BASIC ELECTRONICS

SPPU 2024 PATTERN SHORT NOTES

ENGINEERING GYAN [Date] SPPU 2024

Unit 1: Diodes and Applications
1.1 Evolution of Electronics
• Electronics is the branch of science and technology dealing with the study of flow
and control of electrons (current) and the behavior of electronic devices.
• Stages of evolution:
o Vacuum Tubes (1904-1947): Bulky, required high voltage, fragile.
o Transistors (1947-1958): Smaller, more reliable, low power consumption.
o Integrated Circuits (1958 onwards): Thousands of transistors on a single
chip.
o VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration): Millions of components fabricated on
a single chip. Basis for modern processors and memory.
• Applications of Electronics:
o Communication (Mobile phones, Internet),
o Medical (MRI, ECG machines),
o Defense (Radar, missiles),
o Consumer electronics (Television, washing machines).

1.2 Active and Passive Components

• Active Components:
o Components that provide energy to a circuit.
o Can amplify signals.
o Examples: Diodes, Transistors, Integrated Circuits.
• Passive Components:
o Do not produce energy.
o They consume, store or dissipate electrical energy.
o Examples: Resistors (store as heat), Capacitors (store as electric field),
Inductors (store as magnetic field).

1.3 P-N Junction Diode

• Definition: A two-terminal electronic component that conducts electricity primarily
in one direction.
• Construction: Joining of P-type and N-type semiconductor materials.
• Symbol: A triangle pointing towards a line.

Working:

• Forward Bias:

1
 o Positive terminal connected to P-side, negative to N-side.
o Depletion region narrows, allowing current to flow.
• Reverse Bias:
o Positive terminal connected to N-side, negative to P-side.
o Depletion region widens, blocking current flow.

Important Parameters:

• Cut-in Voltage (Threshold Voltage):

o Minimum voltage at which diode starts conducting significantly.
o Silicon: ~0.7 V, Germanium: ~0.3 V.
• Breakdown Voltage:
o In reverse bias, the voltage at which junction breaks down and large current
flows.
• Reverse Leakage Current:
o Very small current that flows under reverse bias due to minority carriers.

1.4 V-I Characteristics of Diode

Forward Characteristics:

• Below threshold voltage: negligible current.

• After threshold: current rises rapidly.

Reverse Characteristics:

• Almost zero current until breakdown point.

Graph:

• X-axis: Voltage (V),

• Y-axis: Current (I).
• Sharp increase in current after threshold in forward bias.
• Small leakage current in reverse bias.

1.5 Applications of Diodes

• Rectifiers: Conversion of AC to DC.
o Half-Wave Rectifier: One diode used, only positive half cycle passed.
o Full-Wave Rectifier (Center-Tapped): Two diodes used, both halves passed.
o Bridge Rectifier: Four diodes arranged in bridge configuration.
• Voltage Regulation: Zener diode used.
• Switching: In digital circuits, used as ON/OFF switches.
• Clipping and Clamping Circuits: To shape the waveform.

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1.6 Special Purpose Diodes
• Light Emitting Diode (LED):
o Converts electrical energy into light.
o Made from direct bandgap semiconductors like GaAs.
o Color depends on material and energy band gap.
• Photodiode:
o Converts light energy into electrical current.
o Operates under reverse bias.
o Applications: Solar cells, light sensors.
• Zener Diode:
o Designed to operate in reverse breakdown region.
o Used for voltage regulation.

Important Diagrams to Practice

• Forward and Reverse V-I Characteristics of P-N Junction Diode.
• Half-Wave Rectifier Circuit with Waveforms.
• Full-Wave Rectifier Circuit.
• Bridge Rectifier Circuit.

Important Questions – Unit 1 (with Repeat

Count)
Repeat
Question
Count
Explain the construction and working of a P-N junction diode. 5 times
Draw and explain the V-I characteristics of P-N junction diode. 6 times
Explain working of Half-Wave Rectifier with circuit diagram and
5 times
waveforms.
Explain working of Bridge Rectifier with circuit and output waveforms. 6 times
Compare LED and Photodiode. 3 times
Explain the applications of diodes. 2 times

3
Unit 2: Transistors and Technology

2.1 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

Definition:

• A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a three-terminal semiconductor device that

can amplify or switch electronic signals.
• It is called bipolar because both majority and minority carriers are involved in the
operation.

Structure:

• Two types:
o NPN transistor: N-type, P-type, N-type layers.
o PNP transistor: P-type, N-type, P-type layers.

Terminals:

• Emitter (E): Heavily doped, supplies charge carriers.

• Base (B): Very thin and lightly doped.
• Collector (C): Moderately doped and larger to collect carriers.

2.2 Working of BJT

Modes of operation:

1. Active Mode:
o Emitter-Base junction: Forward biased.
o Collector-Base junction: Reverse biased.
o Transistor acts as an amplifier.
2. Cut-off Mode:
o Both junctions reverse biased.
o No current flows.
o Transistor is OFF.
3. Saturation Mode:
o Both junctions forward biased.
o Large current flows.
o Transistor is ON (acts as closed switch).

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2.3 Current Components in BJT
• IE = IB + IC
(Emitter current = Base current + Collector current)
• Current gain (β):

β=ICIB\beta = \frac{I_C}{I_B}

(Ratio of collector current to base current; typically β = 50 to 300)

• Current gain (α):

α=ICIE\alpha = \frac{I_C}{I_E}

(Ratio of collector current to emitter current; typically close to 1)

2.4 BJT Configurations

Three types:

1. Common Base (CB):

o Input: Emitter-Base.
o Output: Collector-Base.
o High voltage gain, low current gain.
2. Common Emitter (CE):
o Input: Base-Emitter.
o Output: Collector-Emitter.
o High current and voltage gain.
o Most widely used.
3. Common Collector (CC):
o Input: Base-Collector.
o Output: Emitter-Collector.
o High current gain, voltage gain < 1.
o Used for impedance matching.

2.5 CE (Common Emitter) Characteristics

Input Characteristics:

• IB (base current) vs VBE (base-emitter voltage) for constant VCE.

Output Characteristics:

• IC (collector current) vs VCE (collector-emitter voltage) for constant IB.

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Three regions in Output Characteristics:

• Cut-off region: Both junctions reverse biased.

• Active region: Emitter junction forward biased, collector junction reverse biased.
• Saturation region: Both junctions forward biased.

Graph explanation:

• IC increases almost linearly with IB.

• IC independent of VCE in active region.

2.6 BJT as a Switch

• OFF state: Cut-off region. No current between collector and emitter.
• ON state: Saturation region. Maximum current flows.

Applications:

• Used in digital logic circuits.

• Relay drivers, LED drivers.

2.7 MOSFET (Enhancement Mode)

Definition:

• MOSFET (Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor) is a voltage-

controlled device with very high input impedance.

Terminals:

• Gate (G), Source (S), Drain (D).

Enhancement Mode MOSFET:

• No channel exists at zero gate voltage.

• Positive voltage applied at gate attracts electrons, forming a conducting channel.

Operation:

• VGS < Vth → OFF (no conduction).

• VGS > Vth → ON (current flows from drain to source).

Features:

• Low input current (almost zero).

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 • Fast switching.
• Used in microprocessors, power electronics.

2.8 Output Characteristics of MOSFET

• Ohmic region: MOSFET behaves like a resistor.
• Saturation region: Drain current becomes almost constant (controlled by VGS).

2.9 Comparison between BJT and MOSFET

Parameter BJT MOSFET
Control Current-controlled Voltage-controlled
Input Impedance Low Very High
Switching Speed Moderate High
Power Consumption High Low
Application Analog circuits Digital circuits, power electronics

2.10 VLSI Technology

Definition:

• Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) refers to creating an integrated circuit by

combining thousands to millions of transistors into a single chip.

Evolution:

• SSI (Small Scale Integration) → MSI (Medium Scale) → LSI (Large Scale) → VLSI.

Applications:

• Microprocessors.
• Memory devices (RAM, ROM).
• Communication devices (mobile phones, routers).

N-Well CMOS Process:

• A popular method where NMOS and PMOS transistors are fabricated on the same
chip using N-Well or P-Well techniques.

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Important Diagrams to Practice
• Structure and symbol of NPN and PNP BJT.
• Input and output characteristics of CE configuration.
• Symbol and structure of Enhancement type MOSFET.
• VLSI block representation (conceptual).

Important Questions – Unit 2 (with Repeat

Count)
Question Repeat Count
Draw and explain output characteristics of CE configuration. 5 times
Compare BJT and MOSFET (at least four points). 4 times
Explain working of Enhancement type MOSFET with neat diagram. 3 times
Explain BJT as a switch with proper explanation. 2 times
What is VLSI? State its advantages and applications. 2 times

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Unit 3: Logic Gates and Digital Circuits
PART A

3.1 Introduction to Logic Gates

Definition:

• Logic gates are the fundamental building blocks of digital circuits. They perform
logical operations based on one or more binary inputs to produce a single output.
• They are implemented using electronic devices like transistors.

Basic Logic Gates:

1. AND Gate:
o Symbol: A ⋅ B
o Truth Table:

A B Output (A ⋅ B)
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

o Output is 1 only when both inputs are 1.

2. OR Gate:
o Symbol: A + B
o Truth Table:

A B Output (A + B)
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

o Output is 1 when at least one input is 1.

3. NOT Gate (Inverter):
o Symbol: A'
o Truth Table:

A Output (A')
0 1
1 0

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 o
Inverts the input signal.
4. NAND Gate:
o Symbol: (A ⋅ B)'
o Truth Table:

A B Output (A ⋅ B)'
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

o Output is 0 only when both inputs are 1 (inverse of AND).

5. NOR Gate:
o Symbol: (A + B)'
o Truth Table:

A B Output (A + B)'
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

o Output is 0 when at least one input is 1 (inverse of OR).

6. XOR Gate (Exclusive OR):
o Symbol: A ⊕ B
o Truth Table:

A B Output (A ⊕ B)
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

o
Output is 1 when the inputs are different.
7. XNOR Gate (Exclusive NOR):
o Symbol: (A ⊕ B)'
o Truth Table:

A B Output (A ⊕ B)'
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

o Output is 1 when the inputs are the same.

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3.2 Boolean Algebra
Definition:

• Boolean Algebra is the mathematical foundation for digital circuits and logic gates. It
uses binary variables and logical operations (AND, OR, NOT) to simplify logical
expressions.

Basic Laws:

1. Identity Law:
o A+0=A
o A⋅1=A
2. Null Law:
o A+1=1
o A⋅0=0
3. Idempotent Law:
o A+A=A
o A⋅A=A
4. Complement Law:
o A + A' = 1
o A ⋅ A' = 0
5. Double Negation:
o (A')' = A
6. Distributive Law:
o A ⋅ (B + C) = A ⋅ B + A ⋅ C
o A + (B ⋅ C) = (A + B) ⋅ (A + C)

3.3 Simplification of Boolean Expressions

Methods:

1. Karnaugh Map (K-map):

o A graphical method for simplifying Boolean expressions.
o Group adjacent 1’s (or 0’s for POS) to find the simplest expression.
2. Algebraic Method:
o Using Boolean algebra rules and identities to simplify expressions.

Example: Simplify the Boolean expression:

A′B+AB′+ABA'B + AB' + AB

Using K-map, the simplified form is: A+BA + B

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3.4 Logic Circuits Design
Designing Combinational Logic Circuits:

1. Half Adder:
o Adds two single bits.
o Sum = A ⊕ B
o Carry = A ⋅ B
o Truth Table:

A B Sum Carry
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1

2. Full Adder:
o Adds two bits and a carry input.
o Sum = A ⊕ B ⊕ Cin
o Carry = (A ⋅ B) + (B ⋅ Cin) + (A ⋅ Cin)
o Truth Table:

A B Cin Sum Carry

0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1

3.5 Sequential Logic Circuits

Definition:

• Sequential logic circuits depend on both current input and previous outputs
(memory), unlike combinational logic circuits.

Types:

1. Flip-Flops:
o The basic building blocks of sequential circuits.
o Types:
▪ SR Flip-Flop: Set-Reset.

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 ▪ D Flip-Flop: Data input.
▪ T Flip-Flop: Toggle.
▪ JK Flip-Flop: Universal.
2. Registers:
o Group of flip-flops used for storing multiple bits of data.
o Can be used for memory storage in processors.
3. Counters:
o Sequential circuits that count in binary.
o Types:
▪ Up Counter: Increments on each clock pulse.
▪ Down Counter: Decrements on each clock pulse.
▪ Up/Down Counter: Can increment or decrement based on control
input.

3.6 Digital Circuits and Applications

Applications:

• Arithmetic Circuits: Adders, subtracters for performing calculations.

• Multiplexers (MUX): Select one input from multiple inputs based on select lines.
• Demultiplexers (DEMUX): Distribute one input to multiple outputs.
• Encoders and Decoders: Convert data between different forms.

Important Diagrams to Practice

• Logic gate symbols (AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, XOR, XNOR).
• Truth tables for each gate.
• K-map simplifications.
• Full adder and half adder circuits.
• Flip-flop circuits (SR, D, T, JK).

Important Questions – Unit 3 (with Repeat Count) PART

A
Question Repeat Count
Draw and explain the truth table of AND, OR, and NOT gates. 5 times
Design a Full Adder using logic gates and explain its operation. 4 times
Simplify Boolean expressions using K-map. 3 times
Design a 4-bit Up Counter using flip-flops. 2 times
Explain the difference between combinational and sequential circuits. 2 times

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Got it! Let's focus on Unit 3: Number Systems and Codes for the NEP 2024 pattern. Here's
an in-depth explanation:

Unit 3: Number Systems and Codes

(Expanded Deep Theory)

3.1 Introduction to Number Systems

Definition:

• A Number System is a writing system for expressing numbers; it uses symbols to

represent values.

Types of Number Systems:

1. Binary (Base 2):

o Digits: 0, 1
o Used in: Digital electronics, computers.
o Example: 1011210112 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙 11.
2. Decimal (Base 10):
o Digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, ..., 9
o Example:35103510 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 35 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚.
3. Octal (Base 8):
o Digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
o Used in: Shorthand for binary in computing.
o Example: 458458 = 37104 × 81 + 5 × 80 = 3710 .
4. Hexadecimal (Base 16):
o Digits: 0, 1, 2, ..., 9, A, B, C, D, E, F (where A = 10, B = 11, ..., F = 15)
o Used in: Programming, memory addresses.
o Example: 1𝐴161𝐴16 = 2610 .

3.2 Conversion Between Number Systems

Binary to Decimal: To convert binary to decimal, multiply each bit by 2 raised to the
position of that bit and sum them up. 𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒:
101010102 = 1 × 23 + 0 × 22 + 1 × 21 + 0 × 20 = 1010

Decimal to Binary: To convert decimal to binary, divide the number by 2 and write down
the remainders. Read the remainders from bottom to top. Example:
101021010 = 10102 .

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Binary to Octal: Group the binary digits into sets of 3 from right to left. Convert each set to
its octal equivalent. Example:
5681011102 → 568

Octal to Binary: Convert each octal digit to a 3-bit binary number. Example:
568 = 101 1102

Binary to Hexadecimal: Group the binary digits into sets of 4 bits from right to left. Convert
each group to its hexadecimal equivalent. Example:
1101102 → 1101 1010 → 𝐷 𝐴 → 𝐷𝐴16

Hexadecimal to Binary: Convert each hexadecimal digit to its 4-bit binary equivalent.
Example:

𝐷𝐴16 = 1101 10102

3.4 Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)

Definition:

• BCD is a binary representation of decimal numbers where each decimal digit is

represented by a 4-bit binary code.

Example:

• 𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙5 = 01012
• 𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙12 = 00102

3.5 Gray Code

Definition:

• Gray Code is a binary numeral system in which two successive values differ in only
one bit, used to prevent errors in digital communication.

Example:

• 𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙0 = 00020002
• 𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙1 = 00120012
• 𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙2 = 01120112
• 𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙3 = 01020102
• 𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙4 = 11021102

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3.6 Excess-3 Code
Definition:

• Excess-3 is a binary-coded decimal code where each decimal digit is represented by a

4-bit code that is 3 more than the actual decimal digit.

Example:

• 𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙0 = 0011200112
• 𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙1 = 0100201002
• 𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙2 = 0101201012

3.7 ASCII Code

Definition:

• ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) is a character

encoding standard using 7 or 8 bits to represent text and control characters.

Example:

• ′𝐴′ = 65(𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙) = 010000012010000012

• ′𝑎′ = 97(𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙) = 011000012011000012

3.8 Unicode
Definition:

• Unicode is a character encoding standard that encompasses characters from all the
world’s writing systems, allowing the representation of text in many languages.

Example:

• ′𝐴′ = 65(𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙) = 004116004116

• ′€′ = 8364(𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙) = 20𝐴𝐶1620𝐴𝐶16

Important Diagrams to Practice

• Conversion tables for binary, decimal, octal, and hexadecimal systems.
• BCD representation and conversion examples.
• Gray Code and Excess-3 Code conversion tables.
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 • ASCII character representation.

Important Questions – Unit 3 (with Repeat Count) PART

B
Question Repeat Count
Convert the binary number 110101_2 to decimal, octal, and hexadecimal. 4 times
Explain the working and applications of Gray Code. 3 times
What is BCD? Convert decimal numbers into BCD. 2 times
Discuss the advantages of Excess-3 Code. 2 times
What is ASCII? Explain with examples. 2 times

17
Unit 4: Operational Amplifier and
Electronic Instruments

4.1 Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp)

Functional Block Diagram of an Operational Amplifier

An Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp) is a high-gain electronic voltage amplifier with a

differential input and, usually, a single-ended output. It is a fundamental building block in
analog electronics.

Block Diagram:

+Vcc ─────────────┬────────────┐
│ │
[Inverting] [Non-Inverting]
│ │
└─┐ ┌─┘
│ │
+───┴────────┴───+
| Operational |
| Amplifier |
+────┬────┬──────+
│ │
(Output)
│
-Vcc

Ideal and Practical Values of Performance Parameters:

1. Ideal Op-Amp:
o Infinite Open Loop Gain (AOL).
o Infinite Input Impedance (no current enters the input terminals).
o Zero Output Impedance.
o Infinite Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR).
o Infinite Input Voltage Range.
o Zero Offset Voltage.
o Zero Output Noise.
2. Practical Op-Amp:
o Finite Open Loop Gain (AOL).
o High Input Impedance, but not infinite.
o Non-zero Output Impedance.
o Finite CMRR.
o Non-zero Offset Voltage.
o Output Noise due to internal transistors and resistors.

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4.2 Op-Amp Applications
Inverting Amplifier:

• The inverting amplifier configuration inverts the input signal and amplifies it.

Formula:
𝑅𝑓
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = − ( )𝑉
𝑅𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛
𝑅𝑓
o 𝑮𝒂𝒊𝒏: , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑅𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟.
𝑅𝑖𝑛
• Characteristics:
o Inverts the input signal.
o The gain is determined by the ratio of feedback resistor to input resistor.

Non-Inverting Amplifier:

• The non-inverting amplifier provides an amplified version of the input signal

without inversion.

Formula:
Vout=(1+RfRin)VinV_{out} = \left( 1 + \frac{R_f}{R_{in}} \right) V_{in}

o Gain: 1+RfRin1 + \frac{R_f}{R_{in}}.

• Characteristics:
o The input signal is not inverted.
o The gain is greater than 1, depending on the feedback and input resistors.

4.3 Electronic Instruments

Digital Multimeter (DMM)

A Digital Multimeter (DMM) is an electronic measuring instrument that combines several

measurement functions in one unit, typically including voltage, current, and resistance.

Block Diagram:

+-------------------+
| Voltage Input |
+-------------------+
|
V
+-----------------+
| Analog-to-Digital|
| Converter |
+-----------------+
|
V

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 +-----------------+
| Display |
+-----------------+
|
V
Output Display

• Key Functions:
o Voltage measurement (DC and AC).
o Current measurement (DC and AC).
o Resistance measurement.
o Continuity and Diode Testing.
• Features:
o Auto-ranging: Automatically adjusts the measurement range.
o Digital readout: Provides precise digital output.

Function Generator

A Function Generator is an electronic test instrument that generates various types of

electrical waveforms over a wide range of frequencies.

Block Diagram:

+----------------------+
| Oscillator |
+----------------------+
|
V
+----------------------+
| Frequency Control |
+----------------------+
|
V
+----------------------+
| Amplitude Control |
+----------------------+
|
V
Output Waveform

• Types of Waveforms:
o Sine Wave: Used for testing audio equipment, etc.
o Square Wave: Used for digital circuit testing.
o Triangle Wave: Used for analog signal testing.
• Applications:
o Testing of audio circuits, filters, and oscillators.
o Used in educational setups and research labs.

Digital Storage Oscilloscope (DSO)

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A Digital Storage Oscilloscope (DSO) captures and displays electrical signals on a screen,
allowing the observation of time-varying voltages.

Block Diagram:

+------------------+
| Signal Input |
+------------------+
|
V
+--------------------+
| Analog Front-End |
+--------------------+
|
V
+------------------------+
| Analog-to-Digital |
| Converter |
+------------------------+
|
V
+--------------------+
| Display |
+--------------------+
|
V
Display Waveform

• Features:
o Waveform Display: Visual representation of the signal.
o Sampling Rate: Determines the precision of the waveform display.
o Triggering Mechanism: Allows stable capture of signals.
• Applications:
o Signal Analysis: Analyzing time-varying signals.
o Testing: Used to test electrical circuits in the lab.
o Debugging: Finding faults in circuit behavior.

DC Power Supply

A DC Power Supply provides a stable and adjustable DC output voltage to power electronic
circuits.

Block Diagram:

+---------------------+
| AC Power Input |
+---------------------+
|
V
+--------------------+
| Transformer/Rectifier|
+--------------------+
|
V

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 +---------------------+
| Voltage Regulator |
+---------------------+
|
V
+---------------------+
| DC Output Voltage |
+---------------------+

• Features:
o Adjustable Voltage: Allows precise control of the output voltage.
o Current Limiting: Prevents overload of the circuit.
o Multiple Outputs: May offer different voltage levels.
• Applications:
o Powering prototype circuits.
o Used in testing and development of electronic devices.

Important Diagrams to Practice

• Block diagram of Op-Amp with both inverting and non-inverting configurations.
• Digital Multimeter block diagram.
• Block diagram of Function Generator.
• DSO block diagram.
• DC Power Supply block diagram.

Important Questions – Unit 4 (with Repeat Count)

Repeat
Question
Count
Draw and explain the functional block diagram of an operational amplifier. 5 times
Explain the working of inverting and non-inverting amplifiers. 4 times
Describe the block diagram and functions of a Digital Multimeter. 3 times
Explain the working and applications of a Digital Storage Oscilloscope
3 times
(DSO).
Describe the block diagram and working of a Function Generator. 2 times

22
Unit 5: Sensors and Communication
Systems

5.1 Classification of Sensors

Sensors:

A sensor is a device that detects physical input (such as motion, temperature, pressure, etc.)
and converts it into an electrical output that can be measured or processed.

Types of Sensors:

1. Active Sensors:
o Definition: Sensors that require an external power source to operate and
provide an output.
o Examples: LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer), Thermocouple.
o Characteristics: They generate their own signal based on the measured
quantity.
2. Passive Sensors:
o Definition: Sensors that do not require an external power source and rely on
the energy received from the environment to operate.
o Examples: Strain gauge, RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector).
o Characteristics: The output is typically a change in electrical resistance,
voltage, or capacitance.

5.2 Selection Criteria / Characteristics of Sensors

When selecting sensors for a specific application, the following factors are considered:

1. Sensitivity: The ability of the sensor to detect small changes in the measured
parameter.
2. Range: The minimum and maximum values that the sensor can measure.
3. Accuracy: The degree to which the measured value matches the true value.
4. Resolution: The smallest detectable change in the measured parameter.
5. Response Time: The time it takes for the sensor to respond to a change in the
measured quantity.
6. Reliability: The ability of the sensor to perform over time without failure.
7. Cost: The economic feasibility of the sensor for the specific application.
8. Power Consumption: The energy required by the sensor for operation.

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5.3 Motion Sensors
LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer):

• Definition: LVDT is a type of position sensor that provides an output voltage

proportional to the linear displacement of an object.
• Working: It consists of a primary coil and two secondary coils. The movement of a
ferromagnetic core within the coils causes a differential voltage, which is proportional
to the displacement.
• Applications: Used in applications where precise measurement of linear displacement
is required, such as in industrial machinery, robotics, and aerospace.

5.4 Temperature Sensors

Thermocouple:

• Definition: A thermocouple is a sensor made of two different conductors joined at

one end. It generates a voltage (Seebeck effect) proportional to the temperature
difference between the joined end and the other ends.
• Working: When the temperature changes at the junction, it generates a small voltage
that can be measured.
• Advantages: Wide temperature range, fast response.
• Applications: Used in industrial temperature measurements, furnace temperature
control, etc.

RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector):

• Definition: An RTD is a temperature sensor that measures temperature by correlating

the resistance of the RTD element (usually made of pure platinum) with temperature.
• Working: The resistance of the RTD element increases linearly with the temperature.
• Advantages: High accuracy, good stability over time.
• Applications: Precision temperature measurements in laboratories, industrial
processes, and climate control systems.

5.5 Mechanical Sensors

Strain Gauge:

• Definition: A strain gauge is a device used to measure the strain (deformation) of an

object. It works on the principle that the resistance of a conductor changes when it is
stretched or compressed.

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 • Working: When a material to which the strain gauge is attached deforms, the strain
gauge also deforms, changing its resistance. This change is measured and converted to
strain.
• Applications: Used in stress and strain measurements in materials, structural health
monitoring, load cells, and weighing systems.

5.6 Biosensors
• Definition: A biosensor is an analytical device that combines a biological component
(such as an enzyme, antibody, or microorganism) with a transducer to detect the
presence of specific biological molecules or compounds.
• Working: The biological element interacts with the target analyte and produces a
detectable signal (electrical, optical, etc.) which is processed by the transducer.
• Applications: Used in medical diagnostics, environmental monitoring, food quality
control, and biotechnology.

5.7 IoT-Based Data Acquisition and Automation System

IoT (Internet of Things):

• Definition: IoT refers to the network of physical objects (sensors, devices, etc.)
embedded with software and other technologies to collect and exchange data over the
internet.
• Block Diagram of IoT-Based Data Acquisition System:
o Sensor: Detects the physical parameter.
o Signal Conditioning: Filters or amplifies the sensor signal for processing.
o Microcontroller/Processor: Processes the signal, converts it to a digital
format.
o Communication Module: Sends data to a cloud server or other device.
o Cloud Storage/Analysis: Data is stored, processed, and analyzed remotely.
o Output/Action: Based on the data, automated actions or alerts can be
triggered.

Applications:

• Smart Homes: Automation of lights, temperature, and security systems.

• Healthcare: Remote monitoring of patients’ vitals.
• Industrial Automation: Real-time monitoring and control of manufacturing
processes.

5.8 Communication Systems

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Block Diagram of a Communication System:

• Source: The origin of the message or information (audio, video, data).

• Transmitter: Modulates the signal for transmission.
• Transmission Channel: The medium (wired or wireless) through which the signal
travels.
• Receiver: Demodulates the received signal to recover the original message.
• Destination: The final point where the message is received and interpreted.

Communication Media:

1. Wired Communication:
o Coaxial Cables: Used for broadband communication like cable TV.
o Optical Fibers: High-speed data transmission with minimal loss over long
distances.
2. Wireless Communication:
o Radio Waves: Used in AM/FM radio, TV broadcasts.
o Microwaves: Used in satellite communication and radar systems.
o Infrared: Short-range communication (e.g., remote controls, wireless
sensors).

Electromagnetic Spectrum:

• The electromagnetic spectrum encompasses all the frequencies of electromagnetic

radiation, including:
o Radio waves: Used for communication (AM, FM, TV).
o Microwaves: Used in radar, satellite communication.
o Infrared: Short-range communication, night vision.

5.9 Cellular Concept

Cellular Concept:

• Definition: The cellular concept is the foundation of mobile communication

networks, dividing the coverage area into smaller "cells" to allow efficient frequency
reuse and increased capacity.
• Cell Structure: Each cell is served by a base station that communicates with mobile
users within its area.
• Frequency Reuse: Allows the same frequencies to be used in non-adjacent cells,
increasing the capacity of the network.
• Cellular Networks: Examples include 2G, 3G, 4G, and 5G networks.

5.10 GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication)

System
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Block Diagram of GSM System:

1. Mobile Station (MS): The mobile phone that connects to the network.
2. Base Station Subsystem (BSS): Includes the Base Transceiver Station (BTS) that
communicates with the mobile and the Base Station Controller (BSC) that manages
multiple BTS.
3. Network Subsystem (NSS): Manages calls, mobility, and switching, including
components like the Mobile Switching Center (MSC).
4. Operation Support Subsystem (OSS): Responsible for monitoring and maintenance
of the GSM network.

GSM Network Features:

• Voice and Data Communication: Supports both voice calls and data transmission
(SMS, internet).
• Roaming: Allows mobile users to use their phones in different countries.
• Security: Provides encryption for secure communication.

Important Diagrams to Practice

• Block diagram of an IoT-based data acquisition and automation system.
• Block diagram of a communication system.
• Block diagram of a GSM system.
• Working of motion, temperature, and mechanical sensors.
• Electromagnetic Spectrum.
• Cellular concept with frequency reuse.

Important Questions – Unit 5 (with Repeat Count)

Repeat
Question
Count
Explain the classification of sensors and their characteristics. 5 times
Describe the working and applications of LVDT and Strain Gauge. 4 times
Explain IoT-based data acquisition and automation system with a block
3 times
diagram.
Explain the GSM system with a block diagram. 3 times
Discuss the communication media and their types. 2 times

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