MODULE: (PREL-PSY9) – GROUP DYNAMIC

CHAPTER 3 - INCLUSION AND IDENTITY

A. Determine the relationship between individuals and groups

B. Identify the group’s needs before their own
C. Explain how social self help the individual to manage his individuality.

Groups transform the me into

the WE. Even though each group
member is capable of surviving
independently of the group, the
need to belong is usually stronger
than the desire to remain
independent of others’ influences.
But if group members act only to
maximize their own interests and
not those of the group, then their
membership—and the group
itself—would be short-lived.

This chapter examines the

processes that determine this alignment of individual and collective pursuits. Once the members
join in a group, they can seek their own goals (individualism), and they must also contribute to the
collective (collectivism). This intermingling of individual and collective motives blurs the boundary
between the self and other, resulting in a collective, group-level identity.
Do humans, by nature, seek solitude or inclusion in groups?

1. Three interrelated processes determine the relationship between individuals and groups:

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a) inclusion and exclusion

Ostracism

People’s need to belong is slaked when a group accepts them, but they are the most
satisfied when a group actively seeks them out. In contrast, people respond negatively when a
group ignores or avoids them, and this negative reaction is exacerbated if the group ostracizes,
abandons, or banishes them (Molden et al., 2009). To be isolated from others due to
circumstances or accidents is one thing, but to be deliberately ignored and excluded by others—
ostracism—is particularly distressing (see Figure 3.1; Leary, 1990).

Reactions to Exclusion

Most people respond very negatively to ostracism and exclusion. When asked to describe
their feelings, excluded people report feeling frustrated, anxious, nervous, and lonely, whereas
those who are included in the group feel relaxed, friendly, and comfortable (Williams & Nida, 2017)

Fight or Flight Response

Some people, facing exclusion, fight their way back into the group (a fight response), or
they avoid further rejection by seeking membership elsewhere (a flight response). This fight-or-
flight response is a common reaction of people when they face stressful, threatening
circumstances, and Williams suggests it is motivated by a desire to gain a sense of control in a
deleterious situation.

Tend and Be friend Response

perhaps because he is a naturally outgoing and very self-confident person, did not respond
by fighting or fleeing from the group (Shaver & Mikulincer, 2013).

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Exclusion and Aggression

The need to belong is a powerful force in human behavior, so much so that individuals can
respond violently when that need is thwarted (Leary et al., 2003).

The Herd Instinct

The idea that humans are instinctively drawn to gather with other humans is not a new one.

Sociometer Theory

A conceptual analysis of self-evaluation processes that theorizes self-esteem functions to

psychologically monitor of one’s degree of inclusion and exclusion in social groups (proposed by
Mark Leary).

(b) individualism and collectivism

Individualism and collectivism are distinguishable in their relative emphasis on individuals and
groups. Triandis (2009) identifies four distinct differences between these two orientations:

Social relations

Collectivism endorses communal relationships, whereas individualism supports exchange

relationships and allocations based on the norm of reciprocity. Sharing with others is more likely in a
collectivistic culture, as suggested by responses to the ultimatum game.

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Social obligations

Groups with collectivistic group cultures stress loyalty, hierarchy, and conformity more so than
individualistic groups.

Social goals

When members gain rewards through cooperative goal-seeking, the allocation of those rewards
can be based on the equality norm (collectivistic) or the equity norm (individualistic).

Self-concepts

personal identity includes qualities that distinguish individuals from one another, whereas social
identity includes all those qualities shared in common with others. Individualists’ identities emphasize their
personal qualities, whereas collectivists’ identities emphasize connections to other people.

Individualism

A tradition, ideology, or personal outlook that emphasizes the primacy of the individual and his or
her rights, independence, and relationships with other individuals.

Collectivism

A tradition, ideology, or personal orientation that emphasizes the primacy of the group or
community rather than each individual person.

Individualism and collectivism are complex, multifaceted concepts, but Triandis (2009) emphasizes
four core elements in his theory of individualism– collectivism: the significance of social relations,
acceptance of social obligations, shared goals, and changes in group members’ self-conceptions The

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following sections review these four elements as well as cross-cultural variations in individualism–
collectivism

The relationships linking members to one another and their group are not only stronger and more
valued by collectivists but they are also more likely to be communal rather than exchange-based.
Individuals in exchange relationships monitor their inputs into the group, strive to maximize the rewards
they personally receive through membership, and are dissatisfied if their group becomes too costly for
them.

People in communal relationships, in contrast, are more concerned with what their group receives
than with their own personal outcomes. When individuals work in communal groups, they help fellow
members more, prefer to think of their work as a joint effort, and feel disappointed if other members insist
on reciprocating any help given.

Social Obligations as Peak Search and Rescue evolved into an organized group of dedicated
rescue experts, it developed its own unique group culture. As the psychologist Edgar Schein explains, “any
definable group with a shared history can have a culture” and “once a group has learned to hold common
assumptions, the resulting automatic patterns of perceiving, thinking, feeling, and behaving provide
meaning, stability, and comfort” (1990, p. 111).

The equity norm recommends that group members should receive outcomes in proportion to their
inputs. If an individual has invested a good deal of time, energy, money, or other types of inputs in the
group, then he or she could expect to receive a good deal of the group payoff. Similarly, individuals who
contribute little should not be surprised when they receive little.

The equality norm, on the other hand, recommends that all group members, irrespective of their
inputs, should be given an equal share of the payoff.

In collectivistic settings, members would likely favor allocating the winnings on an equal share
basis: All should benefit, even if just one of the group members was the one who picked the winning
lottery numbers.

The Social Self

What would you answer if asked the question “Who are you?” Would you include your physical
qualities, such as your height, weight, strength, and physical appearance?

Self-concepts: personal identity includes qualities that distinguish individuals from one another,
whereas social identity includes all those qualities shared in common with others. Individualists’ identities
emphasize their personal qualities, whereas collectivists’ identities emphasize connections to other people.

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(c) personal identity and social identity.

Social Identity Theory

A theoretical analysis of group processes and intergroup relations that assumes groups
influence their members’ self-concepts and self-esteem, particularly when individuals categorize
themselves as group members and identify with the group.

Minimal Intergroup Situation

A research procedure used in studies of intergroup conflict that involves creating temporary
groups of anonymous, unrelated people (developed by Henri Tajfel and John Turner). Social
identity theory’s answer:
Two cognitive processes—social categorization and identification—combine to transform a
group membership into an identity.

Social Categorization

The processes that generate a person’s social identity begin with social categorization
(Turner, 1991, 1999). Perceivers, to make sense of and understand other people, quickly and
automatically classify those they encounter into groups based on age, race, nationality, and other
categories.

Identification

Most people belong to many groups and categories, but many of these memberships have no
influence on their social identities. Patrick may have been a right hander, a Democrat, and
browneyed, but he may not give much thought to these categories.

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As social identification increases, individuals come to think that their membership in the
group is personally significant. They feel connected and interdependent with other members, are
glad they belong to the group, feel good about the group, and experience strong attachment to
the group.

Self and Identity

A person’s identification with a group can become so pronounced that across situations they think
of themselves as group members first and individuals second.

Social identity theory

provides key insights into a host of psychological and interpersonal processes, including
collectivism, perceptions of the outgroup, presumptions of ingroup permeability, tolerance of
deviance within the group, increased satisfaction with the group, and feelings of solidarity (Leach
et al., 2008).

Evaluating the Self Hogg (2005)

suggests that at least two basic motives influence the way social categorization and identification
processes combine to shape one’s sense of self.

Social psychologist Jennifer Crocker and her colleagues examined

the relationship between people’s self-esteem and their feelings about
the groups to which they belonged by developing a measure of
collective self-esteem. Instead of asking people if they felt good or bad
about themselves, they asked individuals to evaluate the groups to
which they belonged.
When individuals identify with their group, they also tend to exaggerate
the differences between their group and other groups. Once people
begin to think in terms of, we and us, they also begin to recognize them and they. The tendency
to look more favorably on the ingroup is called the ingroup–outgroup bias. The ingroup–outgroup
bias contributes to the self-esteem and emotional well-being of group members.
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Stereotype Verification and Threat

In social identity theory, stereotypes serve to create identity, but they can also constrain
identity. When people are proud members of their groups, they readily admit that they are
stereotypical and will also take steps to confirm these stereotypes when they interact with people
who are not part of their group.

Stereotypes can also trigger a process known as stereotype threat when individuals know
that others, they are interacting with may be relying on group stereotypes to judge them. This
worry that they might confirm these stereotypes may, in turn, undermine individuals’ actual
performance.

Protecting the Personal Self

In general, people are more disturbed by threats to their personal selfesteem than to their
collective self-esteem. They are more likely to deny the accuracy of negative individualized
information relative to negative group information, and they more readily claim positive feedback
when it focuses on them rather than on their group. For example, an individual, if told “you did
very poorly—you must be slow” or “you are excessively moody,” will react more negatively than a
person who is part of a group told “your group did very poorly—you must be slow” or “people in
your group are excessively moody” (Gaertner et al., 2002; Gaertner & Sedikides, 2005; Sedikides,
Gaertner, & Toguchi, 2003). Personal failure is more troubling than collective failure, in most
cases.

2. Baumeister and Leary (1995) suggest that much of human behavior is motivated by the
need to belong.

• Solitude is sometimes rewarding, but prolonged isolation is highly stressful.

• Groups help members avoid basic forms of loneliness: social and emotional.
Ironically, individuals with one to three degrees of separation from a lonely individual
are more likely to themselves be lonely.

3. Ostracism, or deliberate exclusion from groups, is highly stressful, as indicated by self-

reports of negative affect in everyday situations and people’s reactions in experimental
studies of exclusion.

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• Williams’ (2007) temporal need–threat model of ostracism identifies a three-stage

response to exclusion: reflexive, reflective, and resignation.

• Exclusion can trigger a fight-or-flight response (confront or withdraw, Taylor, 2006),

a tend-and-befriend response (social reconnection), or, in rare cases, violence
targeting the source of the exclusion (Gaertner et al., 2008; Leary et al., 2003).

• Individuals also react negatively to exclusion from computer-mediated interaction,

or cyberostracism.

4. Evolutionary psychology suggests that the need to belong resulted from natural selection
as individuals who were affiliated with groups were more likely to survive.

• Sociometer theory (Leary, 2017a) hypothesizes that self-esteem provides individuals with
feedback about their degree of inclusion in groups.

• The intensely negative reactions most people experience when they feel excluded are
associated with specific hormonal and neurological processes.

• Studies of the brain using fMRI technology (Eisenberger, 2003) and the effects of
analgesics on emotional reactions following rejection suggest that the pain of exclusion is
maintained by the same biological systems responsible for the experience of physiological
pain.

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Understanding Group Dynamics by Donelson R. Forsyth

www.cengageasia.com