(ANNs) and machine learning (ML).
‹ Their work has had profound implications for various fields, from physics to biology, finance, medicine and chat
Artificial Intelligence (AI) apps, including OpenAI’s ChatGPT (Generative Pre-trained Transformer).

Note: The Nobel Prize in Physics 2023 was awarded to Anne L’Huillier, Pierre Agostini, and Ferenc Krausz for their
work in attophysics (focuses on generating and utilising extremely short light pulses to examine fast processes,
particularly those involving electrons).
What are Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs)?
‹ About: ANNs are inspired by the structure of the brain, where biological neurons are interconnected to perform
complex tasks. In ANNs, artificial neurons (nodes) process information collectively, allowing data to flow through
the system, similar to brain synapses.
‹ Common Architectures of ANNs:
v Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs): It is trained on sequential or time series data to create a machine learning
(ML) model that can make sequential predictions or conclusions based on sequential inputs.
v Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs): Designed for grid-like data (e.g., images), CNNs use three-dimensional
data for image classification and object recognition tasks.
v Feedforward Neural Networks: The simplest architecture, where information flows in one direction from input
to output with fully connected layers.
F It is simpler than recurrent and convolutional neural networks.
v Autoencoders: Used for unsupervised learning, they take input data, compress it to keep only the most important
parts, and then rebuild the original data from this compressed version.
v Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs): They are a powerful type of neural network used for unsupervised
learning. They consist of two networks: a generator, which creates fake data, and a discriminator, which
distinguishes between real and fake data.

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F Through this adversarial training (a machine learning technique that helps models become more robust),
GANs produce realistic, high-quality samples.
F They are versatile AI tools widely used in image synthesis, style transfer, and text-to-image synthesis,
revolutionising generative modelling.

What is Machine Learning?

‹ About: It is a branch of Artificial intelligence (AI) that uses data and algorithms to enable computers to learn from
experience and improve their accuracy over time.
‹ Operating Mechanism:
v Decision Process: Algorithms predict or classify data based on input, which can be labelled or unlabeled.
v Error Function: This function evaluates the model’s predictions against known examples to assess accuracy.
v Model Optimization Process: The model iteratively adjusts its weights to improve its predictions until it reaches
an acceptable level of accuracy.
‹ Machine Learning vs. Deep Learning vs. Neural Networks:
v Hierarchy: AI encompasses ML; ML encompasses deep learning; deep learning relies on neural networks.
v Deep Learning: A subset of machine learning that uses neural networks with many layers (deep neural networks)
and can process unstructured data without needing labelled datasets.
v Neural Networks: A specific type of machine learning model structured in layers (input, hidden, output) that
mimic how the human brain works.
v Complexity: As transition from AI to neural networks, the complexity and the specificity of tasks increase, with
deep learning and neural networks being specialised tools within the broader AI framework.


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Space Technology
ISRO’s SpaDeX
Why in News?
Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is set to achieve a significant milestone with the launch of the Space
Docking Experiment (SpaDeX) mission on 30th December 2024.
‹ The mission aims to demonstrate satellite docking capabilities, a crucial technology for future space missions.

What is SpaDeX?
‹ About: SpaDeX (Space Docking Experiment) is a technology demonstrator mission developed by the ISRO to
showcase in-space docking technology.
v This mission aims to demonstrate the ability to rendezvous, dock, and undock two small spacecraft, marking
a significant advancement in India’s space capabilities.
‹ Objective: The primary goal of SpaDeX is to develop docking technologies for two small spacecraft, SDX01 (Chaser)
and SDX02 (Target), in low Earth orbit.

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v They will dock autonomously using advanced NASA’s Parker Solar Probe
sensors and propulsion systems.
v Secondary objectives include testing electric power Why in News?
transfer and demonstrating spacecraft control. NASA’s Parker Solar Probe recently set a historic
‹ Mission Duration: Two years record by flying closer to the Sun than any other man-
‹ Mission Design: SpaDeX will deploy two satellites, made object, reaching speeds of 430,000 mph and
withstanding temperatures up to 982°C.
SDX01 and SDX02, into a 470 km orbit using the Polar
Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) rocket, where they drift What are the Key Facts Related to
apart and gradually approach each other, eventually Parker Solar Probe?
docking at distances from 20 km to 3 meters. ‹ About:
v The two satellites are equipped with the Bharatiya v Launched in 2018, a car-sized robotic spacecraft, is
Docking System (BDS). named after American solar astrophysicist Eugene
F BDS features identical, low-impact (approach Newman Parker.
velocity is in the order of 10 mm/s), androgynous F This is the first NASA mission named for a living
(docking systems are identical for both spacecraft, researcher and it’s humanity’s first mission to
Chaser & Target) docking mechanisms, enhancing explore within 3.8 million miles of the Sun’s
corona.
mission flexibility and precision for future
v The Probe uses an advanced carbon-composite
operations like satellite servicing, crew transfers,
heat shield to withstand extreme temperatures.
and India’s space station development.
‹ Objectives:
v SpaDeX will use PSLV’s fourth stage, POEM (PSLV
v The Parker Solar Probe aims to approach within
Orbital Experimental Module)-4, to carry 24
6.5 million kilometers of the Sun to study energy
payloads from academic institutions and startups. flow, solar corona heating.
These experiments will leverage the microgravity
F It also investigates the source of solar winds,
environment in orbit. high-speed streams of charged particles that
‹ Docking Challenge: The two satellites (Chaser and affect space weather.
Target) will orbit at speeds of 28,800 km/h. They will v To investigate the Sun’s corona, and understand
need to carefully reduce their relative velocity to just why it is hotter than the Sun’s surface, a long-
0.036 km/h before docking. standing mystery in astrophysics.
v To determine the structure and dynamics of the
Space Docking
plasma and magnetic fields at the sources of the
‹ Space docking is the intricate process of maneuvering solar wind.
two fast-moving spacecraft into the same orbit, v To explore mechanisms that accelerate and transport
bringing them closer, and joining them to form a energetic particles.
single unit.
Lagrange Points
v This capability is pivotal for assembling large
structures or transferring equipment, crew, or ‹ About:
supplies in space. v Lagrange Points are positions in space within
‹ For instance, the International Space Station (ISS) a two-body gravitational system where a small
was built using this technique, with various modules object can remain stable.
launched separately and docked in space. v It enables spacecraft to maintain stable positions
v Continuous docking missions keep the ISS with minimal fuel consumption by balancing
operational by delivering supplies, new crew the gravitational forces of two large bodies with
members, and modules while facilitating the the centripetal force required for the smaller
return of the older crew to Earth. object to move in sync with them.

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‹ If an eavesdropper attempts to measure the photons

‹ Types:
carrying a key, this interference alters the state
v The Lagrange point L1 lies between the Sun-
of the photons. As a result, the legitimate parties
Earth line. The distance of L1 from Earth is
communicating will immediately detect that the key
approximately 1% of the Earth-Sun distance.
has been compromised.
v L2, located behind Earth from the Sun, offers
F Additionally, quantum entanglement ensures
ideal conditions for observing the universe
that any change to one photon instantly
without Earth’s shadow interference.
affects the other, making it impossible for an
v L3, located behind the Sun, opposite Earth, eavesdropper to alter the information without
offers potential observations of the Sun’s far side. detection.
v Objects at L4 and L5 maintain stable positions, F This makes QKD offer “unconditional security”
forming an equilateral triangle with the two by detecting any interception, ensuring secure
larger bodies. communication.
‹ Global Developments in QKD: China currently operates
Quantum Satellite the world’s largest QKD network, which includes three
quantum satellites and four ground stations.
Why in News? v India is advancing its quantum communications
experiments, with plans for a satellite-based QKD
India’s National Quantum Mission (NQM) aims to
network. Studies by the Raman Research Institute,
launch a quantum satellite in 2-3 years, advancing secure
Bengaluru, suggest that the Indian Astronomical
communications through quantum physics. This initiative Observatory in Hanle, Ladakh, offers ideal conditions
positions India at the forefront of next-gen technology. for such a system.
What is a Quantum Satellite? F Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has
successfully demonstrated free-space Quantum
‹ About: A quantum satellite is a communications
Communication over a distance of 300 m.
satellite that employs quantum physics to secure
v The United Nations (UN) has designated the year
its signals, making it highly resistant to interception.
2025 as the ‘International Year of Quantum Science
v It utilizes quantum cryptography (a method that and Technology’ to increase public awareness
uses quantum mechanics to encrypt and transmit of the importance of quantum science and its
data), particularly Quantum Key Distribution applications.
(QKD), to protect data by detecting eavesdropping
during transmission. What is the National
‹ Quantum Cryptography:
Quantum Mission (NQM)?
v Encryption Basics: Classical encryption methods, ‹ About: The NQM, launched in 2023 with a Rs. 60,000
like the Caesar cipher, messages are encoded in a crore investment from 2023-24 to 2030-31, aims to
advance Quantum Technologies in India and position
secret code. Without the key, it is not possible for
India as a global leader in Quantum Technologies and
eavesdroppers to decipher the message.
Applications (QTA).
F However, these methods are vulnerable to
‹ Objective: The NQM aims to develop quantum
quantum computers, which could crack the code computers (build intermediate-scale quantum
much faster than traditional supercomputers. computers with 50-1000 physical qubits (quantum
v Quantum Encryption: It uses quantum key bits) over 8 years), utilizing superconducting and
distribution (QKD), to secure messages. photonic platforms.
F In Quantum Measurement, when a quantum v It will establish satellite-based secure quantum
system, such as a photon (a tiny particle of communications within 2000 km in India and
light), is measured, its state changes. internationally.

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v The NQM will support inter-city quantum key F It aims to demonstrate the feasibility of
distribution over 2000 km and develop multi-node commercial space stations as platforms for
quantum networks. It also focuses on creating business and research.
atomic clocks for precision applications. v International Collaboration: The mission features
‹ Significance: NQM aims to make India a global leader a diverse multinational crew, emphasising global
in quantum technologies, surpassing classical physics cooperation in space exploration.
limits with advanced capabilities beyond current F It aims to strengthen international partnerships
systems. and promote joint efforts in advancing space
‹ National Priorities: The NQM aligns with and supports science.
national priorities like Digital India, Make in India, v Research and Development: The mission
Skill India, Start-up India, and Self-reliant India. supports scientific experiments and technological
‹ Implementation: The Mission will establish four advancements in microgravity.
Thematic Hubs in collaboration with top academic F Research areas include materials science,
and National R&D institutes. These hubs will focus biology, and Earth observation, offering potential
on Quantum Computing, Quantum Communication, breakthroughs.
Quantum Sensing & Metrology, and Quantum ‹ Key Features:
Materials & Devices. v Spacecraft and Crew: The mission will deploy a
v These hubs will drive new knowledge and research, SpaceX Dragon spacecraft launched by a Falcon
advancing quantum technology. 9 rocket, carrying professional astronauts,
‹ Sectoral Impact: The Mission will greatly benefit sectors researchers, and private individuals.
such as communication, health, financial services, v Mission Duration and Activities: With an expected
energy, and more. Specific applications include Drug duration of 14 days, the crew will conduct
design, Space exploration, and Banking and security. experiments, technology demonstrations, and
educational outreach aboard the ISS.
v Commercial Space Station Development: Axiom-4
Axiom-4 Mission is part of Axiom Space’s vision to establish the first
commercial space station, transitioning from ISS
Why in News? operations to an independent orbital platform.
Recently, the Indian Space Research Organisation
(ISRO) announced that two Indian astronauts selected Note:
for the Axiom-4 mission to the International Space Station ‹ During the Prime Minister’s 2023 visit to the US,
(ISS) have completed the initial phase of training. a joint statement confirmed that NASA would
provide advanced astronaut training to India under
What is the Axiom-4 Mission? the Artemis Accords.
‹ About: ‹ India’s Gaganyaan human spaceflight mission is
v Axiom Mission 4 (Ax-4) is a private spaceflight planned for post-2025, following two successful
to the ISS operated by Axiom Space (US-based unmanned missions.
space-infrastructure development company), using
the SpaceX Crew Dragon spacecraft.
F The SpaceX Crew Dragon is a reusable spacecraft Global Cooperation in Space
that carries astronauts to and from the ISS. Debris Management
v It is the fourth flight in collaboration with the
National Aeronautics and Space Administration Why in News?
(NASA), following Axiom Missions 1, 2, and 3. Recently, the issue of increasing satellites and space
‹ Mission Objectives: debris in Low Earth Orbit (LEO) has gained international
v Commercial Space Initiatives: Axiom-4 focuses on attention, with experts warning that without global
enabling commercial activities like space tourism cooperation, this vital region of space may become
in Low Earth Orbit (LEO). unusable.

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‹ In October 2024, a United Nations panel on space traffic coordination called for urgent measures to address this
challenge.

What is Lower Earth Orbit (LEO)?

‹ About:
v Low Earth Orbit (LEO) refers to an orbit around Earth at altitudes typically ranging from 180 km to 2,000 km.
v This region is closest to the Earth’s surface and is the most frequently utilized orbital region for satellites,
including the International Space Station (ISS).
‹ Orbital Mechanics of LEO:
v For a satellite to remain in LEO, it must travel at a speed of approximately 7.8 kilometers per second.
F At this speed, the centrifugal force generated by the satellite’s motion balances the gravitational pull of the
Earth, enabling the satellite to maintain its orbit.
F As a result, satellites in LEO take around 90 minutes to complete one full orbit around Earth.
v Unlike suborbital objects, which return to Earth, or objects exceeding escape velocity (25,000 mph), LEO objects
remain in orbit indefinitely unless influenced by external forces like atmospheric drag or orbital decay.
‹ Importance of LEO:
v Satellite Applications: LEO is preferred for Earth observation satellites, as they provide high-resolution images
and data due to their proximity to the Earth’s surface.
F Many communication satellites and scientific missions also utilise LEO for better transmission speeds and
reduced latency.
F LEO satellites are also crucial for Global Positioning Systems (GPS).
v International Space Station (ISS): The ISS orbits in LEO, making it accessible for human space exploration and
scientific research.
F Its location allows for regular resupply missions and ease of crew transport.
v Cost-Effectiveness and Accessibility: Satellites in LEO are easier and cheaper to launch compared to those in
higher orbits, such as Geostationary Orbit (GEO).
F The lower altitudes mean reduced energy requirements for reaching orbit.

What are the Challenges Associated with LEO?

‹ LEO Congestion & Space Debris: The increasing number of satellites in LEO has led to concerns about space debris.
v Decommissioned satellites, broken parts, and spent rocket stages accumulate in this orbit, posing collision
risks to active satellites and spacecraft.

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v Over 14,000 satellites, including 3,500 inactive ones, are in LEO, alongside roughly 120 million debris fragments.
v Recent incidents, like the explosion of a Chinese rocket and a defunct Russian satellite, have increased space
debris, threatening satellites and astronauts aboard the ISS.

‹ Collision Risk:
v Increased congestion in LEO poses risks of USD 556 million in damages in between 2024-29, with a 3.13%
collision probability.
F There has also been a 17% increase in close encounters per satellite in the past year.
‹ Orbital Saturation:
v The rapid growth in satellite constellations, driven by companies like SpaceX’s Starlink (6,764 satellites) has
intensified competition for orbital space, making effective regulation and international collaboration crucial.

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‹ Management Challenges: What are the Key Features of MACE?

v Commercial Interests: Private companies, like ‹ About MACE:
SpaceX’s Starlink, often guard proprietary satellite v Positioned at an altitude of approximately 4.3
data, hindering transparency and data sharing. kilometers, MACE is the highest imaging Cherenkov
This limits the ability to track satellites and space telescope globally, making it the largest of its kind
debris effectively. in Asia and the second-largest worldwide.
v Lack of Standardization: Current collision avoidance
v The MACE uses an Imaging Atmospheric Cherenkov
methods are informal, relying on inconsistent data
Telescope (IACT) to detect high energy gamma
formats and protocols.
rays indirectly.
F This fragmented approach results in accountability
F When high-energy gamma rays enter Earth’s
issues and complicates the development of
atmosphere, they create electron-positron
universal standards for satellite operations.
pairs, producing Cherenkov radiation.
‹ Strategic Concerns:
F MACE captures this faint blue light (Cherenkov
v Geopolitical Tensions: Countries are often reluctant radiation) with its sophisticated equipment.
to share satellite data due to national security
F Its light collector, composed of 356 mirror
concerns, especially regarding dual-use satellites
panels in a honeycomb structure, enhances
with both civilian and military functions.
stability and reflective area.
F This reluctance complicates international
‹ Research Objectives:
cooperation and the creation of a centralized
space traffic management system. v The primary goal is to study high-energy gamma
rays from cosmic sources.
v Weaponisation of LEO: Anti-satellite (ASAT)
missile tests by nations like China, USA, India (2019, v MACE seeks to understand dark matter by
Mission Shakti), and Russia (2021, destruction of detecting gamma rays from weakly interacting
Cosmos 1408) have significantly increased space massive particles (WIMP) annihilation events and
debris, posing long-term risks to LEO operations. investigating WIMPs, which may constitute much
of the universe’s mass.
F China’s SC-19 test generated over 3,000 trackable
fragments. ‹ Institution Involved:
v Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC)
Space Debris: Space debris refers to fragmented
v Indian Institute of Astrophysics
natural objects in Earth’s orbit that no longer serve
any functional purpose. ‹ Technological Innovations:
‹ This includes defunct satellites, spent rocket
v The telescope features a high-resolution camera
stages, and fragments resulting from collisions with 1,088 photomultiplier tubes that detect and
or other incidents. amplify faint signals from Cherenkov radiation.
v Its altitude provides a clear view above atmospheric
disturbances, enhancing its observational
MACE Telescope in Ladakh capabilities.

Why in News? Telescopes

Recently, the Major Atmospheric Cherenkov ‹ A telescope is an optical instrument designed to

Experiment (MACE) telescope was inaugurated in Hanle, observe distant objects by collecting and magnifying
Ladakh, representing a significant advancement in light or other forms of electromagnetic radiation.
gamma-ray astronomy. ‹ There are various types of telescopes, including
‹ It enables scientists to explore gamma rays with optical telescopes (which observe visible light),
energies exceeding 20 billion electron volts (eV), radio telescopes (which detect radio waves), and
emitted from sources beyond the Milky Way, including gamma-ray telescopes (which capture high-energy
pulsars, blazars, and gamma-ray bursts. gamma rays).

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Gamma Rays and Related Health Hazards

‹ Gamma rays, high-energy electromagnetic radiation, can penetrate most materials, including human tissue,
posing health risks.
v Gamma rays have the shortest wavelength and the highest energy, with each light-particle possessing more
than 100,000 electron volts.
v Gamma rays are produced by exotic energetic objects in the cosmos, including rapidly spinning pulsars,
supernova explosions, hot whirlpools of matter around black holes, and gamma-ray bursts.
v They are also emitted during radioactive decay or nuclear reactions.
‹ Exposure to gamma rays can damage cells and DNA, leading to radiation sickness, increased cancer risk, and
other long-term effects.

Black Hole Triple System

Why in News?
A recent study has discovered the first black hole triple system, located 8,000 light-years (LY) away (LY is the
distance light travels in a year, approx 5.9 trillion miles (9.5 trillion km), differing from typical black holes, usually
found as isolated entities or in binary systems.

What is a Black Hole Triple System?

‹ About: A black hole triple system consists of a central black hole and two orbiting stars, bound together by
gravitational forces.
v It forms through a “direct collapse” process, where a massive star collapses inward without undergoing a
supernova explosion, enabling nearby stars to remain gravitationally attached.
v The process of direct collapse, also termed a “failed supernova”, creates a gentler formation mechanism,
avoiding the violent ejection of surrounding matter.
v This unique structure challenges traditional models of black hole formation and demonstrates the complex
gravitational dynamics that can exist in stellar systems.
Difference Between a Black Hole and a Black Hole Triple System
Feature Black Hole Black Hole Triple System
Components A singular black hole. One central black hole (V404 Cygni) and two stars.
Orbital Details No other celestial body is - One star orbits every 6.5 days.
necessarily bound to the black
hole.
- Another star orbits every 70,000 years.
Location Found across the universe. Located about 8,000 light years away in the
constellation Cygnus.
Unique Features Often found in isolation or binary Features gravitationally linked stars in a rare triple
systems. configuration.
Behaviour May consume nearby matter and The central black hole consumes the nearer star over
emit X-rays. time.

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Scientific Supports standard models of Challenges traditional black hole formation theories and
Implications black hole formation and stellar provides insights into complex gravitational dynamics.
evolution.
Discovery Context Commonly studied through Accidentally discovered while analysing astronomical
telescopic data. data of V404 Cygni.

F It will help India become self-sufficient in

Black Hole
technologies for manned missions. India plans
‹ A region in space with gravity so strong that no to send humans to the moon by 2040.
matter or light can escape.Typically forms from the ‹ Venus Orbiter Mission (VOM): It aims to orbit Venus
collapse of a massive star in a supernova. to study the planet’s surface, subsurface, atmospheric
‹ Types of Black Holes: processes, and the Sun’s impact on its atmosphere
by probing its thick atmosphere.
v Stellar Black Hole: It is formed by the collapse
v Studying Venus is important because it is believed
of a single massive star
to have once been habitable like Earth.
v Intermediate Black Hole: Their masses are
v The mission is scheduled to launch in March 2028
between 100 and 100,000 times that of the sun. when Earth and Venus are at their closest.
v Supermassive Black Hole: Their masses ranging v This will be India’s second interplanetary mission,
from millions to billions of times that of the sun, after the Mars Orbiter Mission in 2014.
found at the centres of most galaxies including ‹ Bhartiya Antriksh Station (BAS): BAS will be India’s
our own Milky Way galaxy. own space station for scientific research.
v India will launch its own space station by 2028,
plans to operationalise it by 2035 and achieve a
Bhartiya Antriksh Station, crewed lunar mission by 2040.
Moon & Venus Mission v Currently, the only two functioning space stations
are the International Space Station and China’s
and NGLV Tiangong.
‹ Next Generation Launch Vehicle (NGLV): The
Why in News? government also approved the development of a
Recently, the Union Cabinet approved four space next-generation launch vehicle (NGLV).
projects to be undertaken by Indian Space Research v NGLV will offer three times the current payload
Organisation (ISRO). capacity of the LVM3, at 1.5 times the cost.
‹ Newly approved space projects include Chandrayaan-4, v It is designed to carry up to 30 tonnes to Low
Venus Orbiter Mission (VOM), Bhartiya Antriksh Earth Orbit (LEO).
Station (BAS) and Next Generation Launch Vehicle v India’s existing launch vehicles, including SSLV,
(NGLV). PSLV, GSLV and LVM3 which have payload capacity
ranging from 500 kg to 10,000 kg to LEO and 4,000
What are the Newly Approved Space kg to Geo-Synchronous Transfer Orbit (GTO).
Projects?
Note:
‹ Chandrayaan-4: The mission is designed to land on
‹ The Union Cabinet also approved the continuation
the lunar surface, collect samples, store them in a
of the Gaganyaan mission.
vacuum container, and bring them back to earth.
‹ It will have eight missions, including four needed
v It will involve spacecraft development, two different
to build the space station.
Launch Vehicle Mk III launches, deep space network
support, and special tests. ‹ This will be in addition to the two uncrewed and
one crewed missions that have already been
v It will also see docking and undocking — two
approved for the first human spaceflight under
spacecraft aligning and coming together in orbit
the Gaganyaan mission.
— that India hasn’t attempted so far.

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Reusable Launch ‹ Advantages:

v Cost Savings: Up to 65% cheaper than building a
Vehicle - RHUMI-1 new rocket for every launch.
v Reduce Space Debris: By minimising discarded
Why in News?
rocket components.
India recently launched its first reusable hybrid
v Increased Launch Frequency: Lesser turnaround
rocket, RHUMI-1, developed by the Tamil Nadu-based
start-up Space Zone India, to collect data for research time enables the rocket to be used more frequently.
purposes on global warming and climate change. ‹ Different from Multi-Stage Rocket:
‹ The rocket, carrying 3 Cube Satellites and 50 PICO v In a typical multi-stage rocket, the first stage is
Satellites, was launched into a suborbital trajectory discarded after its fuel is exhausted to reduce
using a mobile launcher. weight, allowing the remaining stages to continue
propelling the payload into orbit.
Note:
v However, RLVs recover and reuse the first stage.
‹ Cube satellites are nano satellites that weigh
After separating from the upper stages, the first
between 1 to 10 kg.
stage descends back to Earth using engines or
‹ Pico satellites are smaller satellites, with weights
parachutes for a controlled landing.
ranging from 0.1 to 1 kg.
What are the Key Features of RHUMI-1? Completion of SSLV
‹ Hybrid Propulsion System: The RHUMI-1 integrates
both solid and liquid propellants, enhancing efficiency Development Project
and lowering operational costs.
‹ Adjustable Launch Angle: The engine allows for Why in News?
precise trajectory control with adjustable angles The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)
ranging from 0 to 120 degrees. successfully launched the third developmental flight of
‹ Electrically Triggered Parachute System: It has the Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV).
advanced and eco-friendly descent mechanism that ‹ It placed the Earth observation satellite EOS-08
ensures safe recovery of rocket components, offering precisely into orbit. It also marked the completion
both cost-effectiveness and environmental benefits. of ISRO/Department of Space’s SSLV Development
‹ Environmentally Friendly: It is entirely free of Project.
pyrotechnics (fireworks) and TNT (Trinitrotoluene), an
odourless yellow solid used in explosives, highlighting What are Key Facts about SSLV?
its commitment to sustainability. ‹ About:
Note: v ISRO’s SSLV is a three-stage Launch Vehicle
‹ Dr. A.P.J Abdul Kalam Students Satellite Launch configured with three Solid Propulsion Stages.
Mission: In 2023, this mission involved over 2,500 F It also has a liquid propulsion-based Velocity
students from government, tribal, and public Trimming Module (VTM) as a terminal stage
schools across India who contributed to designing to help adjust the velocity to place the satellite
and constructing a student satellite launch vehicle in orbit.
capable of carrying a payload of 150 Pico Satellites ‹ Need of SSLVs:
research experiment cubes. v The aim behind SSLVs is to make low-cost launch
What are Reusable Launch Vehicles (RLVs)? vehicles with short turnaround times and minimal
infrastructural requirements.
‹ About:
v The SSLV is capable of launching Mini, Micro or
v Reusable Launch Vehicles (RLVs) are spacecraft
Nanosatellites (10 to 500 kg mass) into a 500
designed to be launched, recovered, and launched
km orbit.
again multiple times.

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v Satellite launches by businesses, government

NewSpace India Limited (NSIL)
agencies, universities and laboratories need
smaller payloads. ‹ NSIL is a wholly owned Government of India
F New Space India Limited (NSIL) is the commercial
company, under the administrative control of the
arm of ISRO with the primary responsibility of Department of Space (DOS).
facilitating Indian industries to take up advanced ‹ The major business areas of NSIL include:
technology space related activities. v Production of Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle
‹ Benefits of SSLV: (PSLV) and Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV)
v It takes only 72 hours to integrate, unlike the 70 for industry.
days for Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLVs) and v Production and marketing of space-based
Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicles (GSLVs). services, including launch services and space-
v It is an on-demand vehicle. Only six people are based applications like transponder leasing,
needed to complete the job quickly and at a cost remote sensing and mission support services.
of around Rs 30 crore. v Building of Satellites (both Communication and
Earth Observation) as per user requirements.
What are PSLVs and GSLVs?
v Transfer of technology developed by ISRO
‹ PSLVs: It is the third generation of Indian satellite centers/ units and constituent institutions of
launch vehicles. Department of Space.
v It was first used in 1994 and more than 50
successful PSLV launches have taken place.
F It has also been called “the workhorse of ISRO”
Astronauts Stuck in ISS
for consistently delivering various satellites Why in News?
into low earth orbits (less than 2,000 km in
Astronauts Sunita Williams and Barry “Butch”
altitude) with a high success rate.
Wilmore are staying on the International Space Station
v It successfully launched two spacecraft (ISS) until February 2025 due to technical issues with the
“Chandrayaan-1 in 2008 and Mars Orbiter Boeing Starliner spacecraft that brought them there in
Mission in 2013”. June 2024.
v It can take up to 1,750 kg of payload to Sun- ‹ NASA is working to resolve the issues, which raise
Synchronous Polar Orbits (SSPO) of 600 km concerns about astronaut safety, the ISS’s capacity,
altitude. and the effects of prolonged space travel on human
F SSPO is synchronous with the sun i.e., they health.
pass over an Earth region at the same local Note:
time every day. ‹ Starliner is a spacecraft designed for carrying
‹ GSLVs: It has been designed, developed, and operated astronauts to space, featuring a crew capsule,
by ISRO to launch satellites and other space objects reentry capability, and a non-reusable service
into Geosynchronous Transfer Orbits (GTO). module providing life support and propulsion
v GTO is an elliptical orbit that a spacecraft takes as
systems.
the first step towards achieving a geosynchronous v SpaceX’s Crew Dragon and NASA’s SpaceX
or geostationary orbit around Earth. Demo-2 provide similar spacecraft services
like Starliner.
v GSLV is a three-stage vehicle.
F The first stage comprises solid booster, second How did the Astronauts
stage is a liquid engine and third stage is the Get Stuck in the ISS ?
indigenously built Cryogenic Upper Stage ‹ Williams and Wilmore travelled to the ISS in June on
(CUS) carrying cryogenic propellants. Boeing’s Starliner, its first crewed mission.

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‹ Despite a pre-launch helium leak and additional

‹ Speed: It travels around Earth at about 28,000
leaks during the journey, Starliner arrived at the ISS, kilometres per hour, completing an orbit every
but new issues remain unresolved. 90 minutes.
‹ Regular cargo spacecraft deliveries ensure a steady ‹ Objectives: The ISS aims to advance our
supply of essentials, allowing the ISS to support the understanding of space and microgravity, support
crew for an extended stay. new scientific research, and exemplify international
‹ Earlier Instances of Longer Stays in Space: collaboration.
v Russian cosmonaut Valeri Polyakov holds the record
with 438 days on the Mir Space Station (Russian
Space station deorbited in 2001) in 1994-95. Thirty Meter
v US astronaut Frank Rubio completed 371 days Telescope (TMT)
(2022-23) on the ISS.
What is the Impact on the Why in News?
Human Body in the ISS ? Recently, Indian researchers at the Indian Institute
of Astrophysics (IIA) in Bengaluru have developed a new
‹ Bone Density Loss: Prolonged exposure to microgravity
online tool to create a comprehensive star catalogue
can lead to several health issues for astronauts as they
for the Adaptive Optics System (AOS) of the upcoming
can lose up to 1% of bone mass per month due to
Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT).
the lack of gravitational force, increasing the risk of
osteoporosis and fractures. What are the Key Features of
‹ Muscle Atrophy: Muscle mass and strength can diminish Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT)?
significantly in microgravity, necessitating rigorous
‹ About:
daily exercise routines to mitigate these effects.
v It is an ambitious international project coming up
‹ Vision Problems: Changes in fluid distribution in the
at Mauna Kea in Hawaii, involving India, the US,
body can lead to increased intracranial pressure,
Canada, China, and Japan that aims to advance
causing vision-related issues, often referred to as
the understanding of the universe significantly.
Spaceflight Associated Neuro-ocular Syndrome (SANS).
F India is a key partner in the TMT project, with
‹ Cardiovascular Changes: The heart can change
India TMT Center at IIA leading the national
shape and size in microgravity, leading to potential
collaboration.
cardiovascular issues.
v The TMT is a next-generation astronomical
‹ Psychological Effects: Extended isolation and
confinement can also impact mental health, leading observatory designed to provide unprecedented
to stress, anxiety, and other psychological challenges. resolution and sensitivity with its massive 30-meter
primary mirror, advanced adaptive optics system,
International Space Station (ISS) and state-of-the-art instruments.
‹ It is the largest man-made structure in space, and v The TMT, the Giant Magellan Telescope, and the
was launched in 1998. European Southern Observatory’s Extremely
‹ It functions as a habitat for astronauts and has Large Telescope represent the future of ground-
been continuously occupied since 2000. based astronomy.
‹ Participating Agencies: The ISS is a joint effort of ‹ Primary Goals:
the space agencies of the United States (NASA), v Study the early universe and the formation and
Russia (Roscosmos), Europe (ESA), Japan (JAXA), evolution of the first galaxies and stars after the
and Canada (CSA). Big Bang.
‹ Orbit: The ISS orbits approximately 400 kilometres
v Investigate the formation, structure, and evolution
above Earth.
of galaxies across cosmic time.

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v Study the relationship between supermassive black holes and their host galaxies.
v Investigate the formation of stars and planetary systems.
v Characterise exoplanets and study their atmospheres.

‹ Adaptive Optics System (AOS) and New Online Tool:

v The TMT’s AOS, known as the Narrow Field Infrared Adaptive Optics System (NFIRAOS), uses deformable mirrors
and laser guide stars (LGS) to correct atmospheric turbulence, enhancing image resolution.
v This facility will project up to nine lasers into the sky to create artificial guide stars. However, atmospheric
turbulence affects these laser beams, so measuring atmospheric tip-tilt is uncertain.
F To correct these effects, the AO system requires feedback from three real stars, known as Natural Guide
Stars (NGS).
v Researchers have developed an automated code that can be used as an online tool to create a catalogue of
Near Infrared (NIR) stars.
F The automated code can compute the expected near-infrared magnitudes of stellar sources identified in
various optical sky surveys using their optical magnitudes.

Kodaikanal Solar Observatory

Why in News?
Recently, Kodaikanal Solar Observatory celebrated its 125th birth anniversary. Over the years, it has played a
crucial role in advancing our understanding of solar activity and its impact on Earth’s climate and space weather.
What is a Solar Observatory?
‹ About: A solar observatory is a facility or institution dedicated to observing and studying the Sun.
v These observatories use specialised telescopes and instruments to observe various phenomena on the Sun’s
surface, in its atmosphere, and in the surrounding space.

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‹ Need: The Sun serves as the main source of energy for life on Earth, and alterations in its surface or surrounding
areas have the potential to greatly impact our Earth’s atmosphere.
v Intense solar storms and Solar flares pose significant risks to satellite operations, power grids, and navigation
systems reliant on space-based technology.
v Through solar observatories, scientists can monitor these events and predict major events that can have an
impact on earth’s atmosphere.

What is the Kodaikanal Solar Observatory?

‹ About: The Kodaikanal Solar Observatory is a solar observatory owned and operated by the Indian Institute of
Astrophysics. It was established in 1899.
v The Evershed effect (apparent radial flow of gas observed in the penumbra (outer region) of sunspots on the
Sun) was first detected at this observatory in January 1909.
‹ Madras Observatory (Chennai, 1792): In 1792, the British East India Company established the Madras Observatory,
a first of its kind in this part of the world.
v Here, astronomical observations of the Sun, the Moon, bright stars and planets recorded during 1812-1825
were preserved in two large data volumes.
v It was merged with the KoSO following the reorganisation of all Indian observatories in April 1899.

What are the Other Major Space Observatories Established in India?

‹ Indian Astronomical Observatory (IAO), Hanle: It is situated in Hanle Ladakh and one of the country’s premier
astronomical facilities.
v It is operated by the Indian Institute of Astrophysics and plays a vital role in advancing India’s contributions to
the field of astronomy and astrophysics.
‹ Mt. Abu Infrared Observatory (MIO): It is situated at the top of Mount Abu (at Gurushikhar) in the Aravalli Range
of Rajasthan, India.
v It is operated by the Physical Research Laboratory (PRL).

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v Infrared astronomy involves observing celestial

objects and phenomena in the infrared portion
of the electromagnetic spectrum.
‹ Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope: It is a prominent
radio astronomy facility located near Pune, India.
v Operated by the National Centre for Radio
Astrophysics (NCRA), the GMRT comprises 30
fully steerable parabolic radio telescopes spread
over a large area.
v Its design is based on the SMART Concept: Stretch
Mesh Attached to Rope Trusses.
Uranium-to-Lead Ratio Analysis
Earth’s Ancient ‹ Uranium-lead dating, or U-Pb dating, is a radiometric
dating technique that uses the ratio of uranium
Magnetic Field isotopes to lead isotopes to determine the age of
earth materials.
Why in News?
‹ The ratio of uranium to lead is used to determine
Recently, a study in the Journal of Geophysical the rate at which uranium decays into lead, which
Research by geologists at the Massachusetts Institute of is then used to determine the age of a rock.
Technology and Oxford University unveiled insights into
Earth’s ancient magnetic field, as revealed by ancient What is Earth’s Magnetic Field?
rocks, shedding light on its early geological evolution.
‹ About:
What are the Key Findings of the Study? v Earth’s magnetic field, also known as the
‹ Strength of Magnetic Field: geomagnetic field, is generated in the planet’s
v Geologists discovered ancient rocks in the Isua interior and extends into space, creating a region
Supracrustal Belt in southwestern Greenland dating called the magnetosphere and interacting with
back approximately 3.7 billion years, bearing the the solar wind.
oldest remnants of Earth’s early magnetic field. v The magnetic field is generated by convection
F The rocks retain signatures of a magnetic field currents of molten iron and nickel in the Earth’s
with a strength of at least 15 microtesla, similar core, which carry charged particles and generate
in magnitude to Earth’s magnetic field today magnetic fields.
(around 30 microtesla).
v Not only Earth, but Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and
‹ Magnetic Field’s Lifetime: Neptune also have strong magnetic fields, which
v Previous studies suggested a magnetic field on are not fully understood.
Earth at least 3.5 billion years old, but this study
F Mars lacks the inner heat and liquid interior
extends its lifetime by another 200 million years.
needed for a magnetic field, while Venus has a
v Using uranium-to-lead ratio analysis, researchers
liquid core but spins too slowly to generate one.
estimated that some of the magnetised minerals in
the rocks were approximately 3.7 billion years old. ‹ Geodynamo Process:
‹ Potential Role in Earth’s Habitability: v Earth’s magnetic field is generated by the
v The early magnetic field may have played a critical geodynamo process in the outer core.
role in making the planet habitable. F The convective energy from the slow-moving
F It likely helped retain a life-sustaining atmosphere molten iron in the outer core is converted
and shielded the planet from damaging solar to electrical and magnetic energy, inducing a
radiation. positive feedback loop.

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‹ Magnetic poles: What is PRATUSH?

v Earth has two sets of poles: the geographic poles ‹ About:
and the magnetic poles. v PRATUSH is a radio telescope designed to be placed
F The geographic North and South poles are the on the far side of the moon. It is built by Raman
locations where the lines of longitude converge, Research Institute (RRI), Bengaluru and Indian
with the Geographic North Pole situated in the Space Research Organisation (ISRO).
middle of the Arctic Ocean and the Geographic
South Pole located in Antarctica.
v In contrast, the magnetic poles are the locations
where the magnetic field lines enter and exit the
Earth’s surface.
F The Magnetic North Pole, also known as the
North Dip Pole, is currently found on Ellesmere
Island in northern Canada.
F When a compass points north, it is aligning itself
with the Earth’s magnetic field and pointing
towards the Magnetic North Pole, not the true
Geographic North Pole.
‹ Protection from Space Weather:
v Earth’s magnetosphere shields the planet from
harmful space weather, such as solar wind, coronal
mass ejections (CMEs), and cosmic rays.
v The magnetosphere repels harmful energy away ‹ Objective:
from Earth and traps it in zones called the Van v It aims to uncover the timing and characteristics of
Allen radiation belts. the first stars’ formation in the universe, including
‹ Geomagnetic Storms and Auroras: the colour of the light during Cosmic Dawn.
v During strong space weather events, Earth’s v It will unveil the evolution of our early universe
magnetic field can be disturbed, leading to from its initial cold gas state to the formation of
geomagnetic storms that can cause power blackouts stars, galaxies, and the universe as we observe it
and communication disruptions. today post-Big Bang.
v Disturbances in Earth’s magnetic field also funnel F The Cosmic Dawn marks the period when the
ions towards the polar regions, creating spectacular first sources of radiation, such as stars and
auroras (northern lights and southern lights). galaxies, formed in the universe.
‹ Capabilities:
PRATUSH Telescope v PRATUSH will carry advanced radio equipment
covering a wide frequency range from 30 to 250
Why in the News? MHz.
Astronomers globally are anticipating a new era of F It will observe large sky areas continuously,
exploration with high-resolution telescopes set to be recording detailed radio spectra with a resolution
placed on the moon and in orbit around it. Various of 100 kHz.
proposals, like India’s PRATUSH (Probing ReionizATion v It includes a custom-designed antenna, analog
of the Universe using Signal from Hydrogen), aim to receiver, and digital correlator for high-resolution
open this new window to the universe. spectral analysis.

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F The goal is to achieve a sensitivity level of a few ‹ It will help in better land and maritime domain
millikelvin with precise awareness for civilian and military applications.
F Millikelvins (mK) are a unit of measurement ‹ It will involve the launch of at least 52 satellites in low
used to express temperature on the Kelvin scale, earth orbit and geostationary orbit for surveillance.
where 1 millikelvin is equal to 1000 of a Kelvin. v 21 satellites will be built by ISRO and the remaining
v It is designed for a two-year mission in a circumlunar 31 by private companies.
orbit to avoid interference and achieve optimal ‹ The SBS mission is being handled by the National
radio sky measurements. Security Council Secretariat and Defence Space
Agency under the Ministry of Defence.
v The three armed forces will have dedicated satellites
India’s Satellite for their land, sea or air-based missions.
Launch by SpaceX ‹ SBS 1 was launched in 2001, and involved the launch
of four satellites e.g., Risat 2 while SBS 2 came in
India’s GSAT-N2 (GSAT-20) communication satellite 2013 with the launch of six satellites e.g., Risat 2A.
was successfully launched by SpaceX’s Falcon-9 rocket
‹ The SBS 3 mission will be supported by India’s
from Cape Canaveral, Florida, US.
acquisition of 31 Predator drones from the US, joint
‹ Falcon-9 launched the GSAT-N2 into a geosynchronous construction of military satellites with France and
transfer orbit (GTO), an elliptical orbit with an altitude anti-satellite missile capabilities.
of around 37,000 km, which is the first step toward ‹ India aims to acquire capabilities to detect enemy
reaching a geosynchronous or geostationary orbit submarines in the Indo-Pacific and monitor
(GSO). infrastructure construction by adversaries along its
v The spacecraft circularises the GTO orbit by turning land and sea borders.
parallel to the equator at apoapsis and firing its Read More: Satellite-Based Communication
rocket engine to reach GSO.
F Apoapsis is the point in an orbit when an object
is farthest away from the body it is orbiting.
Launch of Tanager-1
‹ This is India’s first collaboration with Elon Musk’s NASA launched the Tanager-1 satellite to detect
SpaceX. major emitters of carbon dioxide and methane.
‹ The satellite belongs to NewSpace India Limited ‹ Tanager-1 will use imaging spectrometer technology
(NSIL), which is the commercial arm of ISRO. to measure wavelengths of light that are reflected
v NSIL has been mandated to build, launch, own by Earth’s surface.
and operate satellites in “demand-driven mode” v Methane and Carbon dioxide absorb different
to meet service needs of the user. wavelengths of light, leaving spectral “fingerprints”
‹ The GSAT-N2 is the 2nd demand-driven satellite of
that the imaging spectrometer can identify.
NSIL. Its first demand-driven satellite was GSAT-24 ‹ It will be able to measure point-source emissions,

launched in June 2022. down to the level of individual facilities and equipment,
on a global scale.
Read More: Completion of SSLV Development
‹ Earlier, NASA had launched MethaneSAT which tracks
Project
and measures methane emissions.
‹ Methane: Methane is a strong greenhouse gas and
Space Based Surveillance the second largest contributor to global warming
(SBS) Mission after carbon dioxide. It is responsible for 30% of
global heating.
The Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS) has ap- v According to the United Nations Environment
proved phase 3 of the Space Based Surveillance (SBS) Programme, over a period of 20 years, it is 80 times
mission. more potent at warming than carbon dioxide.

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v It also contributes to the formation of ground-level v This is called the “gravity assist” method which
ozone, a colourless and highly irritating gas that saves propellant by using the gravitational pull
forms just above the Earth’s surface. of celestial bodies to alter the spacecraft’s speed
Read More: Methane Mitigation to Combat Global and trajectory.
Warming v Successful execution of the slingshot put JUICE on
course to reach Jupiter by 2031 with the help of
Japan’s SLIM Moon Mission three further single gravity assists: Venus in 2025,
and then the earth again in 2026 and 2029.
Japan’s space agency, JAXA, has concluded operations ‹ JUICE Probe:
of its Moon lander, the Smart Lander for Investigating v It was launched in 2023 and aims to explore Jupiter
Moon (SLIM), also known as the “Moon Sniper”, after
and its three large icy moons viz. Callisto, Europa,
losing communication with it.
and Ganymede.
‹ This operation was halted after the failure of multiple
v It will perform fly-bys of its three large icy moons
attempts to establish connection with the SLIM
and finally orbit Ganymede to study the potential
spacecraft.
to support life.
‹ About SLIM:
v Following up on NASA’s 1990s Galileo mission to
v SLIM is a small-scale lunar lander designed for
Jupiter, the ESA-led JUICE mission will orbit Jupiter.
precise landings, reduced equipment size and
weight, and investigating the Moon’s origins. F Other important missions to study Jupiter– Juno
Mission (NASA), Cassini-Huygens (NASA and
v It was an uncrewed spacecraft that also aimed to
ESA) and Galileo (NASA).
test low-gravity exploration technology essential
for future solar system exploration.
v It is nicknamed the “Moon Sniper” because of its Successful Launch
ability to land very precisely on the Moon’s surface.
v It made a soft landing on the Moon in January 2024,
of Ariane 6 Rocket
making Japan the 5th nation to achieve this feat. The European Space Agency (ESA) successfully
F Other countries that have successfully achieved launched the Ariane 6 rocket, for the first time, from
a soft lunar landing are India, Russia, the United French Guiana, marking Europe’s return to independent
States, and China. space access after delays and setbacks.
v ISRO’s Chandrayaan 3 Mission successfully ‹ It is the latest rocket in Europe’s Ariane rocket series
soft-landed a lander on the moon, in the natural (taking over from Ariane 5) that can launch missions
satellite’s south pole region. from low-Earth orbit and farther out into deep space.
Read More: Chandrayaan-3: India’s Imperatives for v Ariane-5 Rocket has been used to launch ISRO’s
Space Leadership communication satellites like GSAT-11, GSAT-30,
GSAT-31, ESA’s Juice mission and NASA’s James
JUICE Probe’s Double Webb Space Telescope (JWST).
‹ This debut flight carried nine cubesats into orbit,
Slingshot Manoeuvre including NASA’s CubeSat Radio Interferometry
The European Space Agency’s (ESA) Jupiter Icy Moons Experiment (CURIE) and other satellites studying
Explorer (JUICE) Probe performed a double slingshot Earth’s climate and weather.
manoeuvre, using the gravitational forces of both the ‹ The Vinci engine used in the upper stage is designed
Moon and Earth in quick succession. to restart repeatedly, allowing the operating agency
‹ JUICE first flew 434 miles from the Moon’s surface, to place payloads into several different orbits.
then 4,229 miles from Earth’s surface. The Moon’s ‹ 29 missions will be launched by Ariane 6 over the
gravity slightly altered JUICE’s path, allowing a significant next several years and aims for up to 12 flights a year.
gravity assist from Earth. Read More: European Space Agency’s Juice Mission

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India’s First 3D-Printed ‹ Earlier, Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Estonia, Germany,

Lithuania, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia,
Rocket Launched Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the ESA have
pledged to adhere to the Zero Debris Charter, with
Chennai-based start-up Agnikul Cosmos has launched
the world’s first rocket, Agnibaan Sub Orbital Technology over 100 organisations expected to join in the coming
Demonstrator (SOrTeD), powered by a fully 3D-printed months.
engine. Read More: Space Debris
‹ It aims to conduct a test flight to showcase the
company’s internally developed technologies and NASA’s PREFIRE Mission
gather important flight data.
‹ This has achieved several firsts for the Indian space NASA launched a pair of miniature satellites, called
ecosystem i.e. launch from a private pad (Dhanush), CubeSats (6U) to measure the heat lost from the Earth’s
homegrown semi-cryo engine-powered rocket launch poles.
and the world’s 1st single-piece 3D printed engine. ‹ The PREFIRE (Polar Radiant Energy in the Far-
v It uses liquid oxygen and kerosene as propellant. InfraRed Experiment) mission aims to fill a critical
‹ Launch was supported by the ISRO and the Indian gap in understanding the planet’s energy budget by
National Space Promotion and Authorisation Centre studying the heat emissions from the Earth’s poles.
(IN-SPACe). v The mission involves two CubeSats equipped
with thermal infrared spectrometers to measure
3D Printing: the amount of infrared and far-infrared radiation
‹ It is also known as additive manufacturing which emitted from the Arctic and Antarctica.
uses materials such as plastics and metals to convert ‹ This data will help scientists better understand the
products envisaged on computer-aided design to balance between incoming and outgoing heat, which
real three-dimensional items. is crucial for predicting changes in the Earth’s ice,
v It is the opposite of subtractive manufacturing seas, and weather patterns.
which is cutting out/hollowing out a piece of metal ‹ A cube satellite (cubesat) is a standardized, low cost,
or plastic with, for instance, a milling machine. small satellite design typically used for technological
Read more: Agnibaan SubOrbital Technological demonstration and research. It is a Nanosatellite-
Demonstrator (SOrTeD) weighs less than 10 kgs.
v These are relatively inexpensive and can be launched
ESA and Twelve Countries in larger numbers, making them a valuable tool for
scientific research and technology demonstrations.
Sign the Zero Debris Charter Read more: Space Missions in 2024
Twelve nations signed the Zero Debris Charter at
the European Space Agency (ESA) /EU Space Council, Gliese 12 b Potentially
solidifying their commitment to the long-term sustainability
of human activities in Earth orbit. Habitable Exoplanet
‹ Unveiled at the ESA Space Summit in Seville in
near Earth
November 2023, the Zero Debris Charter aims to
achieve debris-neutrality in space by 2030. In May 2024, NASA announced the discovery of an
‹ The Zero Debris Charter is facilitated by ESA’s Earth-sized, potentially habitable exoplanet named
‘Protection of Space Assets’ Accelerator and was Gliese 12 b, located just 40 light-years away from Earth,
created by 40 global space actors. making it one of the closest known potentially habitable
‹ Any entity committed to advancing space safety and planets to our solar system.
sustainability can sign the Charter and join the Zero ‹ Gliese 12 b has an average surface temperature of
Debris Community without needing approval from 42 °C, which is lower than the majority of the 5,000
existing partners. or so exoplanets discovered so far.

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v The exoplanet is slightly smaller than Earth, with Statio Shiv Shakti as Name
a size comparable to Venus.
‹ Gliese 12 b is a super-Earth exoplanet that orbits an of the Chandrayaan-3
M-type (red dwarf) star, Gliese 12, every 12.8 days. Landing Site
The star has a total of seven planets, all roughly the
size of Earth and likely rocky. The International Astronomical Union (IAU) working
v Three of the planets orbiting Gliese 12 fall within the group for Planetary System Nomenclature has approved
habitable zone, the distance from a star at which the name ‘Statio Shiv Shakti’ for the landing site of
liquid water can exist on the surfaces of planets. Chandrayaan-3’s Vikram lander.
v The host star is metal-poor, suggesting it may have ‹ Significance:
weaker magnetic fields and more volcanism than
v The “Shiv Shakti” point on the moon signifies
Earth, which could help Gliese 12 b maintain an
atmosphere. a connection spanning from the Himalayas to
Kanyakumari.
‹ NASA’s Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS)
played a crucial role in the initial detection of Gliese F “Shiv” symbolizes determination for the
12 b, paving the way for further observations and betterment of humanity.
analysis with the James Webb Space Telescope. F “Shakti” represents the strength to achieve
Read more: Exoplanet these resolutions.
‹ Other Key Locations:
NASA’s Mars Sample v PM previously designated the location of
Chandrayaan-2’s lander crash in September 2019
Return Program
as “Tiranga Point.”
In April 2024, NASA’s Perseverance Rover, nicknamed v Former President A.P.J. Abdul Kalam proposed
Percy, created the first “sample depot on another world” naming the site where the Chandrayaan-1 moon
by putting down ten rock sample tubes that were
impact probe landed in November 2008 as
supposed to be returned to Earth as part of the Mars
“Jawahar Point.”
Sample Return Campaign.
‹ However, the plan is too expensive costing $11 billion,
Read more: Chandrayaan-3 Successfully Lands on
and will only be executed by the year 2040. Moon’s South Pole
‹ Perseverance rover:
v It is a robotic explorer part of NASA’s Mars 2020 SAKHI: Enhancing
mission.
v Launched in July 2020, it landed on Mars’ Jezero
Astronaut Capabilities for
Crater in February 2021. Gaganyaan Mission
v It is a Mars rover about the size of a car but weighs
only about 1,025 kilograms with all instruments The Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC), under
on board. the ISRO, has developed an innovative and versatile
v It collects rock and soil samples, encasing them application called the Space-borne Assistant and
in tubes for a future return to Earth. Knowledge Hub for Crew Interaction (SAKHI) to support
v A Multi-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric astronauts during the Gaganyaan space flight mission.
Generator, which uses heat from plutonium decay ‹ SAKHI offers access to technical information, facilitates
to generate electricity, acts as the power source communication, monitors health, ensures connectivity
for the rover. with Earth and onboard systems, and manages
Read more: Perseverance Rover, Mars dietary schedules.

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‹ Strapped to space suits, SAKHI helps astronauts access v Its primary responsibility is enabling Indian
data, maintain logs, and stay informed about their industries to take up high technology space
well-being, enhancing safety and efficiency for the related activities and is also responsible for
Gaganyaan mission and aligning with ISRO’s goal of promotion and commercial exploitation of the
products and services emanating from the Indian
advancing space exploration.
space programme.
Read more: Gaganyaan
‹ The Major Business Areas of NSIL include:
v Production of Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle
GSAT-20 (GSAT-N2) (PSLV) and Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV)
through industry
Aboard SpaceX’s Falcon-9
v Production and marketing of space-based services,

Why in News? including launch services and space-based

applications like transponder leasing, remote
The commercial arm of the Indian Space Research sensing and mission support services;
Organisation (ISRO), NewSpace India Limited (NSIL) is v Building of Satellites (both Communication and
set to launch GSAT-20 (GSAT-N2), aboard SpaceX’s Earth Observation) as per user requirements.
Falcon-9 in 2024.
v Transfer of technology developed by ISRO centres/
‹ Falcon 9 is thb v e world’s first orbital class reusable, units and constituent institutions of Dept. of Space;
two-stage rocket designed and manufactured by
v Marketing spin off technologies and products/
SpaceX for the reliable and safe transport of people services emanating out of ISRO activities
and payloads into Earth orbit and beyond.
v Consultancy services
What is GSAT-20? ‹ In June 2022, NSIL successfully completed its first
‹ GSAT-20 is a high throughput Ka-band satellite that demand-driven satellite mission, GSAT-24, which was
provides high-speed broadband internet connectivity, fully secured by Tata Play, a satellite television service.
digital video transmission, and audio transmission. v Currently, NSIL manages and operates 11
v It is being launched to address the growing communication satellites in orbit.
broadband communication needs of India.It is
designed to provide comprehensive coverage across India to Join SKAO
India, including remote regions like Andaman and
Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep Islands. as a Full Member
‹ This satellite offers an impressive HTS (High Throughput
Why in News?
Satellite) capacity of nearly 48Gbps. Notably, it
comprises 32 beams specifically designed to meet India will also be part of the world’s largest radio
the demanding service needs of underserved areas, telescope project called the Square Kilometre Array
aiming to bridge the connectivity gap. Observatory (SKAO).
‹ Countries have to sign, and ratify, the SKAO convention
Note: The Ka-band refers to radio frequencies ranging to formally become members. The Government of
from 27 to 40 GHz. It allows high-speed satellite data India’s approval for joining the project, with a financial
transfers with wide coverage through focused spot sanction of Rs 1,250 crore, is the first step towards
beams.
the ratification.
What is NewSpace India Limited (NSIL)? What is the SKAO?
‹ NSIL, incorporated on 6 March 2019 (under the
th
‹ About: SKAO is an intergovernmental organization
Companies Act, 2013), is a wholly owned Government that aims to build and operate cutting-edge radio
of India company, under the administrative control telescopes. Its global headquarters is located in the
of Department of Space (DOS). Jodrell Bank Observatory, United Kingdom.

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v The project will not have a single telescope but an ‹ India’s Role in SKAO:
array of thousands of antennas, to be installed v India, through the Pune-based National Centre for
in remote radio-quiet locations in South Africa Radio Astrophysics (NCRA) and other institutions,
and Australia, that will operate as one large unit has played a key role in the development of the
meant to observe and study celestial phenomena. ambitious SKAO project since its inception in the
F SKAO objectives also include study of gravitational 1990s.
waves. v India’s primary contribution to SKAO lies in the
v Some of the countries taking part in building development and operation of the Telescope
the SKA include the UK, Australia, South Manager element, essentially the “neural network”
Africa, Canada, China, France, India, Italy or software that controls the entire telescope’s
and Germany. operation.
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Nanotechnology
Nanoplastics Causing ‹ Horizontal Gene Transfer (HGT): Polyethylene
terephthalate bottle-derived nanoplastics (PBNPs)
Antibiotic Resistance facilitate the transfer of AR genes from E. coli to
Lactobacillus acidophilus through horizontal gene
Why in News? transfer (HGT).
Recently, a study revealed that nanoplastics derived v In HGT, genes are passed directly from one organism
from single-use plastic bottles (SUPBs) contribute to to another, potentially across different species.
the spread of antibiotic resistance (AR), presenting an (Vertical gene transfer, from parent to offspring).
overlooked public health risk. ‹ Two Mechanisms of AR Gene Transfer:
‹ Antibiotic resistance, a type of antimicrobial resistance, v Direct Transformation Pathway: PBNPs act as
occurs when bacteria evolve to resist the effects of physical carriers, transporting AR plasmids across
drugs that once killed them or inhibited their growth. bacterial membranes and promoting direct gene
transfer.
What are Key Highlights of the Study?
v OMV-Induced Transfer Pathway: PBNPs induce
‹ Risk to Gut Microbiome: Nanoplastics could transform
oxidative stress, triggering increased outer
Lactobacillus acidophilus (gut microbiota) into a membrane vesicle (OMV) secretion.
carrier of AR genes, which may then be transferred to
F These OMVs, carrying AR genes, facilitate gene
pathogenic bacteria during infections, thus worsening
transfer between bacterial species, including
the AR crisis. between beneficial and pathogenic bacteria.

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‹ AR Gene Transfer Mechanism:

What Are Nanoplastics?

‹ Definition: Nanoplastics are solid particles of synthetic or heavily modified natural polymers with sizes ranging
between 1 nm and 1000 nm.
‹ Types:
v Primary Nanoplastics: These are intentionally produced nanoplastics, typically for specific applications.
v Secondary Nanoplastics: The majority of nanoplastics in the environment are secondary, meaning they result
from the fragmentation of larger plastic items released unintentionally into the environment.

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‹ Concerns with Nanoplastics: ‹ Comparison with Graphene Superconductors:

v Environmental Presence: Disrupts marine food Graphene-based moiré materials achieve
chains and ecosystems. superconductivity through electron-lattice interactions
and flat band formation, while tWSe₂ relies on
v Bioaccumulation: Harmful effects on health. electron-electron interactions, making it more stable
v Toxicity: Inflammation, and disruptions in normal and potentially more robust.
cellular processes. v Electron-lattice interactions are the interactions
v Gut Microbiome Disruption: Digestive problems, between electrons and the atomic lattice (the
immune dysfunction, or an increased risk of arrangement of atoms) in a material’s crystal
structure.
infections.
‹ Significance of Findings: Stable superconductivity
at low temperatures enables practical applications
Moiré Materials and in quantum computing and electronics.
v It can aid in designing new materials for future
Superconductivity technologies.

Why in News? Note: Superconductivity is the property of certain

materials to conduct direct current (DC) electricity
A recent Nature study found that moiré materials without energy loss when they are cooled below a
made from semiconductors can also be superconducting, critical temperature (Tc).
a property previously thought to be exclusive to graphene. ‹ These materials also expel magnetic fields as they

What are the Key Facts About Moiré transition to the superconducting state.
Materials? ‹ Superconductivity was discovered in 1911 by Heike
Kamerlingh-Onnes. For this discovery, he won the
‹ About: Moiré materials are materials having unique 1913 Nobel Prize in Physics.
properties due to the interference pattern formed
‹ E..g., MRI machines use an alloy of niobium and
when two repetitive structures are overlaid at a
titanium.
slight angle.
‹ Creation of Moiré Materials: Moiré materials are
created by stacking two layers of a two-dimensional Security Alert System Based
(2-D) material, such as tungsten diselenide, and on Piezoelectric Polymer
twisting one layer at a small angle (3.65º).
Nanocomposite
v The twist between the layers creates a unique
moire pattern that gives rise to new electronic Why in News?
behaviors not present in individual layers. Recently, the researchers from Centre for Nano and
‹ Electronic Properties: The twist in layers creates flat Soft Matter Sciences (CeNS) and National Chemical
bands in the electronic structure, where electrons Laboratory (CSIR-NCL), Pune have developed a novel
move slowly with nearly constant energy. piezoelectric polymer nanocomposite for pressure
sensing and energy harvesting.
v This slow movement boosts electron-electron
‹ This can efficiently convert mechanical energy into
interactions, crucial for superconductivity.
electrical energy opening new avenues for applications
‹ Research on Tungsten Diselenide (tWSe₂): tWSe₂, in energy harvesting and pressure sensing.
a semiconductor moiré material, demonstrated
superconductivity at a transition temperature of What are Piezoelectric Polymer
approximately –272.93º C, comparable to that of Nanocomposite?
high-temperature superconductors. ‹ Piezoelectric Materials/ Effect:
v The superconducting state in tWSe₂ was found v Piezoelectric materials are materials that can
to be more stable than in other moiré materials. produce electricity when applied to mechanical

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stress. When pressure is applied to such materials, the centres of positive and negative charges shift, creating
an external electric field.
v Examples:
F Natural materials: Quartz, topaz, and tourmaline.
F Organic materials: Silk, wood, and bone.
F Ceramics: Lead zirconate titanate (PZT) and barium titanate (BT).
F Polymers: PVDF and PVDF-TrFE.
F Ferroelectric materials: Barium titanate (BaTiO3) generates electric charge without mechanical pressure.
v Applications:
F Piezoelectric materials are used in various applications, including microphones, electric pickups for stringed
instruments, sensors, actuators, frequency standards, piezoelectric motors, and noise and vibration reduction.
‹ Polymer:
v A polymer is a large molecule composed of chains or rings of linked repeating subunits called monomers,
typically having high melting and boiling points due to their high molecular masses.
F Natural polymers include silk and DNA, while synthetic polymers, like nylon and polyethylene, are made
from oil or bio-based sources.
‹ Piezoelectric Polymers:
v These are polymers that can generate electric charges on the surface under pressure/strain thus converting
mechanical energy into electrical energy.
v Example: Poly(vinylidene fluoride), also known as PVDF, Poly(vinylidene fluoride-trifluoroethylene) copolymer
or P(VDF-TrFE).
‹ Polymer Nanocomposites: These are materials made from polymer matrices combined with small percentages
of nanometer-sized additives, aimed at enhancing the properties of polymers such as mechanical, thermal, and
electrical characteristics.
v Nanomaterials are the material having structural components with at least one dimension in the nanometer
scale, that is, 1-100 nm.
v Nanocomposite is a solid material made up of two or more different substances, where at least one of these
substances has dimensions in the nanoscale range, specifically between 1 nm and 3 nm.

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What are the Key Facts About the Study?

‹ About:
v The researchers aimed to study how the different crystal structures of the zirconia nanoparticles affected the
piezoelectric capabilities of the composite material.
‹ Process:
v Researchers created two types of zirconia-based Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) (UiO-66 and UiO-67) and
converted them into zirconia nanoparticles.
F Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are crystalline materials composed of metal ions or clusters linked to
rigid organic molecules, resulting in one-, two-, or three-dimensional porous structures.
v Then these nanoparticles are mixed with a piezoelectric polymer called poly(vinylidene difluoride) (PVDF) to
make polymer nanocomposite films.
‹ Findings:
v Researchers found that the surface properties and crystal structure of the nanoparticles significantly influenced
the piezoelectric performance of the polymer.
‹ Practical Applications:
v Security Alert System: A Bluetooth-based security alert system uses a piezoelectric pavement prototype that
generates voltage from footsteps.
F If unauthorised entry is detected, the system activates and sends alerts to a connected device, like an Android
smartphone, via Bluetooth.
v Electricity Generation: The prototype can also generate electrical energy from mechanical energy input.
F This feature is particularly beneficial in enhancing the efficiency of energy use in smart cities and automated
security systems.

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Information Technology: AI, Blockchain, Cyber Security

Global Cybersecurity Outlook 2025
Why in News?
The World Economic Forum (WEF) has recently released the Global Cybersecurity Outlook 2025 report.
‹ The report highlights rising cyber threats to critical infrastructure, driven by geopolitical tensions, outdated
systems, and a cybersecurity skills gap, stressing the need for enhanced security and resilience.
World Economic Forum (WEF)
‹ About: The WEF is an international organization for public-private cooperation, engaging global leaders from
politics, business, culture, and other sectors to shape agendas at global, regional, and industry levels.
‹ Headquarters: Geneva, Switzerland.
‹ Foundation: Established in 1971 by Klaus Schwab, a German professor. Initially named the European Management
Forum.
Note:
‹ The index, named Global Cybersecurity Index (GCI) , is published by the International Telecommunication
Union (ITU) to assess and rank countries based on their commitment to cybersecurity.
‹ India has achieved a major milestone in cybersecurity by securing Tier 1 status in the 5th edition of GCI 2024.

What are the Key Issues Highlighted in Global Cybersecurity Outlook 2025?
‹ Vulnerability of Critical Infrastructure: Critical infrastructure sectors like water, biosecurity, communications,
energy, and climate are vulnerable to cyberattacks due to outdated technologies and interconnected systems.

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v Cybercriminals and state actors target operational technology, including undersea cables, risking global data flow.
v In 2024 there was a sharp increase in phishing and social engineering attacks, with 42% of organizations
reporting such incidents.
v Example: A 2024 cyberattack on a US water utility disrupted operations, highlighting vulnerabilities in water
treatment facilities.
‹ Geopolitical Tensions: Geopolitical conflicts, like the Russia-Ukraine war, have heightened cyber and physical
attacks on critical sectors such as energy, telecommunications, and water.
v Nearly 60% of organizations state that geopolitical tensions have affected their cybersecurity strategy.

‹ Biosecurity Threats: Advancements in Artificial intelligence (AI), genetic engineering, and biotechnology have
heightened biosecurity risks, with cyberattacks on bio-laboratories threatening research and safety protocols.
v The World Health Organization (WHO) has warned of these dangers, as seen in 2024 attacks on labs in South
Africa and the UK.
‹ Cybersecurity Skills Gap: The report highlights a critical cybersecurity skills gap, with a shortage of up to 4.8
million professionals globally.
v Two-thirds of organizations face notable skills gaps, with only 14% having the required skilled personnel for
the current cyber landscape.
‹ Cyber Resilience: 35% of small organizations feel their cyber resilience is insufficient.
v Public-sector organizations face greater challenges, with 38% reporting low resilience and 49% lacking
cybersecurity talent, a 33% rise from 2024.
‹ Regional Cybersecurity Disparities:
v The report highlights global cybersecurity disparities, with low confidence in incident response rising from 15%
in Europe/North America to 36% in Africa and 42% in Latin America.
‹ Losses Due to Cybercrime: Cybercrime has become a highly profitable venture, with minimal operational costs
and potentially high returns.
v The US Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) estimates losses from cybercrime exceeded USD 12.5 billion in 2023.

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Pegasus Spyware ‹ Targets:

v Several investigations and reports have revealed
Why in News? that Pegasus spyware has been used to spy on
journalists, human rights activists, lawyers,
The Pegasus spyware has once again ignited a debate
opposition leaders, and heads of state.
on privacy and security. Recent reports by Amnesty
v Some of the countries that have been accused of
International point to its utilization in targeting the phones
of two prominent Indian journalists, prompting inquiries using Pegasus spyware to target their critics and
enemies include Saudi Arabia, Mexico, India,
into potential government involvement.
Morocco, Hungary, Azerbaijan, and Rwanda.
‹ Amnesty International is a global movement of more
than 10 million people who are committed to creating
a future where human rights are enjoyed by everyone. Large Language Models
What is Pegasus Spyware? Why in News?
‹ About: In the era of advanced artificial intelligence (AI), the
v Pegasus spyware is a highly invasive mobile emergence of Large Language Models (LLMs) has
surveillance tool that can secretly infiltrate revolutionized the way computers interact with humans
and monitor smartphones, collecting data and and process language. From enhancing virtual
information from various apps and sources. conversations to powering creative tasks, LLMs have paved
v It was developed by the Israeli cyber-intelligence the way for a new frontier in the realm of AI technology.
firm NSO Group, which claims to sell it only What are Large Language Models (LLMs)?
to government agencies for fighting crime and
‹ Definition:
terrorism.
v LLMs are large general-purpose language models
F NSO emphasizes mechanisms in place to avoid
capable of solving common language problems
targeting journalists, lawyers, and human rights
such as text classification, question answering,
defenders not involved in terror or serious crimes.
and text generation.
‹ Operating Procedure:
v These models are trained on massive datasets to
v Pegasus uses “zero-click” methods to infect devices; understand patterns, structures, and relationships
it is a malicious software that allows spyware to be within human language.
installed on a device without the device owner’s ‹ Types of Large Language Models (LLMs)
consent.
v Based on Architecture:
F The spyware doesn’t necessitate any user actions
F Autoregressive Models: Predict the next
for installation, distinguishing it from regular word in a sequence based on previous words.
apps that require explicit user confirmation. Example: GPT-3.
F It can exploit vulnerabilities in apps such as F Transformer-based Models: Utilise a specific
WhatsApp, iMessage, or FaceTime, and send a artificial neural network architecture for
message or a call that triggers the installation language processing. Examples: LaMDA, Gemini
of the spyware, even if the user does not open (formerly Bard).
or answer it. F Encoder-decoder Models: Encode input text
v Pegasus is a spyware that can exploit zero-day into a representation and then decode it into
vulnerabilities to deploy spyware on Apple products. another language or format.
F A zero-day vulnerability is an undiscovered flaw v Based on Training Data:
or bug in an operating system that the mobile F Pretrained and Fine-tuned Models: Adapt to
phone’s manufacturer does not yet know about specific tasks through fine-tuning on particular
and so has not been able to fix. datasets.

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F Multilingual Models: Capable of understanding Carbon Footprint of

and generating text in multiple languages.
F Domain-specific Models: Trained on data
Artificial Intelligence
related to specific domains like legal, finance,
or healthcare. Why in News?
v Based on Size and Availability: As artificial intelligence (AI) technology grows, its
F Size: Large models require more computational energy-intensive operations pose significant environ-
resources but offer better performance. mental concerns. Despite challenges, advancements like
Spiking Neural Networks (SNNs) and lifelong learning
F Availability: Open-source models are freely
offer promising avenues to reduce AI’s carbon footprint
available, while closed-source models are
while leveraging its potential to address climate change.
proprietary.
‹ Examples of open-source LLMs: LLaMA2, BlOOM, What are the Spiking Neural
Google BERT, Falcon 180B, OPT-175 B. Networks and Lifelong Learning?
‹ Examples of closed-source LLMs: GPT 3.5 by OpenAI, ‹ Spiking Neural Networks (SNNs):
Gemini by Google.
v SNNs are a type of artificial neural network (ANNs)
‹ Operational Mechanisms of LLMs: inspired by the human brain’s neural structure.
v At their core, LLMs utilize deep learning techniques, v Unlike traditional ANNs, which use continuous
to predict the probability of words or sequences numerical values for processing data, SNNs operate
given preceding text. based on discrete spikes or pulses of activity.
F LLMs analyze patterns and relationships in
F Just as Morse code uses specific sequences of
data to predict the next word or sequence
dots and dashes to convey messages, SNNs use
based on input prompts, akin to how humans
patterns or timings of spikes to process and
comprehend language.
transmit information, similar to how neurons
F LLMs typically rely on transformer models, such in the brain communicate through electrical
as the Generative Pre-trained Transformer impulses called spikes.
(GPT), with attention mechanisms for contextual
v This binary, all-or-none characteristic of spikes
understanding.
allows SNNs to be more energy-efficient than
What are Large Action Models (LAMs)? ANNs, as they consume energy only when a spike
‹ LAMs are specialized AI models built to perform occurs, unlike artificial neurons in ANNs which are
specific tasks or sequences of actions, often beyond always active.
just understanding and generating text. F In the absence of spikes, SNNs exhibit remarkably
v LAMs can understand human intention and low energy consumption, contributing to their
predict actions. LAMs are designed to help with energy-efficient nature.
repetitive tasks. F SNNs have shown the potential to be up to 280
‹ They are designed to execute actions based on times more energy-efficient than ANNs due
inputs, which may include text, images, or other to their sparsity in activity and event-driven
forms of data. processing.
‹ LAMs can be used in various applications such as v The energy-efficient properties of SNNs make them
virtual assistants, robotic systems, automated suitable for various applications, including space
customer service, and more. exploration, defence systems, and self-driving cars,
v Example of LAM: Rabbit r1. where energy resources are limited.
‹ These models are trained on datasets that include v Ongoing research aims to optimise SNNs further
both linguistic information and action-oriented and develop learning algorithms to harness their
data to learn how to perform tasks based on given energy efficiency for a wide range of practical
contexts. applications.

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‹ Lifelong Learning (L2): large language models (the type of technology

v Lifelong Learning (L2) or Lifelong Machine Learning that’s behind ChatGPT) have gone up by a factor
(LML) is a machine learning paradigm that involves of 300,000.
continuous learning. It involves accumulating ‹ Hardware Consumption:
knowledge from previous tasks and using it to v AI’s computational demands rely heavily on
help with future learning and problem-solving. specialised processors, like GPUs provided by
v L2 serves as a strategy to mitigate the overall companies such as Nvidia, which consume
energy demands of ANNs throughout their lifetime. substantial power.
F Training ANNs sequentially on new tasks leads
F Despite advancements in energy efficiency,
to forgetting previous knowledge, necessitating
these processors remain formidable consumers
retraining from scratch with changes in the
of energy.
operating environment, thus increasing AI-
related emissions. ‹ Cloud Computing Efficiency:
v L2 encompasses a collection of algorithms enabling v Major cloud companies, essential for AI deployment,
AI models to undergo sequential training on pledge commitments to carbon neutrality and
multiple tasks with minimal forgetting. energy efficiency.
F This approach facilitates continual learning, F Efforts to improve energy efficiency in data
leveraging existing knowledge to adapt to centres have shown promising results, with
new challenges without the need for extensive only a modest increase in energy consumption
retraining. despite a significant rise in computing workloads.
Why is the Carbon Footprint ‹ Environmental Concerns:
of Artificial Intelligence High? v Despite AI’s promising future, concerns persist
‹ Growing Energy Consumption: regarding its environmental impact, with experts
v The carbon footprint of artificial intelligence is
urging greater consideration of the carbon footprint
the amount of greenhouse gas emissions that in AI deployment.
are generated by the creation, training, and use F The rush for AI advancement may overshadow
of AI systems. immediate environmental concerns, highlighting
v The proliferation of data centres, driven by the the need for a balanced approach towards
increasing demand for AI, is significantly contributing sustainability in AI development and deployment.
to the world’s energy consumption.
Water Footprint of AI
F By 2025, it’s estimated that the IT industry,
fueled by AI advancements, could consume ‹ The water footprint of AI is determined by the
up to 20% of all electricity produced globally water used for electricity generation and cooling
and emit approximately 5.5% of the world’s in data centres running AI models.
carbon emissions. v The water footprint consists of direct water
‹ AI Training Emissions: consumption (from cooling processes) and
indirect water consumption (for electricity
v Training large AI models, such as GPT-3 and GPT-4,
production).
consumes substantial energy and emits considerable
carbon dioxide (CO2). ‹ Factors affecting the water footprint include AI
model type and size, data centre location and
v Research indicates that training a single AI model
can emit CO2 equivalent to several cars over their efficiency, and electricity generation sources.
lifetimes. ‹ Training a large AI model like GPT-3 can consume
F GPT-3 emits 8.4 tonnes of CO₂ annually. Since
up to 700,000 litres of fresh water, equivalent to
the AI boom started in the early 2010s, the producing 370 BMW cars or 320 Tesla electric
energy requirements of AI systems known as vehicles.

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v It is a game assisting AI, making it a valuable asset

v Interactions with AI chatbots like ChatGPT can
for enhancing the gaming experience.
consume up to 500 ml of water for 20-50 Q&A
sessions. v SIMA can be called a generalist AI Agent that is
capable of doing different kinds of tasks.
v GPT-4, with a larger model size, is expected to
increase water consumption, but exact figures v It is like a virtual buddy who can understand
are hard to estimate due to data availability. and follow instructions in all sorts of virtual
environments – from exploring mysterious dungeons
‹ Data centres use water-intensive cooling systems
to building lavish castles. It can accomplish tasks
due to the heat generated, requiring freshwater
or solve challenges assigned to it.
for cooling and power generation.
‹ Working:
v SIMA “understands” any person’s commands as
Google DeepMind’s it has been trained to process human language.
So when one asks it to build a castle or find the
SIMA and AlphaGeometry treasure chest, it understands exactly what these
commands mean.
Why in News?
v One distinct feature of this AI Agent is that it is
Recently, Google DeepMind has revealed its various capable of learning and adapting. SIMA does this
AI (Artificial Intelligence) products based on Predictive through the interactions it has with the user.
AI Models, such as SIMA (Scalable Instructable Multiworld
‹ Training:
Agent) and AlphaGeometry.
v Google DeepMind collaborated with eight game
‹ OpenAI’s ChatGPT and Google’s Gemini have
studios to train SIMA, an AI agent, on nine different
garnered significant attention from various sectors,
video games including Teardown and No Man’s Sky.
with companies and researchers, including those
in oil and gas as well as pharmaceutical industries, v SIMA learned various skills like navigation, menu
increasingly turning to Generative AI or Predictive use, resource mining, and spaceship flying.
AI for applications such as oil exploration and drug v They also tested SIMA in four research environments,
discovery. one of which was the Construction Lab in Unity.
What is Predictive AI? What is AlphaGeometry?
‹ Predictive AI models are a type of artificial ‹ About:
intelligence system designed to forecast or predict v DeepMind’s AlphaGeometry is a specialised AI
future outcomes based on historical data, patterns, system designed to tackle complex geometry
and trends. problems.
‹ These models utilise advanced algorithms, statistical v Unlike general-purpose AI models like OpenAI’s
techniques, and machine learning methods to ChatGPT or Google’s Gemini, AlphaGeometry is
analyse vast amounts of data and make informed tailored specifically for geometric reasoning tasks.
predictions about future events or behaviours. v It combines advanced neural language modelling
techniques with a symbolic deduction engine
What is SIMA? specialised in algebraic and geometric reasoning.
‹ About: F Neural language models are built using neural
v SIMA is an AI Agent, which is different from AI network architectures, which are computational
models such as OpenAI’s ChatGPT or Google models inspired by the structure and function
Gemini. of the human brain.
F AI models are trained on a vast data set and are F Symbolic deduction is a method of logical
limited when it comes to working on their own. reasoning that operates on symbols and logical
F On the other hand, an AI Agent can process rules to derive conclusions from premises. In
data and take action themselves. symbolic deduction, statements are represented

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using symbols, such as variables and logical ‹ It emphasises developing processes to curate India-
operators, and logical rules are applied to centric data, enhancing the country’s control over
manipulate these symbols according to its digital resources.
predefined inference rules. ‹ It has four key features:
‹ Working: v Multilingual and multimodal models,
v It leverages both neural language models for v Bhartiya dataset-based training,
intuitive idea generation and symbolic deduction
v Open-source platform,
for precise reasoning.
v Generative AI research ecosystem in India.
v W h e n fa c e d w i t h ge o m et r y p ro b l e m s ,
F Generative AI can produce various types of
AlphaGeometry first utilises its language model
content, including text, imagery, and audio.
to suggest potential geometric constructs that
could aid in solving the problem. Read More: Large Language Models (LLMs)
v These suggestions help inform the symbolic deduction
engine, which then makes further deductions and International Year of Quantum
approaches the solution systematically.
Science and Technology
F AlphaGeometry’s performance was evaluated
using a benchmarking set of geometry problems UN has designated the year 2025 as the ‘International
compiled from the International Mathematical Year of Quantum Science and Technology’ to increase
Olympiads (IMO). public awareness of the importance of quantum science
F It demonstrated impressive results, solving and its applications.
a significant portion of the problems within ‹ The resolution for this was led by Mexico at the
competition time limits, surpassing previous UNESCO General Conference in May 2023, which
AI systems in geometry and approaching the was adopted by almost 60 countries.
performance levels of human gold medallists ‹ Also, the year 2025 marks a century since German
in the IMO. physicist Werner Heisenberg published a paper laying
the foundation of modern quantum mechanics.
v He was awarded the Nobel Prize for physics in 1932
BharatGen
for the creation of quantum mechanics.
The Ministry of Science & Technology launched ‹ India launched the National Quantum Mission in
BharatGen, a generative AI initiative designed to enhance April 2023, to be implemented from 2023 to 2031
public service delivery. by the Department of Science & Technology (DST).
‹ It aims to create foundational models in language, v It has four verticals: Quantum Computing, Quantum
speech, and computer vision to address India’s socio- Communication, Quantum Sensing and Metrology,
cultural and linguistic diversity. and Quantum Materials and Devices.
‹ It is the world’s first government-funded Multimodal Read more: Quantum Technology, National Quantum
Large Language Model (LLM) project for Indian Mission
languages.
v LLMs are AI systems capable of understanding
AI Krish and AI Bhoomi
and generating human language by processing
vast amounts of text data. Doordarshan Kisan (DD KISAN) became the first
‹ It is led by IIT Bombay under the National Mission on government TV channel in the country to launch two AI
Interdisciplinary Cyber-Physical Systems (NM-ICPS), anchors– AI Krish and AI Bhoomi.
and involves collaboration with academic institutions ‹ These will act as information hubs for farmers,
like IITs and IIM Indore. delivering updates on subjects like

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v Cutting-edge advancements in agricultural research. v Generative AI refers to deep-learning models that

v Price fluctuations and trends in agricultural can generate high-quality text, images, and other
markets (mandis). content based on the data they were trained on.
v Weather forecasts that could impact crops. ‹ In August 2023, India inaugurated its first-ever AI
v Details of government schemes supporting school in Kerala.
agriculture. Read more: Generative Artificial Intelligence
‹ They can speak in 50 languages and read news 24
hours and 365 days.
‹ The initiative aims to serve the agricultural and rural
Chakshu and the Digital
community, with a focus on educating and promoting Intelligence Platform
holistic development.
‹ DD Kisan is an Indian state-owned agriculture television
The Department of Telecommunications (DoT)
channel, founded by the Ministry of Information introduced two initiatives, Chakshu and the Digital
and Broadcasting. Intelligence Platform (DIP), to combat spam and fraud
‹ It is the flagship channel of Doordarshan, launched calls through the Sanchar Saathi portal.
on 26th May 2015. ‹ Chakshu (meaning eyes) is accessible at sancharsaathi.
v It aims to cater to the farming and rural community, gov.in/sfc, facilitating citizens to report suspicious
to strengthen the three-dimensional concept of communications.
agriculture, including balanced farming, animal v The platform allows users to report various types
husbandry, and plantation. of fraud, including those related to bank accounts,
Read more: Doordarshan Logo, Broadcasting only payment wallets, SIM cards, gas and electricity
through Prasar Bharati connections, KYC updates, impersonation, and
sextortion.
IRIS: India’s First AI ‹ The primary objective of Chakshu is to enable proactive
reporting of suspicious activities, contributing to the
Teacher Robot
prevention and mitigation of telecom-related fraud
In 2024, a school in Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala and spam calls.
unveiled India’s first Generative Artificial Intelligence v Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) is
(AI) teacher robot named ‘Iris’. Developed in collaboration working on developing an app for the Chakshu
with Makerlabs Edutech, Iris aims to transform traditional
platform, further streamlining the reporting
teaching methods through personalised learning
process for users.
experiences for students.
‹ The DIP is a secure and integrated platform created by
‹ Equipped with voice assistant and IRIS engages students
in interactive learning activities. the DoT for curbing the misuse of telecom resources
and data through intelligence sharing and information
‹ IRIS responds to user queries, provides explanations,
and delivers educational content through personalised exchange among the stakeholders covering a wide
interactions. spectrum of telecom service providers, law enforcement
agencies (LEAs), banks and financial institutions.
v With a 4-wheel chassis and 5 degrees of freedom
(DoF) movements, IRIS can move freely and engage v It would be a non-public data-sharing resource
in hands-on learning activities. for “Telecom Service Providers (TSPs), LEAs, banks
‹ IRIS promises to enhance learning outcomes and and financial institutions, social media platforms,
inspire students in new ways, ushering in a future identity document issuing authorities etc.
where AI complements traditional teaching methods. Read more: World Telecom Day 2023


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Biotechnology: Genetic Engineering, Vaccines, GM Crops

Twigstats
Why in News?
The new genetic analysis tool, Twigstats, has significantly improved the precision of tracing individual-level
ancestry using ancient Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) samples from northern and Central Europe, dating from 500 BC
to 1000 AD.
What is Twigstats?
‹ About: Twigstats is an advanced analytical tool developed for genetic studies, particularly focused on ancestry
analysis with high precision.
v It is designed to enhance the understanding of population dynamics by utilizing genetic data, archaeological
findings, and historical context.
‹ Working: Twigstats reconstructs genetic family trees by analyzing shared genetic mutations between individuals.
v It uses recent mutations to trace ancestry and establish connections between people from different time
periods, linking modern DNA with that of ancient populations.
‹ Key Features:
v Time-Stratified Ancestry Analysis: Twigstats uses a time-stratified approach to analyze genetic data, enhancing
accuracy by studying how ancestry and populations evolved across historical periods
v Integration of Genetic Techniques: The tool combines haplotypes (shared DNA segments), rare variants, and
Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs) to offer a comprehensive understanding of ancestry and population
structure which provides deeper insights into demographic transitions across time, enhancing the accuracy
of genetic analysis.
v Compatibility with R: It utilizes statistical languages R and C++ to assist researchers in analyzing genetic data
with greater precision.

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whole genome sequencing (WGS) samples, archived

What are the Techniques Used for Genetic Analysis?
at the Indian Biological Data Centre (IBDC), India’s
‹ Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs): SNP is first national repository for life science data.
a laboratory method used to find differences in a
v The dataset is now accessible to researchers
DNA sequence where one nucleotide (A, C, G, or
worldwide, supporting advancements in genomics
T) varies between individuals at certain points.
research and personalized medicine.
v It is widely used to reconstruct genetic histories
v The IBDC Portal facilitates seamless access to
and ancestry models from ancient genetic
genetic data.
material (aDNA).
‹ FeED Protocols: The FeED ensures ethical, transparent,
v SNP analysis requires high-quality DNA samples
and secure sharing of high-quality genomic data
and faces challenges with closely related
under the Biotech-PRIDE (Promotion of Research
ancestral groups.
and Innovation through Data Exchange) Guidelines.
‹ Haplotypes Method: The study involves combinations
‹ GenomeIndia Project: Emphasized the significance of
of genetic markers that are inherited together on
the Genome India Project (GIP), led by the Department
the same chromosome.
of Biotechnology (DBT), this initiative creates a
v This technique helps researchers understand
comprehensive database of India’s genetic diversity.
disease patterns and population genetics,
offering insights that might be missed by analyzing Biotech-PRIDE Guidelines
individual markers alone. ‹ The “Biotech-PRIDE Guidelines,” released in 2021
v It focuses on haplotypes, which are groups of by DBT, enable the exchange of biological data
alleles inherited together. across research groups in India.
‹ Genealogical Tree Inference: This method is used v They provide a framework for sharing knowledge,
to trace the ancestry and genetic relationships ensuring better integration, decision-making,
of individuals by constructing family trees or and equitable access.
genealogical trees.
v They promote timely sharing, avoid duplication,
v It analyzes both modern and ancient genomes
and maximize the benefits of public investment
to understand population structure and
in research.
demographic changes.
‹ The guidelines will be implemented through the
Indian Biological Data Centre (IBDC) at the Regional
India’s Genomic Data Set Centre for Biotechnology (RCB), Haryana.
v Under the Biotech-PRIDE Guidelines, existing
Why in News? datasets will be connected to the IBDC, forming
India achieved a historic milestone at the Genome the Bio-Grid.
India Data Conclave in New Delhi with the launch of the F This Bio-Grid will serve as a National
Indian Genomic Data (IGD) Set under the GenomeIndia Repository for biological data, enabling its
Project (GIP) and frameworks like the Framework for exchange while ensuring safety, standards,
Exchange of Data Protocols (FeED) and the Indian and quality, and establishing clear data access
Biological Data Centre (IBDC) Portals. protocols.
‹ These initiatives position India as a leader in genomics, v The RCB, established by the DBT, focuses on
providing global researchers access to genome samples biotechnology education, research, and training.
and achieving self-reliance in genomic data.
F It is recognized as an Institution of National
What are the Key Highlights of the Genome Importance in 2016, RCB fosters innovation
India Data Conclave? and develops skilled human resources to
address challenges in health, agriculture,
‹ Indian Genomic Data Set: A comprehensive Indian
and the environment.
genomic data set was launched, featuring 10,000

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What is the GenomeIndia Project?

‹ About: The GIP is a flagship initiative launched in 2020 by the DBT, with the objective of mapping the genetic
diversity of India.
v It aims to sequence and analyze the genomes of India’s diverse population groups, providing insights into the
country’s unique genetic makeup.
‹ Objective: Establish a baseline genetic map to study health, disease predisposition, and population-specific traits.
‹ Scope: The first phase of GIP involves sequencing the genomes of 10,000 individuals across 99 ethnic groups.
Long-term plans aim to scale this to 1 million genomes.
v The second phase of the GIP focuses on sequencing genomes of individuals with specific diseases like cancer,
diabetes, and rare diseases.
F This will help identify genes linked to these conditions by comparing diseased genomes with healthy ones.
‹ Significance for India: With over 4,600 distinct population groups, India’s genetic diversity is unparalleled.
v The project aims to uncover genetic factors unique to Indian populations, such as rare diseases and mutations
like MYBPC3, linked to early cardiac arrest, which are not found in global databases.

Genome Sequencing
‹ Deoxyribonucleic Acid: The DNA is a molecule that carries genetic information. It is the blueprint for the growth,
development, and functioning of all living organisms.
v DNA is a two-stranded molecule with a twisted shape, known as a double helix.
v Each strand of DNA is composed of nucleotides, which include a phosphate molecule, a deoxyribose sugar,
and a nitrogen-containing base.
‹ Genome: The genome is the complete set of DNA instructions in a cell. In humans, it consists of 23 pairs of
chromosomes.

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v One copy of the human genome contains approximately 3 billion base pairs of DNA, distributed across these
23 chromosomes.
v The genome holds all the information necessary for an individual’s development and functioning.
‹ Genes: The basic units of heredity passed from parent to child. They are made up of DNA sequences and are
arranged at specific locations on chromosomes within the cell’s nucleus.
‹ Genome Sequencing: It involves deciphering the order of the nucleotide bases (adenine (A), cytosine (C),
guanine (G), and thymine (T)) in the Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA).
v This process helps in understanding the genetic makeup of an individual, revealing insights into traits, health
risks, and potential diseases.
v Genome Sequencing can be focused on a particular gene, region, or small section of the genome.
‹ Whole Genome Sequencing (WGS): Involves sequencing the entire genome of an organism in one go, including
all of its genes and non-coding regions (the entire DNA sequence).
v WGS provides a complete and comprehensive map of an organism’s genetic material.

RNA Editing v RNA editing shows promise for treating Huntington’s

disease, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, obesity,
Why in News? Parkinson’s disease, neurological conditions, heart
diseases, and more.
Recently, Wave Life Sciences, a biotechnology
company in the US, became the first company to treat Note: Challenges persist due to its temporary nature
a genetic condition by editing Ribonucleic acid (RNA) at requiring repeated treatments, current delivery
the clinical level. systems, such as lipid nanoparticles and adeno-
associated virus (AAV) vectors, face limitations in
What are the Key Facts About RNA Editing? accommodating large molecules.
‹ About: RNA editing is the process of modifying Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
Messenger RNA (mRNA) nucleotides, after
‹ Definition and Structure: RNA is a nucleic acid present
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) creates mRNA but
in all living cells.
before it begins protein synthesis.
v It is structurally similar to DNA but typically single- .
v mRNA is made up of portions called exons and
v Its backbone consists of alternating phosphate
introns. Exons eventually code for a protein whereas
the introns are non-coding parts and are removed groups and ribose sugars, with bases adenine (A),
uracil (U), cytosine (C), and guanine (G).
from the RNA before it’s used to make a protein.
‹ Types of RNA:
‹ Types: There are three types of RNA modifications
v Messenger RNA (mRNA): Carries genetic information
i.e., addition, deletion, and substitution.
from DNA to ribosomes for protein synthesis.
v Addition is when a nucleotide is inserted. Deletion
v Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): Forms the core of the
is when one is removed while substitution refers to
ribosome’s structure and catalyses protein synthesis.
the replacement of one nucleotide with another.
v Transfer RNA (tRNA): Transfers amino acids to
‹ Mechanism: The technique involves a group of enzymes
ribosomes during protein synthesis.
called adenosine deaminase acting on RNA (ADAR).
v Regulatory RNAs: Play roles in gene expression
v Scientists pair ADAR’s effects with a guide RNA (or
regulation.
gRNA) that guides ADAR to a specific part of the
‹ Functional Significance: RNA plays essential roles in
mRNA, where the ADAR does the designated job.
cellular processes like building cells, immune responses,
‹ Clinical Use: Wave Life Sciences used RNA editing to and transporting amino acids.
treat α-1 antitrypsin deficiency (AATD), an inherited ‹ Role in Viruses: Certain viruses use RNA as their
disorder through a therapy dubbed as WVE-006. genetic material.

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How do RNA and DNA Editing Differ?

Aspect DNA Editing RNA Editing
Permanence Permanent: Alters an individual’s genome Temporary: Makes temporary changes in RNA that
vs. permanently, which may lead to irreversible fade over time, providing flexibility to discontinue
Temporariness errors if issues occur. therapy if problems arise, reducing long-term risks.
Utilises ADAR enzymes naturally present in human
Often uses CRISPR-Cas9 or other tools cells, posing a lower risk of immune or allergic
Immune derived from bacteria, which can trigger responses. Suitable for repeated treatments and
Response immune reactions due to foreign proteins. those with immune sensitivities.

BioE3 Policy and v The policy also emphasizes ethical biosafety

and global regulatory alignment to boost India’s
Biotechnology in India global competitiveness while ensuring responsible
biotechnology development.
Why in News? ‹ Core Themes of the BioE3 Policy:
Recently, the Union Cabinet approved the proposal v Bio-Based Chemicals and Enzymes: Development
‘BioE3 (Biotechnology for Economy, Environment and of advanced bio-based chemicals and enzymes to
Employment) Policy for Fostering High-Performance reduce environmental impact.
Biomanufacturing’ of the Department of Biotechnology.
v Functional Foods and Smart Proteins: Innovations
‹ Alongside the BioE3 Policy, the Union Cabinet also in functional foods and smart proteins to enhance
merged three schemes of the Science & Technology nutrition and food security.
Ministry into a single scheme, called Vigyan Dhara,
v Precision Biotherapeutics: Advancing precision
with a financial outlay of Rs 10,579 crore until 2025-26.
medicine and biotherapeutics to improve healthcare
What is BioE3 Policy? outcomes.
‹ About: The BioE3 is aimed at fostering high-performance v Climate Resilient Agriculture: Promoting agricultural
biomanufacturing, which involves the production of practices that are resilient to climate change,
bio-based products across various sectors. ensuring food security.
v The policy aligns with broader national goals such v Carbon Capture and Utilization: Fostering
as achieving a ‘Net Zero’ carbon economy and technologies for efficient carbon capture and its
promoting sustainable growth through a circular utilization in various industries.
bioeconomy. v Futuristic Marine and Space Research: Expanding
‹ Objectives: The BioE3 policy emphasizes innovation in research in marine and space biotechnology to
research and development (R&D) and entrepreneurship, explore new frontiers in biomanufacturing.
establishes Biomanufacturing & Bio-AI hubs
What is the Vigyan Dhara Scheme?
and Biofoundries, aims to expand India’s skilled
biotechnology workforce, aligns with ‘Lifestyle for ‹ Background: The Department of Science & Technology
Environment’ programs, and targets the development (DST) acts as the nodal department for organising,
of regenerative bioeconomy models. coordinating, and promoting science, technology,
v The BioE3 Policy aims to generate significant
and innovation activities in the country.
employment, especially in tier-II and tier-III cities v The three (Science and Technology (S&T) Institutional
through the establishment of biomanufacturing and Human Capacity Building, R&D and Innovation,
hubs. and Technology Development and Deployment)
F These hubs will utilise local biomass, fostering
central sector umbrella schemes implemented by
regional economic growth and equitable DST have been merged into the unified scheme
development. ‘Vigyan Dhara’.

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‹ Objectives and Goals: The merging of the three v Supports innovations from school to industry levels
schemes into Vigyan Dhara is designed to improve and increases collaboration between academia,
fund utilisation and synchronisation among various government, and industries.
sub-schemes and programs. What is Biotechnology?
v Vigyan Dhara Scheme aims to expand the R&D
‹ About: Biotechnology, a field that intertwines biology
base in the country and increase the Full-Time with technology, harnesses cellular and biomolecular
Equivalent (FTE) researcher count. processes to create products and technologies that
v Focused interventions will enhance the participation enhance our lives and safeguard our planet.
of women in Science, Technology, and Innovation ‹ Benefits:
(STI) fields, with the goal of achieving gender parity. v Healthcare Advancements: Medical Biotechnology
v All programs under Vigyan Dhara align with the (Red Biotech) enables the development of
5-year goals of DST and are directed towards the advanced drugs, vaccines, and therapies, including
larger vision of “Viksit Bharat 2047” a developed personalised medicine, gene therapy, and targeted
India by 2047. cancer treatments.
‹ Complementing the BioE3 Policy: Enhancing S&T F It also facilitates rapid vaccine production, as

institutional infrastructure and developing a critical seen during the Covid-19 pandemic. Stem
cell research and tissue engineering offer
human resource pool.
the potential to regenerate damaged tissues
v Promotes basic and translational research in and organs, opening doors to treatments for
sustainable energy, water, and other critical areas. previously untreatable conditions.

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v Agricultural Improvements: Agricultural Nitrogen Use Efficiency

Biotechnology (Green Biotech) involves genetic
modification and engineering in plants that can and Biofortification
produce crops that are more resistant to pests,
diseases, and environmental stressors like drought,
Why in News?
thus improving food security. Recently, biotechnologists have found significant
F Biotech allows for the development of crops variation in nitrogen-use efficiency among popular Indian
with enhanced nutritional profiles, such as rice varieties, enabling the development of high-yielding,
Golden Rice, which is fortified with vitamin A low-nitrogen varieties to cut fertiliser costs and reduce
to combat malnutrition. pollution. The most efficient varieties had a nitrogen use
v Environmental Sustainability: Biotechnology efficiency (NUE) that was five times higher than the least
uses microorganisms to clean up pollutants efficient ones.
(bioremediation) like oil spills, heavy metals, and ‹ In another development, the Prime Minister of
plastics, helping to restore ecosystems and reduce India launched 109 high-yielding, climate-resilient,
environmental damage. biofortified seed varieties developed by the Indian
F Industrial Biotechnology (White Biotech) Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) to boost farm
applies biotechnology to industrial processes, productivity and farmers’ incomes.
such as the production of biofuels, bioplastics, What is Nitrogen Use Efficiency (NUE)?
and biodegradable materials.
‹ About:
‹ It focuses on reducing environmental impact and
v It is used to describe the efficiency of a plant in using
promoting sustainability through cleaner production
methods. applied or fixed nitrogen for biomass production.
v It is further defined as the ratio between crop
F Biotechnological innovations help recycle and
upcycle waste materials, contributing to a circular yield and the amount of nitrogen absorbed from
economy and reducing landfills. the soil through roots or from the atmosphere
through fixation by bacteria.
v Economic Growth: The biotech industry drives
economic growth by creating jobs in research, v NUE in cereals, particularly rice, is a critical factor
development, and manufacturing sectors. in agricultural sustainability.
F Countries investing in biotechnology lead ‹ Concerns:
in cutting-edge innovations, giving them a v Poor NUE wastes Nitrogen fertilisers worth Rs 1
competitive edge in global markets and trade. lakh crore a year in India and over USD 170 billion
v Climate Change Mitigation: Certain biotechnologies per year globally.
can capture and utilize carbon dioxide from the v Nitrogen fertilisers are the main source of nitrous
atmosphere, helping to mitigate the effects of oxide and ammonia pollution of air and nitrate/
climate change. ammonium pollution of water, affecting our health,
F Biotechnology aids in the production of cleaner biodiversity, and climate change.
biofuels, reducing reliance on fossil fuels and v India is the world’s second-largest source of nitrous
decreasing carbon footprints. oxide (N2O), a greenhouse gas that heats up the
v Innovation in Materials: Biotechnology enables atmosphere far more than carbon dioxide.
the engineering of novel materials, including bio- F In 2020, nearly 11% of such global man made
based fibers and high-performance bio-composites, emissions were from India, next only to China
which have applications in industries ranging from (16%). The major source of these emissions is
fashion to aerospace. fertiliser usage.

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What is Nitrogen Pollution? What are the Biofortified Seed

‹ About: Varieties Developed by ICAR?
v Nitrogen pollution is caused when some nitrogen ‹ About: The biofortified seed varieties, launched
compounds like ammonia and nitrous oxide recently by the PM, cover 61 crops, including 34 field
become too abundant in the environment posing crops and 27 horticultural varieties.
health risks. v Crop Varieties: Cereals, millets, forage crops,
v In the past 150 years, human-driven flows of reactive oilseeds, pulses, sugarcane, cotton, and fibre crops.
nitrogen have increased tenfold, contributing to v Horticulture: Fruits, vegetables, plantation crops,
a dangerous accumulation of unused reactive tubers, spices, flowers, and medicinal plants.
nitrogen. v Some Examples:
v The uptake by crops of nitrogen as fertiliser is F CR Dhan 416: It is a rice variety ideal for coastal
limited. Each year, 200 million tonnes of reactive saline areas. It is moderately resistant to brown
nitrogen (80%) is lost to the environment, leaching spot, neck blast, sheath rot, rice tungro disease,
into soil, rivers and lakes and emitted to the air. and glume discoloration, besides offering full
resistance to brown plant hopper, grasshopper
F As a result, ecosystems are over-enriched,
and stem borer.
biodiversity lost and human health affected. In
F Durum Wheat Variety: It is adapted for irrigated
some forms, it contributes to ozone depletion
conditions and suitable for Maharashtra,
and climate change.
Karnataka, and the plains of Tamil Nadu. It is
‹ Effects: tolerant to terminal heat, resistant to stem and
v Climate Change and the Ozone Layer: leaf rusts, and biofortified with higher levels
F Nitrous oxide is 300 times more potent than of zinc (41.1 ppm) and iron (38.5 ppm). It also
methane and carbon dioxide as a greenhouse gas. contains 12% protein.
F It is also the biggest human-made threat to ‹ About Biofortification:
the ozone layer. v Biofortification is the process by which the
v Biodiversity and Ecosystems: nutrient density of food crops is increased through
conventional plant breeding, improved agronomic
F Nitrogen pollution can degrade soils. Excessive
practices and modern biotechnology without
application of synthetic fertilisers make soil sacrificing any characteristic that is preferred by
acidic, damaging soil health and reducing the consumers.
productivity of soils.
v It is recognized as a nutrition-sensitive-agriculture
F It can cause the inadvertent fertilisation of trees intervention that can reduce vitamin and mineral
and grasslands or nitrogen tolerant species to deficiency.
outcompete more sensitive wild plants and fungi. v Examples of biofortification projects include:
F Nitrogen pollution can create “dead zones” F Iron-biofortification of rice, beans, sweet potato,
in the ocean and cause toxic algal blooms to cassava and legumes;
spread in marine ecosystems. F Zinc-biofortification of wheat, rice, beans,
v Air: sweet potato and maize;
F Nitrogen oxides generated from coal power F Provitamin A carotenoid-biofortification of
plants, factory emissions and vehicle exhausts, sweet potato, maize and cassava; and
can lead to smog and ground-level ozone. F Amino acid and protein-biofortification of
F Agricultural ammonia emissions combined with sorghum and cassava.
pollution from vehicle exhausts create extremely ‹ Need of Biofortification:
dangerous particulates in the air, which can v Malnutrition: India has very high levels of
exacerbate respiratory diseases. malnutrition among women and children. According

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to NFHS-5 2019-21, 57% of women in the age v Specifically, there was a 21.6% decrease in wheat
group 15-49 and 67% children between 6 and 59 yield and a 13% decrease in rice yield.
months are anaemic. Iron, Vitamin A, and Iodine ‹ Grain Nitrogen Content:
deficiencies are the most prevalent ones.
v The application of nano urea resulted in a decline
F Biofortification can help reduce the occurrence in grain nitrogen content in both rice and wheat
of malnutrition and hidden hunger by providing crops.
deficient nutrients.
v There is a 17 and 11.5% decrease in grain N content
v Disease Resilient: Biofortified crops are often more of rice and wheat, respectively.
resilient to pests, diseases, high temperatures, and v The lowered grain nitrogen content implies reduced
drought, while also offering high yields. protein levels in the harvested crops.
v Sustainable: Once biofortified seeds are developed,
F This is a concern in a country like India, where
they can be replicated and distributed without rice and wheat are staple foods providing
losing their micronutrient concentration, making protein and carbohydrates. Low protein content
them cost-effective and sustainable. could impact the population’s protein energy
v No Behaviour Change Needed: It seamlessly delivers requirements.
nutrients without altering people’s food habits ‹ Cost Considerations:
or cultural practices, making it a socio-culturally
v The cost of nano urea formulation was 10 times
acceptable approach.
higher than that of granular urea and will add to
v Cost Effective: Biofortification is cost-effective using the cost of cultivation for farmers.
the existing technology and delivery platforms. ‹ Crop Biomass and Root Volume:
The Copenhagen Consensus estimates that every
v The application of nano urea led to a reduction
1 Rupee spent on fortification results in 9 Rupees
in above-ground biomass and root volume. This
in benefits to the economy.
decrease in root volume resulted in decreased
root-surface area, impacting nutrient uptake
Efficacy of Liquid Nano Urea processes by the roots.
What is Liquid Nano Urea?
Why in News?
‹ About:
A two-year field experiment on the efficacy of Liquid
v It is urea in the form of a nanoparticle. It is a
Nano Urea by scientists from Punjab Agricultural
nutrient (liquid) to provide nitrogen to plants
University (PAU) has found a substantial decrease in as an alternative to the conventional urea.
rice and wheat yields when compared to conventional
F Urea is a chemical nitrogen fertilizer, white in
nitrogen (N) fertiliser application. colour, which artificially provides nitrogen, a
‹ The findings emphasize the necessity for further major nutrient required by plants.
long-term field evaluations spanning 5-7 years to v It is developed to replace conventional urea
ascertain nano urea’s equivalence to conventional and it can curtail the requirement of the same
urea and its sustainability in maintaining crop yields. by at least 50%.
What are the Key Findings about the F It contains 40,000 mg/L of nitrogen in a 500
ml bottle which is equivalent to the impact
Efficacy of Liquid Nano Urea?
of nitrogen nutrient provided by one bag of
‹ Yield Reduction: conventional urea.
v There is a significant decrease in crop yields when v Nano liquid urea was launched in June 2021 by
nano urea was used compared to conventional the Indian Farmers and Fertiliser Cooperative
nitrogen fertilizers. (IFFCO).

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‹ Developed At: What is Nano DAP?

v It has been indigenously developed at IFFCO- ‹ DAP (Di-Ammonium Phosphate):
Nano Biotechnology Research Centre, Kalol, v DAP is the second most commonly used fertilizer
Gujrat in line with Atmanirbhar Bharat and in India after urea.
Atmanirbhar Krishi. v DAP is a preferred fertilizer in India because it
F India is dependent on imports to meet its contains both Nitrogen and Phosphorus which are
urea requirements. primary macro-nutrients and part of 18 essential
‹ Application: plant nutrients.
v This fertiliser is a foliar spray, meaning it should v Fertilizer grade DAP contains 18% Nitrogen and
only be used once leaves arrive on the crops. 46% Phosphorus. It is manufactured by reacting
Ammonia with Phosphoric acid under controlled
conditions in fertilizer plants.
Nano DAP ‹ Nano DAP:
v Nano DAP is a specialised form of DAP designed with
Why in News? the goal of improving the fertiliser’s effectiveness
Recently, the Finance Minister in the Interim Budget in promoting plant growth and development.
2024-25 has announced the expansion of the application v In 2023 Indian Farmers Fertiliser Cooperative
of Nano DAP (Di-Ammonium Phosphate) as a Fertilizer (IFFCO) launched its Nano DAP, containing 8%
on various crops in all agro-climatic zones. Nitrogen and 16% Phosphorus by volume.
‹ Nano fertilisers are highly efficient types of fertilisers v Unlike conventional DAP, which comes in granular
that provide nutrients like nitrogen to crops through form, IFFCO’s Nano DAP is in liquid form.
fine granules.
Primary Macro-nutrients Essential for Plant Growth
Nutrient Contribution to Plant Growth
Nitrogen Essential for leaf and stem growth, protein synthesis, and overall vigour
Phosphorus Crucial for root development, flowering, fruiting, and energy transfer
Potassium Aids in overall plant health, stress resistance, and regulation of water
Calcium Important for cell wall structure, cell division, and enzyme activation
Magnesium Essential component of chlorophyll, involved in photosynthesis and metabolism
Sulfur Necessary for protein synthesis, enzyme function, and nutrient uptake
Carbon Main component of organic molecules, essential for photosynthesis
Hydrogen Critical for biochemical reactions, water uptake, and maintaining pH
Oxygen Involved in respiration, energy release, and nutrient transport
Iron Key for chlorophyll synthesis, electron transfer, and enzyme activation
Zinc Essential for enzyme function, hormone regulation, and protein synthesis
Manganese Required for photosynthesis, enzyme activation, and nitrogen metabolism
Copper Important for enzyme activity, lignin formation, and nutrient uptake
Boron Facilitates cell division, sugar transport, and hormone regulation
Molybdenum Needed for nitrogen fixation, enzyme activity, and amino acid synthesis

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Chlorine Involved in photosynthesis, water regulation, and ion balance

Nickel Required for nitrogen metabolism, enzyme activation, and seed development
Cobalt Essential for nitrogen fixation, vitamin B12 synthesis, and enzyme activity

Last Universal Common ‹ Significance of Findings:

v Overall, these findings are crucial for understanding
Ancestor (LUCA) how life began and evolved on Earth and for seeking
similar life forms elsewhere in the universe.
Why in News?
v These evolutionary insights will boost efforts to
Recently, in a new study, scientists have said the last engineer synthetic organisms for various processes
universal common ancestor (LUCA) could have formed on Earth and to create or manage ecosystems on
just 300 million years after the earth formed. other planets in the future.
What are the Recent Key What are Various Competing
Highlights of the Research? Theories of Life’s Origin?
‹ About: ‹ Oparin-Haldane Hypothesis: In 1924 and 1929,
v Researchers believe all three branches of life Oparin and Haldane respectively suggested the first
namely bacteria, archaea, and eukarya originated molecules making up the earliest life forms gradually
from a single cell, called the last universal common self-organised from a “primordial soup” in a young
ancestor (LUCA). earth’s tempestuous, prebiotic environment. This
v LUCA had a small genome with about 2.5 million idea is today called the Oparin-Haldane hypothesis.
bases and 2,600 proteins, sufficient for survival in ‹ Miller-Urey Experiment: It showed that in the right
its unique environment. conditions, inorganic compounds could give rise to
v LUCA’s metabolites might have created a secondary complex organic compounds.
ecosystem for other microbes to emerge, and it v Under it methane, ammonia, and water were mixed
possibly had immunity genes to fight off viruses. and applied an electric current to produce amino
v Though there is no fossil evidence to support the acids, the building blocks of proteins.
existence of LUCA, modern genomes share so many ‹ Panspermia Hypothesis: It suggests that meteorites
features that provide some insights. could have brought life’s building blocks to Earth,
v However, the theory of the molecular clock allowed supported by discoveries of extraterrestrial organic
scientists to reconstruct the ‘tree of life’. material and amino acids on asteroids.
F As per theory, the rate at which mutations are v In 2019, French and Italian scientists reported
added or removed from a population’s genome discovering extra-terrestrial organic material 3.3
is proportional to the rate of acquiring new billion years old.
mutations, which is constant.
v Japan’s Hayabusa 2 mission to the asteroid Ryugu
‹ The mutation rate varies between species. also indicated the presence of more than 20 amino
F Based on the findings, researchers created acids there.
a method to estimate the time between
evolutionary events by using known mutation
rates and linking genomes to specific events Obelisks
like the evolution of the first mammal or the
age of fossils as benchmarks. Why in News?
v Based on the earlier findings of fossils in the Pilbara Scientists at Stanford University have identified a
Craton in Australia, the earliest life forms were new, remarkably simple form of life, which they have
believed to be date back to 3.4 billion years ago. named “obelisks.”

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‹ These obelisks bridge the gap between viruses and viroids in terms of complexity, adding a new category to the
existing spectrum of life forms.
‹ Obelisks were identified through an extensive analysis of RNA sequences from bacteria in the human gut, using
next-generation sequencing (NGS) technology.
Note:
‹ NGS is a Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) sequencing technology that uses parallel sequencing to determine the
sequence of multiple small fragments of DNA. It is used to determine the order of nucleotides in entire genomes
or targeted regions of DNA or RNA.
v Nucleotides are organic molecules that are the basic building blocks of nucleic acids DNA and Ribonucleic
acid (RNA).

What are Obelisks?

‹ Obelisks are a new class of virus-like entities. They are composed of diverse RNA molecules that reside within the
human body and the global microbiome.
‹ Obelisks exhibit highly symmetrical, rod-like structures resembling the iconic monuments (Obelisk).
‹ Their genetic sequences are approximately 1,000 nucleotides long, with no detectable similarities to known
biological agents.
‹ The new study analyzed RNA data from gut and oral bacteria but couldn’t determine which bacteria hosted a
given obelisk.
v While initial findings suggest a possible link to the bacterial species Streptococcus sanguinis, commonly found
in the human mouth.
‹ The discovery of obelisks raises questions about their genome replication, transmission, pathogenicity, evolution,
and potential roles in human health and disease.
v Further research is needed to unravel the mysteries surrounding Obelisks, shedding light on their ecological
significance and impact on human health.
Feature Viruses Viroids
Dmitry Ivanovsky was the first to discover Discovered by Theodor Diener in 1971 while studying
Discovery
viruses at the end of the 19th century. the pathogen causing potato spindle tuber disease.
Each virion contains a nucleic acid (DNA Consists of naked RNA without a lipid layer or protein
Composition or RNA) core surrounded by a protein coat, coat, primarily composed of a single-stranded circular
sometimes with a lipid layer outside. RNA molecule.
Size Varied in size, generally smaller (30-50 nm). Smaller compared to viruses.
Primarily infect plant cells, causing various diseases
Can infect a wide range of organisms,
Host Range characterized by stunted growth, leaf distortion, and
including plants and animals.
other symptoms.
Enter a cell as RNA, force the cell to produce more
Replication Depends on host cells to replicate and copies of itself, and then infect other cells, primarily
Method propagate themselves. through mechanical transmission, seed transmission,
pollen, and insect vectors.
Genetic Contains either DNA or RNA, which may
Contains RNA, but does not code for any protein.
Material code for proteins.
Influenza virus, rabies virus, Herpes virus, Potato spindle tuber viroid (PSTVd), Citrus exocortis
Examples
SARS-CoV-2. viroid (CEVd), Coconut cadang-cadang viroid (CCCVd).

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Gene Therapy for ‹ Treatment: The treatment involves replacing the

missing blood clotting factor so that the blood can clot
Hemophilia A properly. This is typically done by injecting treatment
products, called clotting factor concentrates, into a
Why in News? person’s vein. The two main types of clotting factor
Recently, the Union Minister of Science & Technology concentrates available are:
addressing the National Science Day 2024 programme v Plasma-derived Factor Concentrates: Derived from
stated that India conducted its first human clinical trial human plasma, which is the liquid component
of gene therapy for hemophilia A (FVIII deficiency) at
of blood containing various proteins, including
Christian Medical College (CMC) Vellore.
clotting factors.
‹ India’s progress in science and technology (S&T) was
v Recombinant Factor Concentrates: Introduced
also highlighted at the event.
in 1992, recombinant factor concentrates are
What is Hemophilia A? genetically engineered using DNA technology
‹ About: Hemophilia is a group of rare bleeding disorders and do not rely on human plasma.
caused by a congenital deficiency in specific clotting F They are free from plasma or albumin, eliminating
factors. The most prevalent form is Hemophilia A. the risk of transmitting bloodborne viruses.
v Hemophilia A results from a deficiency in a crucial v However, gene therapy is now gaining prominence.
blood clotting protein known as factor VIII. F In recent trials, they used a new method that
v Due to this deficiency, individuals experience involves using a special type of virus called a
prolonged bleeding after injuries, as their blood lentiviral vector to insert a gene that produces
takes longer to clot than usual. FVIII into the patient’s own stem cells.
‹ Causes: It is primarily inherited (genetic) and follows F These modified stem cells then produce FVIII
an X-linked recessive pattern, meaning the gene when they develop into specific types of blood
responsible for factor VIII production is located on cells.
the X chromosome. ‹ Acquired Hemophilia A: While Hemophilia A is
v Males have one X and one Y chromosome, while typically inherited, it can also be acquired later in life
females have two X chromosomes. as a result of auto-antibodies targeting factor VIII.
F If a male inherits an X chromosome with the v This condition, known as acquired hemophilia A,
defective gene from his mother, he will have is rare and differs from the congenital form in its
hemophilia A. onset and progression.
F Females with one defective copy typically do
not experience symptoms because the other X Note: World Haemophilia day is celebrated on 17th
chromosome usually provides enough factor VIII. April every year, aiming to increase awareness about
hemophilia and other inherited bleeding disorders. The
F However, females can have hemophilia A if
day is celebrated in the honor of Frank Schnabel,
they inherit two defective copies, one from founder of the World Federation of Haemophilia (WHF).
each parent (much less common).
‹ Symptoms: The severity of hemophilia A varies What is National Science Day?
depending on the level of factor VIII activity in the ‹ The National Science Day is celebrated on 28 th
blood. Common symptoms can include: February every year to commemorate the discovery
v Easy bruising and excessive bleeding from minor of ‘Raman Effect’ in 1928 by Sir Chandrasekhara
injuries (cuts, scrapes) Venkata Raman, which led to the Nobel Prize being
v Bleeding in the joints (especially knees, elbows, awarded to him in 1930.
and ankles), causing pain, swelling, and stiffness v Raman effect is a method for identifying materials
v Bleeding after surgery or dental procedures. based on how they scatter light.

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v By shining light on a substance, scientists can v Functionalized scaffolds can be used as fillers in
analyze the unique way it interacts with molecules, large-size bone defects, without compromising
revealing its chemical composition and structure. the connectivity and structural defects, oxygen,
‹ The purpose of celebrating this day is to enhance and blood circulation.
scientific temper, popularization of science and
v It enhances tissue formation, mineralization, and
encouraging innovative activities by infusing scientific
temperament in the masses and creating a positive rapid defect healing.
scientific research culture. What is Bone Grafting?
v Theme for National Science Day 2024: ‘Indigenous
‹ About:
Technologies for Viksit Bharat.’
v Bone grafting involves a surgical technique
where transplanted bone is utilised to repair and
Bone Grafting Technology reconstruct bones affected by disease or injury.
Why in News? v This procedure is applicable for repairing bones
throughout the body.
Recently, the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT)
Kanpur signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) v Surgeons may harvest bone from various sources
with Canada based biotechnology company (Conlis such as the hips, legs, or ribs for grafting purposes.
Global) for licensing of an innovative and indigenously ‹ Objective:
developed technology that promotes bone healing and
v The primary objective of the invention is to
regeneration.
overcome the drawbacks of the existing remedies.
What are Nano Hydroxyapatite-based F Other alternatives have been associated with
Porous Composite Scaffolds? infection and immune related complications.
‹ About: v This technology provides the delivery of bone
v The Nano Hydroxyapatite-based Porous active molecules, antibiotics or any other drug
Composite Scaffolds are biodegradable and have for combating bone pathologies, reconstruction of
osteoinductive and osteopromotive properties
irregular bone defects and for dental applications
for bone regeneration.
as well.
v It is highly biocompatible ensuring good cell material
interaction with osteoblast cells exhibiting a high ‹ Functions:
mechanical strength and interaction between the v The technology facilitates bone regeneration in
polymer network and the solvent. a biocompatible manner by acting as a carrier
‹ Characteristics: for bone- active biomolecules, delivering them
v It has osteoinductive and osteopromotive directly to the site of an implant.
properties due to which it has bone healing and v The material is a promising approach for
bone growth characteristics. reconstructing and repairing bone defects while
v They are highly biocompatible, resulting in good cell addressing the drawbacks and complications
material interaction with osteoblast cells exhibiting
associated with technologies that are available
a high mechanical strength and interaction between
in the market at present.
the polymer network and the solvent.
F Osteoblast cells are responsible for mineralisation v The functionalized scaffolds can be used as fillers
of bone during bone formation and bone in large size bone defects, without compromising
remodelling. the connectivity and structural defects, oxygen
‹ Applications: and blood circulation thereby enhancing tissue
v It is commonly used in orthopaedic and dental formation, mineralisation, and rapid defect healing.
implants, bone graft substitutes, coatings for v It can also be used as a bone substitute, overcoming
prosthetic devices, and tissue engineering scaffolds. autograft limitations.

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Discoveries in Biology Using C. elegans

The roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans has played a pivotal role in numerous Nobel Prize-winning discoveries.
Prize
Nobel Laureates Year Discovery/Contribution
Category
Victor Ambros and Gary Ruvkun 2024 Physiology Discovered microRNAs
or Medicine
Osamu Shimomura, Martin 2008 Chemistry Developed Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP)
Chalfie, Roger Tsien
Andrew Fire and Craig Mello 2006 Medicine Discovered RNA interference (RNAi)
Sydney Brenner 2002 Medicine Research on understanding programmed cell death

‹ C. elegans: A tiny invertebrate, measuring 1 mm in length, and a transparent nematode.

v Nematodes (roundworms) are unsegmented, cylindrical, and often microscopic organisms and a major
component of soil and sediment ecosystems.
v They are parasitic in animals or plants or free-living in soil or water.

Food of the Future

The government approved the Biotechnology for Economy, Environment, and Employment (Bioe3) Policy,
prioritising the production of “smart proteins” as a key focus area.
‹ Smart Proteins:
v Alternative or smart proteins refer to proteins derived from unconventional sources such as algae, fungi, or
insects, or produced using advanced methods like fermentation and lab-grown cells.
v The term also encompasses plant-based proteins, which have been available for decades, and are designed to
replicate the taste and nutritional value of animal products without the need for breeding livestock.
v As per data, alternative protein production reduces environmental impact, using 72-99% less water, 47-99%
less land, causing 51-91% less water pollution, and emitting 30-90% fewer greenhouse gases compared to
conventional meat production.
‹ Safe and sustainable:
v As incomes rise, people consume more protein, with India’s protein intake increasing from 9.7% of calories
in 1991 to 11% in 2021.
v Alternative proteins enhance food safety by mitigating the risk of zoonotic diseases and fostering ethical
consumption but also align with Indian dietary habits

Bio-RIDE Scheme
The Union Cabinet has approved the Biotechnology Research Innovation and Entrepreneurship Development
(Bio-RIDE) scheme.
‹ Bio-RIDE:
v Its aim is to foster research, innovation, and entrepreneurship in biotechnology, positioning India as a global
leader in this field.
v To make India a USD 300 billion bioeconomy by 2030 and achieve the vision of Viksit Bharat 2047.

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v The proposed budget for the scheme’s implementation is ₹9,197 crore for the 15th Finance Commission period
from 2021-22 to 2025-26.
‹ Key Components:
v Biotechnology R&D: Supports innovation in synthetic biology, biopharmaceuticals, bioenergy, and more through
grants and incentives.
v Industrial & Entrepreneurship Development: Nurtures startups with funding, incubation, and mentorship.
v Biomanufacturing and Biofoundry: Promotes sustainable practices in biomanufacturing.
F It supports a circular bioeconomy in line with the Lifestyle for the Environment (LiFE)’ initiative to develop
eco-friendly solutions to tackle climate change, improve healthcare, boost agriculture, and scale bio-based
products.


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Health and Diseases

Sickle Cell Eradication
Why in News?

Recently, on Janjatiya Gaurav Diwas (15th November 2024), a commemorative postage stamp on “Sickle Cell
Eradication - 2047” was unveiled in Madhya Pradesh.

‹ The initiative aligns with India’s broader commitment to eradicating sickle cell anemia, a hereditary blood disorder,
by 2047, particularly focusing on tribal communities, which are disproportionately affected.

What is Sickle Cell Anemia?

‹ About:
v Sickle Cell Disease (SCD) is a genetic blood disorder causing abnormal haemoglobin (the protein that carries
oxygen through the body), resulting in sickle-shaped red blood cells.
F This leads to blocked blood flow, severe pain, organ damage, and reduced life expectancy.
v The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoHFW) tribal health expert committee has identified SCD as one
of the ten major health issues among tribal communities.
‹ Symptoms: Some common symptoms of sickle cell disease are
v Chronic anaemia which leads to fatigue, weakness, and paleness.
v Painful episodes (also known as sickle cell crisis) cause sudden and intense pain in the bones, chest, back, arms,
and legs.
v Delayed growth and puberty.

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‹ Treatment Processes:
v Blood Transfusions: These can help relieve anaemia and reduce the risk of pain crises.
v Hydroxyurea: It can help reduce the frequency of painful episodes and prevent some of the disease’s long-term
complications.
v Gene Therapy: It can also be treated by bone marrow or stem cell transplantation by methods like Clustered
regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR).
What are Some Government Initiatives Related to SCD?
‹ National Sickle Cell Anaemia Elimination Mission:
v Vision: The National Sickle Cell Anaemia Elimination Mission, announced in the Union Budget 2023, targets
the health challenges posed by Sickle Cell Disease (SCD), especially among tribal populations.
F The mission aims to eliminate SCD as a public health issue in India by 2047.
v Key Features:
F Community Screening: Identification of at-risk individuals through mass screening programs.
F Genetic Counselling: Educating families about the genetic nature of the disease.
F Advanced Diagnostics: Use of tools like HPLC (High-Performance Liquid Chromatography) machines for
accurate diagnosis.
F Prenatal Testing: Collaboration with organisations like Sankalp India for testing during pregnancy.
F Newborn Screening: Specialised labs at AIIMS Bhopal for early detection.
F Technology Integration: Development of a mobile app and National Sickle Cell Portal for tracking and data
reporting.

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v Objectives:
F Affordable and Accessible Care: Provide care to all SCD patients.
F Quality of Care: Ensure high-quality care for SCD patients.
F Reduce Prevalence: Decrease the prevalence of SCD.
v Progress:
F Over 3.37 crore individuals have been screened under the program, with more than 3.22 crore confirmed
negative for sickle cell disease.

v Beneficiaries:
F Primary target groups include children and adolescents (birth to 18 years) for early detection and intervention,
and youth and adults (up to 40 years) for broader age group inclusion over time.
F Over 7 crore individuals targeted for screening, counseling, and care within the first three years (2023-24
to 2025-26).
‹ National Health Mission (NHM) 2013:
v It encompasses provisions for disease prevention and management, with a specific focus on hereditary
anomalies such as sickle cell anaemia.
v Dedicated programs within NHM focus on raising awareness, facilitating early detection, and ensuring timely
treatment of sickle cell anaemia.
v NHM facilitates drugs like hydroxyurea to treat SCD in its “essential medicines List”.
‹ The National Guidelines for Stem Cell Research 2017:
v It restricts the commercialisation of stem cell therapies to clinical trials, except for Bone marrow transplantation
(BMT) for SCD.
v Gene editing on stem cells is permitted only for in-vitro studies.
‹ National Guidelines for Gene Therapy Product Development and Clinical Trials 2019:
v It provides guidelines for the development and clinical trials of gene therapies for inherited genetic disorders.
v India has also approved a five-year project to develop CRISPR (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic
repeats) techniques for sickle cell anaemia treatment.

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v State Haemoglobinopathy Mission of Madhya ‹ Hematopoietic Stem Cells (HSC): They are immature
Pradesh aims to address the challenges in screening cells capable of developing into all blood cell types,
and management of the disease. including white blood cells, red blood cells, and
World Sickle Cell Awareness Day platelets. It was first explored for use in humans in
the 1950s.
‹ World Sickle Cell Awareness Day is observed annually
v Hematopoietic stem cells are located in peripheral
on 19th June. In 2024, the theme is “Hope Through
Progress: Advancing Sickle Cell Care Globally.” blood and bone marrow, also known as blood
stem cells.
‹ The day aims to highlight the struggles faced by
those with SCD, promote understanding of the ‹ Transplant of HSCs: It involves administering healthy
disease, and streamline efforts towards improving hematopoietic stem cells to patients with dysfunctional
patient care and finding a cure. or depleted bone marrow.
v Hematopoietic stem cell transplants can save lives
for those with blood cancers.
Stem Cell Transplants
v After the transplant, the donated stem cells help
Why in News? restore the recipient’s blood cell production system.
A recent study published in Science Translational
Medicine examined long-term outcomes in patients who Precision Medicine
underwent hematopoietic stem cell transplants (HSCT),
focusing on how transplanted stem cells evolve and and Biobanks
mutate over time.
Why in News?
What are the Key Findings of the Study?
Precision medicine is ushering in a new era of
‹ The research involved 16 pairs of donors and recipients
where both exhibited surprisingly low mutation rates, personalised healthcare. This field began to take concrete
average 2% in donors and 2.6% in recipients annually. form as scientists completed the Human Genome Project
v This finding suggests a stable clonal expansion of
(HGP).
stem cells over decades. ‹ It now encompasses genomics for diagnosing and
‹ While all donors exhibited some level of clonal treating cancers, chronic, immunological, cardiovascular,
hematopoiesis, the absence of widespread clonal and liver diseases.
expansion indicates a robust regenerative capacity
Note:
of the bone marrow.
‹ Acknowledging the unique genetic diversity of
‹ Implications:
the Indian population, the HGP aims to identify
v Crucial for improving long-term transplant outcomes.
and catalogue genetic variations among various
v Potential risk of developing blood cancers or Indian groups by sequencing the entire genomes
chronic diseases in recipients due to the presence of 10,000 healthy individuals from all major ethnic
of clonal hematopoiesis
communities across the country.
Note: Clonal hematopoiesis occurs when one type of
blood cell increases in number compared to others in What is Precision Medicine?
the blood system. Common examples of this condition ‹ About:
include chronic myeloid leukemia and myelodysplastic v It is an innovative strategy for treating and
syndromes (MDS). preventing diseases that considers individual
What are Hematopoietic Stem Cells ? differences in genetics, environment, and lifestyle.
‹ Stem Cells: Stem cells are the body’s raw materials v It emphasises tailoring medical care to the unique
— cells from which all other cells with specialised characteristics of each patient rather than using
functions are generated. a one-size-fits-all approach.

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v This method enables healthcare professionals and ‹ State of Biobanks in India:

researchers to more accurately forecast which v Genome India Programme: The ‘Genome India’
treatments and preventive measures are effective program completed the sequencing of 10,000
for specific groups of individuals. genomes from 99 ethnic groups, aimed at
‹ Role of Biobanks: identifying treatments for rare genetic diseases,
v Biobanks store biological samples (e.g., DNA, cells, among other goals.
tissues) for research. Their diversity is crucial for v Phenome India Project: The pan-India ‘Phenome
precision medicine to benefit broader populations. India’ project has gathered 10,000 samples to
v Recent studies using biobank data helped identify enhance prediction models for cardio-metabolic
undiagnosed rare genetic disorders. diseases.
v Paediatric Rare Genetic Disorders (PRaGeD)
Role of Emerging Technologies
Mission: This mission aims to identify new genes or
‹ Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR have opened variants to develop targeted therapies for genetic
avenues for correcting genetic defects, thereby diseases affecting children.
providing potential cures for previously untreatable
v Regulatory Challenges: Biobanking regulations in
conditions.
India pose significant hurdles to realizing the full
‹ mRNA Therapeutics: The Covid-19 pandemic potential of precision medicine.
demonstrated the power of mRNA technology,
F In contrast to countries like the UK, US,
allowing for the rapid development of vaccines.
This innovative approach earned a Nobel Prize, Japan, and many European nations, which
highlighting its significance in modern medicine. have comprehensive regulations addressing
biobanking issues (e.g., informed consent,
What is the State of Precision privacy, data protection), India’s regulatory
Medicine and Biobanks in India? framework is inconsistent.
‹ Market Growth:
v The Indian precision medicine market is projected to Parkinson’s Disease
grow at a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR)
of 16%, expected to exceed USD 5 billion by 2030. Why in News?
F Currently, it accounts for 36% of the national A recent research has proposed a significant shift in
bioeconomy, encompassing areas such as cancer understanding Parkinson’s Disease (PD) through the
immunotherapy, gene editing, and biologics. “gut-first hypothesis”, suggesting a gut-brain connection
‹ Policy Development: in its onset and progression.
v The advancement of precision therapeutics is ‹ The research is significant as it may shift the
included in the new ‘BioE3’ policy. understanding of the diagnosis, development and
F It is aimed at fostering high-performance
treatment of this neurodegenerative disorder.
biomanufacturing, which involves the production What are the Key Points of Research?
of bio-based products across various sectors.
‹ The “gut-first hypothesis” suggests that PD may begin
‹ Recent Approvals and Developments: in the gut, with implications for understanding disease
v In 2023, the Central Drugs Standard Control progression and therapeutic strategies.
Organisation approved NexCAR19, India’s v The gut microbiome spans from the mouth to
domestically developed CAR-T cell therapy. the colon. It is the network of microorganisms
F In 2024, the government also established a — bacteria, viruses, fungi and more — and their
dedicated center for CAR-T cell therapy at IIT collective genetic material that lives within the
Bombay. intestinal tract.

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v The research identifies gastrointestinal symptoms, like constipation, as early signs of PD, potentially reshaping
diagnosis and treatment approaches.
‹ Abnormal protein aggregates (Lewy bodies) linked to PD are found in both the gut and brain, indicating a complex
interplay in disease development.
v Lewy bodies are primarily composed of alpha-synuclein, a protein that misfolds and clumps together, contributing
to the death of dopamine-producing neurons in the brain.
What is Parkinson’s Disease?
‹ About: Parkinson’s Disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder marked by motor symptoms like
tremors, rigidity, bradykinesia (slow movement), and postural instability. Non-motor symptoms include cognitive
issues, mental health disorders, sleep disturbances, pain, and sensory problems.
v Bradykinesia means slowness of movement and speed (or progressive hesitations/halts) as movements are
continued.
‹ Causes: The exact cause of Parkinson’s disease is not fully known yet, but it is believed to involve a combination
of genetic and environmental factors.
v It is primarily characterised by the loss of dopamine-producing neurons in the brain, leading to motor and
non-motor symptoms.
‹ Prevalence: The global prevalence of PD has doubled in the past 25 years. Global estimates in 2019 showed over
8.5 million individuals with PD.
v Every year, 13th April is observed as World Parkinson’s Day.
‹ Treatment: There is no cure for Parkinson disease, but therapies including medicines, surgery and rehabilitation
can reduce symptoms.
v Levodopa/carbidopa, a combination medicine that increases the amount of dopamine in the brain, is the most
common medication.
What are Neurodegenerative Disorders?
‹ About:
v Neurodegenerative diseases are conditions that gradually damage and destroy parts of the nervous system,
especially areas of the brain.
‹ Types:
v Dementia-type diseases: These cause progressive damage to various areas of your brain, causing neurons
in several areas of your brain to die. For example, Alzheimer’s disease, frontotemporal dementia, chronic
traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), Lewy body dementia.
v Parkinsonism-type diseases: It results from damage to specific brain neurons responsible for coordination
and muscle control, including Parkinson’s disease and similar conditions.
v Motor neuron diseases: These happen when neurons that control movement die off. Examples include
amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

Night Light Pollution Linked to Alzheimer’s Risk

Why in News?
According to a recent study published in Frontiers in Neuroscience, there is a correlation between night-time
light pollution and the incidence of Alzheimer’s disease.

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‹ Exposure to light at night disrupts natural circadian rhythms and impairs sleep, thereby increasing susceptibility
to the disease.
Light Pollution:
‹ Light Pollution refers to the excessive or inappropriate use of artificial lighting, which poses significant
environmental threats to human health, wildlife, and the climate.

What is Alzheimer’s Disease?

‹ About:
v Alzheimer’s disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that affects the brain, leading to memory loss,
cognitive decline, behavioral changes, problems with words in speaking or writing, poor judgment, changes in
mood and personality, confusion with time or place, etc.
v It involves the formation of plaques and tangles in the brain, and the accelerated aging of certain neurons
concerned with storage and processing of memory.
v Alzheimer’s disease is the most common cause of dementia, accounting for 60-80% of dementia cases.
‹ Causes and Risk Factors: Currently the causes of Alzheimer is not fully known, still factors that may contribute to
Alzheimer’s include:
v Age: Advancing age is the primary risk factor, with the majority of cases occurring in individuals over 65.
v Genetics: Certain gene mutations can increase the risk of developing Alzheimer’s.
v Amyloid Protein: Alzheimer’s disease is thought to be caused by the abnormal build-up of proteins in and
around brain cells.
F One of the proteins involved is called amyloid, deposits of which form plaques around brain cells.
v Lifestyle Factors: Chronic conditions like cardiovascular disease, diabetes, obesity, smoking, and a sedentary
lifestyle may contribute to the risk.

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‹ Diagnosis: v The samples contained a rare mineral called

v Cognitive and neuropsychological tests to assess hafnium, likely originating from Chinese mines.
memory, thinking, and problem-solving abilities. v Northeastern China could be a significant source
v Imaging techniques (MRI, PET scans) to identify
of airborne pathogens due to extensive farming,
livestock operations, and soil erosion.
brain changes.
‹ Connection to Kawasaki Disease: The study was
v Biomarker tests (cerebrospinal fluid analysis,
inspired by research linked to Kawasaki disease.
amyloid PET) to detect amyloid plaques.
v It was observed that Kawasaki disease cases in
‹ Treatment and Management: Japan increased when winds blew from northeast
v There’s currently no cure for Alzheimer’s disease. China. This suggests that winds may transport
But there is medicine and supportive therapies pathogens or other elements that contribute to
available that can temporarily reduce the symptoms. the disease.
‹ Prevalence: Hafnium
v According to WHO estimates from 2023, over
‹ Hafnium is a good absorber of neutrons and is used
55 million individuals globally are affected by
in the control rods of nuclear reactors.
dementia, with Alzheimer’s accounting for
approximately 75% of these cases. ‹ Hafnium is also used in vacuum tubes as a getter,
a material that combines with and removes trace
v In India, an estimated 3 to 9 million people are
gases from vacuum tubes.
believed to be affected by the condition, a figure
expected to rise as the nation’s population ages. ‹ Hafnium has been used as an alloying agent in
iron, titanium, niobium and other metals.
Note:
‹ Dementia: It is a syndrome – usually of a chronic
What is Kawasaki Disease?
or progressive nature – that leads to deterioration ‹ About: Kawasaki disease, or Kawasaki syndrome, is
in cognitive function (i.e. the ability to process an inflammation, in the walls of blood vessels that
thought) beyond what might be expected from the carry blood throughout the body.
usual consequences of biological aging. v The inflamed blood vessels increases the risk
of tearing or narrowing, limiting blood flow to
v It affects memory, thinking, orientation,
tissues and organs.
comprehension, calculation, learning capacity,
language, and judgment. However, the ‹ Prevalence: It primarily affects children aged 6 months
to 5 years.
consciousness is not affected.
v It occurs in about 10 to 20 per 100,000 children
under 5 in the US and Canada, while in Japan,
High Altitude Pathogens Korea, and Taiwan, it affects 50 to 250 per 100,000
children under 5.
Why in News? ‹ Causes: The exact cause of Kawasaki disease is
unknown, but it is suspected to be linked to bacterial
Recently, studies over Japan at altitudes up to 10,000
or viral infection, environmental factors, or genetics.
feet, have found different bacteria and fungi types in the
air, which could be the cause of Kawasaki diseases.
‹ Scientists have been studying airborne microbes Leptospirosis Outbreak
since the 1920s, capturing spores and other biological in Kerala
particles floating in the atmosphere.
What are the Key Facts about the Study? Why in News?
Kerala has recently experienced a sigh of relief as
‹ Air Sampling Over Japan: Researchers conducted
the threat of a Nipah virus outbreak diminished, with
flights to collect airborne particles over the Sea of no new cases reported during the critical 42-day
Japan, focusing on air masses from China. observation period.

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‹ However, this respite has been overshadowed by v It is particularly prevalent in South-East Asia, with
the outbreak of Leptospirosis, commonly known as India, Indonesia, Thailand, and Sri Lanka reporting
“rat fever.” most cases, especially during the rainy season.
‹ This bacterial infection has emerged as a pressing v People in occupations with frequent animal contact,
public health concern, particularly in the wake of such as farmers, veterinarians, and sewer workers,
monsoon-related challenges. are at higher risk.
‹ Prevention: Prevention involves controlling animal
What are the Key Facts About Leptospirosis?
reservoirs, avoiding contact with contaminated water
‹ About: Leptospirosis is caused by pathogenic or soil, wearing protective clothing, and maintaining
spirochaetes of the genus Leptospira. These bacteria good sanitation practices.
are zoonotic, meaning they are transmitted from v Dogs, pigs, and cattle can be vaccinated with serovar-
animals to humans. specific vaccines. Immunisation helps prevent
v Leptospires are bacteria that can be pathogenic. disease but may not eliminate renal carriage.
Pathogenic leptospires are found in the kidneys ‹ Treatment: It is treated with antibiotics, such as
and genital tracts of certain animals and are the penicillin G, doxycycline, and ceftriaxone.
primary cause of leptospirosis in humans.
India’s Initiatives Related to Leptospirosis
‹ Reservoirs: Many mammalian species can harbour
leptospires in their kidneys, with rodents, cattle, pigs, ‹ Programme for Prevention and Control of
and dogs being common reservoirs. Leptospirosis: Launched during the 12th Five-year
v Rodents are particularly significant as they can Plan, this program aims to reduce the number of
excrete leptospires throughout their lifespan deaths and illnesses caused by leptospirosis.
without showing symptoms. ‹ One Health Approach: This strategy integrates
v Not all infected animals exhibit symptoms. Natural
human, animal, and environmental health to control
hosts often show no or few ill effects, but may leptospirosis. One Health Approach emphasises
develop illness after infection with another serovar the importance of a holistic approach to manage
(a distinct variation within a species of bacteria). and prevent the disease.
‹ Transmission: The disease is primarily transmitted Common Infections During the Monsoon
through direct contact with the urine of infected ‹ Monsoon season in India brings a surge of infections
animals or through contact with water, soil, or food like Dengue, Malaria, Cholera, Typhoid, Flu, and
contaminated with their urine. Fungal infections due to waterlogging, with risks
v It can enter the human body through cuts, mucous of dehydration and mosquito-borne diseases.
membranes, or waterlogged skin. Rarely, the
disease can be transmitted from human to human.
‹ Symptoms: It presents with a wide range of symptoms,
Subclinical Tuberculosis
from mild flu-like illness to severe conditions like
Why in News?
Weil’s syndrome (dysfunction of the kidneys and
liver), meningitis, and pulmonary hemorrhage. Subclinical Tuberculosis (TB) is a growing concern
in India, contributing to the slow decline in TB incidence
v The incubation period is typically 7-10 days, with
rates despite advances in detection and treatment.
symptoms such as fever, headache, and jaundice
being common. What is Subclinical Tuberculosis?
v Leptospirosis is often underdiagnosed due to ‹ Definition: Subclinical TB refers to a form of TB
its wide range of symptoms that mimic other infection where individuals do not exhibit the typical
diseases, and limited access to diagnostic tests. symptoms of the disease, such as a persistent cough.
‹ Epidemiology: It is a global disease but is most common v This makes it harder to detect compared to active
in tropical and subtropical regions with high rainfall. TB, which presents with more apparent symptoms.

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‹ Detection: It is often identified through imaging F MDR-TB remains a public health crisis, with
techniques like chest X-rays or molecular tests, as only about 2 in 5 people accessing treatment
it may not be noticeable through routine symptom- in 2022.
based screenings. ‹ TB and HIV: People living with HIV (human
‹ Prevalence: Subclinical TB accounted for 42.6% of immunodeficiency virus) are 16 times more likely
cases in the National TB Prevalence Survey (2019- to develop TB. TB is the leading cause of death among
2021), with similar findings in Tamil Nadu (39%). people with HIV.
v Although asymptomatic, individuals with subclinical v Without proper treatment, 60% of HIV-negative
TB can still spread the bacteria to others. people with TB and nearly all HIV-positive people
v High-burden countries, including India, have a with TB will die.
considerable proportion of subclinical TB, which ‹ Impact: TB disproportionately affects adults in low
remains largely undetected, thus sustaining the and middle-income countries, with over 80% of cases
transmission of the disease. and deaths occurring in these regions. The highest
v Countries like Vietnam have successfully reduced
burden is in the World Health Organization’s (WHO)
TB prevalence by screening entire populations South-East Asian and African Regions.
using X-rays and molecular tests, regardless of v A total of 1.3 million people died from TB in 2022
symptoms. (including 167 000 people with HIV). Worldwide,
TB is the second leading infectious killer after
F Implementing similar large-scale screening in
Covid-19.
India would require strategic shifts, including
mobile units and community engagement. ‹ Initiatives Related to TB:
‹ Impact: This form of TB can contribute to the slow v India:
decline in overall TB incidence rates, as it remains F The National TB Elimination Programme (NTEP)
largely undetected and untreated. to Eliminate TB by 2025.
F Ni-kshay Mitra Initiative.
What are the Key Facts About Tuberculosis?
F Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) provided to TB
‹ About: TB is an infectious disease caused by patients.
Mycobacterium tuberculosis, that mainly affects F TB-Mukt Panchayat Initiative: Launched to
the lungs. It spreads through the air when infected leverage the support of over 2.5 lakh Gram
people cough, sneeze or spit. Panchayats to increase TB awareness, eliminate
‹ Symptoms: Prolonged cough, chest pain, weakness, stigma, and improve service uptake.
fatigue, weight loss, fever, and night sweats. F Pradhan Mantri TB Mukt Bharat Abhiyan
v Diabetes, weakened immune system, malnutrition, (PMTBMBA)
tobacco use can increase the risk of TB disease. v Global:
‹ Prevention: Seek medical attention, get tested if at F The Global Tuberculosis Programme by the
risk, early treatment. The Bacille Calmette-Guérin World Health Organization works towards the
(BCG) vaccine helps prevent TB outside the lungs goal of a world free of TB, with zero deaths,
but not in the lungs. disease and suffering due to the disease.
‹ Prevalence and Treatment: About 25% of the global F Global Plan to End TB 2023-2030 is a plan to
population has been infected with TB bacteria. 5-10% end tuberculosis as a public health challenge
of these infections progress to active TB disease. by 2030, in line with the UN Sustainable
v TB is preventable and curable with antibiotics, Development Goals.
typically including isoniazid, rifampin, pyrazinamide, ‹ SDG 3 aims to prevent needless suffering from
ethambutol, and streptomycin. preventable diseases and premature death by focusing
v Multidrug-resistant TB (MDR-TB) is caused by on key targets that boost the health of a country’s
bacteria resistant to first-line drugs, treatable with overall population.
costly and toxic second-line drugs. F Global Tuberculosis Report.

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Wolbachia-Infected Mosquitoes for Dengue Control

Why in News?
Dengue fever, chikungunya, and Zika virus represent major public health challenges in India, leading to
considerable economic losses and healthcare burdens.
‹ The limited success of traditional control methods underscores the need for innovative strategies, such as the
use of Wolbachia-infected mosquitoes, which offer a promising alternative.
Note:
‹ As of April 2024, India recorded 19,447 dengue cases and 16 deaths. Kerala had the highest number of cases,
followed by Tamil Nadu.
v In India, the economic impact of dengue is estimated at Rs 28,300 crore annually, alongside 5.68 lakh years
of young life lost.
‹ Globally, the World Health Organization (WHO) has reported over 7.6 million cases of dengue as of April 2024.

How does Wolbachia Help in Controlling Mosquito Populations?

‹ About:
v Wolbachia is a common type of bacteria found in insects. Approximately 6 in 10 of all insects, including
butterflies, bees, and beetles, around the world have Wolbachia.
F Wolbachia bacteria cannot make people or animals (for example, fish, birds, pets) sick.
F They are not found in Aedes Aegypti mosquitoes.
v Aedes aegypti can spread viruses including dengue, Zika, and chikungunya.
v Aedes mosquitoes with Wolbachia can be used to reduce the number of target mosquito species.
F Mosquitoes with Wolbachia are not genetically modified.

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‹ Process of Production: Wolbachia bacteria are first introduced into the eggs of male and female Aedes Aegypti
mosquitoes.
v The eggs are then used to mass-produce new mosquitoes infected with Wolbachia.
F There are 2 Wolbachia strains, wMel and wAlbB, that have been transinfected into Aedes Aegypti mosquitoes
for population replacement.
v After production, the mosquitoes are sorted by sex, with only the males being retained for release, while the
females are kept for further breeding in the laboratory.
‹ Use for Mosquito Control: Wolbachia-infected mosquitoes are used to lower the population of target species
like Aedes Aegypti, the yellow fever mosquito, that can spread dengue fever, chikungunya, Zika fever, Mayaro etc.
v Control professionals release male Aedes Aegypti mosquitoes carrying Wolbachia into areas with wild Aedes
Aegypti.
v When these males mate with wild females that lack Wolbachia, the eggs produced do not hatch. As a result,
the population of Aedes Aegypti mosquitoes decreased.
‹ Status of Wolbachia Programs in India: India currently lacks an active Wolbachia mosquito release program.
v The Indian Council of Medical Research - Vector Control Research Center (ICMR-VCRC) has initiated the
development of wMel Aedes strains but has faced delays in public updates and government approvals.
v Recent findings indicate the natural presence of Wolbachia in Aedes mosquitoes in Northeast India, though its
immediate significance is unknown.

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Global Examples for v For example, cells of Galapagos turtles, which can
Wolbachia Implementation live for over 200 years, divide approximately 110
times before reaching senescence.
‹ In Singapore, the release of infected male mosquitoes
v In contrast, laboratory mice cells become senescent
resulted in a 90% reduction in the Aedes population
after just 15 divisions, correlating with their much
and a 77% decrease in dengue cases in release areas. shorter lifespans.
‹ Australia adopted a population replacement strategy, ‹ Further Studies: In the 1970s, researchers discovered
leading to a stable wMel strain genome in wild telomeres, which are repetitive Deoxyribonucleic
populations and significant reductions in dengue Acid (DNA) sequences at the end of chromosomes
incidence. that protect them during cell division.
‹ A landmark randomised controlled trial in Indonesia v With each cell division, telomeres become shorter
demonstrated that areas with released wMel (strain) until they reach a critical length, signalling the
mosquitoes experienced a 77% reduction in dengue end of cell division and contributing to ageing.
cases and an 86% decrease in hospitalizations. v While telomere shortening is linked to ageing,
the exact correlation between telomere length
and lifespan is not straightforward. For instance,
Hayflick Limit Mice have longer telomeres than humans but live
significantly shorter lives.
Why in News? v Some researchers argue that telomere loss and
The recent death of Leonard Hayflick, a prominent the Hayflick limit are not direct causes of ageing
biomedical researcher has brought renewed attention but symptoms of the ageing process.
to his groundbreaking discovery, known as the Hayflick
limit.
‹ This discovery fundamentally altered the understanding
of ageing, challenging the previous belief that ageing
was solely influenced by external factors such as
disease, and environmental conditions.
What is the Hayflick Limit?
‹ About: Leonard Hayflick, in the 1960s discovered
that somatic (non-reproductive) cells can only divide
approximately 40-60 times before they stop dividing,
a phenomenon known as cellular senescence (those
that have stopped dividing).
v This cessation (ceasing) of cell division, which
leads to the accumulation of senescent cells,
Note: In the 1980s, scientists discovered a protein called
is posited to be a key factor in ageing. As more
telomerase that can produce new telomeres. This
cells stop dividing, the body begins to age and
protein is active in cancer cells, allowing them to bypass
experience decline.
the Hayflick limit and continue dividing indefinitely.
v The Hayflick limit suggests that there is an inherent This is why, as Hayflick himself said, cancer cells are
cellular clock in organisms, including humans, not subject to the Hayflick Limit.
determining the maximum lifespan. ‹ However, telomerase is primarily active in cancer
F For humans, this limit is estimated to be around cells, complicating its potential use in healthy cells.
125 years, beyond which no external factors or
‹ Although scientists have synthesised telomerase and
genetic modifications can extend life.
some in vitro studies have indicated they may slow
‹ Comparison of Species: Hayflick and other scientists down telomere loss in normal human cells, practical
documented the Hayflick limits in various animals. application remains distant.

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What is Cell Division? ‹ Participants using sucralose showed slight improvements

‹ About: Cell division is a fundamental biological process in body weight, waist circumference, and Body Mass
Index (BMI).
where a parent cell divides to form two or more
daughter cells. This process is critical for growth, ‹ The judicious use of sucralose can help in reducing
repair, and reproduction in living organisms. overall calorie and sugar intake, which is crucial for
managing diabetes effectively.
v Cell division in humans occurs through two main
‹ Significance: These findings are significant for India,
processes: mitosis and meiosis.
where sweeteners are less commonly used. The
‹ Mitosis: This is the process through which somatic study suggests that sucralose could improve dietary
(body) cells divide. compliance and aid in weight management for
v Mitosis results in two daughter cells, each with the diabetics in the country.
same number of chromosomes as the original cell.
It is crucial for growth, tissue repair, and asexual
What are Sugar and Sugar Substitutes?
reproduction in unicellular organisms. ‹ Sugar: It is a form of carbohydrate, along with fibre
v Mitosis is a highly regulated process that ensures
and starch. While carbohydrates are important for
genetic consistency in somatic cells. our health, sugar itself is not essential.
v White table sugar, known as sucrose, is the most
‹ Meiosis: This type of cell division is specific to the
widely used sweetener.
formation of gametes (sperm and egg cells).
v Other natural sugars include: fructose, galactose,
v Meiosis reduces the chromosome number by
glucose, lactose, maltose.
half, creating four non-identical daughter cells,
‹ Sugar Substitutes:
each with 23 chromosomes.
v Sugar substitutes offer a sweet taste without the
F This reduction is essential for maintaining
calories associated with sugar, with some containing
the species’ chromosome number across
no calories at all.
generations.
v They are commonly found in products labelled as
v Meiosis also introduces genetic variation through
“sugar-free”, “keto”, “low carb” or “diet”.
processes like crossing over and independent
v Types of Sugar Substitutes:
assortment (different genes independently separate
F Artificial Sweeteners: Also known as Non-
from one another during the development of
Nutritive Sweeteners (NNS), are primarily
reproductive cells).
synthesised from chemicals in laboratories, or
derived from natural herbs.They can be 200 to
Sucralose: A Promising 700 times sweeter than table sugar.
Examples: Acesulfame potassium (Ace-K), Advantame,
Sweetener for Diabetics ‹
Aspartame, Neotame, Saccharin, Sucralose etc.
F Sugar Alcohols: They are synthetically derived
Why in News?
from sugars, and are used in many processed
A recent study from India has highlighted the potential foods. They are less sweet than artificial
benefits of using sucralose, a non-nutritive sweetener, sweeteners and add texture and taste to items
as a substitute for sucrose (table sugar) among individuals like chewing gum and hard candies.
with Type 2 Diabetes. ‹ Examples: Erythritol, isomalt, lactitol, maltitol, sorbitol,
‹ The study contrasts with the WHO’s recent caution and xylitol etc.
against Non-Nutritive Sweeteners (NNS) for weight F Novel Sweeteners: They are derived from natural
control in non-diabetics. sources, offer the benefits of both artificial and
natural sweeteners. They are low in calories
What were the Key Findings of the Study? and sugar, preventing weight gain and blood
‹ The study reported no significant changes in glucose sugar spikes, and are typically less processed,
or HbA1c levels, a key indicator of blood glucose closely resembling their natural sources.
control, between the intervention and control groups. ‹ Example: Allulose, Monk fruit, Stevia, Tagatose etc.

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What is Diabetes?

‹ About:
v Diabetes or Diabetes Mellitus (DM) is a medical disorder characterised by insufficient insulin production or
an abnormal response to insulin, leading to elevated blood sugar (glucose) levels.
v While 70–110 mg/dL fasting blood glucose is considered normal, blood glucose levels between 100 and 125
mg/dL is considered prediabetes, and 126 mg/dL or higher is defined as diabetes.
Types of Diabetes

Type 1 Diabetes Type 2 Diabetes

Causes In this, the pancreas does not make insulin, In this, the pancreas makes less insulin and
because the body’s immune system attacks the the body becomes resistant to insulin.
islet cells in the pancreas that make insulin.
Prevalence Type 1 diabetes affects about 5-10% of people Type 2 diabetes is more common but typically
with diabetes, typically developing before age 30, begins after age 30 and increases with age.
though it can occur later in life.
Prevention Cannot be prevented. Can be prevented with lifestyle changes.

Electroencephalography (EEG)
Why in News?
Recently, electroencephalography has been in the news due to the centenary year of the first human EEG,
pioneered by German physiologist Hans Berger.
‹ Vladimir Pravdich-Neminsky achieved the first mammalian EEG in 1912 with a dog’s brain, followed by Hans Berger
in 1924 with the first human EEG.
What is EEG?
‹ About:
v EEG stands for electroencephalography. ‘Electro-’ pertains to electricity; ‘-encephalo-’ refers to the brain; and
‘-graphy’ is a suffix meaning to show or to represent.
v The EEG is a remarkable tool in physics and neurobiology, offering a straightforward glimpse into the human
brain’s workings, without invasive procedures.
v An EEG setup is simple, cost-effective, non-invasive, portable, space-efficient, and doesn’t emit high-energy
radiation or sounds, unlike MRI.
‹ Working:
v Volume conduction is the interference that happens between the source of an electrical potential and the
electrode measuring that potential.
F It occurs when electrical potentials is measured at a distance from their source.
v Neurons in the brain constantly exchange ions with their surroundings, creating waves of electrical activity
that electrodes on the scalp track to produce an electroencephalogram.
‹ Applications:
v It is the best test available to diagnose epilepsy (a neurological condition involving the brain that makes people
more susceptible to having recurrent unprovoked seizures).

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v An EEG test can also reveal the effects of v Epilepsy Surgery: Doctors can carry out brain
anaesthesia, sleeping patterns, neurological activity surgery to remove a portion of the brain where
during a coma, and availability of oxygen. the seizures originate.
v EEG can also help confirm brain death. v Corpus Callosotomy: In this surgical procedure
v Also used for neuroscience, cognitive psychology, doctors remove the corpus callosum (a part
neurolinguistics, and neuromarketing studies and that connects both halves of the brain) that will
to develop brain-computer interfaces. not allow abnormal electrical signals to travel
v Researchers have linked EEG data to various brain from one half of the brain to another, preventing
activities, distinguishing effectively between normal abnormal electrical discharges from spreading
and abnormal states. and causing seizures.
Note:
DBS Brain Implant Surgery ‹ Epilepsy has been recognised by the World Health
Organisation (WHO) as a neurological disorder.
for Epilepsy Treatment ‹ According to a 2022 Lancet study, the prevalence
of epilepsy in India ranges from 3 to 11.9 cases
Why in News? per 1,000 people.
Recently, a UK-based teenager has become the first ‹ Despite the availability of several anti-seizure
person in the world to be fitted with a brain implant medications, approximately 30% of the patients
device to help bring his epileptic seizures under control. remain resistant to treatment.
‹ The Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS) device was inserted
in his skull which reduced his daytime seizures by 80%. What is the DBS Brain Implant
Technology to Treat Epilepsy?
What is Epilepsy Disorder?
‹ About:
‹ About Epilepsy:
v Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS) involves implanting
v It is a central nervous system (neurological) a medical device with electrodes that deliver mild
disorder in which brain activity becomes abnormal, electrical currents to specific brain regions linked
causing seizures or periods of unusual behaviour, to seizures.
sensations, and sometimes loss of awareness.
‹ Causes:
v It is caused by abnormal electrical activity in the
brain.
v The disease has no identifiable cause in nearly
50% of the cases. However, head trauma, tumours
in the brain, some infections like meningitis, or
even genetics can lead to epilepsy.
v It’s more common in young children and older
adults. It occurs slightly more in males than in
females.
‹ Available Treatment of Epilepsy:
v Anti-seizure Medications: These are the first line
of treatment, aiming to control seizure frequency
and severity..
v Ketogenic diet: A high-fat, low-carbohydrate diet
can be remarkably effective, particularly in children
with medication-resistant epilepsy.

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v DBS is considered for patients with medication- v Two species of mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis
resistant epilepsy, where traditional medications and Gambusia holbrooki, were considered
haven’t controlled seizures. environmentally friendly and sustainable.
v Unlike surgery that removes brain tissue, DBS F Yet, the unintended result was the worldwide
offers a more targeted approach with potentially dissemination of these fish from the U.S., causing
fewer side effects. ecological disturbances.
‹ Working: ‹ Introduction of Mosquitofish in India:
v The device is a neurostimulator that delivers
v Gambusia was first introduced in India in 1928
constant electrical impulses to the brain to disrupt
during British rule, as a way to combat rapid
or block abnormal seizure-causing signals in the
mosquito spread.
brain.
v Subsequently, government bodies and private
v Two electrodes were inserted deep into the brain,
reaching the thalamus, a relay station for motor organizations in India collectively joined efforts
and sensory information. The electrodes are to combat malaria through this method.
connected to the neurostimulator device. F The initial idea was for the fish to control
v The device can be recharged wirelessly using a mosquito larvae, but the strategy backfired,
headphone. resulting in their transformation into invasive
alien species.

Mosquitofish
CAR-T Cell Therapy
Why in News?
Recently, various regions in Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Why in News?
and Punjab have witnessed the release of mosquitofish Following India’s approval of CAR-T cell therapy, a
into local water bodies as a measure to combat the pioneering treatment for cancer, a patient recently
increasing mosquito menace. underwent the procedure, achieving freedom from cancer
‹ However, a recent study highlights unexpected issues cells, marking a significant advancement in cancer
with this approach, bringing attention to potential treatment accessibility in the country.
drawbacks in the biological control method.
What is CAR-T Cell Therapy?
What is the Mosquitofish Approach and its
‹ About: CAR-T cell therapy, also known as chimeric
Related Consequences?
antigen receptor T-cell therapy, is a type of
‹ Background- Rise of Mosquito-borne Diseases: immunotherapy that uses a patient’s own immune
v Global climate and habitat changes in the last system to fight cancer.
century have heightened the prevalence of v CAR T-cell therapy has been approved for leukaemias
mosquito-borne diseases, impacting over 500
(cancers arising from the cells that produce white
million people in 150+ countries.
blood cells) and lymphomas (arising from the
v In India, approximately 40 million individuals
lymphatic system).
annually suffer from these diseases, posing a
v CAR-T cell therapies, often referred to as ‘living
persistent public health challenge for decades.
drugs’.
‹ The Mosquitofish Approach:
‹ Procedure: It is a complex and personalised treatment
v Mosquitofish, native to fresh waters of the
southeastern United States, are known for their process that involves:
appetite for mosquito larvae. v Collecting T cells: T cells, a type of white blood
F They can consume up to 250 larvae per day, cell that helps fight infection, are extracted from
making them a potential weapon against the patient’s blood through a process known as
mosquito populations. Apheresis.

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v Genetic Engineering: In the laboratory, the T cells are genetically modified to express a special protein called
a chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) on their surface.
F This CAR is designed to recognize and bind to a specific antigen (marker) found on cancer cells.
v Expansion: The engineered T cells are multiplied in large numbers in the lab.
v Infusion: The expanded CAR-T cells are then infused back into the patient’s bloodstream, where they can
identify and attack cancer cells that express the targeted antigen.

‹ Development in India: NexCAR19, an indigenously developed therapy for B-cell cancers, has been collaboratively
developed by ImmunoACT, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay (IIT-B), and Tata Memorial Hospital.
v The commercial use of this therapy to treat certain blood cancers was approved by the Central Drugs Standard
Control Organisation (CDSCO) in October 2023.

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v NexCAR19 is the first CAR-T cell therapy to get CDSCO approval.

Typbar Typhoid Vaccine

Why in News?
Recently, phase-3 trial conducted in Malawi, Africa, a region endemic for typhoid fever, has demonstrated the
long-term efficacy of Bharat Biotech’s Typhoid conjugate vaccine (TCV), Typbar. The efficacy of the vaccine was seen
in children of all age groups studied.
‹ Typbar TCV is the world’s first clinically proven conjugate Typhoid vaccine.

Note:
‹ A conjugate vaccine is a type of vaccine that combines a weak antigen with a strong antigen, also known as a
carrier protein. This combination helps the immune system to develop a stronger and more effective immune
response to the weak antigen.
‹ This stronger immune response helps to protect against infection from the pathogen that the weak antigen
originated from.

What are the Major Findings of the Typbar Vaccine Trials?

What is Typhoid?
‹ About: Typhoid fever is a life-threatening infection caused by the bacterium Salmonella Typhi. It is usually spread
through contaminated food or water.

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v It is transmitted by the faecal-oral route, through Snake Venom

ingestion of contaminated food or water.
F Once the bacteria is ingested, it multiplies and
Neutralising Antibody
spreads into the bloodstream.
Why in News?
v Urbanisation and climate change have the potential
to increase the global burden of typhoid. Researchers at the Indian Institute of Science (IISc)
in Bengaluru have created a synthetic human antibody
‹ Symptoms: It encompasses fever, fatigue, capable of neutralising a powerful neurotoxin produced
gastrointestinal problems, headache, and occasionally by Elapidae snakes, such as the cobra, king cobra, krait,
a rash. and black mamba.
v Severe cases can result in complications or death, ‹ Elapids, a diverse family of venomous snakes, have
confirmed through blood testing. hollow, front fangs that deliver venom and include
‹ Risk Factor and Disease Burden: In 2019, there were 300 species across various habitats globally.
an estimated 9.24 million typhoid cases and 1,10,000
What is the New
deaths across the world.
Venom-Neutralising Antibody?
v It remains a significant health issue, particularly in
developing regions. The majority of the typhoid ‹ About:
cases and deaths in 2019 occurred in South-East v The team at IISc adopted a previously successful
Asia and Africa. approach for screening antibodies against HIV and
Covid-19 to synthesise a new antibody, marking
v Lack of safe water and sanitation heightens risk,
the first application of this strategy for snakebite
especially for children.
treatment.
‹ Treatment: Antibiotics are the mainstay of treatment, ‹ Methodology:
but increasing resistance to antibiotic treatment is
v The team’s antibody targets a conserved region
making it easier for typhoid to spread in communities
in the core of the three-finger toxin (3FTx) found
that lack access to safe drinking water or adequate in elapid venom, despite variations in this toxin
sanitation. among different elapid species.
v The existence of resistant strains of bacteria v The researchers tested their synthetic antibody on
means antibiotics or drugs designed to kill them animal models, finding it effective against toxins
no longer work, allowing them to spread rapidly, from the Taiwanese banded krait, monocled
posing a risk to public health. cobra, and black mamba, with a potency nearly
‹ Prevention: Prevention strategies include access to 15 times that of conventional antivenom, even
safe water, sanitation, and hygiene. when administered after a delay following venom
v WHO recommends integrating typhoid conjugate injection.
vaccines to routine childhood immunisation F Conventional antibodies are not uniform in their
programmes in typhoid endemic countries. composition, as they are a mixture of different
types of molecules with varying affinity and
v Gavi supports vaccine implementation in eligible
specificity to different epitopes of the antigen
nations.
that triggered their production.
F The Vaccine Alliance (GAVI) was set up as a
‹ Need:
Global Health Partnership in 2000 with the goal
v Snakebites cause thousands of deaths annually,
of creating equal access to new and underused
particularly in India and sub-Saharan Africa.
vaccines for children living in the world’s poorest
F According to an Indian Council of Medical
countries.
Research (ICMR) study, India has witnessed
F At the Global Vaccines Summit in June 2020, India approximately 1.2 million (12 lakh) snakebite
pledged USD 15 million for Gavi’s 2021–2025 fatalities between 2000 and 2019, averaging
programme. 58,000 deaths annually.

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F India accounts for almost 50% of global snakebite a characteristic rash that progresses from macules
deaths. to papules to vesicles and pustules.
v The World Health Organization (WHO) classified v Vaccination: While a vaccine for mpox exists,
snakebite envenoming as a neglected tropical its availability and effectiveness are limited,
disease of high priority. highlighting the need for improved prevention
‹ Application: and control measures.
v Researchers suggest that this advancement brings ‹ Global Outbreaks: Mpox gained global attention during
us closer to a universal antibody solution capable a widespread outbreak that affected over 100,000
of providing broad protection against various people in more than 118 countries in 2022-2023.
snake venoms. v The outbreak was characterised by high human-
to-human transmission, particularly through close
contact and the sexual route.
Mpox Virus ‹ WHO Declaration: The World Health Organization
(WHO) declared the mpox outbreak a public health
Why in News? emergency, leading to coordinated efforts to control
Recently, a study revealed a novel adaptation its spread.
mechanism of the Mpox virus enhancing its ability to ‹ Genomic Features:
infect humans amidst recent outbreaks. v Clades and Lineages: Mpox genomes are divided
‹ The name was changed from “monkeypox” to “mpox” into clades I and II, with evidence suggesting clade
to avoid stigma towards monkeys and reflect the I has higher mortality.
virus’s direct human infectivity. F The 2022 outbreak involved a new lineage,

What is Mpox? clade IIb, better adapted for human-to-human

transmission.
‹ About:
v Genomic Analysis: Researchers found evidence
v Mpox, also known as monkeypox, is a DNA virus.
of a distinct lineage of clade I associated with
It belongs to the family Poxviridae, which consists human-to-human transmission, suggesting a
of large, double-stranded DNA viruses. recent zoonotic spillover event.
F The virus was first identified in monkeys in 1958 v Evolutionary Adaptations: Mpox viruses can
but has since been found to infect humans as undergo genomic accordion through gene
well. duplication or deletion to adapt to different hosts
v Transmission: Mpox is primarily transmitted to and environments.
humans from animals, particularly rodents and F A study published in Nature Communications
primates, through direct contact or through sequenced the genome of the mpox virus from
contaminated objects. the 2022 outbreak, revealing that certain sections
v Symptoms: Mpox infection in humans typically strongly influence human-to-human transmission
presents with fever, headache, muscle aches, and and are the virus’s genomic accordions.

Note:
‹ Genomic accordion refers to the rhythmic expansions and contractions in the size of a virus’s genome, specifically
observed in poxviruses like mpox.
v This phenomenon is driven by the duplication or deletion of genes within the virus’s genome, leading to
changes in its size and content.

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Difference Between Small Pox, Chicken Pox, Mpox

Feature Smallpox Monkeypox Chickenpox
Virus Variola virus Monkeypox virus Varicella-zoster virus (VZV)
Severity Highly severe, often fatal Milder than smallpox, rarely fatal Mild
Endemic in Central and West Africa, Common childhood illness, less
Status Eradicated in 1980 cases emerging elsewhere common due to vaccination
Highly contagious
through respiratory Spread through contact with Highly contagious through
droplets and contact infected animals, lesions, or bodily respiratory droplets and contact
Transmission with infected lesions fluids with lesions
Fever, headache, severe
fatigue, vomiting, Fever, headache, swollen lymph Fever, fatigue, loss of appetite,
followed by a deep- nodes, followed by a rash that followed by an itchy, fluid-filled
Symptoms seated, pus-filled rash progresses through stages rash
Routine vaccination for children
Not routinely recommended, may and adults who haven’t had
Vaccination No longer needed be given to high-risk individuals chickenpox

Prostate Cancer
Why in News?
A recent Lancet Commission paper highlights the alarming rise in prostate cancer cases in India, leading to a
higher mortality rate due to late-stage diagnosis.
‹ In India, a large number of patients are diagnosed with advanced-stage cancer, leading to a 65% mortality rate.
‹ Globally, prostate cancer cases are expected to double by 2040, with low and middle-income countries facing the
most significant rise, including India where new cases are projected to reach 71,000 annually.

What is Prostate Cancer?

‹ About: Prostate cancer is a type of cancer that develops in the prostate, a small gland in the male reproductive
system located below the bladder. The prostate gland produces fluid that nourishes and transports sperm.
‹ Prevalence: The Lancet Commission report predicts a global surge in prostate cancer cases, with low and middle-
income countries facing the most substantial increase.
v Worldwide, prostate cancer was responsible for approximately 3,75,000 deaths in 2020, ranking it as the fifth
leading cause of cancer-related deaths in men.
v It currently accounts for 3% of all cancers in India, with an estimated 33,000-42,000 new cases annually.
F Ageing populations and increasing life expectancy contribute to higher numbers of older men, increasing
the risk of prostate cancer.
‹ Risk Factors: The risk factors for prostate cancer include age (especially over 50), genetics, diet, obesity, smoking,
chemical exposure, prostate inflammation, and hormonal factors.
‹ Symptoms: Prostate cancer is typically asymptomatic in its early stages, but symptoms may include difficulty
urinating, frequent urination (especially at night), blood in the urine, erectile dysfunction, and lower back or thigh
pain.

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‹ Detection: Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) blood test v Brachytherapy: This treatment implants radioactive
measures the level of PSA in the blood. Elevated PSA seeds directly into the prostate gland.
levels can be a sign of prostate cancer, but they can
also be caused by other factors. West Nile Fever
‹ Treatment:
Why in News?
v Surgery: Surgery to remove the prostate gland
(radical prostatectomy) is a common treatment The detection of West Nile fever in 3 Kerala districts
option. has prompted health authorities to issue alerts and
intensify preventive measures.
v Radiation therapy: Radiation therapy uses high-
energy rays to kill cancer cells. What is West Nile Fever?
v Hormone therapy: Also called androgen deprivation ‹ About:
therapy (ADT), it is a treatment that reduces the v It is caused by the West Nile virus (WNV), a
amount of testosterone in the body. single-stranded RNA virus that is transmitted to

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humans through the bite of an infected mosquito ‹ Experts believe that more sophisticated vaccine
(Mosquitoes of the genus Culex are generally strategies will be necessary and that the research
considered the principal vectors of WNV) and and development process will take some more time.
Birds serve as reservoir hosts.
What is the Traditional
F The virus is a member of the Flaviviridae family
Vaccine Approach against HIV?
and the flavivirus genus.
‹ About:
v The virus is commonly found in Africa, Europe,
the Middle East, North America, and West Asia. v It refers to the development of vaccines that
aim to prevent infection from the human
v It was first isolated in a woman in the West Nile
immunodeficiency virus (HIV) using conventional
district of Uganda in 1937. It was identified in birds
methods such as inactivated or weakened forms
in the Nile Delta region in 1953, according to the
of the virus, viral subunits, or other components
World Health Organization.
that elicit an immune response.
‹ Transmission:
v These approaches typically involve stimulating the
v Mosquitoes become infected when they feed on
body’s immune system to recognize and attack
infected birds, subsequently transmitting the virus HIV, thus preventing infection or reducing the
to humans and animals through bites. severity of the disease.
v The virus may also be transmitted through contact
F It teaches the body to fight off new invaders.
with other infected animals, their blood, or other
‹ Failure of Traditional Vaccine Approach Against HIV:
tissues.
This approach has failed for HIV due to the following
v Rare cases of transmission through organ transplant,
reasons.
blood transfusions, and transplacental transmission.
v Lack of Natural Self-Defence in Body: Unlike other
v No human-to-human transmission of WNV through
viruses, most of the human bodies don’t build
casual contact has been documented. good defences against HIV on their own.
‹ Symptoms: v Rapid mutation: HIV has parts that mutate often,
v Asymptomatic in about 80% of cases. like a shape-shifter. Vaccines target these parts,
v Symptoms of West Nile fever include fever, but by the time the vaccine is ready, the virus has
headache, tiredness, body aches, nausea, vomiting, already changed its shape.
and skin rash. v Extreme viral diversity: HIV has a vast pool of
v Severe cases may lead to neurological symptoms circulating variants, making it difficult to target
such as neck stiffness, stupor, coma, tremors, all strains.
convulsions, muscle weakness, and paralysis. v Complex immune response: A successful vaccine
‹ Treatment needs to stimulate both antibody and cellular
v Supportive care for neuro-invasive cases involves immune responses against a rapidly changing virus.
hospitalization, intravenous fluids, and respiratory
support.
HMPV Virus
v No vaccine is available for humans.
The recent surge in respiratory illnesses in China,
linked to Human Metapneumovirus (HMPV), has sparked
Developments in HIV fears of another pandemic.
Vaccine Research ‹ However, the WHO has not reported a new pandemic,
issued emergency warnings, or declared a health
Why in News? crisis related to HMPV.
Despite 4 decades of effort, traditional vaccine ‹ HMPV:
approaches have been unable to prevent HIV acquisition v Discovered in 2001 by researchers in the
because the virus mutates rapidly and hides from the Netherlands. It causes acute respiratory infections,
immune system. similar to flu and Covid-19.

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v It is not limited to China and is found all over the world. It is clubbed as a common respiratory pathogen. It
does not have a vaccine.
v Vulnerable Groups– Children, the elderly, and those with weakened immune systems.
v Spreads through close contact or by touching contaminated surfaces.
v It commonly circulates during winter and spring, along with other respiratory infections like Respiratory
Syncytial Virus (RSV) and influenza.
F HMPV belongs to the Pneumoviridae family, which includes RSV, measles, and mumps viruses.
v While most HMPV cases are mild, a small percentage may develop into severe conditions (bronchiolitis or
pneumonia).

Marburg Virus Disease (MVD) Outbreak

A suspected outbreak of MVD in Tanzania’s Kagera region has raised alarm after claiming 8 lives.
‹ MVD is a deadly hemorrhagic fever caused by the Marburg virus, characterized by high fatality rates of 89% and
the absence of approved treatments.
v Symptoms: Fever, headache, vomiting blood, and bleeding, resembling the Ebola virus.
v Transmission: It is transmitted to humans from fruit bats (Rousettus aegyptiacus) and spreads through direct
contact with the bodily fluids of infected individuals.
v Diagnosis: Confirmed using tests such as RT-PCR (Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction).

World Diabetes Day 2024

World Diabetes Day is celebrated on 14th
November to raise awareness about diabetes,
which affects millions globally.
‹ The 2024 theme, “Breaking Barriers, Bridging
Gaps,” highlights the need for inclusive
healthcare and equitable access to diabetes
management.
‹ Diabetes:
v Diabetes is a Non-communicable disease
(NCD) that occurs either when the pancreas
does not produce enough insulin (a
hormone that regulates blood sugar,
or glucose), or when the body cannot
effectively use the insulin it produces.
F Uncontrolled diabetes can lead to severe
health complications, including heart
disease, kidney failure, and vision loss.
v Types: Type 1 diabetes and Type 2 diabetes
‹ Statistics:
v India has approximately 212 million
individuals with diabetes, and 133 million
of them are untreated.

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F In India, only 28% of women and 29% of men ‹ To receive WHO certification for eliminating kala-
with diabetes receive treatment. azar, a country must maintain less than one case per
F The prevalence of diabetes in India has 10,000 population at the sub-district level for three
quadrupled since 1990, now affecting 11.4% consecutive years.
of the population. v A country must demonstrate that local transmission
‹ Government Initiatives in India: has been interrupted for a set period and a system
v National Programme for Prevention and Control is in place to prevent disease re-emergence.
of Non-Communicable Diseases (NP-NCD) ‹ India has achieved this for two consecutive years
v Pradhan Mantri Bhartiya Janaushadhi Pariyojana and needs to maintain this level for one more year
(PMBJP) to qualify for the certification.
v With this, India can become the 2nd country in the
World AIDS Day 2024 world after Bangladesh to eliminate Kala-azar.
World AIDS Day, observed on 1st December every ‹ Kala-azar is the second deadliest parasitic disease
year, serves as a platform to raise awareness about HIV after malaria in India.
(Human Immunodeficiency Virus)/AIDS (Acquired ‹ Kala-azar (visceral leishmaniasis or Black fever) is
Immune Deficiency Syndrome), reflect on the progress caused by a protozoan parasite Leishmania donovani
made, and highlight ongoing efforts to eliminate the and transmitted by the bite of an infected female
disease. sandfly.
‹ 2024 Theme: “Take the rights path: My health, my
v If untreated, it is fatal in over 95% of cases.
right!”.
‹ India aimed to eliminate kala-azar by 2020, while the
‹ AIDS: It is a chronic, life-threatening condition caused
WHO targets global elimination by 2030 as part of its
by HIV, which attacks the immune system, targeting
CD4 cells (white blood cells, vital for the immune Neglected Tropical Disease roadmap.
system). It spreads through unprotected sex, infected Read More: Global Report on Neglected Tropical
blood, and sharing needles. Diseases
v While there is no cure, antiretroviral therapy (ART)
can suppress the virus and help restore CD4 cells.
‹ Global and National Progress: The Global AIDS Update
India Eliminates Trachoma
2023 highlights a decline in new infections, aiming as a Public Health Problem
to eliminate AIDS by 2030. In India, over 2.5 million
people live with HIV, with a 44% reduction in new The WHO has officially recognized India for eliminating
infections since 2010. Trachoma as a public health issue.
‹ India’s Response to the HIV/AIDS: ‹ Trachoma is a contagious bacterial eye infection
v NACP Phase-V (2021-2026): Phase-V aims to caused by Chlamydia Trachomatis, which can lead
reduce new infections and AIDS deaths by 80% to irreversible blindness if left untreated.
(baseline: 2010), eliminate vertical transmission, v It spreads through contact with the eyes, eyelids,
and combat HIV-related stigma.” nose, or throat secretions of infected individuals.
F The National AIDS and STD Control Programme
v It is categorised as a neglected tropical disease
(NACP), launched in 1992, has been implemented
and affects around 150 million people globally,
in five phases (Phase I-IV: 1992-2017).
with 6 million at risk of blindness.
‹ Trachoma was a leading cause of blindness in India
Eliminating Kala-azar during the 1950s-60s. India launched the National
India is close to achieving the elimination of Kala- Trachoma Control Program in 1963, which was later
azar as a public health problem, meeting the WHO integrated into the National Program for Control of
certification criteria. Blindness (NPCB).

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‹ In 1971, Trachoma caused 5% of blindness in India, now reduced to less than 1% through the National Programme
for Control of Blindness & Visual Impairment (NPCBVI) and the WHO SAFE strategy.
v India was declared free from infective Trachoma in 2017, with ongoing surveillance from 2019 to 2024.
‹ The National Trachomatous Trichiasis (TT only) Survey was conducted in 200 endemic districts from 2021-24 as
part of WHO’s mandate.
v Reports compiled by the NPCBVI team were submitted to WHO for final verification, leading to the declaration
that India has eliminated Trachoma as a public health problem
Read more: Global Report on Neglected Tropical Diseases 2024

International Thalassemia Day

International Thalassemia Day was celebrated on 8th May every year, to unite stakeholders to fight thalassemia
through prevention, awareness, early diagnosis, and ensuring quality care for patients.

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‹ The 2024 theme, “Empowering Lives, Embracing Progress: Equitable and Accessible Thalassemia Treatment for
All,” emphasizes on equality in access to comprehensive care.
‹ The need for integration of compulsory Thalassemia testing into the Reproductive and Child Health (RCH) program
as a means to significantly alleviate the burden of Thalassemia was promoted during the celebration.
v RCH programme is a comprehensive flagship programme launched in 2005, under the umbrella of the National
Health Mission (NHM) to deliver the RCH targets for the reduction of maternal and infant mortality and total
fertility rates.
Read more: Casgevy Therapy for Sickle Cell Disease and Thalassaemia


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Scientific Innovations
Gravity Energy Storage
Why in News?
Gravity Energy Storage is emerging as an innovative and cost-effective solution to address a key challenge of
renewable energy. It is also acting as a promising alternative to traditional battery energy storage.
What is Gravity Energy Storage?
‹ Definition: It is an innovative technology designed to store energy by leveraging the force of gravity.
‹ Principle of Operation: The core principle of Gravity Energy Storage lies in potential energy.
v It involves lifting heavy masses during periods of excess energy generation and releasing them to produce
electricity when needed.
‹ Energy Conversion: A turbine or generator converts the descending motion of a piston into electricity.
v A common design involves a fluid-filled cylinder with a heavy piston.
v During surplus electricity generation, the piston is lifted, storing energy.
v When energy is needed, the piston descends, driving water through a turbine to produce power.

‹ Environmental Sustainability: Unlike traditional battery storage, gravity energy systems avoid chemical-based
energy storage, making them environmentally sustainable and long-lasting.

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‹ Advantages:
v Site Flexibility: Unlike pumped-hydro systems that require specific geographical features, gravity energy systems
can be implemented in diverse locations.
v Scalability: Systems can be adapted to different energy capacities, making them ideal for grid-scale storage.
v Longevity: Minimal mechanical degradation ensures decades of operation with low maintenance.

How Can Gravity Energy Storage Address the Challenges of Renewable Energy in India?
‹ The Intermittency Issue: Solar and wind energy are not constant, they depend on weather and time of day.
v With schemes like the National Solar Mission and expanding wind power capacities, gravity energy storage can
help stabilize the grid by addressing intermittency.
v Reliable energy storage is essential to balance supply and demand, especially during peak usage or low
production periods.
‹ High Energy Capacity: Can store large amounts of energy, bridging the gap during low renewable production.
‹ Low Environmental Impact: It reduces harmful chemical reactions, minimizing impact and disposal issues, supporting
the transition to a greener planet.
‹ India’s Renewable Energy Push: India aims to achieve 500 GW of non-fossil fuel capacity by 2030 under its
renewable energy initiatives.
v Gravity energy storage can complement these efforts by providing reliable and cost-effective storage for the
large-scale solar and wind projects being deployed across the country.

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Thorium-based Nuclear ‹ Benefits:

v Efficiency: ANEEL fuel has a burn-up efficiency of
Energy Production 60,000 MW-days per tonne, compared to 7,000
MW-days per tonne for conventional natural
Why in News? uranium.
India’s largest power generator, National Thermal F In a typical 220 MW PHWR, the use of ANEEL
Power Corporation (NTPC) Limited has signed a strategic fuel reduces the lifetime bundle requirement
pact with US-based Clean Core Thorium Energy (CCTE) from 1,75,000 to 22,000, cutting waste volume
to explore development and deployment of advanced and operational costs significantly.
nuclear energy for enriched life (ANEEL), thorium-based v Non-Proliferation: Thorium and spent ANEEL fuel
fuel. is non-weaponizable, easing proliferation concerns
‹ Developed by CCTE, Aneel is a thorium-based fuel for for foreign uranium suppliers and reactor operators.
pressurised heavy water reactors (PHWRs). v Economic and Environmental Impact: ANEEL fuel
‹ The Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) plans to utilize reduces operating costs for reactors due to its
India’s abundant thorium reserves in its three-stage higher efficiency and longer-lasting fuel bundles.
nuclear power program as a long-term strategy. F It aligns with India’s clean energy goals and the
global commitment to tripling nuclear capacity,
What is Advanced Nuclear Energy for as highlighted during COP28, Dubai, UAE.
Enriched Life (ANEEL)? v Global Collaboration: The HALEU-thorium blend
‹ About: ANEEL is a patented nuclear fuel that is a in ANEEL has gained global attention as Canadian
blend of Thorium and High Assay Low Enriched Nuclear Laboratories signed an MoU with CCTE
Uranium (HALEU). to advance ANEEL fuel research and licensing.
v The fuel is named to honor Dr. Anil Kakodkar, one Thorium
of India’s foremost nuclear scientists. ‹ About: Thorium is a silvery, slightly radioactive
v HALEU is uranium enriched between 5% and 20%, metal. It is commonly found in igneous rocks and
required for many advanced nuclear reactor designs. heavy mineral sands.
F It is currently produced at scale only in Russia ‹ Abundance: Thorium is three times more abundant
and China, with limited production in the US. in the Earth’s crust than uranium, with an average
‹ Compatibility with PHWRs: ANEEL fuel can be used concentration of 10.5 parts per million (ppm) of
in existing PHWRs, which are the backbone of India’s thorium, compared with about 3 ppm of uranium.
nuclear power fleet. ‹ Fissionable but Not Fissile: The only naturally
v Presently, India has 22 operating reactors, with occurring isotope of thorium is thorium-232, which
an installed capacity of 6780 MWe. Among these is fissionable (can undergo fission) but not fissile
(cannot sustain a chain reaction without external
18 reactors are PHWRs and 4 are Light Water
neutrons).
Reactors (LWRs).
v Thorium-232 requires high-energy neutrons to
v India is building 10 more PHWRs, each with a
undergo fission.
capacity of 700 MW.
‹ Ease of Thorium Deployment: ANEEL provides an
easier and quicker alternative for the deployment 4th Nuclear-Powered
of thorium leveraging imported HALEU. Ballistic Missile Submarine
v India’s traditional approach involves creating
thorium blankets around uranium or plutonium India launched its 4th nuclear-powered ballistic
reactors to generate uranium-233, which is time- missile submarine at the Ship Building Center (SBC) in
Visakhapatnam.
intensive.

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‹ It has about 75% indigenous content and is equipped v One hypothesis for oxygen production is that
with Kalam-4 nuclear ballistic missiles with a range polymetallic nodules are transporting electric
of 3,500 km, launched via vertical systems. charges that split water molecules, releasing
‹ The other three nuclear-powered ballistic missile oxygen.
submarines are INS Arihant, INS Arighaat and INS F Polymetallic nodules are lumps of iron,
Aridhaman. manganese hydroxides, and rock found on the
v A nuclear-powered attack submarine of the Russian
ocean floor.
Akula class is set to join the force on lease in 2028. F However, the exact energy source for the
nodules’ ability to produce oxygen remains
v INS Chakra, an Akula class vessel, was taken on
unclear.
lease from Russia in 2012.
‹ Place of Study:
‹ The government plans the construction of three
v The study was conducted in the Clarion-Clipperton
more advanced diesel attack submarines at Mazagon
Zone Region off Mexico’s west coast.
Dockyards in collaboration with the French Naval
Group. F The Zone is noted for having the highest
concentration of polymetallic nodules in the
‹ A nuclear submarine uses a nuclear reactor for
world.
propulsion, providing unlimited range and endurance.
It is limited only by food supplies, crew fatigue, and What is Deep-Sea Mining?
maintenance. ‹ About:
Read More: India’s Submarine Strength v Deep-sea mining involves extracting mineral
deposits and metals from the ocean floor. There
are three main types of Deep-sea mining.
Discovery of Dark Oxygen
F Removing polymetallic nodules rich in deposits
Why in News? from the seabed.
F Mining massive deposits of seafloor sulfides.
Recently, scientists reported an unknown process is
F Extracting cobalt crusts from rock formations.
producing oxygen deep in the world’s oceans, where
photosynthesis can’t occur due to the lack of sunlight. v These nodules, deposits, and crusts contain valuable
materials like nickel, rare earth elements, and
‹ This discovery is significant because oxygen supports
cobalt, which are essential for batteries, renewable
marine life and suggests that there may be previously
energy technologies, and everyday devices such
unknown ecosystems. as cell phones and computers.
What is Dark Oxygen? v The deep-sea mining is anticipated to become a
‹ About: major marine resource extraction activity in the
coming decades due to availability of polymetallic
v Scientists observed an unexpected increase
nodules.
in oxygen concentration in some areas of the
‹ Environmental Concerns:
abyssal zone (where sunlight is extremely low and
v The discovery of ‘dark oxygen’ raises concerns
insufficient for photosynthesis).
about potential damage to ecosystems that rely
v Researchers noted that this finding represents a
on this oxygen source. Experts worry that deep-
new source of oxygen where photosynthesis does sea mining (that removes polymetallic nodules)
not occur, and termed it as ‘dark oxygen’. could be harmful to these marine environments.
‹ Possible Cause of Generation of Dark Oxygen: v In November 2023, a study indicated that deep-sea
v Typically oxygen is provided by the ‘Great Conveyor mining could harm deep-sea jellyfish (by creating
Belt’, a global circulation system which should mud plumes in ocean water which interfere with
decrease without local production, as small animals the nutrient and reproductive cycle of marine
consume it. species).

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v Limited scientific knowledge of abyssal zone ecosystems compared to those aboveground, may complicate
efforts to gauge the potential impact of deep-sea mining on these ecosystems and their role in global climate
processes.
‹ Indian Context:
v India intends to apply for licenses to explore deep-sea minerals in the Pacific Ocean.
F Also, India was the first country to receive the status of a ‘Pioneer Investor’ in 1987 and was given an area
of about 1.5 lakh sq. km in the Central Indian Ocean Basin (CIOB) for nodule exploration.
F India’s exclusive rights to explore polymetallic nodules from seabed in the Central Indian Ocean Basin was
extended in 2017 for five years.
F India in 2024, applied for Rights to Explore the Indian Ocean Seabed beyond its jurisdiction, including Cobalt-
Rich Afanasy Nikitin Seamount (AN Seamount)
v India’s Ministry of Earth Sciences is developing a submersible vehicle (Samudrayaan Misssion) as part of its
‘Deep Ocean Mission’ to search for and mine similar resources in the Indian Ocean.

Criticality of Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor

Why in News?
Recently, the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB) has officially granted permission for the “First Approach
to Criticality” of the 500 MWe Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) at Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu, India’s first indigenous
PFBR.
Note:
‹ Criticality: Criticality in a nuclear reactor is when enough neutrons are produced by fission to replace those
lost through leakage or absorption, ensuring the number of neutrons remains constant.
‹ Fission Vs Fusion:

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What is India’s FBR Programme?

‹ Efforts to build an FBR were initiated two decades ago.
v It is a step towards India developing comprehensive capabilities that span the entire nuclear fuel cycle, by which
electricity is produced from uranium in nuclear power reactors.
‹ The Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) aims to increase the share of nuclear power in the energy mix by 2032
by producing 22,400 MWe from its nuclear power plants.
v It has approved the construction of 10 new PHWRs in ‘fleet mode’, in which a plant is expected to be built in
five years from the first pouring of concrete.
v FBRs reactors generate more nuclear fuel than they consume due to the gainful conversion of fertile isotopes
into fissile material.
‹ In 2003, the Bharatiya Nabhikiya Vidyut Nigam Ltd or BHAVINI was incorporated to build and operate India’s
most advanced nuclear reactor, the Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR).
v Once commissioned, India will be the second country after Russia to have a commercial operating FBR.

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What are the Three stages of India’s v Molecular dating suggests they originated at least
Nuclear Energy Program? 600 million years ago.
‹ Adaptations: Tardigrades are known for their ability
‹ The First Stage: The installation of Pressurised Heavy
to withstand extreme radiation, starvation, lack of
Water Reactors (PHWRs) is underway, with PHWRs
oxygen and water, and subzero temperatures.
using natural uranium as fuel and heavy water as
coolant and moderator. v They can inhabit extreme ecosystems like the
Arctic, deep-sea floors, deserts, and even the
‹ The Second Stage: It involves the setting up of
vacuum of space.
FBRs backed by reprocessing plants and plutonium
fabrication plants, primarily to multiply the inventory ‹ Cryptobiosis: Tardigrades can enter cryptobiosis,
halting biological activity to survive extreme conditions
of fissile material.
like dehydration, freezing, and radiation damage.
v Multiplication of fissile inventory is also needed
v The DODA1 gene helps synthesise betalains, a
to establish a higher power base for using thorium
type of antioxidants that likely protect cells from
in the third stage of the programme.
radiation damage and allows them to recover and
‹ The Third Stage: It will be based on the Thorium and resume normal activities afterward.
Uranium Cycle. For producing Uranium-233 (U233),
obtained by irradiation of thorium in PHWRs and
FBRs, an Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR)
is proposed.
‹ The combination of power reactors from all three
stages is expected to ensure long-term energy security
for the country.
v But the commercial utilisation of thorium on a
significant scale can begin only when abundant
supplies of either Uranium-233 (U233) or
Plutonium-239 (Pu239) are available.
v The progress on the FBR has made the passage
to the third phase visible.
How Tardigrade Properties Could be Applied
for Human Use?
Tardigrades Genes
‹ Intrinsically Disordered Proteins (IDPs): Secretory-
for Innovation abundant heat-soluble IDPs synthesised in microbes
improve desiccation (completely drying up) tolerance,
Why in News? potentially enabling resilient microbes and organisms.
Recently, researchers are exploring a range of unique ‹ Small Heat Shock Proteins: When cloned into microbes,
tardigrade features to inspire advancements in medicine, these proteins can improve microbial survival and
biotechnology, and space exploration. stability in hot or dry environments.
‹ Protein Stability: Tardigrades’ ability to stabilise their
What are the Key Facts About Tardigrades?
proteins in extreme environments could be used to
‹ About: Tardigrades (Tardigrada), also known as water improve the shelf life and effectiveness of vaccines,
bears or moss piglets, are microscopic, eight-legged antibodies, and enzymes used in medicine.
creatures without a backbone. ‹ Cell Preservation: Tardigrades’ mechanisms to resist
‹ Species and Evolution: They belong to the phylum cellular damage could be used for cell therapies, aiding
Tardigrada. in transport and storage, and ultimately improving
v The earliest known fossils date from around 90 treatment delivery.
million years ago, in the Cretaceous Period (145 v Researchers may develop enhanced protective
- 66 million years ago). measures for humans and materials in outer space.


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Miscellaneous
Centenary of v This property enables phenomena like
superconductivity and superfluidity.
Bose-Einstein Statistics ‹ Fermions, in contrast, obey the Pauli exclusion
principle (no two electrons can have the same four
Why in News? electronic quantum numbers), which governs the
Recently, the centenary of ‘Bose-Einstein’ statistics structure of matter.
was celebrated, honouring Satyendra Nath Bose’s v Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC): Bose’s work,
groundbreaking work on particle indistinguishability. expanded by Einstein, led to the prediction of BEC,
a unique state of matter, formed when bosonic
‹ His contributions laid the foundation for key
atoms are cooled to near absolute zero (- 273.15°
advancements in quantum mechanics, including the
C), causing them to merge into a single quantum
Bose-Einstein Condensate, and continue to shape entity with wave-like properties.
modern physics.
F The concept remained theoretical until it was
Who was Satyendra Nath Bose? experimentally confirmed in 1995 by Eric Cornell
and Carl Wieman, who received the Nobel
‹ Early Life: Born on 1st January 1894, in Calcutta (now Prize for their work in 2001.
Kolkata), Bose was a promising student, excelling in
‹ Relevance in Modern Physics: Discoveries such as the
mathematics from an early age. Higgs boson and advancements in quantum computing
v He was inspired by Jagadish Chandra Bose, a highlight the enduring relevance of Bose’s principles.
pioneer in radio wave research, SN Bose ventured Bose-Einstein statistics impact not only physics but
into the realm of quantum mechanics, which led also cosmology and condensed matter science.
to his groundbreaking contributions to the field. ‹ Awards and Honours: Satyendra Nath Bose, widely
‹ Bose’s Contribution: known as the Father of the God Particle, received the
v Bose-Einstein Statistics: In 1924, Bose published
Padma Vibhushan in 1954. In 1959, he was named
India’s National Professor, the highest honour for a
a paper, “Planck’s Law and the Hypothesis of
scholar, a position he held for 15 years.
Light Quanta,” where he introduced a new way
of counting particles, particularly photons, as
indistinguishable entities. One Nation One Time
F Albert Einstein recognized the significance of
Bose’s paper and expanded on his ideas, leading Why in News?
to the development of Bose-Einstein statistics The Department of Consumer Affairs in collaboration
and the discovery of Bose-Einstein condensates. with the Council of Scientific & Industrial Research -
F Bose-Einstein statistics challenged the classical
National Physical Laboratory (CSIR - NPL) and the Indian
Space Research Organisation (ISRO), has drafted the Legal
mechanics’ assumption that particles are
Metrology (Indian Standard Time (IST)) Rules, 2025.
distinguishable, where each particle is considered
‹ The rules aim to standardize and mandate Indian
unique and can be tracked individually.
Standard Time (IST) adoption across all sectors,
F Bose-Einstein Statistics distinguishes between reinforcing the vision of “One Nation, One Time.”
two classes of particles in quantum mechanics:
bosons and fermions. What are the Key Features of the Legal
‹ Bosons, named after Bose, can occupy the same
Metrology (IST) Rules, 2025?
quantum state, making them indistinguishable. This ‹ Mandatory Adoption of IST: IST, as maintained by the
means one boson cannot be distinguished from CSIR-NPL, will be the only legally recognized time
another. standard in India, reinforcing “One Nation, One Time.”

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v The use of foreign time references (such as Global v Synchronization protocols such as Network Time
Positioning System (GPS) time) will be prohibited Protocol (NTP) and Precision Time Protocol (PTP)
unless specifically approved by the government. will be adopted by government institutions and
‹ Synchronization of Critical Sectors: All government public organizations.
institutions, financial entities, telecom service ‹ Benefits: Critical sectors like 5G, Artificial Intelligence,
providers, power grids, and digital infrastructure Internet of Things, navigation, and power grid
must synchronize their systems with IST. synchronization will operate with higher precision.
‹ Regulatory Framework & Compliance: Compliance will v Financial transactions and regulatory compliance
be monitored through periodic audits, and penalties will become more accurate and fraud-resistant.
will be imposed for non-adherence. v Digital devices and communication networks will
‹ Special Provisions: Scientific research, astronomy, be synchronized, improving operational efficiency
and navigational applications may use alternative and consumer services.
time references with prior government approval. v Strengthens India’s digital infrastructure, making
v The rules provide flexibility for strategic and it an attractive hub for global tech investments.
national security applications. F Aligns with international best practices in
timekeeping, aviation, and telecommunication
Indian Standard Time
standards.
‹ The IST is based on a longitude of 82.5°, which
passes through Mirzapur, Uttar Pradesh. CSIR- National Physical Laboratory
‹ It is 5 hours 30 minutes ahead of Greenwich Mean ‹ About: The NPL is one of India’s earliest national
Time (GMT), now called the Universal Coordinated laboratories. Its foundation stone was laid by
Time (UTC). Jawaharlal Nehru in 1947, and it was formally
inaugurated by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel in 1950.
v IST was established in 1906, replacing three
regional time zones from the British era (Bombay, ‹ Functions: Responsible for realizing and maintaining
Calcutta, and Madras Time). physical measurement units based on the
International System (SI units), including metre,
What is One Nation, One Time? kilogram, second, kelvin, ampere, and candela,
‹ About: ‘One Nation, One Time’ aims to establish a v NPL aids industries with precision measurements
unified and precise timekeeping framework for all and certifies emission-monitoring instruments.
governmental, industrial, technological, and societal ‹ Key Contributions: Develops advanced atomic
applications. clocks and maintains Indian Standard Time (IST)
v The government plans to set up five Legal Metrology using Cesium atomic clocks (work using Cesium
laboratories across India to achieve microsecond- atoms) and Hydrogen maser (uses hydrogen atoms
level accuracy in time dissemination. to serve precision frequency).
‹ Need for Self-reliant Timekeeping: India’s reliance on v Provides apex calibration services and supports
GPS satellites (controlled by the US) poses national National Accreditation Board for Testing and
security and cybersecurity risks. During the Kargil Calibration Laboratories (NABL).
War, 1999, this dependence compromised India’s
ability to accurately target enemy positions.
v A self-reliant system would reduce dependence
67th Foundation Day
and protect critical infrastructure. of DRDO
‹ Function: The NPL, will utilize atomic clocks to provide
accurate time, synchronized via NavIC (Navigation Why in News?
with Indian Constellation). Recently, the Defence Research and Development
v The NPL’s advanced atomic clocks, which lose only Organisation (DRDO) celebrated its 67th Foundation Day
one second over millions of years, will serve as on 1st January and paid tributes to former President
the reference for IST. Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam, the Missile Man of India

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‹ The event highlighted the significant strides DRDO v Rocket Systems: Multi-barrel rocket launcher Pinaka.
has made in bolstering India’s defense capabilities. v Naval Systems: Humsa, Nagan (sonar system),
Ushus (Submarine Sonar Suite), Mihir (helicopter
What are the Key Facts About DRDO?
sonar system).
‹ About: DRDO was established in 1958 by merging the v Main Battle Tank: Arjun.
Technical Development Establishment (TDEs) of the
v Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS):
Indian Army, the Directorate of Technical Development
F Lakshya: Reusable aerial target system for
and Production (DTDP), and the Defence Science
training, launched from land/ship with tow
Organisation (DSO).
targets.
v DRDO is the R&D wing of the Ministry of Defence,
F Nishant: Multi-mission UAV for surveillance and
Government of India.
artillery correction with autonomous flight and
v DRDO initially had 10 laboratories, it currently parachute recovery.
operates 41 laboratories and 5 DRDO Young
Scientist Laboratories (DYSLs). What are the Contributions of
‹ Key Achievements of DRDO: Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam to DRDO?
v Achievements of DRDO in 2024: ‹ Leadership in IGMDP: Dr. Kalam was instrumental in
F System Handovers: DRDO handed over multiple
the creation and execution of the Integrated Guided
advanced systems notable systems include: Missile Development Program (IGMDP), launched
in 1983.
‹ Air Defence Systems: Air Defence Tactical Control Radar
v His leadership led to the successful development of
(ADTCR), Air Defence Fire Control Radar (ADFCR).
the Prithvi, Trishul, Akash, Nag, and Agni missiles,
‹ Missile Systems: Long Range Land Attack Cruise positioning India as a member of the exclusive
Missile (LR-LACM), Quick Reaction Surface to Air group of missile-producing nations and earning
Missile (QRSAM), and Medium Range Anti-ship him the title of ‘Missile Man of India.’
Missile (MRAshM). v Under Dr. Kalam’s leadership, DRDO achieved
‹ Advanced Platforms: Multi-Mission Maritime Aircraft breakthroughs in missile technologies like
(MMMA), SCA (Signal Intelligence and COMJAM propulsion, navigation, control systems, and
Aircraft), and Anti-Tank Influence Mine PRACHAND. aerodynamics, leading to indigenous missile
F AI Tools: DRDO developed ‘Divya Drishti,’ an systems and reduced dependency on foreign
AI tool that integrates face recognition with suppliers.
immutable physiological traits like gait (pattern ‹ Integrated Guided Missile Development Program:
of walking) and skeleton. The IGMDP was a program initiated by the Indian
F Flagship Programs: Two flagship programs Ministry of Defence in 1982–1983 under the leadership
Full Scale Engineering Development (FSED) of of Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam, aimed at researching and
Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA) and developing a wide array of missiles.
a new Missile Test Range in Andhra Pradesh, v The program’s primary objective was to reduce
were sanctioned by the Cabinet Committee dependency on imports and build indigenous
on Security (CCS). expertise in areas such as propulsion, navigation,
v Missile Systems:
and control systems.
v The program resulted in the development of key
F Air-to-Air Missile: MICA, Astra Missile
missile systems such as Prithvi, Trishul, Akash,
F Surface-to-Air Missiles: Trishul, Akash, Barak 8
Nag, and Agni.
F Surface-to-Surface Missiles: Agni, Prithvi, v Concluding in 2008, IGMDP also provided significant
Dhanush, Shaurya technological spin-offs, strengthened India’s strategic
F Cruise Missiles: BrahMos, Nirbhay deterrence, and contributed to the development
v Combat Aircraft: Indigenous Fighter Jet Light of the defense-industrial base, in alignment with
Combat Aircraft (LCA) Tejas. the ‘Make in India’ initiative.

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Key Facts About Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam

‹ Born: Dr. Avul Pakir Jainulabdeen Abdul Kalam born on 15th October 1931, Rameswaram, Tamil Nadu.
‹ President: Served as India’s 11th President from 2002 to 2007.
‹ Awards: Padma Bhushan (1981), Padma Vibhushan (1990), and Bharat Ratna (1997).
‹ Literary Works: Wings of Fire, India 2020 - A Vision for the New Millennium, My Journey, Ignited Minds.
‹ Contributions:
v ISRO: Project Director for India’s first indigenous Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV-III).
F Successfully launched the Rohini satellite into near-earth orbit (July 1980).
F Played a key role in evolving ISRO’s launch vehicle program, particularly in developing configurations for
PSLV (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle) configuration.
F Pioneer at ISRO, leading the development of fiberglass technology (fibrous form of glass).
‹ Pokhran-II: Led India’s nuclear tests in collaboration with the Department of Atomic Energy, making India a
nuclear weapon state.
‹ Pokhran-II: Dr. Kalam led the Pokhran-II nuclear tests in 1998, which were conducted in collaboration with the
Department of Atomic Energy.
‹ Vision 2020: Proposed a national plan to transform India from a developing to a developed nation by 2020.
‹ Kalam-Raju Stent: Co-developed an affordable stent for coronary heart disease with cardiologist B. Soma Raju.



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