FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND SURVEY

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

CIV4103: STRUCTURAL DESIGN III (TIMBER AND MASONRY) (3CUS)
TIMBER DESIGN (EC 5; PART 1.1)
Lecture Notes
INTRODUCTION
Timber as a structural material
Timber is one of the plentiful natural resources available and is one of the oldest known
materials used in construction. It is used for a variety of structural forms such as beams,
columns, trusses, girders and is also used in building systems such as piles, deck members,
railway foundations and for temporary forms in concrete.
Timber structures can be highly durable when properly treated and built. Timber possesses
excellent insulating properties, good fire resistance, light weight and aesthetic appeal and other
structural properties. Many failures in timber buildings in the past have shown us the safe
methods of construction, connection details and design limitations.
However, it should be kept in mind that, unlike some structural materials such as steel or
concrete, the properties of timber are very sensitive to environmental conditions. For example,
timber is very sensitive to moisture content, which has a direct effect on the strength and
stiffness, swelling or shrinkage of timber. A proper understanding of the physical characteristics
of wood aids the building of safe timber structures.
The structure of timber
Mature trees of whatever type are the source of structural timber and it is
important that users of timber should have a knowledge of the nature and
growth patterns of trees in order to understand its behaviour under a variety of circumstances.
As engineers we are mainly concerned with the trunk of the tree.

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Cross-section of a trunk of a tree.
Defects in timber
Defects may be classified as: natural defects, chemical defects, conversion
defects and seasoning defects. These include;
 Cracks and fissures  Bowing
 Knots  Twisting
 Grain defects  End splitting
 Fungal decay  Cupping
 Springing  Honey combing
Strength capability of timber is difficult to assess as we have no control over
its quality and growth. The strength of timber is a function of several parameters including the
moisture content, density, duration of the applied load, size of members and presence of various
strength-reducing characteristics such as slope of grain, knots, fissures and wane. To overcome
this difficulty, the stress grading method of strength classification has been created.
The Design Basis
The structural design of timber members is based on the two principal categories of limit states
and that is the ultimate and serviceability limit states. A separate third limit state of durability is
also mentioned in section 4 of EC 5 which covers the risk of timber decay due to fungal or insect
attack as well as the risk of corrosion of metal fasteners and connections, e.g. nails, screws and
staples.
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Measures to reduce the risk of timber decay include;
 selecting materials which are naturally durable or the use of appropriate preservative
treatments.
Possible measures against corrosion attack of metal fasteners include;
 The use of zinc coatings or stainless steel.

The ultimate limit states are those associated with collapse or with other forms of structural
failure which may endanger the safety of people while serviceability limit states correspond
to states beyond which specific service criteria are no longer met.
The serviceability limit states which must be checked in EC 5 are deflection and vibration. The
ultimate limit states, which must be checked singly or in combination, include bending, shear,
compression and buckling.
Actions
These are direct loads (forces) applied to the structures, and indirect forces due to imposed
deformations, such as temperature effects or settlement.
Permanent actions are all the dead loads acting on the structure, including the self-weight,
finishes and fixtures and are denoted by the letter G.
Variable actions are the imposed, wind and snow loads and are denoted by the letter Q
The characteristic values for actions are modified by partial coefficients to take account of safety
factors, load combinations, etc.
Therefore, the design values of actions, Fd, are obtained by multiplying the characteristic actions
for permanent, Gk, and variable, Qk with relevant partial coefficients.

Material Properties

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EC5: Part 1.1 deals with the material properties and defines the characteristic strength, stiffness
and density values of solid timber sections for strength classes C14 to D70.
Table 11.3 shows the range of timber strength classes available for design. In practice the most
commonly recommended strength classes are C16 and C24. The table also gives the
characteristic strength and stiffness properties and density values for each class.
Note that the strength class indicates the characteristic bending strength of the timber.
Comparison with the strength classes used in BS 5268 (Table 6.3) shows that they are in fact
identical except class TR26

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Design Values
Clause 2.2.3-2 of EC5 specifies that the design value, Xd, of a material property is calculated
from its characteristic value, xk, using the following equation:
for strength properties;

for stiffness properties;

Where ɣM is the partial safety factor for material property and its values are given in table below,
kmod is the modification factor for service class and duration of load. Modification factor kmod
takes into account five different load-duration classes: permanent, long-term, medium-term,

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short-term and instantaneous, relating to service classes of 1, 2 and 3 as defined below. For metal
components, kmod should be taken as 1, i.e. kmod= 1.0
The characteristic strength values given in the table above are related to a depth in bending and
width in tension of 150mm. For depth in bending or width in tension of solid timber, h, less
than 150 mm, EC5 in Clause 3.2.2(5) recommends that the characteristic values for fm,k and ft,o,k
may be increased by the factor kh where:

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TIMBER DESIGN
We shall design the following:
1. flexural members
2. compression members
Design of flexural members (Beams)
Flexural members are those subjected to bending. There are several types

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and forms of flexural timber members that are used in construction. Typical
examples are solid section rectangular beams, floor joists, rafters and
purlins. Other examples include glulam beams (vertical and horizontal glued
laminated beams), ply-webbed beams (I-beams and box-beams) and beams
of simple composites (Tee and I shaped beams).
Although the design principles are essentially the same for all bending
members of all materials, the material characteristics are different. Steel for
example is ductile, homogeneous, and isotropic. Concrete is brittle and can
be assumed homogeneous for most practical purposes. As for timber, the
material properties are different in the two main directions: parallel and
perpendicular to the grain. Even though the normal stresses due to bending
are parallel to grain direction, support conditions may impose stresses that
are perpendicular to grain direction. These stresses, in addition to the
primary stresses, should be checked in the design against the permissible
values, which include the effects of environmental conditions, material and
geometrical characteristics.
Design considerations
The main design considerations for flexural members are:
(1) bending stress
(2) lateral buckling
(3) deflection
(4) shear stress
(5) Bearing
(6) Vibration
BENDING STRESS
Flexural members under bending should be designed so that the following
conditions are satisfied;

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where:
km is the modification factor for combined bending stress, detailed in Clause
5.1.6(2) of EC5 as:
for rectangular sections, km = 0.7
for other cross-sections, km = 1. O

are the design bending stresses about the principal axes y-y and z-z, as
shown on the beam axes figure below;

where:
My,d = design bending moment about y-y axis, and
Wy =bh2/6 is the appropriate section modulus

where:
Mz,d = design bending moment about z-z axis, and
Wz =bh2/6 is the appropriate section modulus

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fm,y,d and fm,z,d are cross ponding design bending strength about y-y and z-z axes

where:

kmod is the modification factor for load duration and service classes
kh is the modification factor for bending depth,
kcrit is the modification factor for reducing bending strength of a beam
where there is a possibility of lateral buckling. For a beam which is laterally
restrained throughout the length of its compression edge and its ends are
prevented from torsional rotation, kcrit = 1.0
For other conditions, Clause 5.2.2 of ECS and Clause 6.5 of the UK NAD
recommend the following:
(1) Calculation of the critical bending stress, m,crit , as given by the
following equation for a rectangular section of breadth b and depth h:

The effective length Lef is governed by the degree of restraint against lateral
deflection, rotation in plan and twisting, and may be considered as:
Lef = 0.7L; for a beam fully restrained against rotation in plan

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Lef = 0.85L for a beam partially restrained against rotation in plan at both
ends or fully restrained at one end
Lef = 1.2L for a beam partially restrained against twisting at one or both ends.

Kls is the modification factor for load-sharing systems. K ls = 1.1

fm,k is the characteristic bending strength

ɣm is the partial coefficient for material properties

E0,05 is the 5%tile modulus of elasticity

SHEAR
For stability of flexural members under shear, the applied shear stress,
should not exceed the permissible shear stress.

τd is the design shear stress, and for beams with a rectangular cross-section,
is given by:

where Vd is the design shear force (maximum reaction) and A is the

cross-sectional area, where A = bh. For beams with a notched end
A = bhe
fv,d is the design shear strength, which is given by:

kmod is the modification factor for load duration and service classes

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Kls is the modification factor for load-sharing systems. Kls = 1.1
fV,k is the characteristic shear strength
ɣm is the partial coefficient for material properties
kV is the modification factor for shear in members with notched
ends, were;
for beams with no notched ends, kv= 1.0
for beams notched at the unloaded side, kV= 1.O
for beams notched at the loaded side,

DEFLECTION
In order to prevent the possibility of damage to surfacing materials, ceilings,
partitions and finishes, and to the functional needs as well as any
requirements of appearance, Clause 4.3 of EC5 recommends a number of
limiting values of deflection for flexural and laterally loaded members. The
components of deflection are shown below, where the symbols are defined
as follows:
 wc is the precamber (if applied)
 winst is the instantaneous deflection due to permanent and variable
actions
 wcreep is the creep deflection due to permanent and variable actions

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wfin is the final deflection due to permanent and variable actions

= winst + wcreep

wnet,fin is the net final deflection due to permanent and variable actions

= wfin – wc

Deflection and other serviceability requirements should be specified for each

project and agreed with the client, but for guidance the table below provides
the values for net final deflection of beams which take into account creep
deformations.

when the member supports one or permanent actions but only a single
variable action (i.e. Q1) the final deflection, ufin, is given by

ufin = ufin,G + ufin,Q1

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where
ufin,G = uinstG(1 + kdef)

ufin,Q1 = uinstQ1(1 + ψ2kdef)

In which kdef is the deformation factor ψ2 is the factor for quasi permanent
value of permanent actions.

The final deflections are derived from the instantaneous deflection via kdef
which takes into account the combined effect of creep and moisture content.
Recommended values of kdef are given in Table below.

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The instantaneous deflections, i.e. uinstG and uinstQ1, can be calculated by
means of the expressions given in Table below and using E0,mean or
E90,mean as appropriate.

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LATERAL BUCKLING OF BEAMS

Where both lateral displacement of the compression edge throughout the

length of the member and twisting of the member at supports are prevented,
lateral buckling should not occur. Otherwise, the member may be vulnerable
to lateral buckling.
The following condition should be verified
σm,d ≤ kcrit fm,d

where;
σm,d design bending stress
fm,d design bending strength
kcrit is a factor which takes into account the reduction in bending strength
due to lateral buckling and is given by;

where λrel,m is the relative slenderness ratio for bending given by;

Where;
fm,k is the characteristic bending stress
σm,crit is the critical bending stress generally given by

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For softwoods with solid rectangular sections σm,crit should be taken as;

Where;
lef is the effective length of the beam, according to the Table below
b width of beam
h depth of beam
Iz is the second moment of area about z-z
Itor is the torsional moment of inertia
fm,k characteristic bending strength
E0,05 is the fifth percentile modulus of elasticity
parallel to grain
G0,05 is the fifth percentile shear modulus = E0, mean/16

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SHEAR (For beams notched at their ends)

For beams notched at their ends as shown in below, the following

condition should be checked

Where;
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kv is the shear factor which may attain the following values:

For beams notched at the oppostie side to support (Fig. b) above

kv = 1

For beams of solid timber notched at the same side as support (Fig.3a)
above

Where;
kn = 5 for solid timber
i is the notched inclination as defined in figure above
h is the beam depth in mm
x is the distance from line of action to the corner

COMPRESSION PERPENDICULAR TO THE GRAIN

For compression perpendicular to the grain the following condition should be
satisfied:

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Where;
σc,90, d is the design compressive stress perpendicular to grain
fc,90, d is the design compressive strength perpendicular to grain
kc,90 is the compressive strength factor
The factor kc,90 principally takes into account the effect of support position
and bearing length on bearing strength.

For example, in the case of a beam b wide and h deep, resting on end and
internal supports, bearing length l and overhang a ≤ h/3 as shown in the
figure below, kc,90 at the end support is given by

and at internal supports is given by

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For members on discrete supports, provided l1 ≥ 2h, the value of kc,90 may
be taken as 1.5 for solid support softwood timber. Other values apply for
members on continuous supports and for glued laminated softwood timber.

EXAMPLE 1.0
A timber floor spanning 3.8 m centre to centre is to be designed using timber
joists at 600 mm centres. The floor is subjected to an imposed load of 1.5
kN/m2 and carries a dead loading, excluding self-weight, of 0.30 kN/m2.
Carry out the bending, Shear, deflection and the Compression
perpendicular to the grain checks to show that a series of 44 mm x 200
mm deep sawn section timber in strength class C22 under service class l is

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suitable.

EXAMPLE 2.0
A timber floor joists of strength class C16 is to be used for a domestic
dwelling with floor width, b, 3.6 m and floor span, l, 3.4 m. The joists are
spaced at 600 mm centres. The flooring is tongue and grove boarding of
thickness 21 mm and a self-weight of 0.1 kN m−2 and the ceiling is of
plasterboard with a self-weight of 0.2 kN m−2. Given that the the bearing
length is 100 mm. Check the suitability of the timber joist under
Bending, Shear, Deflection and its Compression perpendicular to the
grain strength. (Hint: Make any Realistic assumptions)

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SOLUTION
LOADING
Permanent action, Gk
(Due to the floor deck, Plasterboard Ceiling and Joists)

Assumptions
Assuming the Joist has a SW of O.1KN/m2

Total characteristic permanent action

Tongue & grove boarding = 0.10 kN m−2
Ceiling = 0.20 kN m−2
Joists = 0.10 kN m−2
Gk = (O.1+0.2+0.1) = 0.40 kN m−2

Variable action, Qk
For domestic dwelling, imposed floor load = 1.50 kN m−2 (Ref: Table 3 of UK
National Annex to EN 1991–1–1)
Qk = 1.50 kN m−2

Design action
Total design load = 1.35 Gk + 1.5 Qk

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 = 1.35 × 0.40 + 1.5 × 1.5 = 2.79 kN m−2

Design load Per joist, Fd = joist spacing × effective span × load

= 0.6 × 3.4 × 2.79 = 5.7 kN

BENDING CHECK
For stability under bending;

The design bending strength is given by

kmod is the modification factor for load duration and service classes
Assuming a moisture content of less 20% in this timber joist (Service class 2)
Since the joists are loaded the critical load duration class is ‘medium-term’
kmod equals 0.8

kh is the modification factor for bending depth = 1.0 (Assumed)

Ksys is the modification factor for load-sharing systems. Ksys = 1.1
fm,k is the characteristic bending strength
ɣm is the partial coefficient for material properties

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γM (for ultimate limit states) = 1.3

km is the modification factor for combined bending stress,

for rectangular sections, km = 0.7

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From Table 6.8 a 63 mm × 200 mm joist would be suitable (Wy = 420 × 103
mm3,)
DEFLECTION CHECK
Total final deflection, ufin = ufin,G + ufin,Q1
Final deflection due to permanent actions ufin,G
ufin,G = uinstG(1 + kdef)
instantaneous deflection due to permanent load, uinstG
uinstG = bending deflection + shear deflection

Instantaneous deflection due to permanent actions, uinstG

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From Table 11.4, γG for serviceability limit states = 1.0 and factored
permanent load, G = γGGk = 1.0 × 0.40 = 0.40 kN /m
Factored permanent load per joist, Fd,G, is
Fd,G = total load × joist spacing × span length = 0.40 × 0.6 × 3.4 = 0.82 Kn

Final deflection due to permanent actions

From Table 11.9, for solid timber members subject to service class 2 and
medium-term loading, Kdef = 0.8. Final deflection due to permanent actions,
ufin,G, is given by
ufin,G = uinstG(1 + kdef) = 1 × (1 + 0.8) = 1.8 mm

Final deflection due to variable action ufin, Q1,

ufin,Q1 = uinstQ1(1 + ψ2kdef)
Instantaneous deflection due to variable action, uinstQ
uinstQ = bending deflection + shear deflection

From Table 11.4, γQ for serviceability limit state = 1.0 and factored variable
action, Q = γQQk = 1.0 × 1.5 = 1.5 kN m−2
Factored variable action per joist, Fd,Q, is
Fd,Q = total load × joist spacing × span length = 1.5 × 0.6 × 3.4 = 3.06 kN
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SHEAR CHECK
For stability:

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DESIGN COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
For Stability;

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DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS
DESIGN OF COLUMNS
Columns are normally subjected to either axial load or combined axial
load and bending.
Axially loaded members may fail in compression or flexural buckling
depending upon the relative slenderness ratios, λ rel,z and λrel,y. Members
subject to axial load and bending are also susceptible to these modes of
failure but may additionally fail due to lateral torsional buckling.
COLUMNS SUBJECT TO AXIAL LOAD ONLY
For stability, the condition is;
1. In cases where both the relative slenderness ratios λrel,z and λrel,y is less
than or equal to 0.3, columns subject to axial load only should satisfy
the following condition:

2. In cases where either λrel,z or λrel,y exceeds 0.3, the column should
satisfy the more stringent of the following:

Where;

fc,0, d is the design compressive strength

σc,0, d is the design compressive stress

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E0,05 is the fifth percentile value of the modulus of elasticity parallel to the
grain.
lef is the effective length
i is the radius of gyration
N is the axial load
A is the cross-sectional area

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βc = 0.2 (for solid timber)

COLUMNS SUBJECT TO AXIAL LOAD AND BENDING

If the relative slenderness ratios about both the y–y and z–z axis of the
column, λrel,y and λrel,z respectively, are less than or equal to 0.3, the
condition for stability is;

Where either λrel,z or λrel,y exceeds 0.3, the column is vulnerable to flexural
buckling and the following conditions should be satisfied;

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In cases where λrel,z or λrel,y exceeds 0.3 and when a combined compressive
force and a moment about the major axis (y–y) act, the column may be
susceptible to lateral torsional buckling.

The risk of this mode of failure occurring can be assessed using the following
expression taken from;

Design moment due to Eccentricity;

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Example 1.0
A timber column of strength class C16 consists of a 100 mm square section
which is restrained at both ends in position but not in direction. Assuming
that the service conditions comply with Service Class 2 and the actual height
of the column is 3.75m, calculate the design axial long term load that the
column can support.
Solution

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From;

The axial load capacity of column

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Example 2.0 (Assignment)
For the design data given below, check that a 100mm x 250 mm sawn
section is adequate under bucking and lateral torsional buckling as a column
if the load is applied 40 mm eccentric about its y-y axis. The column is 3.75m
high and has its ends restrained in position but not in direction.
Design data
Timber: C22 Permanent load: 15 kN
Service class: 2
Variable load (medium-term): 17 kN

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