EEE270

Introduction to Electrical Energy

Systems
Lecture 2 - SINUSOIDAL STEADY-STATE ANALYSIS

Prof. Dr. A. Mete VURAL

[email protected]

Assist. Prof. Dr. Ali Osman ARSLAN

[email protected]
The Sinusoidal Source
• A sinusoidal voltage source (independent or dependent) produces a
voltage that varies sinusoidally with time.
• A sinusoidally varying function (voltage or current) can be expressed
with either the sine function or the cosine function.
• We will use cosine function throughout our discussion.
• A sinusoidal voltage waveform can be expressed as

𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
The Sinusoidal Source
𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠

𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒(𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠)

3𝜋
𝜑= 𝑜𝑟 270°
2
The Sinusoidal Source peak peak to peak
𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)

𝑉𝑚 → 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 (𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘)

𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
𝜔 → 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 ( )
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠

1
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 where 𝑓 =
𝑇

f→ 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦(𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧, 𝐻𝑧)

𝑇 → 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 (𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠)

𝜑 → 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 (𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠)

2𝑉𝑚 → 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑉𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 / 2 → root mean square (RMS) value

Example:
A sinusoidal current has a maximum amplitude of 20 A. The current passes
through one complete cycle in 1 ms. The magnitude of the current at zero
time is 10 A.

Find,
a) The frequency of the current waveform.
b) The angular frequency of the current waveform.
c) The time-domain expression for this current waveform.
d) The rms value of the current waveform.
Solution:
a) From the statement of the problem, T=1ms, hence
𝑓 = 1/𝑇 = 1000𝐻𝑧

b) 𝑤 = 2𝜋𝑓 = 2000𝜋 rad/s

c) We have 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)= 20cos(2000𝛑𝑡 + 𝜑) but 𝑖 0 = 10𝐴.

Therefore 10 = 20cos(𝜑) and 𝜑 = 60° . Thus the expression becomes

𝑖(𝑡) = 20𝑐𝑜𝑠(2000𝜋𝑡 + 60° )

d) The rms value of a sinusoidal current is 𝐼𝑚ൗ 2. Therefore the rms value is 20ൗ 2
A
or 14.14 A.
Example:
A sinusoidal voltage is given by the expression
𝑣 𝑡 = 300 cos 120𝛑𝑡 + 30

a) What is the period of the voltage in milliseconds?

b) What is the frequency of the voltage in Hertz?
c) What is the value of the voltage at t = 2.778 ms?
d) What is the rms value of the voltage?
Solution:
a) From the expression for 𝑣, 𝑤= 120𝛑 rad/s.
1
Since, 𝑤 = 2𝛑𝑓 = 2𝛑/𝑇, 𝑇 = 2𝛑/𝑤 = 2𝛑/120𝛑= 𝑠 or 16.667ms.
60

b) The frequency is f = 1/𝑇, which is 60 Hz.

2𝛑 2𝛑 2𝛑
c) 𝑤 = = ; at t= 2.778 ms, wt is nearly ∗ 2.778 = 1.047𝑟𝑎𝑑 or 60°
𝑇 16.667 16.667
Therefore,

𝑣 2.778𝑚𝑠 = 300 cos 60 + 30 = 0𝑉

𝑉𝑚 300
d) The rms value of the voltage is 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 2
= 2
= 212.13𝑉.
Converting SIN to COS
cosine function can be converted into sine function, and vice versa.

9
Examples for SIN->COS conversion
i(t)=5sin(100πt) A = 5cos(100πt-90°) A

i(t)=5sin(100πt+30°) A = 5cos(100πt+30°-90°) = 5cos(100πt-60°) A

i(t)=5sin(100πt-30°) A = 5cos(100πt-30°-90°) = 5cos(100πt-120°) A

10
RMS Value (Root Mean Square)
𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)

rms value of 𝑣 is calculated as

Difference between peak and rms voltage

1 𝑡0 +𝑇 2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = න 𝑉𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝑡0
IMPORTANT: In everyday use, AC voltages
and currents are always given as RMS values,
𝑉𝑚 if otherwise is not stated.
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
2 For example, a 220V AC supply means 220V
RMS with the peak voltage of 311.126 V.
Example:
Suppose 𝑣 = 565.5440cos(2𝜋50𝑡 + 30° ), Then the rms value of the
voltage waveform is given as

𝑉𝑚 = 565.5440𝑉
𝑉𝑚 565.5440
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = = 𝟑𝟗𝟗. 𝟗𝑽
2 2

IMPORTANT: The multimeter always shows the

RMS value of the AC voltage or AC current.
DC Value (Average, Mean)
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)

DC value of 𝑣(t) is calculated as

1 𝑡0 +𝑇
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = න 𝑣 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝑡0
1 𝑡 +𝑇
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = ‫ 𝑡׬‬0 𝑉𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0

𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 0

DC value of the sinusoidal voltage having NO DC COMPONENT is equal to zero.

DC Value (Average, Mean)

DC value = 0 DC value = 50 DC value = -100

14
The concept of Lagging and Leading
Δt=(θ/360°)xT

time (s)

V1(t)=Vmsin(wt)
V2(t)=Vmsin(wt-θ)

▪ V2 is lagging V1 by the angle θ

▪ V1 is leading V2 by the angle θ
▪ Angle θ is called “phase (shift) angle”
▪ In general, if θ=0° then V1 and V2 are said to be “in-phase”
▪ In general, if θ ≠ 0° then V1 and V2 are said to be “ θ degrees out-of-phase”
▪ To compare two waveforms, their frequency should be same
15
 v(t)=100sin(2π50t) v(t)=100sin(2π50t)
i(t)=40sin(2π50t-30°) i(t)=40sin(2π50t)

i lags v by 30° v and i are in-phase

v(t)=100sin(2π50t)
i(t)=40sin(2π50t±180°)
v(t)=100sin(2π50t)
i(t)=40sin(2π50t+30°)
v and i are 180°
i leads v by 30° out-of-phase

16
The concept of Lagging and Leading
Two cars are going on autobahn

LAGGING CAR

LEADING CAR

The concept of leading and lagging of AC waveforms are opposite of this autobahn example !

17
Example:
Find the angle by which i1 lags v1 if
v1(t) = 120cos(120πt-40°) volts
and
i1(t) = 2.5sin(120πt+20°) amps

Solution:
v1(t) = 120cos(120πt-40°) volts
i1(t) = 2.5cos(120πt+20°-90°) = 2.5cos(120πt-70°)
Answer: i1 lags v1 by 30°

Hint: The waveform which has more negative phase angle lags the other one

18
Self-study
Sketch the following waveforms for 2 cycles (periods)
❑ v(t)=50sin(2000t+30°) volts
❑ i(t)=0.04sin(100t-45°) amps
❑ v(t)=34500sin(2π50t-11°) volts
❑ i(t)=37sin(2π60t+7°) amps

19
Self-study
Write the expression for each waveform using both sin and cos functions.

a) b) c)

20
Self-study
Specify which waveform lags the other one in each figure ?

a) b) c)

21
The Phasor
The phasor is a complex number that carries the amplitude and phase angle
information of a sinusoidal function.
The relationship between exponential function to the trigonometric function is
given as; (Euler Identity)

cosine function is the real part of the exponential function and sine function is the
imaginary part of the exponential function

denotes the “real part of” and

denotes the “imaginary part of”
The Phasor
• Since we are interested in cosine function in analyzing,

or we can write
The Phasor

The quantity is a complex number that carries the amplitude and phase
angle of the given sinusoidal function.

This complex number is by definition the phasor representation, or phasor

transform, of the given sinusoidal function. Thus,

Phasor Transform
The Phasor
Phasor Transform

The phasor transform transfers the sinusoidal function from the time domain to
the complex-number domain, which is also called the frequency domain.

Phasor in rectangular form

𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚 /_𝜙 Phasor in polar form

Example:

Obtain the phasor transform of 𝑣 𝑡 = 100cos(𝜔𝑡 + 30° )

° 𝑗30°
𝑃 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑃 100 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 30 = 100𝑒 = 100∠30°
 Example:
Transform time-domain voltage v(t) = 100cos(400t-30°) volts into phasor domain.

V = 100/__-30° volts at w=400 rad/s or f = w/2π = 63.66 Hz.

Generally Phasor Phase

written sign angle
in bold
and/or
Italics

27
Example:
Transform time-domain current i(t) = 1.0sin(t+19°) A into phasor domain.

First we have to convert sin to cos as follows:

i(t) = 1.0sin(t+19°) A
i(t) = 1.0cos(t+19°-90°) A
i(t) = 1.0cos(t-71°) A
Then we can make the transformation as follows:

I = 1/__-71° A

Current phasor
phase angle
Phasor in degrees
magnitude
28
 Inverse Phasor Transform

The step of going from the phasor transform to the time-domain expression is
referred to as finding the inverse phasor transform and is formalized by the
following equation,
Example:

Obtain the inverse phasor transform of 𝐕 = 130∠45°

𝑃−1 𝐕 = 𝑃−1 130∠45° = 130cos(𝜔𝑡 + 45° )

Conclusions – Phasor Transform
• The phasor transform is useful in circuit analysis because it reduces the task of
finding the maximum amplitude and phase angle of the steady state sinusoidal
response to the algebra of complex numbers.

• The phasor transform, along with the inverse phasor transform, allows you to go
back and forth between the time domain and the frequency domain. Therefore,
when you obtain a solution, you are either in the time domain or the frequency
domain. You cannot be in both domains simultaneously.
Conclusions – Phasor Transform

• The phasor transform is also useful in circuit analysis because it

applies directly to the sum of sinusoidal functions. Circuit analysis
involves summing currents and voltages, so the importance of this
observation is obvious.
Time domain

Frequency domain
Example: Adding Cosines Using Phasors
If 𝑦1 = 20cos(𝜔𝑡 − 30° ) and 𝑦2 = 40cos(𝜔𝑡 + 60° ), express 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 as a single sinusoid function.
Taking the phasor transform of 𝑦1 and 𝑦2 , we get

°
𝐘1 = 𝑃 𝑦1 = 𝑃 20cos(𝜔𝑡 − 30° ) = 20𝑒 −𝑗30 = 20∠ −30°

°
𝐘2 = 𝑃 𝑦2 = 𝑃 40cos(𝜔𝑡 + 60° ) = 40𝑒 𝑗60 = 40∠60°

𝐘 = 𝐘1 + 𝐘2 = 20∠ −30° +40∠60° =

= 20 cos −30° + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛 −30° + 40 cos 60° + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛 −60°

= 17.32 − 𝑗10 + 20 + 𝑗34.64 = 37.32 + 𝑗24.64 = 44.72∠33.43° Then take inverse phasor
transform to obtain

𝑦 = 𝑃−1 𝐘 = 𝑃−1 44.72∠33.43° = 44.72 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 33. 43° )

Homework
The Passive Circuit Elements in the Frequency Domain
The systematic application of the phasor transform in circuit analysis requires two steps.
• First, we must establish the relationship between the phasor current and the phasor voltage at
the terminals of the passive circuit elements.
• Second, we must develop the phasor-domain version of Kirchhoff’s laws.
The V-I Relationship for a Resistor
• Suppose

• Then using Ohm’s law

• The phasor transform of this voltage is

• Since is the phasor representation of sinusoidal current we have
The V-I Relationship for a Resistor

At the terminals of a resistor, there is no phase shift between the current and voltage. The following
figure shows this phase relationship, where the phase angle of both the voltage and the current
waveforms is same. These signals are said to be in phase because they both reach corresponding
values on their respective curves at the same time (for example, they are at their positive maxima at
the same instant).

The V-I Relationship

for a Resistor
The V-I Relationship for an Inductor
• Suppose

Writing this expression in cosine form (sine is 90 degree shifted version of cosine)

The phasor representation of the voltage is given as;

The V-I Relationship for an Inductor
• Therefore, for an inductor

𝐕 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿𝐈

The voltage leads the current by 90 degree or equivalently, the current lags behind
the voltage by 90 degree.
The V-I Relationship for an Inductor
The V-I Relationship for a Capacitor
• Suppose

If we solve for 𝐕 we get

The V-I Relationship for a Capacitor

The voltage across the terminals of a capacitor lags behind the current by exactly 90 degrees.
Impedance
• Impedance is defined as the ratio of voltage-phasor to the current-
phasor related to any equipment or component.
• Impedance is a complex number, i.e., it has a real part and a reactive
part.
• The imaginary part of the impedance is called as reactance.
• The unit of impedance is ohm (Ω)
• We generally use letter z or Z to represent the impedance.

Z = V/I

43
Impedance
• The impedance of a resistance is equal to
ZR = V/I = RI/I = R = R/__0° Ω

• The impedance of an inductor is equal to

ZL = V/I = jwLI/I = jwL = wL /__90° Ω

• The impedance of a capacitor is equal to

ZC = V/I = V/VjwC = 1/jwC = j/j2wC = -j/wC = wC/__-90° Ω j2 = -1

44
Impedance and reactance of various circuit
elements
Impedance
• ZR is not function of frequency, since ZR = R
• ZL is a function of frequency, since ZL = jwL
at w=0 ➔ ZL = 0
at w-> ∞ ➔ ZL -> ∞

• ZC is a function of frequency, since ZC = 1/jwC

at w=0 ➔ ZL -> ∞
at w-> ∞ ➔ ZL -> 0

46
Homework
Review on operations with complex numbers
1) Representation of complex numbers:
a) In rectangular coordinates:
complex number = real part + j imaginary part
Imaginary

Real
For example ➔ a = 3+j2 or 3+2i
(j or i can be interchangeably used)

48
Review on operations with complex numbers
1) Representation of complex numbers:

b) In polar coordinates:
complex number = magnitude /__ phase angle

For example ➔ a = 5/_28°

Magnitude phase angle

r θ

49
Review on operations with complex numbers
2) Transformation from polar to rectangular (cartesian) coordinates

x = rcosθ
y = rsinθ

r/_θ = x + jy
50
Review on operations with complex numbers
3) Transformation from rectangular to polar coordinates

x+jy = r/_θ

51
Review on operations with complex numbers
4) Addition and subtraction in polar coordinates

Let
z1 = A/_B and z2 = C/_D

z1±z2 = (AcosB±CcosD)+j(AsinB±CsinD)

52
Review on operations with complex numbers
5) Multiplication and division in polar coordinates

Let
z1 = A/_B and z2 = C/_D

z1.z2 = AC/_(B+D)

z1/z2 = A/C/_(B-D)

NOTE: Multiplication and division are rather simple in polar coordinates

53
 Review on operations with complex numbers
6) Addition and subtraction in rectangular coordinates
Let
z1 = A+jB and z2 = C+jD

z1 ± z2 = (A ± C) + j(B ± D)

NOTE: Addition and subtraction are rather simple in rectangular coordinates

54
Review on operations with complex numbers
7) Multiplication and division in rectangular coordinates

Let
z1 = A+jB and z2 = C+jD

z1 . z2 = (A+jB)(C+jD) z1 / z2 = (A+jB)/(C+jD)
z1 . z2 = AC+jAD+jBC-BD z1 / z2 = (A+jB) = (A+jB)(C-jD)
z1 . z2 = (AC-BD)+j(AD+BC) j2 = -1
(C+jD) (C2+D2)
(C-jD)
z1 / z2 = [(AC+BD)+j(BC-AD)]/(C255+D2)
Review on operations with complex numbers
7) Multiplication with -1

Let
z1 = A+jB and z2 = C/_D

z1 = A+jB ➔ -1(z1) = -A-jB

z2 = C/_D ➔ -1(z2) = C/_(D±180°)

56
Review on operations with complex numbers
7) Complex conjugate

Let
z1 = A+jB and z2 = C/_D

z1* = (A+jB)* = (A-jB)

z2* = (C/_D)* = C/_-D

57
 AC steady-state analysis of RL circuits
I
Applying Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL)
+

VR VS = VR + VL
R VS = RI + jwLI
+
VS + VS = I(R+jwL)
L VL I = VS / (R+jwL)
R+jwL is called “impedance of series RL circuit “

RL circuits are important in power systems, because

• Most of the electrical loads are in this form, for example electrical motors
• Generators and transformers are practically modelled in this form
• Cables and transmission lines are usually modelled in this form 58
Example:
I
Find
a) The impedance of the RL circuit at f=1kHz
R=10Ω b) Time-domain current i(t) and express it
+
VS
L=10mH

VS=100/_-10°
volts

59
AC steady-state analysis of RC circuits
I Applying KVL
+
VS = VR + VC
VR VS = RI + I/jwC
R
+
+
VS = I(R+1/jwC)
VS
C
VC
I = VS / (R+1/jwC)
R+1/jwC is called “impedance of series RC circuit “
or
R-j/wC

60
Example:
I
Find
a) The impedance of the RC circuit at f=1kHz
R=10Ω b) Time-domain current i(t) and express it
+
VS
C=100μF

VS=100/_-10°
volts

61
Example:
I Answer the following questions
a) Construct the phasor-domain equivalent circuit
R=10Ω b) Find the time-domain current i(t)
+
L=32mH
VS
C=100μF

VS=750cos(5000t+30°) volts

62
 Admittance
• Admittance is the ratio of the current-phasor to the voltage-phasor related
to any equipment or component
• The unit of admittance is Siemens (S) or ohm-1 or mho or Ω-1
• Since impedance is a complex number, admittance is also a complex number
• We generally use letter y or Y to represent admittance

Y = I/V Y = Z-1

63
 Example:
a Calculate the impedance and the admittance
between points ab
If
R
+
C R = 85 Ω
VS
L = 10 mH
L
Zx
Zy
C = 10 μF
w = 10000 rad/s (angular frequency of the
b
source, VS)

64
Resistance, conductance, reactance, susceptance

Z = R + jX Y = G + jB

resistance reactance conductance susceptance

65
 Phasor Diagrams
• Phasor diagram is a graphical view of either phasor current or voltage on the two-
dimensional coordinate system (rectangular or polar coordinates) Counter clock wise
direction (CCW)
positive direction
2. quarter 1. quarter
+
20/_150°
-
150° 10/_30°
Clock wise
direction (CW)
30° negative direction

45°
-170°
25/_-170°
3. quarter 4. quarter
66
Example:
Analyze voltage phasors of the following circuit

+ - + VL -
VR

R=90Ω XL=j160Ω
I=5/_-23.13° A +

+ XC=-j40Ω VC
VS
-

VS=750/_30° volts

67
Self-study
For the given single-phase low voltage system answer the following questions:
a) Calculate voltage phasor VS=?
b) Calculate the capacitive reactance that is connected in shunt with 24Ω resistance
to make the current I maximum
c) Calculate current I under the conditions in part (b)
I

0.1 Ω j0.8Ω +

+ 24 Ω VL j32Ω
VS

-
VL=24+j0 volts 68
END OF THE LECTURE

Any questions ?