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vi Preface

I hope that the book will be useful and will help the users of MATLAB to
enjoy the software.
Amos Gilat
Columbus, Ohio
May, 2016
[email protected]

To my parents Schoschana and Haim Gelbwacks

Preface v
Introduction 1
Starting with MATLAB 5
1.1 STARTING MATLAB, MATLAB WINDOWS 5
1.2 WORKING IN THE COMMAND WINDOW 9
1.3 ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS WITH SCALARS 11
1.3.1 Order of Precedence 11
1.3.2 Using MATLAB as a Calculator 12
1.4 DISPLAY FORMATS 12
1.5 ELEMENTARY MATH BUILT-IN FUNCTIONS 14
1.6 DEFINING SCALAR VARIABLES 16
1.6.1 The Assignment Operator 16
1.6.2 Rules About Variable Names 18
1.6.3 Predefined Variables and Keywords 19
1.7 USEFUL COMMANDS FOR MANAGING VARIABLES 19
1.8 SCRIPT FILES 20
1.8.1 Notes About Script Files 20
1.8.2 Creating and Saving a Script File 21
1.8.3 Running (Executing) a Script File 22
1.8.4 Current Folder 22
1.9 EXAMPLES OF MATLAB APPLICATIONS 24
1.10 PROBLEMS 27
Creating Arrays 35
2.1 CREATING A ONE-DIMENSIONAL ARRAY (VECTOR) 35
2.2 CREATING A TWO-DIMENSIONAL ARRAY (MATRIX) 39
2.2.1 The zeros, ones and, eye Commands 40
2.3 NOTES ABOUT VARIABLES IN MATLAB 41
2.4 THE TRANSPOSE OPERATOR 41
2.5 ARRAY ADDRESSING 42
2.5.1 Vector 42
2.5.2 Matrix 43
2.6 USING A COLON : IN ADDRESSING ARRAYS 44
2.7 ADDING ELEMENTS TO EXISTING VARIABLES 46
2.8 DELETING ELEMENTS 48
2.9 BUILT-IN FUNCTIONS FOR HANDLING ARRAYS 49
2.10 STRINGS AND STRINGS AS VARIABLES 53
2.11 PROBLEMS 55
Mathematical Operations with Arrays 63
3.1 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION 64
3.2 ARRAY MULTIPLICATION 65
3.3 ARRAY DIVISION 68
vii
viii

3.4 ELEMENT-BY-ELEMENT OPERATIONS 72

3.5 USING ARRAYS IN MATLAB BUILT-IN MATH FUNCTIONS 75
3.6 BUILT-IN FUNCTIONS FOR ANALYZING ARRAYS 75
3.7 GENERATION OF RANDOM NUMBERS 77
3.8 EXAMPLES OF MATLAB APPLICATIONS 80
3.9 PROBLEMS 86
Using Script Files and Managing Data 95
4.1 THE MATLAB WORKSPACE AND THE WORKSPACE WINDOW 96
4.2 INPUT TO A SCRIPT FILE 97
4.3 OUTPUT COMMANDS 100
4.3.1 The disp Command 101
4.3.2 The fprintf Command 103
4.4 THE save AND load COMMANDS 111
4.4.1 The save Command 111
4.4.2 The load Command 112
4.5 IMPORTING AND EXPORTING DATA 114
4.5.1 Commands for Importing and Exporting Data 114
4.5.2 Using the Import Wizard 116
4.6 EXAMPLES OF MATLAB APPLICATIONS 118
4.7 PROBLEMS 123
Two-Dimensional Plots 133
5.1 THE plot COMMAND 134
5.1.1 Plot of Given Data 138
5.1.2 Plot of a Function 139
5.2 THE fplot COMMAND 140
5.3 PLOTTING MULTIPLE GRAPHS IN THE SAME PLOT 141
5.3.1 Using the plot Command 141
5.3.2 Using the hold on and hold off Commands 142
5.3.3 Using the line Command 143
5.4 FORMATTING A PLOT 144
5.4.1 Formatting a Plot Using Commands 144
5.4.2 Formatting a Plot Using the Plot Editor 148
5.5 PLOTS WITH LOGARITHMIC AXES 149
5.6 PLOTS WITH ERROR BARS 150
5.7 PLOTS WITH SPECIAL GRAPHICS 152
5.8 HISTOGRAMS 153
5.9 POLAR PLOTS 156
5.10 PUTTING MULTIPLE PLOTS ON THE SAME PAGE 157
5.11 MULTIPLE FIGURE WINDOWS 157
5.12 PLOTTING USING THE PLOTS TOOLSTRIP 159
5.13 EXAMPLES OF MATLAB APPLICATIONS 160
5.14 PROBLEMS 165
 ix

Programming in MATLAB 175

6.1 RELATIONAL AND LOGICAL OPERATORS 176
6.2 CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS 184
6.2.1 The if-end Structure 184
6.2.2 The if-else-end Structure 186
6.2.3 The if-elseif-else-end Structure 187
6.3 THE switch-case STATEMENT 189
6.4 LOOPS 192
6.4.1 for-end Loops 192
6.4.2 while-end Loops 197
6.5 NESTED LOOPS AND NESTED CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS 200
6.6 THE break AND continue COMMANDS 202
6.7 EXAMPLES OF MATLAB APPLICATIONS 203
6.8 PROBLEMS 211
User-Defined Functions and Function Files 221
7.1 CREATING A FUNCTION FILE 222
7.2 STRUCTURE OF A FUNCTION FILE 223
7.2.1 Function Definition Line 224
7.2.2 Input and Output Arguments 224
7.2.3 The H1 Line and Help Text Lines 226
7.2.4 Function Body 226
7.3 LOCAL AND GLOBAL VARIABLES 226
7.4 SAVING A FUNCTION FILE 227
7.5 USING A USER-DEFINED FUNCTION 228
7.6 EXAMPLES OF SIMPLE USER-DEFINED FUNCTIONS 229
7.7 COMPARISON BETWEEN SCRIPT FILES AND FUNCTION FILES 231
7.8 ANONYMOUS FUNCTIONS 231
7.9 FUNCTION FUNCTIONS 234
7.9.1 Using Function Handles for Passing a Function into a
Function Function 235
7.9.2 Using a Function Name for Passing a Function into a
Function Function 238
7.10 SUBFUNCTIONS 240
7.11 NESTED FUNCTIONS 242
7.12 EXAMPLES OF MATLAB APPLICATIONS 245
7.13 PROBLEMS 248
Polynomials, Curve Fitting, and Interpolation 261
8.1 POLYNOMIALS 261
8.1.1 Value of a Polynomial 262
8.1.2 Roots of a Polynomial 263
8.1.3 Addition, Multiplication, and Division of Polynomials 264
8.1.4 Derivatives of Polynomials 266
8.2 CURVE FITTING 267
8.2.1 Curve Fitting with Polynomials; The polyfit Function 267
8.2.2 Curve Fitting with Functions Other than Polynomials 271
x

8.3 INTERPOLATION 274

8.4 THE BASIC FITTING INTERFACE 278
8.5 EXAMPLES OF MATLAB APPLICATIONS 281
8.6 PROBLEMS 286
Applications in Numerical Analysis 295
9.1 SOLVING AN EQUATION WITH ONE VARIABLE 295
9.2 FINDING A MINIMUM OR A MAXIMUM OF A FUNCTION 298
9.3 NUMERICAL INTEGRATION 300
9.4 ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 303
9.5 EXAMPLES OF MATLAB APPLICATIONS 307
9.6 PROBLEMS 313
Three-Dimensional Plots 323
10.1 LINE PLOTS 323
10.2 MESH AND SURFACE PLOTS 324
10.3 PLOTS WITH SPECIAL GRAPHICS 331
10.4 THE view COMMAND 333
10.5 EXAMPLES OF MATLAB APPLICATIONS 336
10.6 PROBLEMS 341
Symbolic Math 347
11.1 SYMBOLIC OBJECTS AND SYMBOLIC EXPRESSIONS 348
11.1.1 Creating Symbolic Objects 348
11.1.2 Creating Symbolic Expressions 350
11.1.3 The findsym Command and the Default Symbolic
Variable 353
11.2 CHANGING THE FORM OF AN EXISTING SYMBOLIC EXPRESSION 354
11.2.1 The collect, expand, and factor Commands 354
11.2.2 The simplify Command 356
11.2.3 The pretty Command 356
11.3 SOLVING ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS 357
11.4 DIFFERENTIATION 362
11.5 INTEGRATION 363
11.6 SOLVING AN ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION 365
11.7 PLOTTING SYMBOLIC EXPRESSIONS 368
11.8 NUMERICAL CALCULATIONS WITH SYMBOLIC EXPRESSIONS 371
11.9 EXAMPLES OF MATLAB APPLICATIONS 375
11.10 PROBLEMS 382
Summary of Characters, Commands, and Functions 391
Answers to Selected Problems www.wiley.com/college/gilat
Index 399
 Introduction
MATLAB is a powerful language for technical computing. The name MAT-
LAB stands for MATrix LABoratory, because its basic data element is a matrix
(array). MATLAB can be used for math computations, modeling and simula-
tions, data analysis and processing, visualization and graphics, and algorithm
development.
MATLAB is widely used in universities and colleges in introductory and
advanced courses in mathematics, science, and especially engineering. In
industry the software is used in research, development, and design. The
standard MATLAB program has tools (functions) that can be used to solve
common problems. In addition, MATLAB has optional toolboxes that are
collections of specialized programs designed to solve specific types of problems.
Examples include toolboxes for signal processing, symbolic calculations, and
control systems.
Until recently, most of the users of MATLAB have been people with
previous knowledge of programming languages such as FORTRAN and C who
switched to MATLAB as the software became popular. Consequently, the
majority of the literature that has been written about MATLAB assumes that
the reader has knowledge of computer programming. Books about MATLAB
often address advanced topics or applications that are specialized to a particular
field. Today, however, MATLAB is being introduced to college students as the
first (and often the only) computer program they will learn. For these students
there is a need for a book that teaches MATLAB assuming no prior experience
in computer programming.
The Purpose of This Book
MATLAB: An Introduction with Applications is intended for students who are
using MATLAB for the first time and have little or no experience in computer
programming. It can be used as a textbook in freshmen engineering courses or
in workshops where MATLAB is being taught. The book can also serve as a
reference in more advanced science and engineering courses where MATLAB is
used as a tool for solving problems. It also can be used for self-study of
MATLAB by students and practicing engineers. In addition, the book can be a
supplement or a secondary book in courses where MATLAB is used but the
instructor does not have the time to cover it extensively.
Topics Covered
MATLAB is a huge program, and therefore it is impossible to cover all of it in

1
2 Introduction

one book. This book focuses primarily on the foundations of MATLAB. The
assumption is that once these foundations are well understood, the student will
be able to learn advanced topics easily by using the information in the Help
menu.
The order in which the topics are presented in this book was chosen
carefully, based on several years of experience in teaching MATLAB in an
introductory engineering course. The topics are presented in an order that
allows the student to follow the book chapter after chapter. Every topic is
presented completely in one place and then used in the following chapters.
The first chapter describes the basic structure and features of MATLAB
and how to use the program for simple arithmetic operations with scalars as
with a calculator. Script files are introduced at the end of the chapter. They
allow the student to write, save, and execute simple MATLAB programs. The
next two chapters are devoted to the topic of arrays. MATLAB’s basic data
element is an array that does not require dimensioning. This concept, which
makes MATLAB a very powerful program, can be a little difficult to grasp for
students who have only limited knowledge of and experience with linear algebra
and vector analysis. The concept of arrays is introduced gradually and then
explained in extensive detail. Chapter 2 describes how to create arrays, and
Chapter 3 covers mathematical operations with arrays.
Following the basics, more advanced topics that are related to script files
and input and output of data are presented in Chapter 4. This is followed by
coverage of two-dimensional plotting in Chapter 5. Programming with
MATLAB is introduced in Chapter 6. This includes flow control with
conditional statements and loops. User-defined functions, anonymous
functions, and function functions are covered next in Chapter 7. The coverage
of function files (user-defined functions) is intentionally separated from the
subject of script files. This has proven to be easier to understand by students
who are not familiar with similar concepts from other computer programs.
The next three chapters cover more advanced topics. Chapter 8 describes
how MATLAB can be used for carrying out calculations with polynomials, and
how to use MATLAB for curve fitting and interpolation. Chapter 9 covers
applications of MATLAB in numerical analysis. It includes solving nonlinear
equations, finding minimum or a maximum of a function, numerical
integration, and solution of first-order ordinary differential equations. Chapter
10 describes how to produce three-dimensional plots, an extension of the
chapter on two-dimensional plots. Chapter 11 covers in great detail how to use
MATLAB in symbolic operations.
The Framework of a Typical Chapter
In every chapter the topics are introduced gradually in an order that makes the
concepts easy to understand. The use of MATLAB is demonstrated extensively
within the text and by examples. Some of the longer examples in Chapters 1–3
are titled as tutorials. Every use of MATLAB is printed with a different font and
with a gray background. Additional explanations appear in boxed text with a
Introduction 3

white background. The idea is that the reader will execute these demonstrations
and tutorials in order to gain experience in using MATLAB. In addition, every
chapter includes formal sample problems that are examples of applications of
MATLAB for solving problems in math, science, and engineering. Each exam-
ple includes a problem statement and a detailed solution. Some sample prob-
lems are presented in the middle of the chapter. All of the chapters (except
Chapter 2) have a section at the end with several sample problems of applica-
tions. It should be pointed out that problems with MATLAB can be solved in
many different ways. The solutions of the sample problems are written such that
they are easy to follow. This means that in many cases the problem can be solved
by writing a shorter, or sometimes “trickier,” program. The students are encour-
aged to try to write their own solutions and compare the end results. At the end
of each chapter there is a set of homework problems. They include general prob-
lems from math and science and problems from different disciplines of engineer-
ing.
Symbolic Calculations
MATLAB is essentially a software for numerical calculations. Symbolic math
operations, however, can be executed if the Symbolic Math toolbox is installed.
The Symbolic Math toolbox is included in the student version of the software
and can be added to the standard program.
Software and Hardware
The MATLAB program, like most other software, is continually being
developed and new versions are released frequently. This book covers MATLAB
Version 9.0.0.341360, Release 2016a. It should be emphasized, however, that the
book covers the basics of MATLAB, which do not change much from version to
version. The book covers the use of MATLAB on computers that use the
Windows operating system. Everything is essentially the same when MATLAB
is used on other machines. The user is referred to the documentation of
MATLAB for details on using MATLAB on other operating systems. It is
assumed that the software is installed on the computer, and the user has basic
knowledge of operating the computer.
The Order of Topics in the Book
It is probably impossible to write a textbook where all the subjects are presented
in an order that is suitable for everyone. The order of topics in this book is such
that the fundamentals of MATLAB are covered first (arrays and array opera-
tions), and, as mentioned before, every topic is covered completely in one loca-
tion, which makes the book easy to use as a reference. The order of the topics in
this sixth edition is the same as in the previous edition. Programming is intro-
duced before user-defined functions. This allows using programming in user-
defined functions. Also, applications of MATLAB in numerical analysis follow
Chapter 8 which covers polynomials, curve fitting, and interpolation.
 Chapter 1
Starting with
MATLAB
This chapter begins by describing the characteristics and purpose of the differ-
ent windows in MATLAB. Next, the Command Window is introduced in detail.
The chapter shows how to use MATLAB for arithmetic operations with scalars
in much to the way that a calculator is used. This includes the use of elementary
math functions with scalars. The chapter then shows how to define scalar vari-
ables (the assignment operator) and how to use these variables in arithmetic cal-
culations. The last section in the chapter introduces script files. It shows how to
write, save, and execute simple MATLAB programs.

1.1 STARTING MATLAB, MATLAB WINDOWS

It is assumed that the software is installed on the computer, and that the user
can start the program. Once the program starts, the MATLAB desktop window
opens with the default layout, Figure 1-1. The layout has a Toolstrip at the top,
the Current Folder Toolbar below it, and four windows underneath. At the top
of the Toolstrip there are three tabs: HOME, PLOTS, and APPS. Clicking on
the tabs changes the icons in the Toolstrip. Commonly, MATLAB is used with
the HOME tab selected. The associated icons are used for executing various
commands, as explained later in this chapter. The PLOTS tab can be used to
create plots, as explained in Chapter 5 (Section 5.12), and the APPS tab can be
used for opening additional applications and Toolboxes of MATLAB.
The default layout
The default layout (Figure 1-1) consists of the following four windows that are
displayed under the Toolstrip: the Command Window (the larger window), the
Current Folder Window (on the top left), the Details Window and the Work-
space Window (on the bottom lest). A list of several MATLAB windows and
their purposes is given in Table 1-1.
Four of the windows—the Command Window, the Figure Window, the Edi-
tor Window, and the Help Window—are used extensively throughout the book
5
6 Chapter 1: Starting with MATLAB

Figure 1-1: The default view of MATLAB desktop.

and are briefly described on the following pages. More detailed descriptions are
included in the chapters where they are used. The Command History Window,
Current Folder Window, and the Workspace Window are described in Sections
1.2, 1.8.4, and 4.1, respectively.

Command Window: The Command Window is MATLAB’s main window and

opens when MATLAB is started. It is convenient to have the Command Win-
dow as the only visible window. This can be done either by closing all the other
windows, or by selecting Command Window Only in the menu that opens when
the Layout icon on the Toolstrip is selected. To close a window, click on the pull-
down menu at the top right-hand side of the window and then select Close.
Working in the Command Window is described in detail in Section 1.2.
Table 1-1: MATLAB windows

Window Purpose
Command Window Main window, enters variables, runs
programs.
Figure Window Contains output from graphic com-
mands.
Editor Window Creates and debugs script and func-
tion files.
Help Window Provides help information.
Command History Win- Logs commands entered in the Com-
dow mand Window.
1.1 Starting MATLAB, MATLAB Windows 7

Table 1-1: MATLAB windows

Window Purpose
Workspace Window Provides information about the vari-
ables that are stored.
Current Folder Window Shows the files in the current folder.

Figure Window: The Figure Window opens automatically when graphics com-
mands are executed, and contains graphs created by these commands. An exam-
ple of a Figure Window is shown in Figure 1-2. A more detailed description of
this window is given in Chapter 5.

Figure 1-2: Example of a Figure Window.

Editor Window: The Editor Window is used for writing and editing programs.
This window is opened by clicking on the New Script icon in the Toolstrip, or by
clicking on the New icon and then selecting Script from the menu that opens. An
example of an Editor Window is shown in Figure 1-3. More details on the Edi-
tor Window are given in Section 1.8.2, where it is used for writing script files,
and in Chapter 7, where it is used to write function files.
Help Window: The Help Window contains help information. This window can
be opened from the Help icon in the Toolstrip of the Command Window or the
toolbar of any MATLAB window. The Help Window is interactive and can be
used to obtain information on any feature of MATLAB. Figure 1-4 shows an
open Help Window.
When MATLAB is started for the first time, the screen looks like that
shown in Figure 1-1. For most beginners it is probably more convenient to close
8 Chapter 1: Starting with MATLAB

Figure 1-3: Example of an Editor Window.

Figure 1-4: The Help Window.

1.2 Working in the Command Window 9

all the windows except the Command Window. The closed windows can be
reopened by selecting them from the layout icon in the Toolstrip. The windows
shown in Figure 1-1 can be displayed by clicking on the layout icon and selecting
Default in the menu that opens. The various windows in Figure 1-1 are docked
to the desktop. A window can be undocked (become a separate, independent
window) by dragging it out. An independent window can be redocked by click-
ing on the pull-down menu at the top right-hand side of the window and then
selecting Dock.

1.2 WORKING IN THE COMMAND WINDOW

The Command Window is MATLAB’s main window and can be used for execut-
ing commands, opening other windows, running programs written by the user,
and managing the software. An example of the Command Window, with several
simple commands that will be explained later in this chapter, is shown in Figure
1-5.

To type a command the cursor is placed

next to the command prompt ( >> ).

Figure 1-5: The Command Window.

Notes for working in the Command Window:

• To type a command, the cursor must be placed next to the command prompt (
>> ).
• Once a command is typed and the Enter key is pressed, the command is exe-
cuted. However, only the last command is executed. Everything executed previ-
ously (that might be still displayed) is unchanged.
• Several commands can be typed in the same line. This is done by typing a
comma between the commands. When the Enter key is pressed, the commands
are executed in order from left to right.
• It is not possible to go back to a previous line that is displayed in the Command
10 Chapter 1: Starting with MATLAB

Window, make a correction, and then re-execute the command.

• A previously typed command can be recalled to the command prompt with the
up-arrow key ( ). When the command is displayed at the command prompt, it
can be modified if needed and then executed. The down-arrow key ( ) can be
used to move down the list of previously typed commands.
• If a command is too long to fit in one line, it can be continued to the next line by
typing three periods … (called an ellipsis) and pressing the Enter key. The con-
tinuation of the command is then typed in the new line. The command can con-
tinue line after line up to a total of 4,096 characters.
The semicolon ( ; ):
When a command is typed in the Command Window and the Enter key is
pressed, the command is executed. Any output that the command generates is
displayed in the Command Window. If a semicolon ( ; ) is typed at the end of a
command, the output of the command is not displayed. Typing a semicolon is
useful when the result is obvious or known, or when the output is very large.
If several commands are typed in the same line, the output from any of the
commands will not be displayed if a semicolon instead of a comma is typed
between the commands.
Typing %:
When the symbol % (percent) is typed at the beginning of a line, the line is desig-
nated as a comment. This means that when the Enter key is pressed the line is
not executed. The % character followed by text (comment) can also be typed
after a command (in the same line). This has no effect on the execution of the
command.
Usually there is no need for comments in the Command Window. Com-
ments, however, are frequently used in a program to add descriptions or to
explain the program (see Chapters 4 and 6).
The clc command:
The clc command (type clc and press Enter) clears the Command Window.
After typing in the Command Window for a while, the display may become very
long. Once the clc command is executed, a clear window is displayed. The
command does not change anything that was done before. For example, if some
variables were defined previously (see Section 1.6), they still exist and can be
used. The up-arrow key can also be used to recall commands that were typed
before.
The Command History Window:
The Command History Window lists the commands that have been entered in
the Command Window. This includes commands from previous sessions. A
command in the Command History Window can be used again in the Com-
mand Window. By double-clicking on the command, the command is reentered
in the Command Window and executed. It is also possible to drag the command
to the Command Window, make changes if needed, and then execute it. The list
1.3 Arithmetic Operations with Scalars 11

in the Command History Window can be cleared by selecting the lines to be

deleted and then right-clicking the mouse and selecting Delete Selection. The
whole history can be deleted by right-clicking the mouse and selecting choose
Clear Command History in the menu that opens.

1.3 ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS WITH SCALARS

In this chapter we discuss only arithmetic operations with scalars, which are
numbers. As will be explained later in the chapter, numbers can be used in arith-
metic calculations directly (as with a calculator) or they can be assigned to vari-
ables, which can subsequently be used in calculations. The symbols of arithmetic
operations are:

Operation Symbol Example

Addition + 5+3
Subtraction – 5–3
Multiplication * 5*3
Right division / 5/3
Left division \ 5\3=3/5
Exponentiation ^ 5 ^ 3 (means 53 = 125)

It should be pointed out here that all the symbols except the left division are
the same as in most calculators. For scalars, the left division is the inverse of the
right division. The left division, however, is mostly used for operations with
arrays, which are discussed in Chapter 3.

1.3.1 Order of Precedence

MATLAB executes the calculations according to the order of precedence dis-
played below. This order is the same as used in most calculators.
Precedence Mathematical Operation
First Parentheses. For nested parentheses, the innermost
are executed first.
Second Exponentiation.
Third Multiplication, division (equal precedence).
Fourth Addition and subtraction.

In an expression that has several operations, higher-precedence operations

are executed before lower-precedence operations. If two or more operations have
the same precedence, the expression is executed from left to right. As illustrated
in the next section, parentheses can be used to change the order of calculations.
12 Chapter 1: Starting with MATLAB

1.3.2 Using MATLAB as a Calculator

The simplest way to use MATLAB is as a calculator. This is done in the Com-
mand Window by typing a mathematical expression and pressing the Enter key.
MATLAB calculates the expression and responds by displaying ans = followed
by the numerical result of the expression in the next line. This is demonstrated in
Tutorial 1-1.

Tutorial 1-1: Using MATLAB as a calculator.

>> 7+8/2 Type and press Enter.

ans =
8/2 is executed first.
11
>> (7+8)/2 Type and press Enter.
ans = 7+8 is executed first.
7.5000
>> 4+5/3+2
ans = 5/3 is executed first.
7.6667
>> 5^3/2
ans = 5^3 is executed first, /2 is executed next.
62.5000
>> 27^(1/3)+32^0.2
ans = 1/3 is executed first, 27^(1/3) and 32^0.2 are
5 executed next, and + is executed last.
>> 27^1/3+32^0.2
27^1 and 32^0.2 are executed first, /3 is exe-
ans = cuted next, and + is executed last.
11

>> 0.7854-(0.7854)^3/(1*2*3)+0.785^5/(1*2*3*4*5)...
-(0.785)^7/(1*2*3*4*5*6*7)
Type three periods ... (and press Enter) to
ans = continue the expression on the next line.
0.7071
>> The last expression is the first four
terms of the Taylor series for sin( /4).

1.4 DISPLAY FORMATS

The user can control the format in which MATLAB displays output on the
screen. In Tutorial 1-1, the output format is fixed-point with four decimal digits
(called short), which is the default format for numerical values. The format can
1.4 Display Formats 13

be changed with the format command. Once the format command is entered,
all the output that follows is displayed in the specified format. Several of the
available formats are listed and described in Table 1-2.
MATLAB has several other formats for displaying numbers. Details of
these formats can be obtained by typing help format in the Command Win-
dow. The format in which numbers are displayed does not affect how MATLAB
computes and saves numbers.
Table 1-2: Display formats

Command Description Example

format short Fixed-point with 4 decimal >> 290/7
digits for: ans =
0.001 number 1000 41.4286
Otherwise display format
short e.
format long Fixed-point with 15 deci- >> 290/7
mal digits for: ans =
0.001 number 100 41.428571428571431
Otherwise display format
long e.
format short e Scientific notation with 4 >> 290/7
decimal digits. ans =
4.1429e+001
format long e Scientific notation with 15 >> 290/7
decimal digits. ans =

4.142857142857143e+0
01
format short g Best of 5-digit fixed or >> 290/7
floating point. ans =
41.429
format long g Best of 15-digit fixed or >> 290/7
floating point. ans =

41.4285714285714
format bank Two decimal digits. >> 290/7
ans =
41.43
format compact Eliminates blank lines to allow more lines with informa-
tion displayed on the screen.
format loose Adds blank lines (opposite of compact).
Other documents randomly have
different content
than above the body, each wing expends its entire energy in pushing the body
upwards and forwards. It is necessary that the wings descend further than they
ascend; that the wings be convex on their upper surfaces, and concave on their
under ones; and that the concave or biting surfaces be brought more violently in
contact with the air during the down stroke than the convex ones during the up
stroke. The greater range of the wing below than above the body, and of the
posterior margin below than above a given line, may be readily made out by
watching the flight of the larger birds. It is well seen in the upward flight of the
lark. In the hovering of the kestrel over its quarry, and the hovering of the gull
over garbage which it is about to pick up, the wings play above and on a level
with the body rather than below it; but these are exceptional movements for
special purposes, and as they are only continued for a few seconds at a time, do
not affect the accuracy of the general statement.
Points wherein the Screws formed by the Wings differ from those employed in
navigation.—1. In the blade of the ordinary screw the integral parts are rigid and
unyielding, whereas, in the blade of the screw formed by the wing, they are
mobile and plastic (figs. 93, 95, 97, pp. 174, 175, 176). This is a curious and
interesting point, the more especially as it does not seem to be either appreciated
or understood. The mobility and plasticity of the wing is necessary, because of the
tenuity of the air, and because the pinion is an elevating and sustaining organ, as
well as a propelling one.
2. The vanes of the ordinary two-bladed screw are short, and have a
comparatively limited range, the range corresponding to their area of revolution.
The wings, on the other hand, are long, and have a comparatively wide range;
and during their elevation and depression rush through an extensive space, the
slightest movement at the root or short axis of the wing being followed by a
gigantic up or down stroke at the other (fig. 56, p. 120; figs. 64, 65, and 66,
p. 139; figs. 82 and 83, p. 158). As a consequence, the wings as a rule act upon
successive and undisturbed strata of air. The advantage gained by this
arrangement in a thin medium like the air, where the quantity of air to be
compressed is necessarily great, is simply incalculable.
3. In the ordinary screw the blades follow each other in rapid succession, so that
they travel over nearly the same space, and operate upon nearly the same
particles (whether water or air), in nearly the same interval of time. The limited
range at their disposal is consequently not utilized, the action of the two blades
being confined, as it were, to the same plane, and the blades being made to
precede or follow each other in such a manner as necessitates the work being
virtually performed only by one of them. This is particularly the case when the
motion of the screw is rapid and the mass propelled is in the act of being set in
motion, i.e. before it has acquired momentum. In this instance a large percentage
of the moving or driving power is inevitably consumed in slip, from the fact of the
blades of the screw operating on nearly the same particles of matter. The wings,
on the other hand, do not follow each other, but have a distinct reciprocating
motion, i.e. they dart first in one direction, and then in another and opposite
direction, in such a manner that they make during the one stroke the current on
which they rise and progress the next. The blades formed by the wings and the
blur or impression produced on the eye by the blades when made to vibrate
rapidly are widely separated,—the one blade and its blur being situated on the
right side of the body and corresponding to the right wing, the other on the left
and corresponding to the left wing. The right wing traverses and completely
occupies the right half of a circle, and compresses all the air contained within this
space; the left wing occupying and working up all the air in the left and remaining
half. The range or sweep of the two wings, when urged to their extreme limits,
corresponds as nearly as may be to one entire circle 77 (fig. 56, p. 120). By
separating the blades of the screw, and causing them to reciprocate, a double
result is produced, since the blades always act upon independent columns of air,
and in no instance overlap or double upon each other. The advantages possessed
by this arrangement are particularly evident when the motion is rapid. If the screw
employed in navigation be driven beyond a certain speed, it cuts out the water
contained within its blades; the blades and the water revolving as a solid mass.
Under these circumstances, the propelling power of the screw is diminished rather
than increased. It is quite otherwise with the screws formed by the wings; these,
because of their reciprocating movements, becoming more and more effective in
proportion as the speed is increased. As there seems to be no limit to the velocity
with which the wings may be driven, and as increased velocity necessarily results
in increased elevating, propelling, and sustaining power, we have here a striking
example of the manner in which nature triumphs over art even in her most
ingenious, skilful, and successful creations.
4. The vanes or blades of the screw, as commonly constructed, are fixed at a
given angle, and consequently always strike at the same degree of obliquity. The
speed, moreover, with which the blades are driven, is, as nearly as may be,
uniform. In this arrangement power is lost, the two vanes striking after each other
in the same manner, in the same direction, and almost at precisely the same
moment,—no provision being made for increasing the angle, and the propelling
power, at one stage of the stroke, and reducing it at another, to diminish the
amount of slip incidental to the arrangement. The wings, on the other hand, are
driven at a varying speed, and made to attack the air at a great variety of angles;
the angles which the pinions make with the horizon being gradually increased by
the wings being made to rotate on their long axes during the down stroke, to
increase the elevating and propelling power, and gradually decreased during the
up stroke, to reduce the resistance occasioned by the wings during their ascent.
The latter movement increases the sustaining area by placing the wings in a more
horizontal position. It follows from this arrangement that every particle of air
within the wide range of the wings is separately influenced by them, both during
their ascent and descent,—the elevating, propelling, and sustaining power being
by this means increased to a maximum, while the slip or waftage is reduced to a
minimum. These results are further secured by the undulatory or waved track
described by the wing during the down and up strokes. It is a somewhat
remarkable circumstance that the wing, when not actually engaged as a propeller
and elevator, acts as a sustainer after the manner of a parachute. This it can
readily do, alike from its form and the mode of its application, the double curve or
spiral into which it is thrown in action enabling it to lay hold of the air with avidity,
in whatever direction it is urged. I say “in whatever direction,” because, even
when it is being recovered or drawn off the wind during the back stroke, it is
climbing a gradient which arches above the body to be elevated, and so prevents
it from falling. It is difficult to conceive a more admirable, simple, or effective
arrangement, or one which would more thoroughly economize power. Indeed, a
study of the spiral configuration of the wing, and its spiral, flail-like, lashing
movements, involves some of the most profound problems in mathematics,—the
curves formed by the pinion as a pinion anatomically, and by the pinion in action,
or physiologically, being exceedingly elegant and infinitely varied; these running
into each other, and merging and blending, to consummate the triple function of
elevating, propelling, and sustaining.
Other differences might be pointed out; but the foregoing embrace the more
fundamental and striking. Enough, moreover, has probably been said to show that
it is to wing-structures and wing-movements the aëronaut must direct his
attention, if he would learn “the way of an eagle in the air,” and if he would rise
upon the whirlwind in accordance with natural laws.
The Wing at all times thoroughly under control.—The wing is moveable in all
parts, and can be wielded intelligently even to its extremity; a circumstance which
enables the insect, bat, and bird to rise upon the air and tread it as a master—to
subjugate it in fact. The wing, no doubt, abstracts an upward and onward recoil
from the air, but in doing this it exercises a selective and controlling power; it
seizes one current, evades another, and creates a third; it feels and paws the air
as a quadruped would feel and paw a treacherous yielding surface. It is not
difficult to comprehend why this should be so. If the flying creature is living,
endowed with volition, and capable of directing its own course, it is surely more
reasonable to suppose that it transmits to its travelling surfaces the peculiar
movements necessary to progression, than that those movements should be the
result of impact from fortuitous currents which it has no means of regulating. That
the bird, e.g. requires to control the wing, and that the wing requires to be in a
condition to obey the behests of the will of the bird, is pretty evident from the fact
that most of our domestic fowls can fly for considerable distances when they are
young and when their wings are flexible; whereas when they are old and the
wings stiff, they either do not fly at all or only for short distances, and with great
difficulty. This is particularly the case with tame swans. This remark also holds
true of the steamer or race-horse duck (Anas brachyptera), the younger
specimens of which only are volant. In older birds the wings become too rigid and
the bodies too heavy for flight. Who that has watched a sea-mew struggling
bravely with the storm, could doubt for an instant that the wings and feathers of
the wings are under control? The whole bird is an embodiment of animation and
power. The intelligent active eye, the easy, graceful, oscillation of the head and
neck, the folding or partial folding of one or both wings, nay more, the slight
tremor or quiver of the individual feathers of parts of the wings so rapid, that only
an experienced eye can detect it, all confirm the belief that the living wing has not
only the power of directing, controlling, and utilizing natural currents, but of
creating and utilizing artificial ones. But for this power, what would enable the bat
and bird to rise and fly in a calm, or steer their course in a gale? It is erroneous to
suppose that anything is left to chance where living organisms are concerned, or
that animals endowed with volition and travelling surfaces should be denied the
privilege of controlling the movements of those surfaces quite independently of
the medium on which they are destined to operate. I will never forget the
gratification afforded me on one occasion at Carlow (Ireland) by the flight of a
pair of magnificent swans. The birds flew towards and past me, my attention
having been roused by a peculiarly loud whistling noise made by their wings. They
flew about fifteen yards from the ground, and as their pinions were urged not
much faster than those of the heron, 78 I had abundant leisure for studying their
movements. The sight was very imposing, and as novel as it was grand. I had
seen nothing before, and certainly have seen nothing since that could convey a
more elevated conception of the prowess and guiding power which birds may
exert. What particularly struck me was the perfect command they seemed to have
over themselves and the medium they navigated. They had their wings and bodies
visibly under control, and the air was attacked in a manner and with an energy
which left little doubt in my mind that it played quite a subordinate part in the
great problem before me. The necks of the birds were stretched out, and their
bodies to a great extent rigid. They advanced with a steady, stately motion, and
swept past with a vigour and force which greatly impressed, and to a certain
extent overawed, me. Their flight was what one could imagine that of a flying
machine constructed in accordance with natural laws would be. 79
The Natural Wing, when elevated and depressed, must move forwards.—It is a
condition of natural wings, and of artificial wings constructed on the principle of
living wings, that when forcibly elevated or depressed, even in a strictly vertical
direction, they inevitably dart forward. This is well shown in fig. 81.

Fig. 81.

If, for example, the wing is suddenly depressed in a vertical direction, as

represented at a b, it at once darts downwards and forwards in a curve to c, thus
converting the vertical down stroke into a down oblique forward stroke. If, again,
the wing be suddenly elevated in a strictly vertical direction, as at c d, the wing as
certainly darts upwards and forwards in a curve to e, thus converting the vertical
up stroke into an upward oblique forward stroke. The same thing happens when
the wing is depressed from e to f, and elevated from g to h. In both cases the
wing describes a waved track, as shown at e g, g i, which clearly proves that the
wing strikes downwards and forwards during the down stroke, and upwards and
forwards during the up stroke. The wing, in fact, is always advancing; its under
surface attacking the air like a boy’s kite. If, on the other hand, the wing be
forcibly depressed, as indicated by the heavy waved line a c, and left to itself, it
will as surely rise again and describe a waved track, as shown at c e. This it does
by rotating on its long axis, and in virtue of its flexibility and elasticity, aided by
the recoil obtained from the air. In other words, it is not necessary to elevate the
wing forcibly in the direction c d to obtain the upward and forward movement c e.
One single impulse communicated at a causes the wing to travel to e, and a
second impulse communicated at e causes it to travel to i. It follows from this that
a series of vigorous down impulses would, if a certain interval were allowed to
elapse between them, beget a corresponding series of up impulses, in accordance
with the law of action and reaction; the wing and the air under these
circumstances being alternately active and passive. I say if a certain interval were
allowed to elapse between every two down strokes, but this is practically
impossible, as the wing is driven with such velocity that there is positively no time
to waste in waiting for the purely mechanical ascent of the wing. That the ascent
of the pinion is not, and ought not to be entirely due to the reaction of the air, is
proved by the fact that in flying creatures (certainly in the bat and bird) there are
distinct elevator muscles and elastic ligaments delegated to the performance of
this function. The reaction of the air is therefore only one of the forces employed
in elevating the wing; the others, as I shall show presently, are vital and vito-
mechanical in their nature. The falling downwards and forwards of the body when
the wings are ascending also contribute to this result.

Fig. 82.

Fig. 83.
Figs. 82 and 83 show that when the wings are elevated (e, f, g of
fig. 82) the body falls (s of fig. 82); and that when the wings are
depressed (h, i, j of fig. 83) the body is elevated (r of fig. 83).
Fig. 82 shows that the wings are elevated as short levers (e) until
towards the termination of the up stroke, when they are gradually
expanded (f, g) to prepare them for making the down stroke.
Fig. 83 shows that the wings descend as long levers (h) until
towards the termination of the down stroke, when they are
gradually folded or flexed (i, j), to rob them of their momentum
and prepare them for making the up stroke. Compare with figs. 74
 and 75, p. 145. By this means the air beneath the wings is
vigorously seized during the down stroke, while that above it is
avoided during the up stroke. The concavo-convex form of the
wings and the forward travel of the body contribute to this result.
The wings, it will be observed, act as a parachute both during the
up and down strokes. Compare with fig. 55, p. 112. Fig. 83 shows,
in addition, the compound rotation of the wing, how it rotates upon
a as a centre, with a radius m b n, and upon a c b as a centre, with
a radius k l. Compare with fig. 80, p. 149.—Original.

The Wing ascends when the Body descends, and vice versâ.—As the body of the
insect, bat, and bird falls forwards in a curve when the wing ascends, and is
elevated in a curve when the wing descends, it follows that the trunk of the
animal is urged along a waved line, as represented at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 of fig. 81,
p. 157; the waved line a c e g i of the same figure giving the track made by the
wing. I have distinctly seen the alternate rise and fall of the body and wing when
watching the flight of the gull from the stern of a steam-boat.
The direction of the stroke in the insect, as has been already explained, is much
more horizontal than in the bat or bird (compare figs. 82 and 83 with figs. 64, 65,
and 66, p. 139). In either case, however, the down stroke must be delivered in a
more or less forward direction. This is necessary for support and propulsion. A
horizontal to-and-fro movement will elevate, and an up-and-down vertical
movement propel, but an oblique forward motion is requisite for progressive flight.
In all wings, whatever their position during the intervals of rest, and whether in
one piece or in many, this feature is to be observed in flight. The wings are slewed
downwards and forwards, i.e. they are carried more or less in the direction of the
head during their descent, and reversed or carried in an opposite direction during
their ascent. In stating that the wings are carried away from the head during the
back stroke, I wish it to be understood that they do not therefore necessarily
travel backwards in space when the insect is flying forwards. On the contrary, the
wings, as a rule, move forward in curves, both during the down and up strokes.
The fact is, that the wings at their roots are hinged and geared to the trunk so
loosely, that the body is free to oscillate in a forward or backward direction, or in
an up, down, or oblique direction. As a consequence of this freedom of
movement, and as a consequence likewise of the speed at which the insect is
travelling, the wings during the back stroke are for the most part actually
travelling forwards. This is accounted for by the fact, that the body falls
downwards and forwards in a curve during the up or return stroke of the wings,
and because the horizontal speed attained by the body is as a rule so much
greater than that attained by the wings, that the latter are never allowed time to
travel backward, the lesser movement being as it were swallowed up by the
greater. For a similar reason, the passenger of a steam-ship may travel rapidly in
the direction of the stern of the vessel, and yet be carried forward in space,—the
ship sailing much quicker than he can walk. While the wing is descending, it is
rotating upon its root as a centre (short axis). It is also, and this is a most
important point, rotating upon its anterior margin (long axis), in such a manner as
to cause the several parts of the wing to assume various angles of inclination with
the horizon.
Figs. 84 and 85 supply the necessary illustration.

Fig. 84.

Fig. 85.

In flexion, as a rule, the under surface of the wing (fig. 84 a) is arranged in the
same plane with the body, both being in a line with or making a slight angle with
the horizon (x x). 80 When the wing is made to descend, it gradually, in virtue of its
simultaneously rotating upon its long and short axes, makes a certain angle with
the horizon as represented at b. The angle is increased at the termination of the
down stroke as shown at c, so that the wing, particularly its posterior margin,
during its descent (A), is screwed or crushed down upon the air with its concave
or biting surface directed forwards and towards the earth. The same phenomena
are indicated at a b c of fig. 85, but in this figure the wing is represented as
travelling more decidedly forwards during its descent, and this is characteristic of
the down stroke of the insect’s wing—the stroke in the insect being delivered in a
very oblique and more or less horizontal direction (figs. 64, 65, and 66, p. 139;
fig. 71, p. 144). The forward travel of the wing during its descent has the effect of
diminishing the angles made by the under surface of the wing with the horizon.
Compare b c d of fig. 85 with the same letters of fig. 84. At fig. 88 (p. 166) the
angles for a similar reason are still further diminished. This figure (88) gives a very
accurate idea of the kite-like action of the wing both during its descent and
ascent.
 Fig. 86.

The downward screwing of the posterior margin of the wing during

the down stroke is well seen in the dragon-fly, represented at
fig. 86, p. 161.
Here the arrows r s indicate the range of the wing. At the beginning
of the down stroke the upper or dorsal surface of the wing (i d f) is
inclined slightly upwards and forwards. As the wing descends the
posterior margin (i f) twists and rotates round the anterior margin (i
d), and greatly increases the angle of inclination as seen at i j, g h.
This rotation of the posterior margin (i j) round the anterior margin
(g h) has the effect of causing the different portions of the under
surface of the wing to assume various angles of inclination with the
horizon, the wing attacking the air like a boy’s kite. The angles are
greatest towards the root of the wing and least towards the tip.
They accommodate themselves to the speed at which the different
parts of the wing travel—a small angle with a high speed giving the
same amount of buoying power as a larger angle with a diminished
speed. The screwing of the under surface of the wing (particularly
the posterior margin) in a downward direction during the down
stroke is necessary to insure the necessary upward recoil; the wing
being made to swing downwards and forwards pendulum fashion,
for the purpose of elevating the body, which it does by acting upon
the air as a long lever, and after the manner of a kite. During the
down stroke the wing is active, the air passive. In other words, the
wing is depressed by a purely vital act.
The down stroke is readily explained, and its results upon the body
obvious. The real difficulty begins with the up or return stroke. If the
wing was simply to travel in an upward and backward direction from
c to a of fig. 84, p. 160, it is evident that it would experience much
resistance from the superimposed air, and thus the advantages
secured by the descent of the wing would be lost. What really
happens is this. The wing does not travel upwards and backwards in
the direction c b a of fig. 84 (the body, be it remembered, is
advancing) but upwards and forwards in the direction c d e f g. This
is brought about in the following manner. The wing is at right angles
to the horizon (x x´) at c. It is therefore caught by the air at the
point (2) because of the more or less horizontal travel of the body;
the elastic ligaments and other structures combined with the
resistance experienced from the air rotating the posterior or thin
margin of the pinion in an upward direction, as shown at d e f g and
d f g of figs. 84 and 85, p. 160. The wing by this partly vital and
partly mechanical arrangement is rotated off the wind in such a
manner as to keep its dorsal or non-biting surface directed upwards,
while its concave or biting surface is directed downwards. The wing,
in short, has its planes so arranged, and its angles so adjusted to
the speed at which it is travelling, that it darts up a gradient like a
true kite, as shown at c d e f g of figs. 84 and 85, p. 160, or g h i of
fig. 88, p. 166. The wing consequently elevates and propels during
its ascent as well as during its descent. It is, in fact, a kite during
both the down and up strokes. The ascent of the wing is greatly
assisted by the forward travel, and downward and forward fall of the
body. This view will be readily understood by supposing, what is
really the case, that the wing is more or less fixed by the air in space
at the point indicated by 2 of figs. 84 and 85, p. 160; the body, the
instant the wing is fixed, falling downwards and forwards in a curve,
which, of course, is equivalent to placing the wing above, and, so to
speak, behind the volant animal—in other words, to elevating the
wing preparatory to a second down stroke, as seen at g of the
figures referred to (figs. 84 and 85). The ascent and descent of the
wing is always very much greater than that of the body, from the
fact of the pinion acting as a long lever. The peculiarity of the wing
consists in its being a flexible lever which acts upon yielding fulcra
(the air), the body participating in, and to a certain extent
perpetuating, the movements originally produced by the pinion. The
part which the body performs in flight is indicated at fig. 87. At a the
body is depressed, the wing being elevated and ready to make the
down stroke at b. The wing descends in the direction c d, but the
moment it begins to descend the body moves upwards and forwards
(see arrows) in a curved line to e. As the wing is attached to the
body the wing is made gradually to assume the position f. The body
(e), it will be observed, is now on a higher level than the wing (f);
the under surface of the latter being so adjusted that it strikes
upwards and forwards as a kite. It is thus that the wing sustains and
propels during the up stroke. The body (e) now falls downwards and
forwards in a curved line to g, and in doing this it elevates or assists
in elevating the wing to j. The pinion is a second time depressed in
the direction k l, which has the effect of forcing the body along a
waved track and in an upward direction until it reaches the point m.
The ascent of the body and the descent of the wing take place
simultaneously (m n). The body and wing, are alternately above and
beneath a given line x x´.
 Fig. 87.

A careful study of figs. 84, 85, 86, and 87, pp. 160, 161, and 163,
shows the great importance of the twisted configuration and curves
peculiar to the natural wing. If the wing was not curved in every
direction it could not be rolled on and off the wind during the down
and up strokes, as seen more particularly at fig. 87, p. 163. This,
however, is a vital point in progressive flight. The wing (b) is rolled
on to the wind in the direction b a, its under concave or biting
surface being crushed hard down with the effect of elevating the
body to e. The body falls to g, and the wing (f) is rolled off the wind
in the direction f j, and elevated until it assumes the position j. The
elevation of the wing is effected partly by the fall of the body, partly
by the action of the elevator muscles and elastic ligaments, and
partly by the reaction of the air, operating on its under or concave
biting surface. The wing is therefore to a certain extent resting
during the up stroke.
The concavo-convex form of the wing is admirably adapted for the
purposes of flight. In fact, the power which the wing possesses of
always keeping its concave or under surface directed downwards
and forwards enables it to seize the air at every stage of both the up
and down strokes so as to supply a persistent buoyancy. The action
of the natural wing is accompanied by remarkably little slip—the
elasticity of the organ, the resiliency of the air, and the shortening
and elongating of the elastic ligaments and muscles all co-operating
and reciprocating in such a manner that the descent of the wing
elevates the body; the descent of the body, aided by the reaction of
the air and the shortening of the elastic ligaments and muscles,
elevating the wing. The wing during the up stroke arches above the
body after the manner of a parachute, and prevents the body from
falling. The sympathy which exists between the parts of a flying
animal and the air on which it depends for support and progress is
consequently of the most intimate character.
The up stroke (B, D of figs. 84 and 85, p. 160), as will be seen from
the foregoing account, is a compound movement due in some
measure to recoil or resistance on the part of the air; to the
shortening of the muscles, elastic ligaments, and other vital
structures; to the elasticity of the wing; and to the falling of the
body in a downward and forward direction. The wing may be
regarded as rotating during the down stroke upon 1 of figs. 84 and
85, p. 160, which may be taken to represent the long and short axes
of the wing; and during the up stroke upon 2, which may be taken
to represent the yielding fulcrum furnished by the air. A second
pulsation is indicated by the numbers 3 and 4 of the same figures
(84, 85).
The Wing acts upon yielding Fulcra.—The chief peculiarity of the
wing, as has been stated, consists in its being a twisted flexible lever
specially constructed to act upon yielding fulcra (the air). The points
of contact of the wing with the air are represented at a b c d e f g h
i j k l respectively of figs. 84 and 85, p. 160; and the imaginary
points of rotation of the wing upon its long and short axes at 1, 2, 3,
and 4 of the same figures. The assumed points of rotation advance
from 1 to 3 and from 2 to 4 (vide arrows marked r and s, fig. 85);
these constituting the steps or pulsations of the wing. The actual
points of rotation correspond to the little loops a b c d f g h i j l of
fig. 85. The wing descends at A and C, and ascends at B and D.
The Wing acts as a true Kite both during the Down and Up Strokes.
—If, as I have endeavoured to explain, the wing, even when
elevated and depressed in a strictly vertical direction, inevitably and
invariably darts forward, it follows as a that the wing, as already
partly explained, flies forward as a true kite, both during the down
and up strokes, as shown at c d e f g h i j k l m of fig. 88; and that
its under concave or biting surface, in virtue of the forward travel
communicated to it by the body in motion, is closely applied to the
air, both during its ascent and descent—a fact hitherto overlooked,
but one of considerable importance, as showing how the wing
furnishes a persistent buoyancy, alike when it rises and falls.

Fig. 88.

In fig. 88 the greater impulse communicated during the down stroke

is indicated by the double dotted lines. The angle made by the wing
with the horizon (a b) is constantly varying, as a comparison of c
with d, d with e, e with f, f with g, g with h, and h with i will show;
these letters having reference to supposed transverse sections of the
wing. This figure also shows that the convex or non-biting surface of
the wing is always directed upwards, so as to avoid unnecessary
resistance on the part of the air to the wing during its ascent;
whereas the concave or biting surface is always directed downwards,
so as to enable the wing to contend successfully with gravity.
Where the Kite formed by the Wing differs from the Boy’s Kite.—The
natural kite formed by the wing differs from the artificial kite only in
this, that the former is capable of being moved in all its parts, and is
more or less flexible and elastic, the latter being comparatively rigid.
The flexibility and elasticity of the kite formed by the natural wing is
rendered necessary by the fact that the wing is articulated or hinged
at its root; its different parts travelling at various degrees of speed in
proportion as they are removed from the axis of rotation. Thus the
tip of the wing travels through a much greater space in a given time
than a portion nearer the root. If the wing was not flexible and
elastic, it would be impossible to reverse it at the end of the up and
down strokes, so as to produce a continuous vibration. The wing is
also practically hinged along its anterior margin, so that the posterior
margin of the wing travels through a greater space in a given time
than a portion nearer the anterior margin (fig. 80, p. 149). The
compound rotation of the wing is greatly facilitated by the wing
being flexible and elastic. This causes the pinion to twist upon its
long axis during its vibration, as already stated. The twisting is partly
a vital, and partly a mechanical act; that is, it is occasioned in part
by the action of the muscles, in part by the reaction of the air, and in
part by the greater momentum acquired by the tip and posterior
margin of the wing, as compared with the root and anterior margin;
the speed acquired by the tip and posterior margin causing them to
reverse always subsequently to the root and anterior margin, which
has the effect of throwing the anterior and posterior margins of the
wing into figure-of-8 curves. It is in this way that the posterior
margin of the outer portion of the wing is made to incline forwards
at the end of the down stroke, when the anterior margin is inclined
backwards; the posterior margin of the outer portion of the wing
being made to incline backwards at the end of the up stroke, when a
corresponding portion of the anterior margin is inclined forwards
(figs. 69 and 70, g, a, p. 141; fig. 86, j, f, p. 161).
The Angles formed by the Wing during its Vibrations.—Not the least
interesting feature of the compound rotation of the wing—of the
varying degrees of speed attained by its different parts—and of the
twisting or plaiting of the posterior margin around the anterior,—is
the great variety of kite-like surfaces developed upon its dorsal and
ventral aspects. Thus the tip of the wing forms a kite which is
inclined upwards, forwards, and outwards, while the root forms a
kite which is inclined upwards, forwards, and inwards. The angles
made by the tip and outer portions of the wing with the horizon are
less than those made by the body or central part of the wing, and
those made by the body or central part less than those made by the
root and inner portions. The angle of inclination peculiar to any
portion of the wing increases as the speed peculiar to said portion
decreases, and vice versâ. The wing is consequently mechanically
perfect; the angles made by its several parts with the horizon being
accurately adjusted to the speed attained by its different portions
during its travel to and fro. From this it follows that the air set in
motion by one part of the wing is seized upon and utilized by
another; the inner and anterior portions of the wing supplying, as it
were, currents for the outer and posterior portions. This results from
the wing always forcing the air outwards and backwards. These
statements admit of direct proof, and I have frequently satisfied
myself of their exactitude by experiments made with natural and
artificial wings.
In the bat and bird, the twisting of the wing upon its long axis is
more of a vital and less of a mechanical act than in the insect; the
muscles which regulate the vibration of the pinion in the former (bat
and bird), extending quite to the tip of the wing (fig. 95, p. 175;
figs. 82 and 83, p. 158).
The Body and Wings move in opposite Curves.—I have stated that
the wing advances in a waved line, as shown at a c e g i of fig. 81,
p. 157; and similar remarks are to be made of the body as indicated
at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 of that figure. Thus, when the wing descends in the
curved line a c, it elevates the body in a corresponding but minor
curved line, as at 1, 2; when, on the other hand, the wing ascends
in the curved line c e, the body descends in a corresponding but
smaller curved line (2, 3), and so on ad infinitum. The undulations
made by the body are so trifling when compared with those made by
the wing, that they are apt to be overlooked. They are, however,
deserving of attention, as they exercise an important influence on
the undulations made by the wing; the body and wing swinging
forward alternately, the one rising when the other is falling, and vice
versâ. Flight may be regarded as the resultant of three forces:—the
muscular and elastic force, residing in the wing, which causes the
pinion to act as a true kite, both during the down and up strokes;
the weight of the body, which becomes a force the instant the trunk
is lifted from the ground, from its tendency to fall downwards and
forwards; and the recoil obtained from the air by the rapid action of
the wing. These three forces may be said to be active and passive
by turns.
When a bird rises from the ground it runs for a short distance, or
throws its body into the air by a sudden leap, the wings being
simultaneously elevated. When the body is fairly off the ground, the
wings are made to descend with great vigour, and by their action to
continue the upward impulse secured by the preliminary run or leap.
The body then falls in a curve downwards and forwards; the wings,
partly by the fall of the body, partly by the reaction of the air on
their under surface, and partly by the shortening of the elevator
muscles and elastic ligaments, being placed above and to some
extent behind the bird—in other words, elevated. The second down
stroke is now given, and the wings again elevated as explained, and
so on in endless succession; the body falling when the wings are
being elevated, and vice versâ, (fig. 81, p. 157). When a long-
winged oceanic bird rises from the sea, it uses the tips of its wings
as levers for forcing the body up; the points of the pinions suffering
no injury from being brought violently in contact with the water. A
bird cannot be said to be flying until the trunk is swinging forward in
space and taking part in the movement. The hawk, when fixed in the
air over its quarry, is simply supporting itself. To fly, in the proper
acceptation of the term, implies to support and propel. This
constitutes the difference between a bird and a balloon. The bird can
elevate and carry itself forward, the balloon can simply elevate itself,
and must rise and fall in a straight line in the absence of currents.
When the gannet throws itself from a cliff, the inertia of the trunk at
once comes into play, and relieves the bird from those herculean
exertions required to raise it from the water when it is once fairly
settled thereon. A swallow dropping from the eaves of a house, or a
bat from a tower, afford illustrations of the same principle. Many
insects launch themselves into space prior to flight. Some, however,
do not. Thus the blow-fly can rise from a level surface when its legs
are removed. This is accounted for by the greater amplitude and
more horizontal play of the insect’s wing as compared with that of
the bat and bird, and likewise by the remarkable reciprocating power
which the insect wing possesses when the body of the insect is not
moving forwards (figs. 67, 68, 69, and 70 p. 141). When a beetle
attempts to fly from the hand, it extends its front legs and flexes the
back ones, and tilts its head and thorax upwards, so as exactly to
resemble a horse in the act of rising from the ground. This
preliminary over, whirr go its wings with immense velocity, and in an
almost horizontal direction, the body being inclined more or less
vertically. The insect rises very slowly, and often requires to make
several attempts before it succeeds in launching itself into the air. I
could never detect any pressure communicated to the hand when
the insect was leaving it, from which I infer that it does not leap into
the air. The bees, I am disposed to believe, also rise without
anything in the form of a leap or spring. I have often watched them
leaving the petals of flowers, and they always appeared to me to
elevate themselves by the steady play of their wings, which was the
more necessary, as the surface from which they rose was in many
cases a yielding surface.

The Wings of Insects, Bats, and Birds.

Elytra or Wing-cases, Membranous Wings—their shape and uses.—

The wings of insects consist either of one or two pairs. When two
pairs are present, they are divided into an anterior or upper pair, and
a posterior or under pair. In some instances the anterior pair are
greatly modified, and present a corneous condition. When so
modified, they cover the under wings when the insect is reposing,
and have from this circumstance been named elytra, from the Greek
ἔλυτρον, a sheath. The anterior wings are dense, rigid, and opaque
in the beetles (fig. 89, r); solid in one part and membranaceous in
another in the water-bugs (fig. 90, r); more or less membranous
throughout in the grasshoppers; and completely membranous in the
dragon-flies (fig. 91, e e, p. 172). The superior or upper wings are
inclined at a certain angle when extended, and are indirectly
connected with flight in the beetles, water-bugs, and grasshoppers.
They are actively engaged in this function in the dragon-flies and
butterflies. The elytra or anterior wings are frequently employed as
sustainers or gliders in flight, 81 the posterior wings acting more
particularly as elevators and propellers. In such cases the elytra are
twisted upon themselves after the manner of wings.

Fig. 89.
Fig. 89.—The Centaur Beetle (Augusoma centaurus), seen from
above. Shows elytra (r) and membranous wings (e) in the extended
state. The nervures are arranged and jointed in such a manner that
the membranous wings can be folded (e) transversely across the
back beneath the elytra during repose. When so folded, the
anterior or thick margins of the membranous wings are directed
outwards and slightly downwards, the posterior or thin margins
inwards and slightly upwards. During extension the positions of the
margins are reversed by the wings twisting and rotating upon their
long axes, the anterior margins, as in bats and birds, being directed
upwards and forwards, and making a very decided angle with the
horizon. The wings in the beetles are insignificantly small when
compared with the area of the body. They are, moreover, finely
twisted upon themselves, and possess great power as propellers
and elevators.—Original.

Fig. 90.
Fig. 90.—The Water-Bug (Genus belostoma). In this insect the
superior wings (elytra or wing covers r) are semi-membranous.
They are geared to the membranous or under wings (a) by a hook,
the two acting together in flight. When so geared the upper and
under wings are delicately curved and twisted. They moreover
taper from within outwards, and from before backwards.—Original.
 Fig. 91.—The Dragon-fly (Petalura gigantea). In this insect the
wings are finely curved and delicately transparent, the nervures
being most strongly developed at the roots of the wings and along
the anterior margins (e e, f f), and least so at the tips (b b), and
along the posterior margins (a a). The anterior pair (e e) are
analogous in every respect to the posterior (f f). Both make a
certain angle with the horizon, the anterior pair (e e), which are
principally used as elevators, making a smaller angle than the
posterior pair (f f), which are used as drivers. The wings of the
dragon-fly make the proper angles for flight even in repose, so that
the insect can take to wing instantly. The insect flies with
astonishing velocity.—Original.

The wings of insects present different degrees of opacity—those of

the moths and butterflies being non-transparent; those of the
dragon-flies, bees, and common flies presenting a delicate, filmy,
gossamer-like appearance. The wings in every case are composed of
a duplicature of the integument or investing membrane, and are
strengthened in various directions by a system of hollow, horny
tubes, known to entomologists as the neuræ or nervures. The
nervures taper towards the extremity of the wing, and are strongest
towards its root and anterior margin, where they supply the place of
the arm in bats and birds. They are variously arranged. In the
beetles they pursue a somewhat longitudinal course, and are jointed
to admit of the wing being folded up transversely beneath the
elytra. 82 In the locusts the nervures diverge from a common centre,
after the manner of a fan, so that by their aid the wing is crushed up
or expanded as required; whilst in the dragon-fly, where no folding is
requisite, they form an exquisitely reticulated structure. The
nervures, it may be remarked, are strongest in the beetles, where
the body is heavy and the wing small. They decrease in thickness as
those conditions are reversed, and entirely disappear in the minute
chalcis and psilus. 83 The function of the nervures is not ascertained;
but as they contain spiral vessels which apparently communicate
with the tracheæ of the trunk, some have regarded them as being
connected with the respiratory system; whilst others have looked
upon them as the receptacles of a subtle fluid, which the insect can
introduce and withdraw at pleasure to obtain the requisite degree of
expansion and tension in the wing. Neither hypothesis is satisfactory,
as respiration and flight can be performed in their absence. They
appear to me, when present, rather to act as mechanical stays or
stretchers, in virtue of their rigidity and elasticity alone,—their
arrangement being such that they admit of the wing being folded in
various directions, if necessary, during flexion, and give it the
requisite degree of firmness during extension. They are, therefore, in
every respect analogous to the skeleton of the wing in the bat and
bird. In those wings which, during the period of repose, are folded
up beneath the elytra, the mere extension of the wing in the dead
insect, where no injection of fluid can occur, causes the nervures to
fall into position, and the membranous portions of the wing to unfurl
or roll out precisely as in the living insect, and as happens in the bat
and bird. This result is obtained by the spiral arrangement of the
nervures at the root of the wing; the anterior nervure occupying a
higher position than that further back, as in the leaves of a fan. The
spiral arrangement occurring at the root extends also to the margins,
so that wings which fold up or close, as well as those which do not,
are twisted upon themselves, and present a certain degree of
convexity on their superior or upper surface, and a corresponding
concavity on their inferior or under surface; their free edges
supplying those fine curves which act with such efficacy upon the air,
in obtaining the maximum of resistance and the minimum of
displacement; or what is the same thing, the maximum of support
with the minimum of slip (figs. 92 and 93).

Fig. 92.
Fig. 92.—Right wing of Beetle (Goliathus micans), dorsal surface.
This wing somewhat resembles the kestrel’s (fig. 61, p. 136) in
shape. It has an anterior thick margin, d e f, and a posterior thin
one, b a c. Strong nervures run along the anterior margin (d) until
they reach the joint (e), where the wing folds upon itself during
repose. Here the nervures split up and divaricate and gradually
become smaller and smaller until they reach the extremity of the
wing (f) and the posterior or thin margin (b); other nervures
radiate in graceful curves from the root of the wing. These also
become finer as they reach the posterior or thin margin (c a). r,
Root of the wing with its complex compound joint. The wing of the
beetle bears a certain analogy to that of the bat, the nervures
running along the anterior margin (d) of the wing, resembling the
humerus and forearm of the bat (fig. 94, d, p. 175), the joint of the
beetle’s wing (e) corresponding to the carpal or wrist-joint of the
bat’s wing (fig. 94, e), the terminal or distal nervures of the beetle
(f b) to the phalanges of the bat (fig. 94, f b). The parts marked f b
may in both instances be likened to the primary feathers of the
bird, that marked a to the secondary feathers, and c to the tertiary
 feathers. In the wings of the beetle and bat no air can possibly
escape through them during the return or up stroke.—Original.

Fig. 93.
Fig. 93.—Right wing of the Beetle (Goliathus micans), as seen from
behind and from beneath. When so viewed, the anterior or thick
margin (d f) and the posterior or thin margin (b x c) are arranged
in different planes, and form a true helix or screw. Compare with
figs. 95 and 97.—Original.

The wings of insects can be made to oscillate within given areas

anteriorly, posteriorly, or centrally with regard to the plane of the
body; or in intermediate positions with regard to it and a
perpendicular line. The wing or wings of the one side can likewise be
made to move independently of those of the opposite side, so that
the centre of gravity, which, in insects, bats, and birds, is suspended,
is not disturbed in the endless evolutions involved in ascending,
descending, and wheeling. The centre of gravity varies in insects
according to the shape of the body, the length and shape of the
limbs and antennæ, and the position, shape, and size of the pinions.
It is corrected in some by curving the body, in others by bending or
straightening the limbs and antennæ, but principally in all by the
judicious play of the wings themselves.
The wing of the bat and bird, like that of the insect, is concavo-
convex, and more or less twisted upon itself (figs. 94, 95, 96, and
97).
 Fig. 94.
Fig. 94.—Right wing of the Bat (Phyllorhina gracilis), dorsal surface.
d e f, Anterior or thick margin of the wing, supported by the bones
of the arm, forearm, and hand (first and second phalanges); c a b,
posterior or thin margin, supported by the remaining phalanges, by
the side of the body, and by the foot.—Original.

Fig. 95.
Fig. 95.—Right wing of the Bat (Phyllorhina gracilis), as seen from
behind and from beneath. When so regarded, the anterior or thick
margin (d f) of the wing displays different curves from those seen
on the posterior or thin margin (b c); the anterior and posterior
margins being arranged in different planes, as in the blade of a
screw propeller.—Original.

The twisting is in a great measure owing to the manner in which the

bones of the wing are twisted upon themselves, and the spiral
nature of their articular surfaces; the long axes of the joints always
intersecting each other at nearly right angles. As a result of this
disposition of the articular surfaces, the wing is shot out or
extended, and retracted or flexed in a variable plane, the bones of
the wing rotating in the direction of their length during either
movement. This secondary action, or the revolving of the component
bones upon their own axes, is of the greatest importance in the
movements of the wing, as it communicates to the hand and
forearm, and consequently to the membrane or feathers which they
bear, the precise angles necessary for flight. It, in fact, insures that
the wing, and the curtain, sail, or fringe of the wing shall be screwed
into and down upon the air in extension, and unscrewed or
withdrawn from it during flexion. The wing of the bat and bird may
therefore be compared to a huge gimlet or auger, the axis of the
gimlet representing the bones of the wing; the flanges or spiral
thread of the gimlet the frenum or sail (figs. 95 and 97).

Fig. 96.
Fig. 96.—Right wing of the Red-legged Partridge (Perdix rubra),
dorsal aspect. Shows extreme example of short rounded wing;
contrast with the wing of the albatross (fig. 62, p. 137), which
furnishes an extreme example of the long ribbon-shaped wing; d e
f, anterior margin; b a c, posterior ditto, consisting of primary (b),
secondary (a), and tertiary (c) feathers, with their respective
coverts and subcoverts; the whole overlapping and mutually
supporting each other. This wing, like the kestrel’s (fig. 61, p. 136),
was drawn from a specimen held against the light, the object being
to display the mutual relation of the feathers to each other, and
how the feathers overlap.—Original.
 Fig. 97.
Fig. 97.—Right wing of Red-legged Partridge (Perdix rubra), seen
from behind and from beneath, as in the beetle (fig. 93) and bat
(fig. 95). The same lettering and explanation does for all three.—
Original.

The Wings of Bats.

The Bones of the Wing of the Bat—the spiral configuration of their

articular surfaces.—The bones of the arm and hand are especially
deserving of attention. The humerus (fig. 17, r, p. 36) is short and
powerful, and twisted upon itself to the extent of something less
than a quarter of a turn. As a consequence, the long axis of the
shoulder-joint is nearly at right angles to that of the elbow-joint.
Similar remarks may be made regarding the radius (the principal
bone of the forearm) (d), and the second and third metacarpal
bones with their phalanges (e f), all of which are greatly elongated,
and give strength and rigidity to the anterior or thick margin of the
wing. The articular surfaces of the bones alluded to, as well as of the
other bones of the hand, are spirally disposed with reference to each
other, the long axes of the joints intersecting at nearly right angles.
The object of this arrangement is particularly evident when the wing
of the living bat, or of one recently dead, is extended and flexed as
in flight.
In the flexed state the wing is greatly reduced in size, its under
surface being nearly parallel with the plane of progression. When the
wing is fully extended its under surface makes a certain angle with
the horizon, the wing being then in a position to give the down
stroke, which is delivered downwards and forwards, as in the insect.
When extension takes place the elbow-joint is depressed and carried
forwards, the wrist elevated and carried backwards, the metacarpo-
phalangeal joints lowered and inclined forwards, and the distal
phalangeal joints slightly raised and carried backwards. The
movement of the bat’s wing in extension is consequently a spiral
one, the spiral running alternately from below upwards and
forwards, and from above downwards and backwards (compare with
fig. 79, p. 147). As the bones of the arm, forearm, and hand rotate
on their axes during the extensile act, it follows that the posterior or
thin margin of the wing is rotated in a downward direction (the
anterior or thick one being rotated in an opposite direction) until the
wing makes an angle of something like 30° with the horizon, which,
as I have already endeavoured to show, is the greatest angle made
by the wing in flight. The action of the bat’s wing at the shoulder is
particularly free, partly because the shoulder-joint is universal in its
nature, and partly because the scapula participates in the
movements of this region. The freedom of action referred to enables
the bat not only to rotate and twist its wing as a whole, with a view
to diminishing and increasing the angle which its under surface
makes with the horizon, but to elevate and depress the wing, and
move it in a forward and backward direction. The rotatory or twisting
movement of the wing is an essential feature in flight, as it enables
the bat (and this holds true also of the insect and bird) to balance
itself with the utmost exactitude, and to change its position and
centre of gravity with marvellous dexterity. The movements of the
shoulder-joint are restrained within certain limits by a system of
check-ligaments, and by the coracoid and acromian processes of the
scapula. The wing is recovered or flexed by the action of elastic
ligaments which extend between the shoulder, elbow, and wrist.
Certain elastic and fibrous structures situated between the fingers
and in the substance of the wing generally take part in flexion. The
bat flies with great ease and for lengthened periods. Its flight is
remarkable for its softness, in which respect it surpasses the owl and
the other nocturnal birds. The action of the wing of the bat, and the
movements of its component bones, are essentially the same as in
the bird.

The Wings of Birds.

The Bones of the Wing of the Bird—their Articular Surfaces,

Movements, etc.—The humerus, or arm-bone of the wing, is
supported by three of the trunk-bones, viz. the scapula or shoulder-
blade, the clavicle or collar-bone, also called the furculum, 84 and the
coracoid bone,—these three converging to form a point d’appui, or
centre of support for the head of the humerus, which is received in
facettes or depressions situated on the scapula and coracoid. In
order that the wing may have an almost unlimited range of motion,
and be wielded after the manner of a flail, it is articulated to the
trunk by a somewhat lax universal joint, which permits vertical,
horizontal, and intermediate movements. 85 The long axis of the joint
is directed vertically; the joint itself somewhat backwards. It is
otherwise with the elbow-joint, which is turned forwards, and has its
long axis directed horizontally, from the fact that the humerus is
twisted upon itself to the extent of nearly a quarter of a turn. The
elbow-joint is decidedly spiral in its nature, its long axis intersecting
that of the shoulder-joint at nearly right angles. The humerus
articulates at the elbow with two bones, the radius and the ulna, the
former of which is pushed from the humerus, while the other is
drawn towards it during extension, the reverse occurring during
flexion. Both bones, moreover, while those movements are taking
place, revolve to a greater or less extent upon their own axes. The
bones of the forearm articulate at the wrist with the carpal bones,
which being spirally arranged, and placed obliquely between them
and the metacarpal bones, transmit the motions to the latter in a
curved direction. The long axis of the wrist-joint is, as nearly as may
be, at right angles to that of the elbow-joint, and more or less
parallel with that of the shoulder. The metacarpal or hand-bones,
and the phalanges or finger-bones are more or less fused together,
the better to support the great primary feathers, on the efficiency of
which flight mainly depends. They are articulated to each other by
double hinge-joints, the long axes of which are nearly at right angles
to each other.
As a result of this disposition of the articular surfaces, the wing is
shot out or extended and retracted or flexed in a variable plane, the
bones composing the wing, particularly those of the forearm,
rotating on their axes during either movement.
This secondary action, or the revolving of the component bones
upon their own axes, is of the greatest importance in the
movements of the wing, as it communicates to the hand and
forearm, and consequently to the primary and secondary feathers
which they bear, the precise angles necessary for flight; it in fact
insures that the wing, and the curtain or fringe of the wing which
the primary and secondary feathers form, shall be screwed into and
down upon the air in extension, and unscrewed or withdrawn from it
during flexion. The wing of the bird may therefore be compared to a
huge gimlet or auger; the axis of the gimlet representing the bones
of the wing, the flanges or spiral thread of the gimlet the primary
and secondary feathers (fig. 63, p. 138, and fig. 97, p. 176).
Traces of Design in the Wing of the Bird—the arrangement of the
Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Feathers, etc.—There are few
things in nature more admirably constructed than the wing of the
bird, and perhaps none where design can be more readily traced. Its
great strength and extreme lightness, the manner in which it closes
up or folds during flexion, and opens out or expands during
extension, as well as the manner in which the feathers are strung