Private Pilot & Commercial Pilot

Training Syllabus
Lesson Plans

2023
Revised 5-18-2023

Fred A Sweet, ATP, CFI, CFII, MEI, DPE, A&P

[email protected]

1
Private and Commercial Single Engine Land Training Manual
Introduction: This manual was created as a guide to both instructor and student for flight training in
single engine aircraft for private and commercial licenses. Private Pilot Flight training is divided into
three phases:

1) Pre solo training- all training required to solo the aircraft

2) Post Solo training- training that leads up to cross country solo flight
3) Check Ride Prep: review of previous stages of flight training to meet Airmen Certification
Standards.

Phases of Training. Each phase of training has a specific syllabus with reference to specific GROUND and
FLIGHT training lesson plans. Each referenced lesson plan may be found in the index and appropriate
index tab. Each lesson often requires the use of more than one lesson plan (ground and flight). Flight
and ground lessons may be re arranged to meet student and instructor needs and current flight
conditions. Additionally, each lesson will review important concepts of previous lessons. Specifically
emphasizing Aeronautic Decision Making.

Check lists. Each phase of training has a corresponding check list that the instructor should sign off as
each goal is achieved documenting the training. This also gives the student pilot an understanding of
how far they have progressed through each phase of training.

Instructor responsibility: Review the phases of training, syllabi, and check lists with the student. Assigns
students appropriate flight and ground lessons that correspond to the syllabus. Lesson plans should be
assigned in advance of the intended lesson to give the student sufficient study time to prepare for the
anticipated ground or flight lesson. Provides ground training and flight training appropriate to each
phase of training. Provides appropriate endorsements and documentation of training.

Special note to instructor: Documentation of ground training is REQUIRED and may be REQUIRED to be
presented at time of check ride. Signing each component of this syllabus in the students copy can be
used as a log to verify training for check rides and legal considerations. Additionally, maintain continuity
of training between transitioning instructors and demonstrate positive progress to the students and
customers we serve, it is highly recommended that you sign off the training accomplishments in the
following section of your student’s copy of the training syllabus (highlighted in the index for rapid
identification):

Student Requirement Checklists

Initial Solo 30
Repeat solo w/in 25 nm 32
Repeat solo cross country w/in 50 nm 33
Traditional solo Cross Country 35
Practical Test Check list 37

Student Responsibility: Becomes familiar with the training manual, phases of training, lesson plans and
check lists. Prepares for each ground and flight lesson with reference to appropriate lesson plans and
reference books and materials.

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Airman Certification Standards. (Supersedes practical test standards). Is the FAA document that
integrates Aeronautical knowledge, flight skills and Aeronautical Decision-Making standards that are
required to pass the knowledge test and the practical test. It is a comprehensive documentation of
these elements and is available on the FAA website or for purchase at your flight school. This can be
used as an additional syllabus and guide to ensure completion of the knowledge and skill to pass the
check ride. It is recommended that this booklet is referenced early in flight training.

Reference materials: Appropriate reference materials should be used for study to augment the lesson
plans and generally, at a minimum, should include:

FAA-H-8083-3C Airplane Flying Handbook, 2021

FAA-H-8083-25C Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge, 2023 (major revision due 2024)

Aircraft Information Manual (specific to the aircraft you will be training in)

Federal Aviation Regulations/Aeronautical Information Manual “FAR/AIM”, most current

Your flight instructor may recommend additional resources. These are also available on the FAA web
site or for purchase at your school. FAR/AIM iPad or phone App from ASA highly recommended.

Airman Knowledge test: is a required multiple choice computer exam to take the check ride for your
private pilot license. In addition to the ground lessons provided by your flight instructor, you may also
enroll in a formal ground school course at the flight school or computerized courses are available (King
Schools and Sporty’s are popular). I personally like Rod Machado’s Private Pilot Ground school on line
course available at

https://rodmachado.com/products/rod-machados-40-hour-private-pilot-elearning-ground-school

It is recommended that you take advantage of practice test questions which are available via Sporty’s,
KING Schools, Rod Machados course and also ASA. The written test prep questions are available in the
actual E courses or as a separate APP for ipad and phone ror reasonable costs and are quite effective
study tools to pass the written FAA multiple choice test. Please consult your flight instructor for further
guidance to these learning tools.

Contact the Author:

Fred A Sweet, ATP, CFI, CFII, MEI, DPE, A&P

[email protected]

Any comments or corrections would be greatly appreciated!

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Index
Pre Solo training syllabus 6

Pre-solo take home and aircraft quiz 11

Post Solo training syllabus 15

Check Ride Preparation Syllabus 26

Student Requirement Checklists

Initial Solo 29
Repeat solo w/in 25 nm 31
Repeat solo cross country w/in 50 nm 32
Traditional solo Cross Country 34
Private, Commercial , Sport Pilot Practical Test Check lists 36
Other endorsements (retest, tailwheel, complex etc) 45
Single Engine Land Private/Commercial Flight Lessons
Introduction to Flight Training 48
1-Take-off and Landing
Pre-Flight Procedure 49
Normal Take off/Landing 55
Cross Wind Take Off/Landing 60
Short field Take Off/Landing 63
Soft field Take Off/Landing 66
Go-Arounds (Rejected/Balked Landings) 69
Forward Slip to a Landing 71
Power Off 180 Accuracy Approach and Landing 73
Emergency Approaches and Landings 74

2-Fundamentals of Flight
Straight and Level Flight 51
Level Turns 52
Climbs and Climbing Turns 53
Descents and Descending Turns 54
Slow Flight 76
Power On Stalls 78
Power Off Stalls 79
Accelerated Maneuver Stalls 80
Secondary Stalls 82
Cross-Control Stalls 84
Elevator Trim Stall 85
Spins 86

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3- Ground Reference Maneuvers
Rectangular Course 88
Turns around a point 90
S Turns across a road 92
Eight on Pylons 94
4-Performance Maneuvers
Steep Turns 97
Steep Spiral 99
Chandelle 101
Lazy Eights 103

5- Under the hood

Basic Instrument Maneuvers 105
Unusual Attitudes 107

6- Emergency Procedures
Emergency Descent 108

Ground Lessons Single Engine Land Private/Commercial

Aeronautical Decision making 109
Piloting Considerations 112
Aerodynamics 114
Aircraft Systems 121
Fuel, Electrical Systems and Propeller 128
Flight Instruments 136
Aircraft Documents and Maintenance 142
Weight and Balance 143
Aircraft Performance 148
Weather Theory and Weather Services 154
Airspace 160
Airport Operations 163
Spin Awareness and Avoidance 168
Navigation- VHF Omnidirectional Range “VOR” 169
VFR Flight Planning, Flight Plan, Cross country log 175
Flight Illusions and Vision of Flight 181
Night Operations 184
High Altitude Operations 185
Emergency Procedures 187
VFR and IFR ATC Communication 189
NTSB Accidents, Incidents and Reporting 194

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 Pre-Solo Flight Syllabus, PVT. Pilot

Lesson 1: Four Fundamentals

Time: 1 hour Ground, 2 hours Flight

Flight Lessons: Pre-flight, Taxi, Normal Take-off and landing

Straight and level flight, turns, climbs, descents
Ground Lesson: Aeronautic Decision Making. Aerodynamics

Instructor Reviews:
Introduces Aeronautical Decision Making (ADM) intro, PAVE, IMSAFE
Preflight inspections
Gathering and checking Wx
Taxi/ground ops/wind correction
Four fundamentals of flight, drag, ground effect, axes of aircraft
Parking/securing aircraft

Read: Airplane Flying Handbook: 1-9 to 1-16, Chapt 2 and 3.

Pilots Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge: Chapter 2-4 to 2-9, 17-1 to
17-10, 4-1 to 4-3, 4-5 to 4-8, chapter 6.
Ground and flight Lessons handouts

Lesson 2: Aircraft Systems and Pre Flight

Time: 1 hour ground, Flight Time as needed

Flight Lessons: As Needed

Ground Lesson: Aircraft Systems, Fuel, Electrical systems and Propeller

Instructor Reviews:
ADM, PAVE, IMSAFE, Hazardous Attitudes
Aircraft Systems and Preflight in detail
Gathering and checking Wx

Read: Pilots Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge: Chapt 5-22 to 5-33,

Chap 7-1 to 7-5, 7-8 to 7-11, 7-15 to 7-18, 7-25 to 7-28, 7-30.
Pilot Operating Handbook- Preflight check list, Airplane and Systems
Description

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Lesson 3: Slow Flight and Propeller Principles, Turning Tendencies

Time: 1 hour ground, 2 hour flight

Flight Lessons: Slow Flight

Ground: Aeronautic Decision Making, Aerodynamics

Instructor Reviews:
ADM, PAVE, IMSAFE, Hazardous attitudes, risk mitigation
Introduction to airport pattern (proper exit and entry procedures)
Flights at various speeds less than cruise
Adverse yaw. Turning tendencies
Minimum controllable airspeed (MCA)
Navigating practice area via landmarks and VFR sectional chart

Read: Aircraft Information Manual: V-Speeds (Found in Sections 1, 2, and 4)

Review Sectional Chart for Local Area
Airplane Flying Handbook: 5-1 to 5-7, 8-1 to 8-6
Pilot Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge: 4-3 to 4-8, 5-1 to 5-11, 5-22 to 5-32,

Ground and Flight Lessons Handouts

Lesson 4: Power-Off Stalls

Time: 2 hour flight, ground as needed

Flight Lessons: Power off Stalls, Secondary Stalls

Ground Lessons: Aeronautic Decision Making

Instructor Reviews:
ADM, the Decision Making Process- SRM, 5P check list
Review MCA
Power-off stalls
Introduction to cruise altitude engine failure

Read: Airplane Flying Handbook: 5-9 to 5-21.

Pilot Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge: 5-33 to 5-39, 2-12 to 15
Ground and Flight Lessons Handouts

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Lesson 5: Power-On Stalls, Accelerated Stalls

Time: 1 hour ground, 2 hour flight

Flight Lessons: Power on Stalls, Accelerated Stalls

Ground Lessons: Aeronautic Decision Making, Spin Awareness and Avoidance

Instructor Reviews:
ADM, SRM, 5P and DECIDE model
Review MCA and power-off stalls
Power-on stalls
Stall/spin awareness
Spin recovery procedure

Read:Airplane Flying Handbook: 5-9 to 5-21 (end after “secondary stalls”)

Pilot Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge: 5-33 to 5-39
Ground and Flight Lessons Handouts

Lesson 6: Ground Reference

Time: 1 hour Ground, 2 hours Flight

Flight Lessons: Rectangular Course, S Turns Across Road, Turn around a Point

Ground Lessons: Aeronautic Decision Making, Aerodynamics

Instructor Reviews:
ADM- PAVE, IMSAFE, Operational Pitfalls, stress mgmt.
Ground Reference:
Turns-around-a-point
S-Turns across-a-road
Rectangular course/airport traffic pattern
Introduction to low altitude engine failure

Read: Airplane Flying Handbook: 7-1 to 7-10

Pilot Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge: 2-21 to 2-25
Ground and Flight Lessons as above

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Lesson 7: Emergencies

Time: 1 hour ground, 1 hour flight

Flight Lessons: Emergency Approaches and Landings,

Power Off 180 Accuracy Approach and Landing,(optional)

Ground Lessons: Emergency Procedures and Survival Gear

Instructor Reviews:
ADM, Situational Awareness, Workload, Manage Risks
General emergency procedures
Engine failure emergency procedures/memory checklist “ABC”
Introduce engine failure in pattern during landing

Read: Aircraft Information Manual: Emergency procedures

Airplane Flying Handbook: 18-1 to 18-12, 9-1- to 9-26,
Ground and Flight Lesson handouts

Lesson 8: Pattern, Airspace, Airport Operations

Time: 1 hour Ground, 2 hour Flight

Flight Lessons: Rectangular Course, Normal take off/landing, Go-around,

Emergency Approaches, Go Arounds, Forward Slip to a Landing

Ground Lessons: Airspace, Airport Operations

Instructor Reviews:
ADM review, PAVE, IMSAFE, 5P, Operational Pitfalls
Non-towered airport communication – CTAF, Unicom, ASOS/AWOS
Pattern work, Normal takeoff/landing, Go-around
Engine failure in pattern
Airport Ops, Collision Avoidance, Wake Turbulence, Wind Shear

Read:
Airplane Flying Handbook: chapt 6 and chapt 9
Flight and Ground Lessons Handouts as above.

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Lesson 9: Advance Pattern (Solo Prep), Cross Wind Landing

Time: Ground as Needed. Flight Time-discuss progress with Instructor.

Flight Lessons: Normal take off/land, Cross Wind Take off/land, Forward slip,
Go Around

Ground Lessons: Airspace, Airport Operations, Aeronautic Decision Making

Instructor Reviews:
ADM Review, 5P, PAVE, IMSAFE
X/Wind Component Chart
X/wind takeoff/landing
Forward Slip to landing
Go-around
Engine failure on takeoff
Engine failure in pattern
Read: Airplane Flying Handbook: 6-1 to 6-10, 6-14,. Chapt 8, 9-1 to 9-20
Pilot Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge: Chapt 15-1 to 15-8,
Chapt 14-1 to 14-31
Ground and Flight Lessons as Above

Lesson 10: First Solo

Time: ground as needed, 2 hours flight

Flight Lessons: as neeeded

Ground Lessons: as needed

Instructor Reviews
ADM, SRM, Stress Management, 5P, PAVE, IMSAFE
Student’s first solo flight
Review takeoffs and landings (dual)
Evaluate student’s pattern work and mastery of aircraft
Determine student is safe for solo
Confirm solo quiz is completed, graded, and corrected
Endorse logbook for solo flight
Verify and Sign Solo Requirements Check List

Student performs solo flight: Three full-stop taxi back landings

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Pre Solo Take-Home Test- (34 questions)
Instructions: Answer each question in the space provided, using the FARs, the AIM, the Airport/Facility
Directory, and the Pilot’s Operating Handbook

1. What is the maximum gross weight of the airplane in the Normal category?

2. If a glider is converging with an airplane, which has the right of way?

3. What are the limit load factors in both the Normal and Utility categories with the flaps up and
down?

4. What preflight action is required of a pilot prior to a flight?

5. What is the maximum rpm of your airplane?

6. Define an aerobatic maneuver

7. Describe the engine in your airplane, including configuration and number of pistons, how it is
cooled, type of fuel delivery, and air induction type.

8. What is the oil capacity in your airplane? What is the minimum?

9. What is the minimum amount of time after the consumption of alcohol a pilot is required to
wait before operating an aircraft?

10. What are the basic VFR weather minimums? What is the minimum visibility for a student pilot?

11. Why is it necessary to drain fuel out of the sumps after refueling and before the first flight of
the day?

12. List and describe each of the light gun signals available from air traffic control when in the air or
on the ground.

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13. Will the engine still run if the master switch is turned off? Why?

14. What is a TFR? Where can you find the location and times of an active TFR in an area you might
be flying?

15. What are wing-tip vortices (wake turbulence)? With which aircraft are they greatest? Describe
measures you would take to avoid wake turbulence departing and arriving behind other aircraft
where there is a risk of wake turbulence.

16. What three documents must you have in your possession to solo an aircraft as a student?

17. During run up, what is the maximum allowable rpm drop per mag? Between mags? What should
you do if the drop is more than these limits?

18. Draw an airport traffic pattern, labeling each leg and the proper entry and departure points.
Which turn direction is standard for an airport traffic pattern?

19. What is the fuel capacity of the solo aircraft? How much is usable?

20. What is the authority and responsibility of the pilot in command?

21. When are you required to wear a safety belt?

22. When are you permitted to deviate from an ATC instruction?

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23. What grade(s) of aviation fuel is/are available for use? What color is each?

24. When an aircraft is approaching another head on, each pilot should alter their course to
the______________.
25. A(n) ______________ on the runway indicates that the runway is closed.

26. Draw the pavement marking requiring you to stop before entering a runway.

27. The______________________________ of two aircraft on approach to the same runway has

the right of way.

28. What must a pilot do before entering Class D airspace?

29. What is the minimum safe altitude over sparsely populated areas? Over congested areas?

30. List the day-VFR weather minimums in Class G, E, and D airspace

31. List the documents that must be aboard the aircraft at all times.

32. When must the aircraft’s navigation lights be on?

33. What are you, as a student pilot, required to have before operating in Class B airspace?

34. What is the minimum reserve fuel required for day VFR operations?

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Pre Solo Written Quiz
Instructions: Answer each question in the space provided.

1. Define and list the following speeds for your aircraft:

Vs-

Vso-

Vx-

Vy-

Va-

Vfe-

Vno-

Vne-

2. What is the airplane’s best glide speed? When is it used?

3. List the procedure to respond to an in-flight engine failure.

4. List the procedure to respond to an engine fire on the ground while starting.

5. List the procedure for loss of communication radio when arriving at an airport with an operating

control tower.

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 Post-Solo Flight Syllabus, PVT. Pilot

Lesson 1: Airspace and Maneuver Review

Time: Ground 1.5 hours, 2 hours Flight

Flight Lessons: Steep Turns, plus review as below

Ground Lessons: VFR ATC Communications, Airspace

Instructor Reviews:
Local navigation
Climbs at Vy and Vx and application of those climbs
Flights at various airspeeds
Slow flight to MCA
Power on stalls with and without bank
Power off stalls with and without bank
Steep Turns (Introduce)
Engine failure in cruise ( Dual only)

Note: At successful completion of lesson 1, student may practice the above maneuvers
SOLO under instructor’s supervision (except emergency procedures).

Read: Airplane Flying Handbook: Chapt 10.

Pilots Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge: Chapt 14.

Lesson 2: Performance Takeoff and Landings, Pilot Considerations,

Review ADM

Time: 1 hour Ground, 2 hours Flight

Flight Lessons: Cross Wind, Short Field, Soft Field take off and Land

Ground Lessons: Piloting Considerations, Aeronautic Decision Making

Instructor Reviews:
proper takeoff, approach, and landing procedures, including short-field, soft-field,
and crosswind takeoffs, approaches, and landings
Review ADM

Read: Airplane Flying Handbook: 6-11 to 6-14, 9-20 to 37

Lesson Plans as above.

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Lesson 3: Aerodynamics and Maneuver Review

Time: 2 hours Ground, 1 hour flight

Flight lessons: as needed

Ground Lessons: Aerodynamics

Instructor Reviews:
Review Forces acting on Aircraft, thrust, Drag, L/D ratio, Ground Effect
Aerodynamics including Aircraft stability, Load Factors Vg Diagram, Rate of turn,
radius of turn
Review Aircraft stability, dynamic and static
Effect of CG location on aircraft performance
Flight Maneuvers as required, Short Field, Soft Field, Cross Wind Take off/land

Read: Pilots Handbook of Aeronautic Knowledge: 5-6 to 5-8, 5-14 to 5-24, 5-33 to 5-43,
11-3 to 11-18,

Lesson 4: Instrument Flight Part 1

Time: 1 hour ground, 1.5 hours flight

Flight Lessons: Basic Instrument Maneuvers

Ground Lessons: Flight Instruments, Flight Illusions and Vision of Flight

Instructor Reviews:
Illusions – cannot “fly by seat of pants”
Flight Instruments – operation and limitations
Scan Techniques – Command and Performance, Scan Techniques
Instrument Straight and level flight, Turns, Descents, Climbs
Compass errors demonstrated in flight – NO, UNOS, ANDS

Read:
Airplane Flying Handbook: Chapt 18.-17 to 18-22
Pilot Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge: 16-5 to 16-11

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Lesson 5: Instrument Flight Part 2

Time: 1 hours Ground, 1.5 hours Flight

Flight Lessons: Basic Instrument Maneuvers, Unusual Attitudes

Ground Lessons: Flight Instruments

Instructor Reviews:
Control and maneuvering solely by reference to flight instruments, including straight
and level flight, turns, descents, climbs and unusual attitude recovery

Scan Techniques – wheel spoke, racetrack, basic ‘T’ (Review)

Straight and level flight (Review)
Turns – standard rate or less (Review)
Descents – constant rate and constant airspeed (Review)
Climbs – constant rate and constant airspeed (Review)
Unusual attitude recovery – pitch up and pitch down (Introduce)

Read: Pilot Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge: Chapter 8-1 to 8-11, 8-15 to 8-20, 8-23-8-27

Lesson 6: Instrument Flight Part 3

Time: 1 hour Ground, 1.5 hours Flight

Flight Lessons: Basic Instrument Maneuvers, Unusual Attitudes

Ground Lessons: Navigation- VHF Omnidirectional Range “VOR”, review

Flight instruments, Unusual Attitudes

Instructor Reviews. Control and maneuvering solely by reference to flight

instruments, including straight and level flight, turns, descents, climbs, unusual attitude
recovery, use of radio aids, and ATC directives

Navigation - use of radio aids for navigation- VOR

Radar vectors – initiating contact with ATC and attaining radar vectors
VFR into IMC scenario – climb, call, confess, comply
Unusual attitude recovery – pitch up and pitch down

Read: Pilot Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge 15-21 to 15-27

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Lesson 7: ATC Communications & Flight into Towered Airports

Time: 1 hour ground, 1.5 hour Flight

Flight Lesson: as below.

Ground Lesson: VFR ATC Communications, Airport Operations

Instructor Reviews: To learn proper ATC communication procedures and language

between pilot and approach, tower, ground, and departure air traffic controllers to facilitate
flights to and from towered airports

Airport signage and markings – flash cards and overview

ATC – overview - ARTCC, Approach, Tower, Ground, CL/DEL, Departure
Class B, C, D/TRSA - Role-play arrival and departure of airport
Class D - Role-play arrival and departure of airport with only tower controller
Traffic pattern - departure, arrival, entry, and approach
Hazards - collision avoidance, wake turbulence, and wind shear avoidance
Lost Communication Procedures

Actual practice flights to towered airports class C/D/TRSA

Read: Pilot Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge: Chapter 14

Lesson 8: ATC Communications – SOLO

Time: 1 hour ground, 1.5 hour Flight

Flight Lesson: as below

Ground Lesson: VFR ATC Communications, Airport Operations

Instructor Reviews: To learn proper ATC communication procedures and language

between pilot and approach, tower, ground, and departure air traffic controllers to facilitate
flights to and from towered airports

Airport signage and markings – flash cards and overview

ATC – overview - ARTCC, Approach, Tower, Ground, CL/DEL, Departure
Class B, C, D/TRSA - Role-play arrival and departure of airport
Class D - Role-play arrival and departure of airport with only tower controller
Traffic pattern - departure, arrival, entry, and approach
Hazards - collision avoidance, wake turbulence, and wind shear avoidance
Lost Communication Procedures
Perform three takeoffs and three landings to a full stop SOLO (with each landing involving a
flight in the traffic pattern) at an airport with an operating control tower

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Lesson 9: Navigation Part 1 and Maneuver Review

Time: 1 hour Ground, 2 hours Flight

Flight Lessons: as needed for review

Ground Lessons: Navigation VOR, VFR Flight Planning

Objective: To learn proper VFR navigation techniques through the use of aeronautical
charts, pilotage, dead reckoning with the aid of a magnetic compass, and two-way
communications (radar vectors)

Instructor Reviews:
Aeronautical charts – reading basic navigation features
Pilotage navigation – procedures and limitations
Dead reckoning navigation – procedures and limitations
Radar vectors - procedures and limitations
Review Maneuvers as required, slow flight, stalls, performance maneuvers, steep turns
Practice short cross country navigation as reviewed

Read: Pilot Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge: Chap 16-1 to 16-35

VFR Sectional Chart: Legend and chart symbols.

Lesson 10 Navigation Part 2 and Maneuver Review

Time: 1 hour Ground, 2 hours Flight

Flight Lessons: as needed for review

Ground Lessons: Navigation VOR, VFR Flight Planning

Instructor Reviews:
Proper use of radios for VFR navigation
Aeronautical charts – reading basic navigation features (Review)
GPS – procedures and limitations, RAIM check
VOR - procedures and limitations
Review Airspace as required

Review Maneuvers as required,

Navigate several routes of a short cross-country flight utilizing different types of navigational
equipment installed on training aircraft

Read:
Pilot Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge: Chapt 16-1 to 16-15, 16-22 to 16-35.

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Lesson 11: Cross-Country Planning Part 1 – Aircraft Performance

Time: 2 hours ground, as needed for flight

Flight Lessons: as needed

Ground Lessons: VFR Flight Planning, Weight and Balance, Aerodynamics

Instructor Reviews:
use of aircraft performance charts pertaining to cross-country flight
Weight and balance procedures
Effects of forward and aft CG
Computation of takeoff and landing distances
Determining time, fuel, and distance to climb
Determining cruise performance
Determine time, fuel, and distance to descend
Range and endurance profiles
E6-B flight computer usage

Read: Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge: Chapter 5-40 to 5-43, 16-17 to

16-21, Chapter 10 and 11-1 to 11-27
POH performance Charts

Lesson 12: Cross-Country Planning Part 2 – Flight Planning

Time: 2 hours ground, as needed for flight

Flight Lessons: as needed

Ground Lessons: VFR Flight Planning

Instructor Reviews:
Sectional usage and symbols
Route and altitude selection – hazardous terrain along route
Checkpoint selection
Computation of wind correction angle, groundspeed, and time
Fuel requirements
Nav sheet completion
Flight plan – filing, opening, and closing flight plan, limitations
Airport Diagram – Taxi diagram, AFD picture, IAP picture, googlemaps
Logistics – AFD/airnav, FBO contact, fees, fueling procedure, crew/rental car

Read: VFR Sectional Chart: Legend and chart symbols

Pilot Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge: 16-1 to 16-15
Airport Facility Directory (ADF): Legend/Key pages 2 to 19
www.Airnav.com, www.skyvector.com, www.fltplan.com , Foreflight.

20
Lesson 13: Cross-Country Planning Part 3 – Weather Theory

Time: 1 hours ground, as needed for flight

Flight Lessons: as needed

Ground Lessons: Weather Theory and Weather Services

Instructor Reviews: basic weather theory and characteristics in order to make well
informed go/no-go decisions when evaluating weather products and reports
Composition of the atmosphere
Characteristics of stable and unstable air
Characteristics of various frontal systems
Formation of fog and clouds
Formation of thunderstorms
Wind shear

Read: Pilot Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge: Chapter 12

Lesson Plans as above.

Lesson 14: Cross-Country Planning Part 4 – Weather Products

Time: 2 hours ground, as needed for flight

Flight Lessons: as needed

Ground Lessons: Weather Theory and Weather Services

Instructor Reviews: proper procurement and analysis of aeronautical weather

reports and forecasts, recognition of critical weather situations, obtaining weather
information in flight

METAR, PIREP, TAF, and FA.

AWOS, ASOS, and ATIS reports.
Winds and temperature aloft
Surface analysis chart, Radar Summary chart
Weather Depiction chart. Significant weather prognostic charts
Airmets, sigmets and convective sigmets
NOTAM’s
FSS – standard, abbreviated and outlook briefings,
Procurement of weather data – FSS phone, ADDS online, DUATS/DUAT, Foreflight

Read: Pilot Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge: Chapter 13

21
Lesson 15: FAR/AIM Regulations, Aircraft Documents/Maintenance

Time: 1 hours ground, as needed for flight

Flight Lessons: as needed

Ground Lessons: Aircraft Documents and Maintenance

Instructor Reviews: applicable regulations effecting private/student pilot certificate

holders as well as flight rules under 14 CFR part 1, 43, 61, and 91 as well as NTSB 830.

FAR part 1 - Definitions

FAR part 43 – Preventative Maintenance
FAR part 61 – Certification: Pilots and Instructors
FAR 91 – General Operating and Flight Rules
NTSB 830 – Aircraft Accidents

Read: Pilot Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge: Chapter 9-6 to 9-13.

14 CFR parts:
61.15, 61.23, 61.31, 61.56, 61.57, 61.60, 61.87(n), 61.89, 61.113, 91.3, 91.7, 91.9, 91.15, 91.17,
91.101, 91.105, 91.107, 91.111, 91.113, 91.117, 91.119, 91.121, 91.123, 91.125, 91.151, 91.153,
91.155, 91.157, 91.159, 91.203, 91.205, 91.207, 91.209, 91.211, 91.213, 91.303, 91.403, 91.405,
91.407, 91.409, 91.413, NTSB 830

Lesson 16: Cross-Country Flight Part 1 - Dual

Time: 2 hours ground, 2 - 3 hours flight.

Flight Lessons: N/A

Ground Lessons: VFR Flight Planning

Instructor Reviews ground knowledge of cross-country planning, performance, and

navigation in an actual cross-country flight
Plan three leg VFR cross-country flight – assigned prior to day of flight
Flight Plan – File, open, and close VFR flight plan for each leg of flight
Pilotage and dead-reckoning – navigate flight utilizing this navigation
VOR – cross radials may be used to confirm checkpoints
GPS – not allowed in first trip
Nav sheet – complete each leg’s Nav sheet
Demonstrate ADM and Situation Awareness throughout flight
Diversion and lost procedures

Read: Pilots handbook of Aeronautic Knowledge: Chapter 15-20, 15-34

22
Lesson 17: Cross-Country Flight Part 2 - Dual

Time: 2 hours ground, 2 - 3 hours flight.

Flight Lessons: N/A

Ground Lessons: VFR Flight Planning

Objective: ground knowledge of cross-country planning, performance, and

navigation in an actual cross-country flight. Also, to learn when and how to
properly execute a diversion

Instructor Reviews:
Plan three leg VFR cross-country flight – assigned prior to day of flight
Diversion – reasons causing need to divert
Planning Diversion – quick calculations in flight to properly divert
Flight Plan – file, open, and close VFR flight plan for each leg of flight
Pilotage and dead-reckoning – navigate flight utilizing this navigation
VOR – cross radials may be used to confirm checkpoints
GPS – may use to back-up other forms of navigation
Nav sheet – complete each leg’s Nav sheet
Execute Diversion – demonstrate ADM in instructor given scenarios
Demonstrate good ADM and Situation Awareness throughout flight

Read: Pilot Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge: Chapt 16 review

Lesson 18: Night Flight – Local, ADM Review

Time: 1 hours ground, 2 hours flight.

Flight Lessons:

Ground Lessons: Night Operations, Aeronautic Decision Making

Instructor Reviews: basic night flying operations and hazards and to practice night
navigation, takeoffs, and landings
Night vision
Night illusions
Pilot equipment
Airplane lights and equipment
Airport lights
Regulations
Emergencies
Perform at least eight takeoff and landings to a full-stop
Read: Airplane Flying Handbook: Chapter 11,
Pilots Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge:
Chapt 17-10 to 17-10, 17-22 to 17-27, capt 14-16 to 14-19

23
Lesson 19: Night Flight – Cross-Country, ADM Review

Time: 1 hours ground, 2 hours flight.

Flight Lessons:

Ground Lessons: Aeronautic Decision Making, VFR Flight Planning

Objective: Demonstrate ground knowledge of cross-country planning, performance,

navigation, and night flying operations in an actual night cross-country flight of at least
100 Nm.

Instructor Reviews:
Plan two leg VFR cross-country flight – assigned prior to day of flight
Flight Plan – File, open, and close VFR flight plan for each leg of flight
VFR flight following – request and receive radar flight following from ATC
Pilotage and dead-reckoning – navigate flight utilizing this navigation
VOR – cross radials may be used to confirm checkpoints
GPS – may be used
Nav sheet – complete each leg’s Nav sheet
ADM and Situation Awareness throughout flight

Lesson 20: Cross-Country – SOLO #1

Time: 1 hours ground, 3 hours flight.

Flight Lessons:

Ground Lessons: Aeronautic Decision Making, VFR Flight Planning

Objective: solo cross-country flight utilizing knowledge of cross-country planning,

performance, navigation, and ADM/SA

Instructor Reviews:
Plan two leg VFR cross-country flight – assigned prior to day of flight
Flight Plan – file, open, and close VFR flight plan for each leg of flight
Pilotage and dead-reckoning – navigate flight utilizing this navigation
VOR – cross radials may be used to confirm checkpoints
GPS – may use to back-up other forms of navigation
Nav sheet – complete each leg’s Nav sheet
ADM and Situation Awareness

24
Lesson 21: Cross-Country – SOLO #2

Time: 1 hours ground, 3 hours flight.

Flight Lessons:

Ground Lessons: Aeronautic Decision Making, VFR Flight Planning

Objective: solo cross-country flight of 150 nautical miles total distance, with full-stop
landings at three points, and one segment of the flight consisting of a straight-line distance of
more than 50 nautical miles between the takeoff and landing locations utilizing knowledge of
cross-country planning, performance, navigation, and ADM/SA

Instructor Reviews:
Plan three leg VFR cross-country flight – assigned prior to day of flight
Flight Plan – file, open, and close VFR flight plan for each leg of flight
Pilotage and dead-reckoning – navigate flight utilizing this navigation
VOR – cross radials may be used to confirm checkpoints
GPS – may use to back-up other forms of navigation
Nav sheet – complete each leg’s Nav sheet
ADM and Situation Awareness

Note – student should have minimum of following after this lesson:

1) five hours of logged solo cross-country flight total
2) One solo cross country of at least 150 nm with
a) one leg of solo cross country at least 50 nm
b) 3 full stops

25
 Checkride Preparation, PVT. Pilot

Lesson 1 (Solo Practice)- 1 -2 hours per block as needed.

Objective:
To consistently perform assigned tasks/maneuvers to ACS standards

Content:
Perform assigned tasks/maneuvers – review PTS before flight
VIP Note – lesson may be repeated as needed
Read:
ACS: Task minimums for assigned maneuvers to practice

Lesson 2 (Oral Test Preparation)- 2 to 3 hours ground

Objective:
To prepare student to pass the oral test portion of the private pilot practical test

Content:
Checkride overview – ACS, special emphasis areas
Certificates and documents
Airworthiness requirements
Weather
Cross-country operations
National airspace system
Performance
Operating systems
Aeromedical factors
Night flying operations

Lesson 3 (Mock Oral) – 2 to 3 hours ground

Objective:
To prepare student to pass the oral test portion of the private pilot practical test and correct any
deficient areas found to ACS standards

Content:
Certificates and documents
Airworthiness requirements
Weather
Cross-country operations
National airspace system
Performance
Operating systems
Aeromedical factors
Night flying operations

26
Lesson 4 (Flight Review Part 1) 1.5 hours flight time

Objective:
To prepare student for flight test portion of the private pilot practical test by reviewing cross-
country procedures, diversions, and hood work, and emergencies and review ACS standards.

Content:
Plan one leg VFR cross-country flight – assigned by instructor prior to day of flight
Traffic pattern – depart traffic pattern correctly
Cross-country – fly route to PTS standards
Flight plan – mock open flight plan with instructor
Diversion – correctly execute diversion based on instructor given scenario
Hood work – VFR into IMC scenario and unusual attitude recovery
Emergency – perform successful high and low altitude engine failure emergency

Read:
ACS: Task minimums for assigned maneuvers to practice

Lesson 5 (Flight Review Part 2) 1.5 hours flight time

Objective:
To prepare student for flight test portion of the private pilot practical test by reviewing
maneuvers, practice and review ACS standards

Content:
Slow flight/MCA
Steep Turns
Power on stalls
Power off stalls
Turns around point
S-Turns across road
Read:
ACS: Task minimums for assigned maneuvers to practice

27
Lesson 6 (Flight Review Part 3) 1.5 hours flight time

Objective:
To prepare student for flight test portion of the private pilot practical test by reviewing pattern
work, review ACS standards

Content:
Crosswind takeoff and landing
Shortfield takeoff and landing
Softfield takeoff and landing
Forward slip to landing
Go-around
No-Flap landing
Read:
ACS: Task minimums for assigned maneuvers to practice

Lesson 7 (Mock Flight) 2 hours flight time.

Objective:
To prepare student to pass the flight test portion of the private pilot practical test and correct any
deficient areas found, review ACS standards. Student will consistently perform maneuvers
without the instructor’s aid and demonstrate mastery of the aircraft with the safe and successful
outcome of the flight never seriously in doubt. The student will think like a private pilot.

Content:
Taxi/airport operations
Cross-country operations

Read:
ACS: Task minimums for assigned maneuvers to practice

28
Before Any flight training begins, verify US Citizenship or approval from TSA for foreign
nationals (flightschoolcandidates.gov, Alien Flight Student Program) and document with
TSA endorsement in log book. (See AOPA training module)
Solo Requirements for Student Pilots (Pvt, Sport, Recreation)
61.83 The student must be 16, receive and log flight training for the following maneuvers and
procedures, have medical, state/gov ID and Student Pilot certificate.

Training 61.87(c)
Completion Date
and CFI Int.
_________ (1) Proper flight preparation procedures, including preflight
planning and preparation, powerplant operation, and aircraft
systems;
_________ (2) Taxiing or surface operations, including runups;
_________ (3) Takeoffs and landings, including normal and crosswind;
_________ (4) Straight and level flight, and turns in both directions;
_________ (5) Climbs and climbing turns;
_________ (6) Airport traffic patterns, including entry and departure
procedures;
_________ (7) Collision avoidance, windshear avoidance, and wake
turbulence avoidance;
_________ (8) Descents, with and without turns, using high and low drag
configurations;
_________ (9) Flight at various airspeeds from cruise to slow flight;
_________ (10) Stall entries from various flight attitudes and power
combinations with recovery initiated at the first indication of a
stall, and recovery from a full stall;
_________ (11) Emergency procedures and equipment malfunctions;
_________ (12) Ground reference maneuvers;
_________ (13) Approaches to a landing area with simulated engine
malfunctions;
_________ (14) Slips to a landing; and
_________ (15) Go-arounds.
Testing
Completion Date
and CFI Int.
_________ 1. 61.23(a)3(iii) Successfully pass a third class medical exam

_________2. Hold a student pilot certificate (Iacra app with CFI, DPE, FAA)

_________ 3. 61.87(b) successfully pass a written exam administered by

His/her instructor. Test corrected reviewed on completion covers:
(i) Applicable FAR from parts 61 and 91
(ii) Airspace rules and procedures for the airport where the solo
flight will be performed
(iii) Flight characteristics and operational limitations for the make
and model of aircraft to be flown.

29
Endorsements
The student pilot must have the following written endorsements
_________ 1. Log book – Pre solo aeronautical knowledge, administered by the
Student’s authorized instructor: 61.87(b)
_________ 2. Log book - completion of 61.87(c) pre solo flight training
_________ 3. Log book – current 90 day solo for make and model by the instructor who
gave the training within the 90 days preceding the flight 61.87(n) and (p)
__________4. TSA endorsement (see below)

Instructor responsibilities 61.87 (p)

1. Give training in make and model
2. Student proficient in maneuvers/procedures
3. Student proficient in make and model
4. Endorsed log book for make and model (90 day)
5. Consider limitations on 90 day solo endorsement. Ie crosswind, wx, etc

Example Endorsements (from AC 61-65-H)

Endorsement of U.S. citizenship recommended by the Transportation Security

Administration (TSA): Title 49 of the Code of Federal Regulations (49 CFR) § 1552.3(h). I
certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has presented me a [insert type of document presented,
such as a U.S. birth certificate or U.S. passport, and the relevant control or sequential number on
the document, if any] establishing that [he or she] is a U.S. citizen or national in accordance with
49 CFR § 1552.3(h).

Pre-Solo Aeronautical Knowledge: I certify that __________________ has satisfactorily

completed the pre solo knowledge exam of section 61.87(b) for the ____________(make/model).
Date/CFI signature/CFI certificate number/exp date

Pre-Solo Flight Training:

I certify that __________________has received the required pre solo training in a
______________________(make and model aircraft). I have determined he/she has
demonstrated the proficiency and safety on the maneuvers and procedures required by 61.87 in
this or similar make and model of aircraft to be flown.
Date/CFI signature/CFI certificate number/exp date

Solo flight (first 90-day period): § 61.87(n). I certify that _____________________ has received
the required training to qualify for solo flying. I have determined he/she meets the applicable
requirements of § 61.87(n) and is proficient to make solo flights in _______________(make and
model). Date/CFI signature/CFI certificate number/exp date

Solo flight (each additional 90-day period): § 61.87(p). I certify that (First name, MI, Last name)
has received the required training to qualify for solo flying. I have determined he/she meets the
applicable requirements of § 61.87(p) and is proficient to make solo flights in (make and model).
Date/CFI signature/CFI certificate number/exp date

30
Repeat Solo to Airport with in 25nm
61.93(b)1 Solo flights may be made to another airport that is within 25 nautical miles from the
airport where the student pilot normally receives training for the purpose of practicing takeoffs
and landings, provided:

Training 61.93(b)1(i)
Completion Date
and CFI Int.
_________ 1. flight in both directions over the route
_________ 2. entering and exiting the traffic pattern
_________ 3. takeoffs and landings at the other airport

Endorsements
Completion Date
and CFI Int.

Current solo endorsement:

_________ 1. Log book - Presolo aeronautical knowledge, administered by the student’s
authorized instructor: 61.87(b)
_________ 2. Log book - completion of 61.87(c) pre solo flight training
_________ 3. Log book – current 90 day solo for make and model by the instructor who
gave the training within the 90 days preceding the flight 61.87(n) and
61.87(p)

Endorsement for repeated flights within 25 nm (need new endorsement for each new
airport student may travel to practice landings)
_________ 5. Log book - solo to and from that airport from the instructor
who gave the training who determines student is proficient to make the
flight 61.93(b)1. Endorsement has no expiration date

AC 61-65-H
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of FAR 61.93(b)(1).
I have determined that he/she is proficient to practice solo takeoffs and landings at
___________(airport name). The takeoffs and landings at ___________(airport name) are
subject to the following conditions: ___________ (List any applicable conditions or limitations.)
Date/CFI Signature/CFI certificate number/exp date

31
Repeat Cross Country Solo within 50 nm
61.93(b)2 Repeated specific solo cross-country flights may be made to another airport that is
within 50 nautical miles of the airport from which the flight originated, provided that the
authorized instructor has given the student flight training in both directions over the route.(for
example so a student can commute to training airport from home airport) This training shall
include.

Training 61.93(b)2
Completion Date
and CFI Int.
_________ 1. Entering and exiting the traffic patterns
_________ 2. Takeoffs and landings at the airports to be used
_________ 3. Training both directions along the route
Training 61.93(e)
_________ 1. Aeronautical charts, VFR navigation, pilotage, dead reckoning, compass
_________ 2. Aircraft performance charts pertaining to cross country flight
_________ 3. Procurement/analysis of weather, critical weather, estimate in flight vis
_________ 4. Emergency procedures
_________ 5. Traffic patterns procedures
_________ 6. Procedures/practices for collision avoid, wake turbulence, windshear
_________ 7. Recognition/avoidance/restrictions of hazardous terrain in area of flight
_________ 8. Operating instruments and equipment on aircraft
_________ 9. Use of VFR Nav/Comms
_________10. Take off, approach, landing: short/soft field, x-wind
_________11. Climbs at best angle and best rate
_________12. Control and maneuvering solely by ref to instruments, comms, ATC
Endorsements
Current Solo Endorsement
_________ 1. Log book - Presolo aeronautical knowledge, administered by the
student’s authorized instructor: 61.87(b)
_________ 2. Log book - completion of 61.87(c) presolo flight training
_________ 3. Log book – current 90 day solo for make and model by the instructor who
gave the training within the 90 days preceding the flight 61.87(n) and
61.87(p)

Initial Solo Cross Country Endorsement 61.93 (c) (1) and (2). One time endorsement
that indicates instructor gave training to perform any and all cross-country flights

_________ 5. Log book - Initial solo cross country flight with completion of
cross country flight training requirements, make and model and
CATEGORY (this is the same endorsement for traditional cross
country solo)

Repeat Cross Country Endorsement: 61.93 (b) (2) (one time, no expiration,
authorizes student to make this particular repeat cross country flight)
_________ 6. Log book - solo for repeat flights by instructor who gave the training

32
AC 61-65-H

Initial Cross Country Solo Endorsement 61.93(c)(1) & 61.93 (c)(2) (one time endorsement for
any and all Cross-Country Solo, documents instructor gave training for cross country flights)

I certify that ________________has received the required solo cross-country training. I find
he/she has met the applicable requirements of section 61.93 (c)(1), and is proficient to make solo
cross-country flights in a _______________(make/model & CATEGORY).
Date/CFI signature/CFI certificate/exp date

Repeat cross country endorsement for flights upto 50nm. 61.93(b) (2): (authorizes repeat
cross country solos up to 50nm)

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training in both directions
between and at both (airport names). I have determined that he/she is proficient of FAR
61.93(b)(2) to conduct repeated solo cross-country flights over that route, subject to the
following conditions: (List any applicable conditions or limitations.)
date/CFI signature/CFI certificate/exp date

33
Traditional Cross Country Solo > 50 nm
61.93 (a) and (c) before conducting a solo cross country flight, or any flight greater than 25
nautical miles from the airport from where the flight originated (see 61.93 (b) for exceptions) the
student must have flight training which will include:

Training 61.93(e)

Completion Date
and CFI Int.
_________ 1. Aeronautical charts, VFR navigation, pilotage, dead reckoning, compass
_________ 2. Aircraft performance charts pertaining to cross country flight
_________ 3. Procurement/analysis of weather, critical weather, estimate in flight vis
_________ 4. Emergency procedures
_________ 5. Traffic patterns procedures
_________ 6. Procedures/practices for collision avoid, wake turbulence, windshear
_________ 7. Recognition/avoidance/restrictions of hazardous terrain in area of flight
_________ 8. Operating instruments and equipment on aircraft
_________ 9. Use of VFR Nav/Comms
_________10. Take off, approach, landing: short/soft field, x-wind
_________11. Climbs at best angle and best rate
_________12. Control and maneuvering solely by ref to instruments, comms, ATC

Endorsements
Completion Date
and CFI Int.

Current Solo Endorsement

_________ 1. Log book – Pre solo aeronautical knowledge, administered by the
student’s authorized instructor: 61.87(b)
_________ 2. Log book - completion of 61.87(c) pre solo flight training
_________ 3. Log book - 90 day solo for make and model by the instructor who gave the
training within the 90 days preceding the flight 61.87(n) and 61.87(p)

Initial Solo Cross Country Flight: Endorsement 61.93 (c) (1) and (2). (one time)

_________ 4. Log book - solo cross country endorsement for make and model and
category by instructor that gave training. (Same endorsement as made
for repeat cross country < 50 nm)

Flight Planning Cross Country Endorsement: 61.93 (c) (3) for EACH FLIGHT,
authorizes student to perform the particular solo cross country > 50 nm)

_________ 5. Log book – for each flight, CFI reviews planning are Correct, and is
prepared under known conditions, for make and model, and limitations

34
Initial Cross Country Solo Endorsement 61.93(c)(1) & 61.93 (c) (2) (one time only, meets
requirements for any and all cross country flights, including repeat solos within 50 nm)

I certify that ________________has received the required solo cross-country training. I find
he/she has met the applicable requirements of section 61.93, and is proficient to make solo cross-
country flights in a _______________(make/model & CATEGORY).
Date/CFI signature/CFI certificate/exp date (by training CFI)

Flight Planning Cross Country Endorsement 61.93(c)(3) (EACH/EVERY cross country

flight of 50 nm or greater, not required for repeat solos within 50 nm))
I have reviewed the cross-country planning of (First name, MI, Last name). I find the planning
and preparation to be correct to make the solo flight from (location) to (destination) via (route of
flight) with landings at (name the airports) in a (make and model aircraft) on (date). (List any
applicable conditions or limitations.)
Date/CFI signature/CFI certificate/exp date (any qualified CFI)

CFI limitations for permitting solo cross country flights 61.93(d)

Determine students x-country planning is correct for the flight
Reviewed current and forecast wx, can be completed VFR
Student is proficient to conduct flight safely
Student has appropriate solo x-country endorsement make/model
Student has current 90 day endorsement for make and model.

35
Private Pilot check ride check list
14 CFR 61.103
___ 17 years old (16 for glider/balloon)
___Read, write, speak understand English See AC 68-20, if not refer to FSDO
Documents per 61.103:
___ Pass Knowledge test, bring copy to practical
___ Student pilot certificate, sport or recreational pilot certificate
___ third class medical
Ground Training 61.105(b) receive and log ground training
___ (1) Applicable FAR relate to PVT pilot privileges, limitations, flight ops
___ (2) NTSB accident reporting
___ (3) Use of AIM and Advisory Circulars
___ (4) Aeronautic Charts, Pilotage, Dead Reckoning, Nav systems.
___ (5) Radio Comm procedures
___ (6) Critical Weather from ground/air, wind shear, weather reports/forecasts
___ (7) Safe /efficient aircraft ops, collision avoidance, wake turbulence
___ (8) Effects of density altitude on takeoff and climb
___ (9) Weight and balance computations
___ (10) Principles of Aerodynamics, powerplants, aircraft systems
___ (11) Stall awareness, spins and recovery
___ (12) Aeronautic Decision making
___ (13& 14) Preflight Rwy length, performance charts, weather reports, fuel burn, Alt/diversions
Flight Proficiency 61.107 receive and log ground and flight training
___Preflight preparation
___preflight procedures
___Airport and seaplane base operations
___Take off, landings, go-arounds
___Performance Maneuvers
___Ground Reference Maneuvers

36
 ___Navigation
___Slow flight, stalls
___Basic Instrument maneuvers
___Emergency operations
___Night operations
___post flight procedures
___ multi-engine operations (if applying for MEL/MES rating)
Flight Experience SEL (14 CFR 61.109)
___40 hrs total
___20 hrs dual with CFI
___10 hrs Solo to include
___ 5 hrs solo cross country
___one solo cross country, 150 nm, one leg >50 nm, 3 full stops
___ 3 to/landing to full stop at towered airport
___3 hrs dual cross country
___3 hrs dual night to include:
___>100 nm cross country,
___10 to/landing to full stop
___3 hrs instrument include basics, coms, unusual attitudes
___3 hrs practical check ride prep 2 months preceding check ride
Flight Experience MEL (61.109)
Same as above. Training/dual in multi-engine aircraft, Solo in multi or single.
Log book Endorsements (see previous solo, cross country endorsements).

____Current Solo Endorsements (total of 3)

____Initial Solo Cross-Country Endorsement (only one required)

____Cross Country Flight Planning endorsement (for each solo x-country done)
____Aeronautical Knowledge Test 61.35(a)(1), 61.103(d), 61.105 completed Ground or home study
course and prepared for knowledge test.
___Prerequisites for Practical Tests. 61.39(a)(6)(i)recieved/logged training w/in 2 months preceding
training for practical, (ii) is prepare for practical test, and (iii) demonstrated satisfactory knowledge of the

37
areas deficient on knowledge test. (this is 2 endorsements in the AC 61-65H example, but can be
combined into a single endorsement as desired. See next page)
___Flight proficiency/Practical test 61.103(f), 61.107(b), 61.109_flight training in areas of operation
61.107(*) and aeronautical experience 61.109.
____ TSA Endorsement- US citizenship: I certify that ( student’s name) has presented me a (type of
docmument and number on the document) establishing that he/she is a US citizen or national in
accordance with 49 CFR 1552.3(h). /s/ [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-19

___Practical test Application (online/IACRA)

___Pass Practical Test

AC 61-65-H Examples:

1. Aeronautical knowledge test: §§ 61.35(a)(1), 61.103(d), and 61.105. Make sure student has
log of ground training as required by this reg!

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training in accordance with §
61.105. I have determined he/she is prepared for the (name of) knowledge test.
/s/ [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-19

2. Prerequisites for practical test: Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part
61, § 61.39(a)(6)(i) and (ii).

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received and logged training time within 2
calendar-months preceding the month of application in preparation for the practical test and
he/she is prepared for the required practical test for the issuance of (applicable) certificate.
/s/ [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-19

3. Review of deficiencies identified on airman knowledge test: § 61.39(a)(6)(iii) as

required. (This is separated as second part of 61.39 endorsement because not all
practical tests require a knowledge test such as add on rating for category/class)

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has demonstrated satisfactory knowledge of the subject
areas in which he/she was deficient on the (applicable) airman knowledge test.
/s/ [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-19

4. Flight proficiency/practical test: §§ 61.103(f), 61.107(b), and 61.109.

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training in accordance with §§
61.107 and 61.109. I have determined he/she is prepared for the (name of) practical test.
/s/ [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-19

NOTE: The endorsement for a practical test is required in addition to the

§ 61.39 endorsements provided in endorsements 2 and 3

38
Commercial Pilot check ride check list
14 CFR 61.123
___ 18 years old
___Read, write, speak understand English
Documents per 61.123:
___ Pass Knowledge test, bring copy to practical
___ Private pilot certificate
___ Third class medical-or basic med to take practical (need 2nd class medical to fly commercial ops)
Ground training 61.125 receive and log ground training
___ (1) Applicable FAR relate to Comm pilot privileges, limitations, flight ops
___ (2) NTSB accident reporting
___ (3) Aerodynamics and principles of flight
___ (4) Critical Weather from ground/air, wind shear, weather reports/forecasts
___ (5) Safe and efficient us of aircraft
___ (6) Weight and balance computations
___ (7) Use of performance charts
___ (8) Significance and effects of exceeding aircraft performance limitations
___ (9) Aeronautical charts, magnetic compass, pilotage and dead reckoning
___ (10) Use of air navigation facilities
___ (11) Aeronautic Decision Making
___ (12) Aircraft systems
___ (13) Maneuvers, procedures, emergency ops for aircraft
___ (14) Night and high-altitude ops
___ (15) National Airspace System
Flight Proficiency 61.127 receive and log flight training
___Preflight preparation
___preflight procedures
___Airport and seaplane base operations
___Take off, landings, go-arounds

39
 ___Performance Maneuvers
___Ground Reference Maneuvers
___Navigation
___Slow flight, stalls
___Emergency operations
___ High altitude operations
___post flight procedures
___Basic Instrument maneuvers (or have VFR daytime, <50nm restriction)
Flight Experience MEL or SEL (14 CFR 61.129) –this satisfies both MEL and SEL Commercial
requirements
___250 hrs total (any aircraft)
___100 hrs in powered aircraft (vs glider)
___100 PIC time to include:
___50 hrs in airplanes
___50 hrs crosss country time (10 hrs in airplanes)
Flight experience for INITIAL commercial rating SEL/SES 61.129
___20 hrs of training in aircraft areas of 61.127 to include:
___10 hrs of instrument training partial panel, unusual attitudes, intercept and tracking nav course
(5 hrs in any aircraft, 5 hrs MUST be in aircraft specific to rating –MEL vs SEL)
___10 hrs training in aircraft SEL/SES (specific to rating sought) with retractable gear, flaps and
controllable pitch prop
___ One 2 hr dual daytime cross country > 100 nm (SEL/SES, not required to be complex)
___One 2 hr dual nighttime cross country > 100nm (SEL/SES, not required to be complex)
___3 hrs with CFI in prep for practical w/in 2 calendar months of test
___ 10 hrs of Solo (OR acting as PIC with instructor on board**) in single engine aircraft ( does not have
to be complex aircraft) to include:
___one cross country of > 300 nm, landing 3 points, one leg of >250 nm
___5 hrs of night VFR w/ 10 take off and landings at towered airport
**10 hrs Must be all solo, or all acting PIC with instructor. If is Logged as PIC with instructor, do not
record DUAL. CFI signs with notations “observed PIC to meet requirements of 61.129(a)(4)”.
NOTE: for multiengine add on to single engine commercial rating, the above experience does not need to
be replicated in Multiengine aircraft. See requirements in FAR 61.63(c) for additional class rating.

40
Log book Endorsements.
____Aeronautical Knowledge Test 61.35(a)(1), 61.125 completed Ground or home study course and
prepared for knowledge test.(Make sure student has LOGGED required ground training of 61.125(b).
___Prerequisites for Practical Tests. 61.39(a)(6)(i)recieved/logged training w/in 2 months preceding
training for practical, (ii) is prepare for practical test, and (iii) demonstrated satisfactory knowledge of the
areas deficient on knowledge test. (this is 2 endorsements in the AC 61-65-H. See next page)
___Flight proficiency/Practical test 61.123 _flight training in areas of operation 61.127(*) and
aeronautical experience 61.129.
____ TSA Endorsement- US citizenship: I certify that ( student’s name) has presented me a (type of
docmument and number on the document) establishing that he/she is a US citizen or national in
accordance with 49 CFR 1552.3(h). /s/ [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-19

___Practical test Application (online/IACRA)

___Pass Practical Test
AC 61-65-H Examples:

1. Aeronautical knowledge test: §§ 61.35(a)(1), 61.123(c), and 61.125.

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of 61.125. I have
determined he/she is prepared for the (name of) knowledge test.
/s/ [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-19

2. Prerequisites for practical test: Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part
61, § 61.39(a)(6)(i) and (ii).

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received and logged training time within 2
calendar-months preceding the month of application in preparation for the practical test and
he/she is prepared for the required practical test for the issuance of (applicable) certificate.
/s/ [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-19

3. Review of deficiencies identified on airman knowledge test: § 61.39(a)(6)(iii) as

required.

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has demonstrated satisfactory knowledge of the subject
areas in which he/she was deficient on the (applicable) airman knowledge test.
/s/ [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-19

4. Flight proficiency/practical test: §§ 61.123(e), 61.127, and 61.129.

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training in accordance with §§
61.127 and 61.129. I have determined he/she is prepared for the (name of) practical test.
/s/ [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-19

NOTE: The endorsement for a practical test is required in addition to the

§ 61.39 endorsements provided in endorsements 2 and 3

41
Sport Pilot check ride check list
14 CFR 61.305
___ 17 years old (16 for glider/balloon)
___Read, write, speak understand English
Documents per 61.307:
___ Pass Knowledge test, bring copy to practical
___ Driver’s License or third class medical (except for Gliders and Balloons need neither)
Aeronautical Knowledge 61.309-receive and LOG ground training
___ FAR of Sport Pilot privileges, limits and flight operations (61.301-61.327)
___ NTSB accident reporting requirements
___Applicable portions of AIM, FAA Advisory circulars
___Aeronautical Charts for VFR Navigation, pilotage Dead Reckoning, Nav Systems
___Critical weather situations, wind shear avoidance, weather reports and forecasts
___ Safe operations, including collision avoidance, wake turbulence
___Effects of density altitude on aircraft performance
___Weight and balance computations
___Principles of aerodynamics, power plants and aircraft systems
___Stall awareness, spin entry, spins and spin recovery techniques
___Aeronautical decision making and risk management
___Preflight actions including: runway lengths, takeoff and landing performance data, fuel
requirements, plan alternatives if flight cannot be completed or delayed.

Flight Proficiency 61.311 receive and log ground/flight training

___Preflight preparation
___preflight procedures
___Airport and seaplane base operations
___Take off, landings, go-arounds
___Performance Maneuvers
___Ground Reference Maneuvers
___Navigation

42
 ___Slow flight, stalls
___Emergency operations
___post flight procedures
Flight Experience SEL (14 CFR 61.313) see FAR for Glider, Balloon, Rotorcraft, gyroplane etc
___20 hrs total
___15 hrs dual with CFI
___2 hrs cross country training (dual)
___ 10 take off/landing to a full stop using pattern at an airport
___ 2 hrs check ride prep 2 months preceding practical
___5 hrs Solo in areas of op listed in 61.311 (See Solo requirements/endorsements 61.87)
___one solo cross country flight of 75 nm, one leg 25 nm, 2 full stops (See x-country
requirements/endorsements 61.93)

Log book Endorsements

____Current Solo Endorsements (total of 3) – see page 29-30, solo endorsements.

___ Cross Country Endorsements Initial and flight planning Cross (total of 2) -see page 34-36
____Aeronautical Knowledge Test 61.35(a)(1), 61.309 completed Ground or home study course and
prepared for knowledge test.
___Prerequisites for Practical Tests. 61.39(a)(6)(i)recieved/logged training w/in 2 months preceding
training for practical, (ii) is prepare for practical test, and (iii) demonstrated satisfactory knowledge of the
areas deficient on knowledge test. (this is 2 endorsements in the AC 61-65-H. See next page)
___Flight proficiency/Practical test 61.103(f), 61.107(b), 61.109_flight training in areas of operation
61.107(*) and aeronautical experience 61.109. (note: 61.109(a)(4) includes wording of 3 hours in prep
for practical w/in preceding 2 months and is not repeated in the endorsement per AC 61-65-H).
____ TSA Endorsement- US citizenship: I certify that ( student’s name) has presented me a (type of
docmument and number on the document) establishing that he/she is a US citizen or national in
accordance with 49 CFR 1552.3(h). /s/ [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-19

And Finally…………………………….
___Practical test Application (online/IACRA)
___Pass Practical Test

43
AC 61-65-H Examples:
1. Aeronautical knowledge test: §§ 61.35(a)(1), 61.309

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training in accordance with §
61.309. I have determined he/she is prepared for the (name of) knowledge test.
/s/ [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-19

2. Prerequisites for practical test: Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part
61, § 61.39(a)(6)(i) and (ii).

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received and logged training time within 2
calendar-months preceding the month of application in preparation for the practical test and
he/she is prepared for the required practical test for the issuance of (applicable) certificate.
/s/ [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-19

3. Review of deficiencies identified on airman knowledge test: § 61.39(a)(6)(iii) as

required.

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has demonstrated satisfactory knowledge of the subject
areas in which he/she was deficient on the (applicable) airman knowledge test.
/s/ [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-19

4. Sport Pilot practical test: §§ 61.1309, 61.311, and 61.313

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training in accordance with §§
61.61.309 and 61.311 and met the aeronautical experience of 61.313. I have determined he/she is
prepared for the (name of) practical test.
/s/ [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-19

NOTE: The endorsement for a practical test is required in addition to the

§ 61.39 endorsements provided in endorsements 2 and 3

44
Other Endorsements, certifications and ratings
Retesting after failure of practical or knowledge test. 61.49
___(1) received training from CFI and determined to be proficient
___(2) endorsement from CFI that gave additional training (for knowledge test on bottom of test report,
for practical in log book and sign reverse side of FAA 8710-1 application for retake)
I certify that ___________ has received the additional flight/ground training as required by section 61.49.
I have determined that he/she is prepared for the __________________ (practical/written). Date/CFI
signature/CFI certificate/Exp Date.
Tailwheel Endorsement 61.31(i)
___(1) received/logged flight training in tail wheel airplane including Normal/xwind take off/land. Wheel
landings, Go Around procedures
___(2)endorsement in logbook is proficient
I certify that ________________(name, certificate, number) has received the required training of section
61.31(i) in a ________________(make/model). I have determined that he/she is proficient in the
operation of a tailwheel airplane. Date/CFI signature/CFI certificate/Exp Date.
Flight Review 61.56(a) & (c) every 24 months
___(1) One hour of flight and 1 hour of ground
___(2) include general operating and flight rules of part 91
___(3) include review of maneuvers/procedures CFI thinks necessary
___(4) not required if passed practical or proficiency check, new rating, renewed CFI. students with
current 90 day solo or finished one or more phases of FAA sponsored proficiency program (Wings)
I certify that ____________________ (name, certificate, number) has satisfactorily completed a flight
review of section 61.56(a) on _______date. Date/CFI signature/CFI certificate/Exp Date.
Complex Airplane Endorsement, 61.31(e).
___(1) received and logged ground and flight training in a complex airplane/simulator
___(2) Received onetime endorsement in logbook from CFI that is proficient to operate a complex
airplane
I certify that ___________________ (name, pilot certificate and number) has received the required
training of section 61.31(e) in a ______________ (make/model) complex airplane. I have determined that
he/she is proficient in the operation and systems of a complex airplane. Date/CFI signature/CFI
certificate/Exp Date.
(recommendation for complex training: review prop governor, failure modes, prop overspeed, how
constant speed prop works, Gear systems including failure modes, manual extension procedures,
troubleshooting indicator lights, failure of gear to lock up and down, review POH for how gear system
works, squat switch and indicator light switch. Why we do not do touch and go’s in complex aircraft and
only clean up after exit runway, when to raise and lower gear, GUMPS check list)

45
High Performance Airplane Endorsement (>200 bHp). 61.31(f)
___(1) received and logged ground/flight training in high performance airplane/simulator
___(2) Received one time endorsement in logbook from CFI that is proficient to operate a high
performance airplane
I certify that ___________________ (name, pilot certificate and number) has received the required
training of section 61.31(e) in a ______________ (make/model) High Performance. I have determined
that he/she is proficient in the operation and systems of a High Performance airplane. Date/CFI
signature/CFI certificate/Exp Date.

Additional Category Rating (airplane, vs rotorcraft vs glider vs balloon). 61.63 (b)

___(1) complete training and applicable aeronautical experience
___(2) Logbook/training endorsement in areas of knowledge and operations (61.107, 61.109 for pvt pilot)
___(3) pass practical test
___(4) does not need a knowledge test if has rating at that pilot level (ie private SEL)
I certify that __________________(name, certificate, number) has received the required training for an
additional ____________(category/class rating). I have determined that he/she is prepared for the
__________________ practical test for the addition of a __________________(category/class) rating.
Date/CFI signature/CFI certificate/Exp Date.

Additional Class Rating: (ie Airplane, Single engine to MEL, SEL to SES) 61.63(c)
____ (1) logbook endorsement /training record for aeronautical knowledge and proficient in areas of
operation. 61.63 (c)
____(2) Complex and high performance airplane endorsements as needed (61.31(e and f))
____(3) Practical test endorsement (61.39)
____(4) Pass Practical test
I certify that __________________(name, certificate, number) has received the required training for an
additional ____________(category/class rating). I have determined that he/she is prepared for the
__________________ practical test for the addition of a __________________(category/class) rating.
Date/CFI signature/CFI certificate/Exp Date.

46
High Altitude Endorsement (pressurized Aircraft, operates above FL 250)
___(1) received/logged ground training with endorsement in log book of subject areas in 61.31(g)(1)
___(2) received/logged training in pressurized aircraft/simulator per 61.31(g)(2)
___(3) exceptions include PIC or proficiency check before 1991 or in Military, or under part 121, 125,
135
I certify that _____________________ (name, certificate, number) has received the required training of
section 61.31(g) in a ________________(make/model press aircraft). I have determined that he/she is
proficient in the operation and systems of a pressurized aircraft. Date/CFI signature/CFI certificate/Exp
Date.

Student Pilot Solo flight at night 61.87

___(1) Flight training at night on procedures: takeoff, landing, go arounds at that airport
___(2) Navigation training at night in area of airport where solo flight to take place
___(3) Endorsement in student logbook make and model within 90 days prior to solo flight
I certify that ________________has received the required pre-solo training in a _____________
make/model. I have determined he/she has demonstrated the proficiency of section 61.87(o) and is
proficient to make solo flights at night in a _______________ make and model. Date/CFI signature/CFI
certificate/Exp Date.

Student Pilot Operations in Class B Airspace 61.95

___ (1) student has ground and flight training in that specific Class B airspace
___(2)Student Logbook endorsement by training CFI previous 90 days
___(3) endorsement states received required ground/flight training and proficient to fly solo in that
specific class B airspace.

I certify that _______________ has received the required training of section 61.95(a). I have
determined he/she is proficient to conduct solo flights in ______________ Class B airspace. (list
limitations/conditions). Date/CFI signature/CFI certificate/Exp date.
I certify that ________________has received the required training of section 61.95(a)(1). I have
determined he/she is proficient to conduct solo flight operation at _______________ (in class B
Airspace). List limitations/Conditions. Date/CFI signature/CFI certificate/Exp Date.

47
Introduction to Flight training basics

Training Tips: are provided on many of the flight lessions. Pay attention to the yellow highlights
and red letter comments. These will draw your attention to the critical or key elements that will help learn
the maneuvers.
The first lessons on straight and level flight, turns, climbs and descents are the most important in
learning airmanship, use of rudder and mastering the fundamentals of flying a pattern and approach to
landing. These lessons are often rushed through as too “easy”. However, these basic skills are the
foundation for all the rest of your flying skills. Spend time “Training with Purpose” and it will pay great
dividends when moving onto more complex maneuvers such as approach to landing, flying square traffic
patterns, ground reference maneuvers and later commercial maneuvers and instrument flying. Jumping
into landings and more advanced maneuvers before getting the basics mastered only re-enforces bad
habits that become very difficult to break later. Also you will spend many hours training with slow progress
burning time, fuel and money. Train with purpose and discipline.

Tips on Rudder Use: There are only six times rudder is required, and specific ways to determine
HOW much rudder pressure to use. The ball on the turn coordinator is NOT how to learn to use rudder. If
you are staring at the ball, you are not looking outside and you are not flying the aircraft. You are already
behind the aircraft if you have to “step on the ball”

1) Use rudder to taxi -think of aircraft like driving a boat, use rudder to steer and slow use of
power, pretend you don’t have brakes so you anticipate turns and stops by slow taxi and
coasting.
2) Use rudder to correct left turning tendency during take-off roll and climb out. How much
rudder? Apply sufficient rudder to keep on centerline during take-off roll. In climbs, with wings
level, apply enough rudder to hold course (runway heading on take-off, a cardinal direction
during slow flight or power on Stalls are good practice to learn rudder pressures at high pitch,
high power, and low airspeed.
3) Use rudder rolling into or out of a bank. How much rudder? Just enough to offset adverse
yaw which can be observed by the “swing” of the nose of the aircraft. Add enough rudder to
bring nose into or out of a turn. Once turn is establish, ailerons go to neutral (no more
adverse yaw, no more rudder required). This can be demonstrated by initiating or rolling out
of bank without any rudder and observing the nose of the aircraft swing the opposite of the
bank. Also demonstrate once turn is established and maintained, ailerons are neutral and no
rudder input is required. If ailerons are displaced opposite direction of bank to maintain bank
angle, then rudder pressure is inappropriately applied in direction of bank. Rudder is required
when ailerons are displaced, and not required when ailerons not displaced! (Except at steep
angles of bank where outside/high wing is traveling significantly faster (more lift and more
drag) than inside wing and consequently creates some adverse yaw)
4) Use slight left rudder during descents. Aircraft are rigged with slight right rudder forces for
cruise, during descent, P-factor is reduced and consequently slight left rudder is required to
offset the manufactures rigging the aircraft for level cruise.
5) Use rudder on cross wind landings. The aircraft will weather vane into the direction of the
cross wind. Which rudder to use and how much rudder? Rudder opposite to the direction the
aircraft is weathervaning. Use enough opposite rudder to align the longitudinal axis of the
aircraft with the runway to allow a smooth landing without side loading the tires and gear
(hard on gear and tires and can make for a very exciting touch down and roll out).
6) Use rudder on slips to land. Slips to land are an exaggerated control input of a cross wind
landing technique. Again, the aircraft will weather vane into the direction of the cross wind.
Apply enough rudder to align with centerline of runway and then ADD MORE RUDDER to
swing nose to the opposite side of wind direction. The wings must be banked into the
direction of the wind (opposite the direction of rudder use). See Slips to land for more details.

48
PRE-FLIGHT PROCEDURES, COCKPIT MANAGEMENT, TAXI
PROCEDURES

Attention: Careful pre-flight inspection of the aircraft is the way a pilot can be confident the
aircraft is safe and legal to fly. This first inspection, initial startup and taxi are the most
important areas prior to commencing flight for safe arrival at our destination.

Objective
To teach the student the necessary steps for pre-flight to determine the aircraft is safe for flight

Elements
• Checklist usage
• Pre-flight procedures
• Required (AROW) documents
• Cockpit management
• Taxi techniques and procedures
• Runway incursion avoidance
Training Tip: Taxi aircraft like a boat without brakes, anticipate turns and stops with early
power reductions, taxi slowly with centerline between legs. Using brakes is hard on tires,
brake system and also stresses airframe. Taxiing on center line will help improve ability to
land on centerline!
Practice taxing with rudder and set ailerons for wind. Try setting heading bug or CDI to
current wind direction for reference. Anticipate turns and which direction aileron controls
will need to be moved relative to the wind before the actual turn.(turn into for headwinds,
dive away from tailwinds)

Schedule
Instructor demonstrate 0:45

Equipment
Aircraft, airplane Pilot Operating Handbook or FAA-approved Airplane Flight Manual, aircraft specific
checklist

Instructor Actions
Discuss the POH/AFM. Discuss the importance of checklists.
Discuss required documents (AROW).
Discuss the need for all the steps as outlined in the POH.
Demonstrate how to pre-flight inspect an aircraft and what to look for in each element of a check list.
Discuss Cockpit management to include
Arranging essential materials for access and use
Seating, Safety belts, Aircraft Controls
Occupant briefing on emergency procedures/seat belts/smoking
Using ATC, dispatchers, weather briefers
Discuss engine starting and run-up.
Demonstrate Taxi procedures including taxi diagrams
Discuss Runway incursion avoidance
Before takeoff check list

49
Student Actions
Demonstrate a pre-flight inspection, elements of cockpit management, safe taxi techniques and before
takeoff check.

Common Errors Preflight

Incomplete or rushed use of checklist
Hazards which may result from allowing distractions to interrupt a visual inspection
Difficulty recognizing discrepancies to airworthiness

Common Errors Cockpit Management:

Adequately securing essential materials and equipment for easy access during flight
Overlooking occupant briefing on emergency procedures and use of safety belts
utilizing all resources required to operate a flight safely

Common Errors Engine Starting procedures

proper use of checklist
safety precautions related to starting
difficulty with adjustment of engine controls during start

Common Errors related to Taxiing

use of brakes for directional control (brakes only used for stopping or rarely tight turns)
Improper positioning of the flight controls for wind conditions
Taxiing too fast
Distracted while taxiing
sterile cockpit procedures

Common Errors related to Before Takeoff Check

Rushed or poor attention to items on checklist
Improper check of flight controls (Use Full “Box” of controls, full travel)
Forgets to use takeoff and emergency procedures brief before each flight

Completion Standards and Evaluation

Student can demonstrate and explain the need for each procedure and checklist item that is listed as part
of the pre-flight of the aircraft, cockpit management, safe taxi procedures, and before takeoff Check.

References
Pilot Operating Handbook or FAA-approved Airplane Flight Manual, FAA-H-8083-3C Airplane Flying Handbook,
FAA-H-8083-25B Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge, Chapter 13-4 thru 13-7, Chapter 13-18.

50
STRAIGHT-AND-LEVEL FLIGHT
Description
The most fundamental maneuver whereby the airplane maintains a constant heading and altitude. This is
fundamental to accurate navigation to maintain a heading or course, comply with ATC instructions, cross
country flight. The emphasis is to hold heading and altitude by outside references primarily. Verify your
efforts with occasional cross check of altimeter and directional gyro.

Objective
To develop the fundamental techniques required for basic flight and tracking straight to an object.

Elements
• Clear the area
• Configure aircraft for cruise (Manifold ____mmHg, RPM ______)
• Select outside references (point on the horizon corresponding to heading)
• Hold altitude by keeping horizon stable relative to windshield/airframe (if horizon rises,
you are descending, horizon drops, you are climbing)
• Maintain heading by “tracking” to object on horizon (if target moves left on wind screen,
you are drifting right, try referencing to mark on windscreen or airframe)
• Cross check altitude and heading with instruments
• Look for traffic

Instructor: Discusses then Demonstrates technique of strait and level flight, tracking to a point.

Student: Demonstrates technique of straight and level flight and tracking to a point.

Common Errors
• Use improper reference points on the airplane to establish attitude
• Reliance on flight instruments rather than outside visual reference
• Tight grip, over-control, tired hands and lack of feel

Completion Standards: Student can discuss technique for Straight and Level Flight. Student is
able to demonstrate appropriate checklist usage with proper configuration of aircraft, dividing attention
between outside references and instrument scan, checking for traffic, apply power and control inputs
smoothly with positive aircraft control.

References
FAA-H-8083-3C Airplane Flying Handbook

Training Tip: have student maintain level flight while following a road in both directions in a “crab” with
a cross wind. This teaches student how to fly a straight ground track. Then have them fly to a landmark
(waypoint) without the benefit of a road to improve tracking skill (hint: keep waypoint from drifting left
or right on windscreen, use bug or mark on windscreen as reference). This will help them later in basic
airmanship in the traffic pattern and cross country flying. Try observing objects on ground very close to
bottom of wind screen, objects that are moving to either side as you approach them are not on your
track. Objects that stay stationary until you “run over them” you are tracking too. With a crab into the
wind, where you are tracking is not the center of the cowl. It is where the objects are stationary on the
cowl till you “run over” them.

51
LEVEL TURNS
Description
The most fundamental maneuver whereby the airplane maintains a constant altitude but turns to a new
heading (think landmark or waypoint). This is fundamental to accurate navigation, comply with ATC
instructions, cross country flight.

Objective
To develop the fundamental techniques required for changing heading and rudder usage.

Elements
• Configure aircraft for slow cruise (____” Hg,_____ RPM)
• Lift wing in direction of turn to Clear area and Select outside reference (point on the
horizon corresponding to desired new heading)
• Gently bank the airplane to 30º turns (45º when more proficient) and maintain this bank
until approaching desired heading, (for steeper turns (450), lift nose slightly before rolling
into turn to maintain level flight)
• Apply rudder only while rolling into the direction of the bank (just enough to offset
adverse yaw). Relax rudder once bank established.
• Use wingtips as reference of banking angle, verify with attitude indicator briefly
• Anticipate rollout to new heading (apply enough rudder on rollout to offset adverse yaw)
• Look for traffic

Instructor: Discusses then demonstrates technique of level turns, including rudder use.

Student: Demonstrates technique of level turns.

Common Errors
• Not lifting wing to clear the area before beginning the turn
• Failure to pick land mark to turn and track before initiating turn
• Failure to cross reference instruments to verify performance
• Application of control movements rather than pressures (Rudder)
• Uncoordinated use of flight controls (rudder to initiate and roll out of bank)
• Fixation on instruments and “ball” instead of outside references

Completion Standards: Student can discuss technique for Level Turns. Student is able to
demonstrate appropriate checklist usage with proper configuration of aircraft, dividing attention between
outside references and instrument scan, checking for traffic, apply power and control inputs smoothly with
positive aircraft control.

References
FAA-H-8083-3C Airplane Flying Handbook

Training Tip: recommend have student pick landmark 90 degrees off wing and turn and then track to the
point. This requires lifting wing to look for traffic, then tracking to object is good practice to learn how to
fly square traffic patterns. Also demonstrate that rudder is only required to initiate or roll out of a turn.
Once Turn is established, ailerons will go to neutral to maintain the desired bank and rudder input is
relaxed. Rudder only required when ailerons displaced!

52
CLIMBS AND CLIMBING TURNS
Description
A fundamental maneuver for changes in attitude and direction. This is fundamental to EVERY normal
departure from airport, change altitude and heading or course, comply with ATC instructions.

Objective
To develop the fundamental techniques required for increasing altitude and rudder use.

Elements
• Clear the area
• Select outside references (roads North/South, East West, landmarks)
• Configure aircraft: pitch 5-7º up for (VY), 10 -120 pitch up for (Vx) climb, with simultaneous
full power application.
• Maintain coordinated flight: Wings level, apply rudder to maintain course.
• During climbing turns: relax right rudder for left turns, more right rudder with right turns
during a climb! Use enough control input to bring nose into turn.
• Use outside references to maintain climb, cross reference instruments.
• Trim to maintain desired climb speed.
• Anticipate altitude (approx. 10% of climb rate),gradually pitch for level flight just before
reaching target altitude (lead level off by 10% of climb rate, typically 50 ft in traing aircraft)
• Reduce power AFTER reaching target cruise speed and trim off control pressure as
necessary
• For turning climbs, start roll out 10 to 15 degrees before target heading (50% bank angle)
• Look for traffic: lift wing, pick target and turn and track to target.

Instructor: Discusses then Demonstrates technique of Climbs and Climbing turns.

Student: Demonstrates technique of Climbs and Climbing Turns.

Common Errors
• Failure to cross check and correctly interpret outside and instrument references
• Improper correction for torque effect (wings level in climb, apply rudder to hold course)
• Uncoordinated use of flight controls ( wings level, apply rudder to hold course)
• Control movements instead of pressures ( Tight grip, tired hands)
• Failure to lift wing to clear area and pick target for turns.

Completion Standards: Student can discuss technique for Climbs and climbing turns. Student is
able to demonstrate appropriate checklist usage with proper configuration of aircraft, dividing attention
between outside references and instrument scan, checking for traffic, apply power and control inputs
smoothly with positive aircraft control.

Training Tip: Full power climbs at Vy and power on stalls with wings level and rudder application to hold a
course are great exercises to learn appropriate rudder use on take-off and climb out.

References
FAA-H-8083-3C Airplane Flying Handbook Chapt 3, POH

53
DESCENTS AND DESCENDING TURNS
Description
A fundamental maneuver whereby the airplane changes attitude from level to a descent attitude. There
are three basic types of descents: Constant rate, Constant airspeed, Best glide.

Objective
To develop the fundamental techniques required for decreasing altitude at constant rate, airspeed or best
glide.

Elements
• Clear the area
• Select outside references
• Configure aircraft: reduce throttle then adjust pitch based on the type of descent:
For constant rate descent In complex aircraft, reduce power 5” manifold =500 ft/ min
descent rate. In fixed prop aircraft, reduce power 300 to 400 RPM =500 ft/min descent
rate. If no other trim or configuration changes, the aircraft will descend at same airspeed
as before power reduction. Commonly used in instrument approaches.

For Constant airspeed, use approach flaps with gear down and approach power (typically
1400 RPM or 13” manifold pressure) to simulate approach to land. Used in virtually every
landing.

For Best Glide: clean configuration, reduce throttle to idle and pitch for and maintain best
glide speed (typically full up trim will provide very close to best glide airspeed) Used in
power off 180 landings and loss of power landings. Most aircraft, best glide is a level
pitch attitude. Best glide decreases approximately 1 kt for every 100lbs below max gross.

• Practice straight and turning descents with 30 degrees bank to designated heading
• Maintain coordination
• Anticipate Level off altitude (approx. 100-150’), ADD power to level off and trim IF
necessary (if returning to same power setting as before descent, re-trimming won’t be
required)

Instructor: Discuss and demonstrate the types of descents

Student: Demonstrates types of descents with and without turns.

Common Errors
• Levels off with pitch, instead of power application, airspeed decays.
• Failure to cross check and correctly interpret outside and instrument references
• Faulty trim procedure ( forgets to level with power)
• Inadequate or unstable airspeed control

Completion Standards: Student can discuss the techniques for descents and maintain target
airspeed control (+5, - 0 kts) or descent rate (+/- 50 ft/min). Student is able to demonstrate appropriate
checklist usage, configuration of aircraft, division of attention between outside references and instrument
scan, checking for traffic. Applies power/control inputs smoothly with positive aircraft control.

References
FAA-H-8083-3C Airplane Flying Handbook Chapt 3, POH

54
NORMAL TAKE-OFF
Description
Takeoff roll, lift-off and initial climb with headwind or light wind, hard surface of sufficient length and no
obstructions, climb Vy. Normal take off is presented early as you will be able to do this early in training.
Learning to land is presented later after many prerequisite skills have been mastered.

Objective
To teach techniques necessary for a normal takeoff, appropriate check list use, collision and runway
incursion avoidance. Emphasis on ruder use, see red letter hints.

Elements
• Configure aircraft: Before takeoff check list: flaps up, cowl flaps open, propeller to full
• Taxi onto runway centerline
• Smoothly apply full power
• Anticipate need for right rudder pressure (enough to track centerline)
• Check engine instruments (in green)
• At VR (___), apply slight back pressure to lift nose wheel (objective is not to take-off at VR,
but to position aircraft for take-off; as airspeed builds, aircraft will take-off)
• Pitch for normal climb attitude ( 5-7degrees), climb at VY (____)
• Gear up upon positive rate of climb, safe airspeed,
• Maintain coordinated flight (wings level- NO BANK, apply rudder to hold course)
• Look for traffic

Instructor: Demonstrates

Student: Demonstrates

Common Errors
• Improper runway incursion and avoidance procedures
• Improper us of controls during a normal or crosswind take off
• Inappropriate lift-off procedures
• Improper climb attitude, power setting and airspeed (Vy)
• Insufficient crab into wind to track runway centerline on climb out
• Failure to check engine instruments after application of takeoff power
• Insufficient right rudder (see red letter comments above)

Completion Standards: Student is able to demonstrate appropriate checklist usage with proper
configuration of aircraft, dividing attention to safe departure and checking for traffic, apply power and
control inputs smoothly with positive aircraft control for a Vy Climb out.

Training Tip: Take off trim setting is designed to maintain Vy airspeed and pitch attitude. When 300 to
400 ft AGL relax on control stick and observe aircraft oscillate pitch until it settles on Vy! Very little control
pressure needed to maintain! In general, Vy climb is usually near 7 degrees pitch up. Learning this “deck
angle” by outside reference, cross checking attitude indicator till proficient, allows pilot to automatically
pitch to Vy climb on departure or go arounds without having to stare at airspeed indicator. Enjoy the
view…. Its outside the aircraft!

References
FAA-H-8083-3 Airplane Flying Handbook Chapt 6, POH

55
NORMAL LANDING
Description
Approach and landing with headwind or light wind, hard surface of sufficient length and no obstructions.
Prerequisites for learning to land include learning to fly a traffic pattern consistently the same way
to set up for a stabilized approach. The fundamentals of level flight, tracking to a point, turns, constant
airspeed descents, and rudder use should be well practiced prior to landing.

Objective
To teach techniques necessary for a normal landing.

Elements
• Configure aircraft for pattern entry (2000 rpm or 18” manifold pressure)
• Enter downwind, maintaining traffic pattern altitude (typically 1000’ AGL)
• Abeam touchdown point, set power (1400 Rpm or 13” manifold) and First notch of flaps (
10º)
• Coordinated turn to base when reference point is 45° behind the wing
• On base: second notch of flaps, add little up trim for 1.3 Vso + 10 kts
• turn to final approach.
• Adjust and stabilize airspeed to 1.3 Vso with pitch before making any power
adjustments (Airspeed + 5, -0 kts max)
• Estimate glide path, descent rate to aiming point (numbers or other mark)
• Add full flaps if necessary
• Adjust power for altitude (no more than +/- 200 to 300 rpm, or 3 inches manifold
pressure)
• Trim to relieve control pressures
• Make sure feet are not on brakes
• “Round out” to level attitude 10’ off ground and reduce throttle to idle
• “Flair” by gradually apply back pressure to pitch for landing attitude, Nose just above
horizon
• Touchdown on main gear just above stalling speed
• Gradually relax back pressure on yoke to lower nose wheel to ground
• Keep nose wheel on ground, keep some back pressure for aerodynamic braking.
• Gentle braking as required

Instructor: Discuss 4 phases of approach and landing (see below)

Discuss power and flap configuration, airspeed in various parts of the approach
Discuss use of flaps: lift/lowers speed and shorter roll out, drag/steep descent angle,
pitch up tendency
Discuss Estimating height, movement and glide path, stabilized approach
Discuss longitudinal axis alignment
Discuss landing attitude, rate of descent, aerodynamic braking
Describe and demonstrate landing technique with emphasis on check list and stabilized
approach
.
Student: Describe and demonstrate landing technique with utilization of check list

Completion Standards: Student is able to demonstrate appropriate checklist usage with proper
configuration of aircraft, dividing attention to traffic pattern, checking for traffic, apply power and control
inputs smoothly with positive aircraft control with a stabilized approach. Lands after, but within 400 ft of
aiming point, no side drift, minimum float and the airplanes longitudinal axis aligned with and over the
runway center/landing path.

56
Common Errors
• setting approach and landing configuration at appropriate time or proper sequence
• Large power adjustments, unstabilized approach
• Poor airspeed control
• Reducing throttle before round out to compensate for high or fast approach
• Leaving throttle in after round out leading to floating and long landing.
• Poor directional control (rudder use)
• Insufficient aerodynamic braking (hold back pressure on yoke) and heavy use of brakes.
• Failure to maintain wind correction after touchdown and taxi
• Overshooting or undershooting the turn onto final approach
• Attempting to maintain altitude or reach the runway using elevator alone
• Rounding out too high and landing hard
• Landing with too much airspeed and ballooning
• Touching down prior to attaining proper landing attitude (nose low, flat attitude)
•
References
FAA-H-8083-3C Airplane Flying Handbook, POH

Tips for landing: proper airspeed and a stabilized approach are the critical determinants of making a
good and safe landing. If there is difficulty in stabilizing the approach (Large throttle adjustments,
overbanking to get lined up, poor airspeed control, power brought to idle when high and fast) then a go
around (balked approach) should be initiated. Go arounds are for un-stabilized or sloppy approaches
BEFORE you get over the runway. It is much safer to execute a go around a 200 ft above runway than 10
feet above runway. Landing is the reward for a stabilized approach.

I define a stabilized approach (for training purposes) as limiting power use to no more than +/- 300 rpm
(3” manifold pressure). If more than 300 rpm change or power is brought to idle before round out, then a
go-a-round must be executed. Power off landings are an advanced technique that requires a slightly
higher approach speed and learned at a later time.

Four Phases of Landing:

1) The Pattern. Fly by the numbers (power settings and aircraft configurations). A consistent
pattern, same altitude, same distance from runway, same base turn, and the same power
and flap settings during the pattern will greatly improve the chance for a stabilized
approach. To fly a consistent pattern requires mental discipline and tracking skills with
appropriate wind correction. Do not fly sloppy patterns!
2) Final approach: Must be stabilized with very tight airspeed control. If trimmed correctly,
very minor pitch changes will keep airspeed on target. Turning on FINAL Correct airspeed
FIRST! Then you will more easily be able to determine if you are too high/low and make
small power adjustments to keep a descent angle to the aiming point. Correct one variable
at a time, Airspeed first with pitch, Altitude with power second. Keep this same “Deck
Angle” or pitch down attitude till directly over aiming point. This will keep the airspeed and
descent rate constant on short final allowing pilot to keep head up looking at runway. Resist
the urge to gradually bring the nose up, this will decay airspeed, loss of energy and a hard
landing. Keep the nose down till the round out over the aiming point.

57
 3) Round out: Occurs over aiming point. The aircraft is smoothly pulled into a level pitch
attitude, parallel with the runway approximately 10 feet above the runway over the aiming
point. The power is pulled to idle at the round out. NOT BEFORE. NOT AFTER. If you vary
when you pull the power, you will never have the same result twice and have a difficult time
landing well consistently. How do you tell how high to round out? Check out Rod
Machado’s video on “Runway Expansion Effect”
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9JfoZERqM7Q .
4) Flair: After the round out, As soon as you detect the aircraft is starting to descend to the
runway, the nose of the aircraft is smoothly brought up to just above the horizon. The pilots
gaze will necessarily have to move to the side of the runway as the nose blocks forward
visualization of runway. AS the aircraft slows, the control stick will have to be gradually
brought further back to keep nose above horizon. In effect, you are raising the nose to try
and keep the aircraft off the ground (although it will land despite your efforts!). This allows
the main wheels to touch down first at a very slow rate of descent. After the main wheels
touch, hold the nose up for aerodynamic braking to save on tires and brake assembly wear.

Recommended Training exercises:

Airspeed control on final approach. With your instructor on board, start at 5000 ft AGL in set up aircraft
in landing configuration (20 degrees of flaps, 1400 RPM). Pitch and trim to 1.3 Vso and hold that
airspeed as accurately as possible while descending to 1000 ft AGL. Repeat as necessary till consistently
able to maintain approach airspeed.

Altitude Control on Final Approach: Start at 2000 ft AGL and approximately 3 miles from runway or
similar visible point. In approach configuration and power setting, make small power adjustments while
descending at 1.3 Vso to the aiming point. If point is rising on windshield, add (small amount) power to
slow descent, if point is falling on windshield, reduce small increments of power. Repeat as needed.
Note, use of a PAPI or VASI will help learn power inputs but also can have a negative effect if student
doesn’t learn to judge descent by reference only to an aiming point.

The round out height: Have Your instructor control power. During round out, your instructor will add
power and have you fly 10 feet above the runway, all the way down the runway and then before the
end of runway, add full power and go around. Do this two or three times and you will get a good feel for
the round out height. ONLY do this with qualified instructor on board. Also, watch Rod Machado’s
“runway expansion effect” video found on You Tube)

When to begin the flair: After round out, hold aircraft in level above the runway, at the first indication of
aircraft settling or descending (detected with horizon rising in windscreen with peripheral vision), then
gently pitch up just enough to arrest the descent in small increments. Continue till aircraft is in touch
down attitude, nose just above horizon. Training for this can be done first with instructor flying a “soft
field” approach with small amount of power in over a long runway. The student observes the CFI flies!
This reduces the fear response and other distractions of trying to land so the student can concentrate on
detecting the settling or aircraft descent. The student tells instructor when to pitch up to arrest the
descent. After a couple of repetitions, the student can then perform the “soft field” power on landing to
learn when to begin the flair. Then transition to normal landing with power to idle at round out.

58
Flair Attitude: “High Speed” Taxi in landing configuration with enough power to hold nose just above
horizon down runway (nose wheel may be off ground) Repeat as needed. Instructor must be on board.
This also improves rudder control and to focus gaze at side of runway during flair to keep aircraft on
center of runway.

Excessive airspeed: excessive airspeed leads to floating and ballooning easily. Combined with being high
leads students to pull power on descent to runway, this makes the landing point uncertain.

Ballooning results from excessive airspeed (or sometimes a strong wind gust) is usually followed by rapid
settling on to runway and a hard landing. At this point, if the aircraft starts descending rapidly, power
will be needed soften the touch down or a go around executed.

Insufficient airspeed: high descent rate on round out with hard landing

High round out: as the flair reaches maximum pitch attitude, the aircraft starts descending rapidly,
power will be needed soften the touch down or a go around executed.

gradual round out before reaching aiming point: airspeed bleeds off, excessive descent rate the last few
feet and hard landing. Then approach speeds are increased to compensate and with the gradual round
out and continuously changing airspeed, the pilot will not be able to determine where aircraft will run
out of energy and land. Makes difficult to do consistent short field landings. Hold the “deck angle” all the
way to the round out.

Poor directional control: If you land in a crab, the aircraft will lurch to one side or feel like it is skipping
sideways on the runway stressing the gear and ruining the tires. Rudder use is critical here. See
crosswind landing lesson for further details.

Touch and GO vs Full stop taxi back for landing practice

I do not recommend touch and go's for the following reasons: 1) there is no time for adequate debrief
nor opportunity for student to self-evaluate the entire maneuver, take off to landing. The "Time and
Opportunity" is minimized or absent for the "Performance" level of student-centered grading 2) it is not
realistic (scenarios based) for normal flying, missed opportunity for use of after landing and before take-
off check lists 3) recency and repetition of potentially bad habits that will later become very difficult to
change 4) high work load leads to short cuts and mistakes, teaches students check lists are not
important. 5) transition to retractable gear aircraft increases risk of raising gear instead of flaps or gear
up landing. Touch and goes aka "Block" practice does increase some motor skills, but at expense of
learning/understanding maneuver and limits application. My perspective is students learn to land
proficiently in a shorter amount of time with full stop taxi backs. In sports, this is called practice how we
will play. As we end up performing how we practiced. This is frequently a problem on check rides when
applicants do a touch and go for their short field landing or fail to use check list exiting runway.
However, full stop taxi back is not always practical at a busy towered airport. Consider going to a smaller
uncontrolled airport, if available.

59
CROSSWIND TAKE-OFF
Description
Takeoff roll, lift-off and initial climb with some wind acting perpendicular to the runway.

Objective
To teach techniques necessary for a takeoff when the wind is not aligned with the runway.

Elements
• Configure aircraft: Use check list!
• Taxi onto runway centerline, using wind correction during taxi
• Position full ailerons into the direction of the wind
• Smoothly apply full power
• Anticipate need for right rudder pressure to maintain centerline
• Check Oil pressure (in green)
• As ground speed increase, controls become effective, gradually reduce aileron
• At VR (______), gradually apply back pressure to lift nose wheel
• Pitch for normal climb attitude, climb at VY (______)
• Gear up upon Vy and positive rate of climb
• Wings level, enough rudder to maintain centerline
• Crab: allow aircraft to weathervane into wind
• Look for traffic

Instructor: Discuss maximum demonstrated crosswind component.

Discuss and demonstrate taxi wind correction (turn into for headwinds, dive away from
tailwinds).
Discuss and Demonstrate cross wind take off

Student: discuss max demonstrated crosswind component

Demonstrate taxi wind correction technique
Demonstrate cross wind take off

Common Errors
• Improper runway incursion and avoidance procedures
• Failure to apply crosswind aileron on take-off roll
• Inappropriate lift-off procedures, side skipping
• Inadequate drift correction after lift-off
• Improper climb attitude, power setting and airspeed (Vy)
• Improper use of checklist
• Failure to check engine instruments after application of takeoff power
• Insufficient rudder to maintain course

Completion Standards: Student is able to demonstrate appropriate checklist usage with proper
configuration of aircraft, dividing attention to safe departure and checking for traffic, apply power and
control inputs smoothly with positive aircraft control for a Vy Climb out.

References
FAA-H-8083-3C Airplane Flying Handbook

60
CROSSWIND LANDING (WING LOW OR SIDESLIP METHOD)
Description
Approach and landing with some wind acting perpendicular to the runway.

Objective
To teach techniques necessary for a landing when the wind is not aligned with the runway.

Elements
• Configure aircraft for normal approach and begin descent as normal (see normal
landing)
• turn to final (≤30° bank)
• On final: remaining flaps if required( 30º) when runway is assured, GUMPS check
• Select aim point (e.g. before runway numbers)
• The aircraft will weather vane into the wind.
• Apply rudder first to align aircraft parallel to centerline of runway.
• Then Bank into wind to prevent side drift
• Adjust pitch and power to maintain normal approach speed and descent angle (C172:
65 KIAS)
• Trim to relieve control pressures
• Make sure feet are not on brakes
• Round out 10’ off ground: reduce throttle to idle
• Gradually apply back pressure to pitch for landing attitude
• Maintain crosswind control inputs to the surface, as airspeed decreases, greater
crosswind control inputs are required
• Touchdown on upwind main gear first, just above stalling speed
• Maintain pitch attitude for aerodynamic braking
• Gradually relax back pressure to lower nose wheel while applying maximum aileron in
upwind direction
• Gentle braking as required
• Crosswind control inputs for taxi

Instructor: Discuss maximum demonstrated crosswind component.

Discuss taxi wind correction
Discuss turbulent air approaches (i.e. less flaps, faster approach, and throttle as needed)

Student: Discuss maximum demonstrated crosswind

Discuss and demonstrate taxi wind correction
Discuss turbulent air approaches
Describe and demonstrate landing technique with utilization of check list

Completion Standards: Student is able to demonstrate appropriate checklist usage with proper
configuration of aircraft, dividing attention to traffic pattern, checking for traffic, apply power and control
inputs smoothly with positive aircraft control with a stabilized approach. Lands after, but within 400 ft of
aiming point, no side drift, minimum float and the airplanes longitudinal axis aligned with and over the
runway center/landing path. Maintains cross wind correction through approach and landing sequence

Common Errors
• Improper use of landing performance data and limitations

61
 • Failure to establish approach and landing configuration at appropriate time or proper
sequence
• Failure to establish and maintain a stabilized approach
• Inappropriate removal of hand from throttle
• Improper use of power, flaps and trim
• Poor directional control (rudder use)
• Failure to increase and maintain wind correction after touchdown and taxi
References
FAA-H-8083-3C Airplane Flying Handbook, POH

Cross wind Landing Tips:

Practicing crosswind correction on final (sideslip method) by applying rudder on ½ mile final to
align aircraft (parallel) with extended centerline, then banking into wind to prevent side drift all the way
till touch down will help you learn and hold proper crosswind correction. Bank is to correct left and right
drift from centerline, Rudder to align long axis of aircraft with centerline (forward travel direction of
aircraft). On final approach, the aircraft will always weather vane into the crosswind. Apply rudder first
to align aircraft parallel to centerline of runway. Apply opposite bank to correct left/right drift from the
centerline.

Rudder and Bank control can also be learned by flying tracking up and down a road with a crosswind at
1000 ft AGL. Almost full rudder to maintain aircraft parallel and up to 30 degrees of bank to keep from
side drift will be required. Flying 3 or 4 miles each way down a road will greatly improve student’s
confidence in control inputs needed for crosswind landing. Instructor must be on board to maintain
adequate airspeed and observe for traffic and obstruction.

FEAR narrows perceptual field at or near touch down. To help students learn rudder/aileron use, the
instructor can take over the “responsibility of landing” and aileron use, the student just concentrates on
rudder use to align with long axis of runway. Then instructor takes rudders, and student only operates
ailerons. Do this on long runway, maintaining power so student has longer time to get feel of each
control input. Can be done down long runway with or without landing and instructor controlling power
to maximize time for student to obtain this “block” practice skill.

Another exercise is to start cross wind correction on a 3 to 5 mile final all the way to the runway in an
extended slip.

-if you are landing to the side of the centerline, then you likely had insufficient bank to offset
wind drift from cross wind

-if the aircraft is difficult to control on touch down and swerves on roll out, it is likely you had
insufficient rudder application and landed not aligned with the forward direction of the aircraft (landing
in a crab position.

62
SHORT FIELD TAKE-OFF
Description
Maximum performance take-off where the takeoff area is short or restricted by obstructions.

Objective
To teach techniques necessary for a short field take-off to avoid obstructions or obtain maximum
performance.

Elements
• Configure aircraft: Check list and flaps as specified in POH(____º)
• Taxi onto runway centerline, get as close to beginning of runway as possible
• Apply full brakes
• Smoothly apply full power, upon engine peak, release brakes
• Check oil pressure (in green)
• Attitude slightly tail-low
• At Vr (_____ KIAS), apply back pressure for positive lift off.
• Adjust pitch to maintain steep climb out at Vx until clear of obstacle (50ft)
• After clear of obstacle, Pitch level, accelerate to VY
• Flaps up upon Vy and positive rate of climb
• Gear up
• Maintain coordination: Wings level, rudder to hold course
• Look for traffic

Instructor: Discuss performance tables and when to use short field technique
Describe and demonstrate short field take off
Student: Discuss performance charts for short field take off
Demonstrate short field take off

Common Errors
• Improper runway incursion and avoidance procedures
• Improper us of controls during a normal or crosswind take off
• Inappropriate lift-off procedures
• Improper climb attitude, power setting and airspeed (Vy)
• Improper use of checklist
• Failure to check engine instruments after application of takeoff power
• Insufficient right rudder
• Failure to use all available runway/takeoff area

Completion Standards: Student is able to demonstrate appropriate checklist usage with proper
configuration of aircraft, dividing attention to safe departure and checking for traffic, apply power and
control inputs smoothly with positive aircraft control for a Vx Climb out with precise airspeed control and
transition to Vy climb after clearing object.

References
FAA-H-8083-3C Airplane Flying Handbook, POH

63
SHORT FIELD LANDING
Description
Maximum performance landing where the landing area is short or restricted by obstructions.

Objective
To teach techniques necessary for a short field landing to avoid obstructions or minimize ground roll. Low
speed power on accuracy approach to a spot landing. Should be routinely practiced during training.

Elements
• Configure aircraft for normal approach and begin descent as normal
• Pick desired touch down point and stopping point.
• On final: Full flaps
• Select aim point (e.g. 50 ft before desired touch down point…runway numbers??)
• Adjust PITCH for (shortfield) AIRSPEED specified in POH <1.3 Vso (____)
• Adjust POWER for Altitude toward AIMING POINT (not touchdown point)
• Round out 10’ off ground over AIMING POINT
• Reduce throttle to idle firmly on round out
• When aircraft begins to settle (descend from round out) gradually pitch for landing
attitude: Nose just above horizon
• Touchdown at minimum airspeed with little or no float
• Maintain pitch attitude for aerodynamic braking
• Moderate braking as required (do not skid tires)
• Stop on runway before pre-determined stopping point

Instructor: Discuss performance charts and landing scenarios

Discuss steeper approach and region of reverse command, power on approach
Emphasize precision in airspeed, stabilized approach, touch down at min airspeed
Discuss and demonstrate short field landing technique

Student: Discuss performance charts and landing scenarios

Demonstrate short field landing technique

Common Errors
• Failure to use full flaps
• UN-Stabilized approach (steep with power off approach, or drag in with high power)
• Difficulty maintaining consistent airspeed, landing hard or floating
• Failure to hold back elevator pressure after touchdown
• Closing throttle before round out, or delays throttle reduction
• Improper use of brakes, skidding tires

Completion Standards: Student is able to demonstrate appropriate checklist usage with proper
configuration of aircraft, Consistent patterns, positive aircraft control with a stabilized approach. Lands
after, but within 200 ft of aiming point, no side drift, minimum float landing on centerline. Applies brakes to
stop in the shortest distance. Maintains cross wind correction through approach and landing sequence.

References
FAA-H-8083-3C Airplane Flying Handbook

64
Training Tips for Short Field landings: Successful consistent short field landings can only be
accomplished if pattern size, power settings and aircraft configuration changes are consistent.
Practice flying consistent patterns, power and aircraft configurations at each portion of the
approach. Plan to be at final approach speed and FULL FLAPS by the time you turn final. This
will maximize your time to stabilize your approach.

On final approach, the two most critical items are AIRSPEED control and targeting a well-chosen
AIMING POINT. Even 5 kts extra airspeed will increase float up to 100 ft or more.
Airspeed should always be corrected (with pitch) first once on final approach. This will then
reveal how high or low the aircraft is on descent to the aiming point. Then power can be used
to adjust for altitude/rate of descent AFTER airspeed is on target. Adjusting pitch and power at
the same time can be done but takes practice
Note: Some instructors will argue that airspeed should be controlled with power and altitude with pitch (this can
work with practice). However airspeed responds slowly to power inputs and also changes glide path making precise
control difficult. Because of the slower response of airspeed to throttle, it is easy to overshoot power adjustments.
It is this author’s recommendation to use Pitch for Airspeed and Power for Altitude corrections.)

Recommended Practice:
Pick three spots on each landing: 1) Aiming point 2) Landing point 3) stopping point.

Simulate a short runway by choosing a challenging stopping point on runway (an intersecting
taxi way, the thousand foot markers) for each landing. Practice coming to a complete stop at or before
this point on the runway every time. This will challenge the pilot to hit aiming point, land on touch down
point and the pilot will automatically apply aft control for aerodynamic braking and apply brakes on
touch down. It also gives the pilot confidence and satisfaction when goal is completed. Without a
realistic or challenging stopping point, a short field landing technique becomes a memorized maneuver
without real world application or meaning.

Landing Long of intended touchdown point: If airspeed is well maintained and aircraft lands long, then
move aiming point further in front of intended touch down point. If airspeed is well maintained, but
aircraft floats excessively, then decrease approach speed a few knots on each successive approach (Or
make sure the gear is down ☺). Alternately, accept the float and move aiming point further out.

Manufacture recommended short field approach speed is determined at max gross weight in a specified
aircraft configuration. Anticipate some increase in float distance with gross weight significantly below
MAX Gross weight or alternate aircraft configuration. Generally, approach speed is determined as 1.3 x
Vso for normal approach and 1.2 Vso for short field. Vso decreases approximately 1 kt for every 100 lbs
below max gross. Generally, you can decrease your short field approach speed by approximately 1 kt for
every 100 lbs below max gross. This can really add consistency to your short field approaches.

Recommend reading Energy Management concepts in the Airplane flying handbook.

Landing Short of intended touchdown point: NOT RECOMMENDED.

65
SOFT FIELD TAKE-OFF
Description
Maximum performance take-off from a soft field, designed to get airborne as quickly as possible to reduce
drag caused by tall grass, soft sand, mud or snow.

Objective
To teach techniques necessary for a take-off when it is necessary to get airborne as quickly as possible
by quickly transfer weight from landing gear to wings.

Elements
• Configure aircraft: flaps as specified in POH for soft field (____º),l
• Taxi onto runway centerline with full elevator back pressure: do not stop once taxiing
• Smoothly apply full power
• Check oil pressure (in green)
• As aircraft accelerates, Keep nose high, tail low to establish positive angle of attack,
let aircraft fly off the runway (no definite rotation)
• After lift-off, gently lower pitch to straight-and-level flight within ground effect.
• Accelerate in ground effect to VY (_______ KIAS)
• Gear up/flaps up upon Vy and positive rate of climb,
• Maintain coordination: wings level, rudder to maintain course
• Look for traffic

Instructor: Discuss circumstances where soft field procedures are indicated

Demonstrate soft field procedures

Student Discuss circumstances where soft field procedures are indicated

Demonstrate soft field procedures

Common Errors
• Failure to configure aircraft before entering runway
• Difficulty holding nose high on take off roll.
• Levels off above ground effect
• Improper climb attitude, power setting and airspeed (Vy or Vx)
• Removes flaps before accelerating to Vy and positive rate of climb
• Improper use of checklist

Completions standards: Student can discuss technique and indications for soft field operations.
Student is able to demonstrate appropriate checklist usage with proper configuration of aircraft, dividing
attention to safe departure and checking for traffic, apply power and control inputs smoothly with positive
aircraft control for a Vy Climb out.

References
FAA-H-8083-3C Airplane Flying Handbook

66
SOFT FIELD LANDING
Description
Minimum descent rate landing to a soft field, designed to touchdown as softly as possible to eliminate risk
of rough landing caused by tall grass, soft sand, mud or snow. Normal approach with Power on landing.
Do not remove power at round out. Use as much runway length as necessary to safely set aircraft down
gently and in control.

Objective
To teach techniques necessary for landing when it is necessary to touchdown as softly as possible by
slowly transferring weight from wings to landing gear.

Elements
• Configure aircraft for normal approach and begin descent as normal
• On final: partial flaps recommend, full flaps if needed
• Select aim point (e.g. before runway numbers)
• Adjust pitch to maintain normal approach speed and descent angle (______ KIAS),
power to adjust for altitude.
• Round out 10 ft above aiming point, Do not remove power till wheels on ground (e.g.
maintain power to slow descent rate till touchdown, in 172 or 152 this is approximately 1400
or 1500 rpm)
• Gradually apply back pressure to pitch for straight-and-level attitude, attempting to fly
just above runway (fly in ground effect) straight-and-level until passing aim point, then
continue adjusting pitch for climb attitude just above horizon
• Hold aircraft in ground effect, 1-2’ above surface, as long as possible (use as much runway
as is safe) by working yoke full aft by touchdown to produce a nose high attitude.
• Upon touchdown on main gear, slowly remove power
• Keep back elevator to hold nose wheel off surface as long as possible
• Do not use brakes and maintain elevator back pressure for taxiing

Instructor: Discuss circumstances where soft field procedures are indicated

Demonstrate soft field procedures

Student Discuss circumstances where soft field procedures are indicated

Demonstrate soft field procedures

Common Errors
• Failure to establish approach and landing configuration at appropriate time or proper
sequence
• Failure to establish and maintain a stabilized approach (excess speed or descent on
approach)
• Failure to hold back elevator pressure after touchdown
• Closing throttle too soon after touchdown
• Improper use of brakes.
• Excessive descent rate on final approach

Completions standards: Student can discuss technique and indications for soft field operations.
Student is able to demonstrate appropriate checklist usage with proper configuration of aircraft, dividing

67
attention to safe departure and checking for traffic, apply power and control inputs smoothly with positive
aircraft control.

References
FAA-H-8083-3C Airplane Flying Handbook

Tips and tricks for Soft Field Landing:

If you consistently fly the pattern the same way every time, there should be very little power adjustment
after the initial reduction on downwind abeam the numbers (typically 1400 RPM in 172, or 13 inches of
manifold in complex aircraft). Thereafter, airspeed will be easily adjusted with pitch and meet final
approach speed with addition of flaps. In this case, the only difference between a normal landing and a
soft field landing is the following:

-a normal landing the power is reduced on the initial round out, 10 ft over the runway

-soft field landing, the power is maintained through round out

-after the round out, the aircraft is allowed to settle very close the runway and then “held off”
as long as possible (work in full aft yoke, nose will only come down after touch down and subsequent
loss of elevator effectiveness, see AFH description) Power is gently removed after touch down to keep
nose wheel off surface as long as possible to avoid digging in.

Soft field landings use maximum runway (depending on runway length, up to 50%) before touch down.
This is not a short field technique.

If approach is not stabilized, such that all power must be removed to round out over intended aiming
point, then power must be added at round out to prevent settling and less than “soft” landing. Adding
the correct amount of power at round out is difficult for most beginning pilots and adds complexity to
the high work load just prior to touch down. Therefore, it is recommended, if a stabilized approach with
a constant power setting is not obtained, a go around should be initiated. It is much easier to cross the
threshold and round out with the appropriate power setting. Then the student pilot only has to
concentrate on “holding the aircraft off the ground” as long as possible till the soft touch down.

Soft field landings are also recommend as the landing of choice for novice or “rusty” pilots at night or
when landing at a much wider runway than pilot is accustomed to. The most common error being
rounding out “high” and then dropping in “hard”. The less common error at night is rounding out too
late and striking the nose wheel, damaging the aircraft and starting a dangerous porpoise.

68
GO-AROUNDS (REJECTED or Balked LANDINGS)
Description
Go- Arounds are best used when a stabilized approach cannot be achieved. Typically when large control
inputs (bank/pitch) or power changes are made, consider the approach unstable and initiate a Go Around.
The need for a go-around is considered as a normal maneuver. It is safest when done early, danger
increasing closer to the ground. Please review Task 24 Elevator Trim Stalls from Section 3 Slow
Flight and stalls.

Objective
To teach the procedures of a go-around and to emphasize the need to be prepared for unexpected
situations during landing.

Elements
• Configure aircraft: landing checklist, begin the final approach to land
• Commit to go-around (don’t change mind!)
• Smoothly apply throttle to FULL,
• carb heat off
• Adjust pitch for Vy (______ KIAS)(hard forward control pressures may be required! And
retrim.
• If full flaps used, retract first notch of flaps immediately
• Maneuver airplane to the RIGHT side of the runway and fly parallel to it (to avoid possible
traffic, maintain visualization)
• Upon Vy and positive rate of climb, retract the remaining flaps incrementally
• Retract landing gear on Vy and positive climb rate
• Maintain coordination: wings level, rudder to maintain course
• Look for traffic

Instructor: Discuss indications for go-around and timeliness of execution (turbulence, traffic, unsat
approach)
Discuss principles of go-around: Power, attitude, configuration
Demonstrate Go-Around

Student: Discuss indications for go-around and timeliness of execution (turbulence, traffic, unsat
approach)
Discuss principles of go-around: Power, attitude, configuration, (flaps before gear)
Demonstrate Go-Around

Common Errors
• Failing to commit to a go-around when situation warrants
• Delayed decision to go-around (un-stabilized approach, wrestles aircraft to ground to “save”
landing)
• Improper power application
• Failure to control pitch attitude
• Failure to compensate for torque effect
• Improper trim procedure
• Failure to maintain recommended airspeeds
• Improper wing flaps or landing gear retraction
• Failure to maintain proper track during climb-out
• Failure to remain well clear of obstructions and other traffic

69
Completions standards: Student can discuss technique and indications for rejected landing/Go-
around. Student is able to demonstrate appropriate checklist usage with proper configuration of aircraft,
dividing attention to between outside references and instruments, checking for traffic, apply power and
control inputs smoothly with positive aircraft control. Recovers smoothly with proper flap and gear
sequence and maintenance of altitude followed by Vy climb out.

References
FAA-H-8083-3C Airplane Flying Handbook, POH

Tips and Tricks:

Retraction of Flaps: In most aircraft, full flaps create more drag than lift. The first “notch” of flaps can
generally be removed safely at low airspeeds immediately during go around. Partial flaps create more
lift than drag. If partial flaps are removed at slow airspeeds, the aircraft may settle and loose altitude.
Therefore, accelerate to the recommend airspeed in the POH before removing partial flaps. In the
absence of a recommended speed in the POH, Vy and positive rate of climb is a reliable indication to
safely retract the remaining flaps without significant settling.

Retraction of Gear: Some references (POH or Instructors) may recommend retracting 1st “notch” of full
flaps, then retract gear, then retract remaining flaps. This method reduces the most drag and retains
the most lift during climb out. However, it adds complexity to the “go around”.

To simplify the method, some authorities advocate removing all flaps first, then gear with Vy and
positive rate of climb. Besides simplifying the go around procedure, there is some safety benefit in case
of settling or engine failure having the gear down in case of inadvertent descent and contact with
ground.

Retraction of Gear AFTER clearing Obstacles is recommended. While gear is in transit, the “interference”
drag in the partially retracted position is significantly greater than the gear “Down and Locked” position.
Make sure obstacles are cleared first, then retract gear.

70
FORWARD SLIP TO A LANDING
Description
A maneuver used to greatly increase drag and consequently greatly increase descent rate without
increasing airspeed in a controlled fashion. An intentionally uncoordinated maneuver when the aircraft is
banked into the wind and opposite rudder applied to maintain ground track parallel to the runway. (Useful
in forced landings and steep approaches for landing in confined areas.)

Objective
To teach judgment and procedures necessary to descend rapidly while maintaining control and ground
track to allow for a safe landing.

Elements
• Configure aircraft: landing checklist, extend gear, final approach (____ ” Hg, ____ RPM,
____ KIAS)
• If not prohibited in the POH, full flaps should be applied before initiating slip to get
maximum descent rate
• Throttle to idle,
• Apply rudder input, opposite any cross wind (aircraft will crab into wind)
• Bank into the cross wind to prevent drift away from extended runway centerline
• Keep nose just below horizon (IAS not accurate)
• Recover when a normal landing can be made: level the wings while releasing rudder
• Pitch to normal glide attitude
• Land at touchdown point beyond and within 400’ at approximate stalling speed with no side
drift
.

Instructor: Discuss indications and uses for the forward slip

Discuss the aerodynamics and limits of the forward slip (cross controls, bank angle,
rudder travel, IAS, flaps)
Demonstrate Forward Slip

Student: Discuss indications and uses for the forward slip

Discuss the aerodynamics and limits of the forward slip (cross controls, bank angle,
rudder travel, IAS, flaps)
Demonstrate Forward Slip

Common Errors
• Poor airspeed control (too fast, too slow)
• Failure to establish approach and landing configuration at proper time or in proper sequence
• Uses wrong rudder input (puts nose into wind instead of away from wind).
• Failure to maintain a stabilized slip
• Inappropriate removal of hand from throttle
• Improper procedure during transition from the slip to the touchdown
• Poor directional control after touchdown
• Improper use of brakes

Completions standards: Student can discuss technique and indications for rejected landing/Go-
around. Student is able to demonstrate appropriate checklist usage with proper configuration of aircraft,
dividing attention to safe descent, landing and checking for traffic, apply power and control inputs
smoothly with positive aircraft control.

71
References
FAA-H-8083-3C Airplane Flying Handbook, POH

NOTE: There is some controversy about using flaps in combination with slips for landing among CFIs.
This is likely from early Cessna 172 models (early 1960s) where combination of full flaps and slips
produced buffeting of the tail. This is not the case with later models and many other general aviation
aircraft. If flaps are not authorized while performing slips to land, it should be clearly indicated both in the
POH and placarded in the aircraft.

The descent rate with a slip and NO flaps is somewhat less effective than descent rate achieved with full
flaps. To this extent, if flaps are not used, then the slip provides little or no additional benefit to steepen
the approach than flaps alone. In this case, the first choice would be the use of full flaps, especially in an
emergency landing, to reduce touch down speed. The impact energy of a forced landing (crash) is
doubled with every 10 kts increase in airspeed. A forced or off field landing without flaps can have more
than double the impact energy than one with flaps. Doubling the energy significantly increases the
mortality of the pilot and passengers.

The recommendation from this author is to first apply full flaps, then, if not restricted by POH or
placard, a slip may then be performed (see paragraph below).
Training Tip: direction of cross wind is easily identified by direction nose points in crab on final. First,
correct crab with opposite rudder to align aircraft longitudinal axis parallel with runway centerline, Then
add additional rudder past parallel, bank (opposite to the rudder applied) into wind to prevent drift
off centerline of runway. Additionally, the degree of slip may be tailored by varying the rudder input. If
only a small amount of altitude needs to be lost, then smaller rudder input for shorter periods of time
can be used. For large amounts of altitude loss, then full rudder input may be required.

Remember, the airspeed indicator may not accurate in a side slip as the Pitot tube and static ports are
not in normal relationship to the relative wind as they were designed to be. Keep the nose down (just
below horizon) to avoid cross controlled stalls. The other error is to pitch down to much and build up
too much airspeed.

72
POWER-OFF 180º ACCURACY APPROACH AND LANDING
Description
Approach and landing made by gliding with the engine idling from downwind to a touchdown beyond and
within 200 feet of a designated line or mark on the runway. Altitude (potential energy) is substituted for
lack of power. Excess altitude is removed by adding drag with 1) prop full in 2) Flaps and then 3) Forward
Slip. This maneuver is excellent practice for judging winds, gliding distance, energy management and
practicing forward slips. This is a fundamental exercise that will help learning Emergency Landings and
approaches.
Objective
To teach judgment in and procedures necessary for accurately flying the airplane, without power, to a
safe landing.

Elements
• Configure aircraft: landing checklist (GUMPS, no flaps), 1000’ AGL downwind for landing
• Select outside references (aiming point and touch down point)
• Gear down before entering pattern!
• Throttle to idle abeam touchdown point-carb heat as required
• Establish and maintain 1.4 Vso till final, then 1.3 Vso (full aft trim)
• If constant speed prop, may pull to low RPM to reduce drag
• Make gradual continuous turn from downwind, base to final
• Make higher than normal approach to ensure making runway
• To loose excess altitude, prop full in before adding flaps (in case of go around).
• Add flaps incrementally till full flaps applied by final. Avoid adding flaps on short final as
this changes the descent profile and makes judging landing point difficult.
• After prop in and Full Flaps deployed, forward slip as necessary to decrease altitude
• Land at or within 200 ft after pre-selected touchdown point

Training Tips:
1) for complex aircraft, gear MUST be down and locked in downwind before any other aircraft
configuration changes or reducing power to idle. This is to reduce chance of gear up landing in this high
work load maneuver.
2) Keep a narrow pattern so base leg is short. Long base legs eat up altitude!
3) Sequence for adding drag on final 1) prop in 2) Full flaps 3) slip
4)Airspeed control is CRITICAL.
5)If full flaps and a Slip are not required, then the approach was too low (not enough energy (altitude)
reserve!) leaving no margin for making runway.

Instructor: Discuss and demonstrate the technique of Power Off 180 approach and landing
Student: Discuss and demonstrate the technique of Power Off 180 approach and landing

Common Errors
• Failure to establish approach and landing configuration at proper time or in proper sequence
• Failure to establish and maintain a stabilized approach
• Failure to consider the effect of wind and landing surface
• Failure to dissipate energy with forward slips or S turns, overshooting touchdown.
Completions standards: Student can discuss technique and indications for Power Off 180 degree
accuracy approach and landing. Student is able to demonstrate appropriate checklist usage with proper
configuration of aircraft, dividing attention to safe descent, landing and checking for traffic, Lands at
touchdown point or within 200 ft.
References
FAA-H-8083-3C Airplane Flying Handbook, POH

73
EMERGENCY APPROACHES AND LANDINGS (ASEL, ASES)
Description
Simulated engine failure power-off approach and landing.

Objective
To teach planning, orientation, division of attention, control feel and emergency procedures for a power-
off approach and landing. Remember, emergency landings are to save lives, not aircraft.

Elements
• Clear the area
• Airspeed: pitch for best glide (____KIAS)
• Best landing Area: choose a field and stick with it; best choice may be behind you
• Checklist, engine out: carburetor heat on, fuel selector both, mixture rich, auxiliary fuel
pump on, primer in and locked
• Communicate (Simulated): squawk 7700, mayday on 121.5
• Clear engine using brief applications of power
• Forced landing checklist (simulated): mixture cutoff, fuel valve off, ignition off, unlatch
doors, master off when landing assured
• Maneuver as necessary to reach key point on base
• When landing assured, gear up if terrain is rough or soft else gear down
• Full Flaps if possible, then slip as necessary to reach aiming point
• Look for traffic
• Terminate with Go-Around when safe landing is likely at or above 500 ft AGL.

Instructor: Discuss the ABCs of Emergency approach and landings

Discuss ways to identify best landing area, judge wind direction, altitude, glide distance
Discuss and Demonstrate maneuvers to loose altitude, S turns, Spirals, Forward Slip,
Flaps, Gear
Discuss and Demonstrate Aviate, Navigate, Communicate principles
Discuss use of check lists

Student: Demonstrate the ABCs of Emergency approach and Landing, maneuvers to loose
altitude or adjust approach

Common Errors
• Improper airspeed control
• Poor judgment in landing area or delay in choosing
• Failure to estimate wind speed and direction
• Failure to fly suitable pattern for existing situation (think 180 degree power off landing)
• Failure to accomplish the emergency checklist
• Overshooting or Undershooting landing area

Completions standards: Student can discuss technique and indications for Emergency
Approaches and landings. Student is able to demonstrate appropriate checklist usage with proper
configuration of aircraft, dividing attention to safe descent and checking for traffic and obstructions, apply

74
power and control inputs smoothly with positive aircraft control. Establishes and maintains best glide +/-
10kts. Selects suitable landing area. Plans and follows a flight pattern considering altitude, wind, terrain,
and obstructions. Follows appropriate checklists.

References
FAA-H-8083-3C Airplane Flying Handbook, POH
Tips for engine out emergency landings: ABCD….ABCD…ABCD

Airspeed – Best Glide: Most general aviation aircraft, a level pitch attitude will produce best
glide speed for the weight of the aircraft (published best glide speed is at max gross. Vg decreases
approximately 2 KIAS for each 100 lbs below max gross). Interestingly, many aircraft full aft trim with
engine at idle will pitch the aircraft close to the best glide speed. This should be tested at a safe altitude.
In general, the first thing to do is pitch for best glide airspeed and TRIM off control pressures, frequently
this is full aft trim. This significantly reduces work load and allows pilot to concentrate on maneuvering
aircraft to safe landing location. (In complex aircraft, best glide speed may require gear up and prop to
low RPM, refer to aircraft POH for best glide configuration. In certain situations there may be power
settings to simulate best glide with gear down as a safety precaution during training. The American
Bonanza society has specific training recommendations for Beech aircraft ).

Best landing spot: do not waste a lot of time looking for the “best spot”. It makes little
difference between corn field, bean field or another field. The emergency landing is to save lives, not the
airplane. If you spend all your time looking for the best field, you will lose precious altitude and may end
up landing in the “worst” field because you run out of altitude and options looking for the best field. Any
field that is sufficiently long, reasonable terrain and free of large obstacles. If altitude permits, landing
into the wind lowers ground speed and reduces impact energy.

Checklist: Below 1500 to 2000 ft agl, a check list is not likely to be practical and may be
detrimental to maneuvering the aircraft to a safe landing. The check list for this emergency should be
easy to read and readily available. If time allows, the most important parts of this check list are making a
call on the guard frequency (121.5), squawking 7700, and cracking the door before touch down to allow
emergency egress in case of airframe damage that prevents door from opening. If time permits, the
remainder of the check list can be accomplished.

Door: Crack the door. You may make a survivable landing, only to be trapped in the aircraft
which then catches fire….

Minimize impact energy: touch down at the slowest airspeed with flaps is advised. See FAA
resources and manufacture recommendations for further details on type of terrain and landing
situations.

Trouble shooting an engine: If you have time to trouble shoot a rough engine, partial power
engine or a quit engine, Think:

FUEL, FUEL, FUEL, MAGS, CARB HEAT ( or alternate air)

Fuel mixture adjust, Fuel Tank-switch, Fuel pump on, Mags- L/R/both, use carb heat or alt air.

To shut down engine, reverse the fuel, fuel, fuel, mags, alt air.

75
SLOW FLIGHT
Description
Level flight, turns, climbs, and descents performed in various configurations at the minimum controllable
airspeed (10 kts above Vso). This skill teaches student fundamental control inputs required for a
stabilized final approach to landing (and Go arounds) AKA – pitch for airspeed, power for altitude control.
At times, both simultaneously.

Objective
To teach planning, orientation, division of attention and control feel during slow flight. Acquaint the pilot
with the lack of maneuverability at minimum airspeeds, the danger of incipient stalls, and the tendency of
the airplane to stall as the bank is increased.

Setup
• Clear the area
• Altitude above 1500 feet AGL
• Reduce power to flap and gear speed, maintain altitude
• Full flaps, gear down
• Trim Aircraft till Airspeed stable Vs0 + 10 kts (Trim is secret to this maneuver)
• Adjust pitch to maintain airspeed
• Adjust Power to maintain altitude (remember this power setting!)
• Fly straight-and-level, coordinated turns (slowly with small bank angles)
• Climb and descent with power, hold altitude by returning to intitial power setting
• Maintain airspeed Vso + 10 KIAS during all maneuvers.
• Maintain coordination (See tips and tricks on Rudder use)
• Look for traffic

Recovery
• Smoothly advance power to full
• Retract one notch of flaps ( 20°)
• Upon Vy and positive rate of climb, retract flaps and gear
• Look for traffic

Instructor:
Demonstrate Slow flight
Discuss Controllability and Maneuverability:
• Flight controls are less effective due to reduced airflow; more control pressure is required
• In the back side of the power curve: pitch for airspeed, power for altitude
• Torque effect is very prominent
• High gross weight and forward CG increase stall speed
• Increase the bank angle, load factor and stall speed increase
• Flying below LD/max (Minimum Drag) results in speed instability
Student:
Discuss Control ability and Maneuverability in Slow Flight
Demonstrate Slow flight as above

Common Errors
• Failure to establish specified gear and flap configuration
• Fixation on airspeed indicator (not well trimmed)

76
 • Improper entry technique
• Failure to establish and maintain the specified airspeed
• Excessive variations of altitude and heading when a constant altitude and heading are
specified
• Uncoordinated use of flight controls
• Improper correction for torque effect
• Improper trim technique
• Unintentional stalls
• Inappropriate removal of hand from throttles

Completion Standards: Student is able to demonstrate appropriate checklist usage with proper
configuration of aircraft, dividing attention to between outside references and instruments, checking for
traffic, apply power and control inputs smoothly with positive aircraft control. Recovers smoothly with
proper flap and gear sequence and maintenance of altitude.

References
FAA-H-8083-3C Airplane Flying Handbook

Tips and tricks for slow flight:

1) Trim is the secret to airspeed control. Once trimmed correctly, the student should be able to let
go of the yoke and steer with rudders!
2) Power is used aggressively for climbs (full throttle), stop climb and hold altitude by returning to
the SAME power setting that maintained the previous altitude. Typically about 2000 rpm in a C-
172, or 18 in manifold pressure in aircraft with constant speed prop. Reduce power carefully for
descents and return power to same setting that maintained the altitude.
3) When wings are level, apply enough rudder to maintain course! No need to stare at the ball.
4) Practice long descents of 1000 ft or more and maintain airspeed with pitch attitude. Once pitch
attitude is learned, repeat maneuver with ASI covered. At end of descent, uncover ASI and see
how close you are to starting airspeed. This gives student confidence to maintain airspeed with
a pitch attitude on short final by looking OUTSIDE!

Slow flight configuration is a set up and natural lead into Power Off stalls. After initial introduction of
slow flight and stalls, an efficient practice program is to perform in order:

1) slow flight
2) power off stalls
3) power on stalls
4) accelerated stalls

Generally, aircraft configuration is dirty for slow flight and power off stalls, and clean configuration for
power on and accelerated stalls. (The exception may be in high performance complex aircraft, power on
stalls and accelerated stalls can be performed with gear down (flaps up) to reduce high pitch attitudes
and aircraft loads).

77
POWER-OFF STALLS (approach to landing stall)
Description
A rapid degeneration of lift as a result of excessive angle of attack, entered from the landing
configuration. Simulates stall on approach to landing, especially base to final or stretching a glide
to runway. Stalls during this phase of flight account for a significant number of GA fatalities each year.

Objective
To teach recognition and recovery from a full stall under landing conditions and required recovery action
with minimum loss of altitude.

Setup
• Clear the area
• Altitude: Maintain a specific altitude so recovery above 1500 ft AGL
• Configure aircraft for Landing: gear down, full flaps, carburetor heat on,
• Power to idle
• Start a descent at approach speed (typically 1.3 x Vso, 65 KIAS in 172)
• Smoothly raise nose to above horizon (approx. 70), continue to pull control stick back as
speed decays to hold SAME pitch attitude until a stall is induced
• Maintain coordination straight or in 20 degree bank (per CFI)

Recovery
• Reduce Pitch ( angle of attack) by releasing back-elevator pressure (just below horizon)
• Simultaneously Advance throttle to full power, carb heat off
• If wing drop, correct with rudder, not aileron
• Increase Pitch for Vy climb (this is a critical portion of the recovery to prevent altitude loss
with high airspeeds or secondary stall with low airspeed)
• Retract 1st notch of flaps immediately
• Upon positive rate of climb, retract remaining flaps and gear as necessary
• Reaching safe altitude, level flight, reduce power for cruise flight
• Maintain coordination

Instructor/Student: Describes situations where power off stall might be encountered

Discuss and Demonstrate setup, initiation and recovery for power off stall

Common Errors
• Failure to adequately clear the area
• Failure to obtain appropriate pitch attitude to induce a stall: “falling leaf” descent.
• Failure to recognize first indications of a stall or to induce full stall
• Delay in pitch down (reduction of AOA)
• Failure to apply FULL power on recovery
• In recovery, delay in pitch up with excessive altitude loss and high airspeed
• Secondary stall during recovery

Completion Standards: Student is able to demonstrate appropriate checklist usage with proper
configuration of aircraft, dividing attention to between outside references and instruments, checking for
traffic, apply power and control inputs smoothly with positive aircraft control. Recovers smoothly with
proper flap and gear sequence and minimum loss of altitude.

References
FAA-H-8083-3C Airplane Flying Handbook, POH

78
POWER-ON STALLS (departure stall)
Description
Simulates a departure stall as a result of excessive angle of attack, entered from takeoff and climb
configuration. Stalls in the departure phase of flight account for a significant number of fatalities each
year. Often situations involve inappropriate trim (did not reset per check list before departure), distraction
with instrument or electronic device or trying to clear an obstacle.

Objective
To teach recognition and recovery from a full stall under take-off conditions and required recovery action.

Setup: (as if departing from runway)

• Clear the area
• Altitude: Maintain altitude so recovery above 1500 ft AGL
• Configure Aircraft: for take-off, gear down, no flaps, max RPM.
• Reduce power to take-off speed (Vr)
• Upon reaching Vr, Throttle to full (or top of green),
• Pitch up to approx. 20 degrees (300 max), and hold “deck angle” or pitch attitude
• Maintain back-elevator pressure at airspeed falls below VS1 (_____ KIAS) and stalls.
• Maintain coordination: Wings level, apply Rudder to hold course.

Recovery
• Reduce Pitch (the angle of attack) by releasing back-elevator pressure
• Simultaneously increasing throttle to full (if not already)
• Pitch up for Vy climb
• Upon positive rate of climb, retract gear as necessary
• Maintain coordination: Wings level, hold course with rudder.

Instructor: Discuss situations where power on stall are likely to occur

Discuss and Demonstrate set up, initiation and recovery of power on stall

Student: Discuss situation where power on stall are likely to occur

Demonstrate set up, initiation and recovery of power on stall

Common Errors
• Failure to adequately clear the area
• Failure to establish specified landing gear and flap configuration prior to entry
• Difficulty in maintaining pitch, heading, and coordination
• Failure to recognize the first indications of a stall
• Failure to induce a full stall
• After breaking stall, delays pitch up with altitude loss and excessive airspeed

Completion Standards: Student is able to demonstrate appropriate checklist usage with proper
configuration of aircraft, dividing attention to between outside references and instruments, checking for
traffic, apply power and control inputs smoothly with positive aircraft control. Recovers smoothly with
proper flap and gear sequence and maintenance of altitude.

References
FAA-H-8083-3C Airplane Flying Handbook, POH

79
ACCELERATED STALL MANEUVER
Description
A stall that occurs at an airspeed higher than the 1 g stall speed secondary to increased acceleration
forces from constant altitude steep turns, pull-ups, or other abrupt changes in your flight attitude. The
demonstration of the accelerated stall is set up similar to a steep turn: constant altitude at lower power
and airspeed than is normally used. While in the turn an additional load is placed on aircraft with aft
elevator to induce the stall. This is a maneuver that is typically used during commercial pilot and CFI
training and certification.

Caution: accelerated stalls should not be performed with flaps extended as this configuration significantly
reduces the design G-load capability of the aircraft. Accelerated stalls should not be attempted above
maneuvering speed (Va)

Objective
To demonstrate that a stall will not always occur at the same airspeed if excessive maneuvering loads are
imposed by steep turns, pull-ups or other abrupt changes in flight path.

Setup
• Clear the area
• Altitude: so recovery is ≥1500’ AGL
• Configure aircraft: Clean. Flaps up!
• Power set to maintain level flight at 1.3 x Vs1 (Typically near bottom of green on
RPM/Manifold pressure)
• Pitch up a few degrees (to maintain level turn)
• Roll to a 45º (do not let aircraft descend)
• Firmly increase back pressure until the first sign of a stall (buffet, stall horn)

Recovery
• Reduce angle of attack- Release back pressure
• Add FULL power
• Roll wings level
• Adjust pitch and power to return to level flight

Instructor: Discuss factors related to accelerated stall, AOA, gross wt, airspeed, load factors (bank)
Risk of spin entry with full stall
Discuss definition of Va and why used
Demonstrate accelerated stall

Student: Discuss factors related to accelerated stall, AOA, gross wt, airspeed, load factors (bank)
Demonstrate accelerated stall

Common Errors
• Failure to adequately clear the area
• Failure to establish specified landing gear and flap configuration prior to entry
• Failure to recover with FULL power
• Starting maneuver too fast, stall is difficult to induce and overstresses aircraft
• Insufficient power at start or failure to pitch up a few degrees before banking, Allowing aircraft
to descend (unload) during turn making stall induction difficult
• Uncoordinated

80
Completion Standards: Student is able to demonstrate appropriate checklist usage with proper
configuration of aircraft, dividing attention to between outside references and instruments, checking for
traffic, apply power and control inputs smoothly with positive aircraft control with recovery on first
indications of impending stall. Completes Student action items listed above.

References: FAA-H-8083-3C Airplane Flying Handbook

Tips and Tricks for Accelerated Stalls:

Make sure Aircraft is in clean configuration, flaps up. (see caution note above)
Set up reduced power (near bottom of green), level flight, airspeed 1.3 VS1
Pitch up a few degrees just before rolling into turn to maintain level flight and G load
Make sure aircraft is not in a descent (this unloads aircraft and makes stall induction difficult)
Decisively roll to 45 degrees of bank
Apply firm steady back pressure
At first buffet/stall horn reduce pitch(unload, decrease AOA), add power, and roll level to recover

81
SECONDARY STALLS
Description
A stall resulting from improper stall recovery technique of a power-on or power-off stall.

Objective
To demonstrate secondary stalls to show how to recognize the characteristics of the stall and the correct
methods of recovery.

Setup
• Clear the area
• Choose forced landing area
• Configure aircraft for a normal power-on or power-off stall, with altitude as necessary to
recover ≥1500’ AGL
• Select outside references
• During recovery from initial stall, quickly increase the pitch attitude again while
maintaining directional control with aileron and rudder pressure, allowing the airplane to enter
a secondary stall

Recovery
• Reduce the angle of attack by releasing back-elevator pressure, simultaneously
increasing throttle to full (if not already)
• Anticipate left-turning tendencies with right rudder pressure
• Return nose to straight-and-level, coordinated flight
• Maintain ball centered
• Upon positive rate of climb, retract flaps and gear as necessary
• Look for traffic

References
FAA-H-8083-3C Airplane Flying Handbook

82
CROSS-CONTROL STALL
Description
A stall resulting from crossed controls: aileron pressure applied in one direction and rudder pressure in
opposite direction. The scenario has occurred in the base to final turn when the runway is overshot and
excessive rudder is applied to turn back to runway producing a skidding turn. This scenario has claimed
many pilot lives. Note: this maneuver should be performed only in an aircraft certified for spins and with a
proper weight and balance to ensure aircraft is in the manufactures recommended envelop in case of spin
entry.

Objective
To demonstrate the effect of improper control technique and to emphasize the importance of using
coordinated control pressures when making turns.

Setup
• Clear the area
• Choose forced landing area
• Configure aircraft for final approach for landing: GUMPS, approach power , flaps up
(flaps down decreases structural load limit of aircraft upto 50%) carburetor heat on, altitude
so recovery is ≥1500’ AGL
• Select outside references
• Reduce power to idle
• Maintain altitude until a normal approach speed. and trim to relieve control pressures
• Roll into a medium bank turn (20-30º) once on simulated approach
• Apply heavy rudder pressure in the direction of the turn
• Apply opposite aileron pressure to maintain the bank
• Increase back elevator pressure to keep the nose from lowering
• Increase all flight control pressures until first signs of a stall (buffet, stall horn)

Recovery
• Immediately release all control pressures and, if necessary, allow the roll to continue until
airplane reaches upright and level flight
• Increase power to full to climb and recover
• Maintain ball centered
• Look for traffic

Instructor: Discuss conditions for a cross controlled stall and risk of spin entry
Demonstrate Cross Control Stall

Student: Discuss conditions for a cross controlled stall and risk of spin entry
Demonstrate Cross Control Stall

Common Errors
• Failure to adequately clear the area
• Failure to establish specified landing gear and flap configuration prior to entry
• Failure to establish cross-controlled turn and stall condition that will adequately demonstrate
the hazards of a cross controlled stall
• Failure to recognize and recover from the first indications of a stall
• Failure to present simulated student instruction to emphasize hazards of a cross controlled
condition in a gliding or reduced airspeed condition.

83
Completion Standards: Student is able to demonstrate appropriate checklist usage with proper
configuration of aircraft, dividing attention to between outside references and instruments, checking for
traffic, apply power and control inputs smoothly with positive aircraft control with recovery on first
indications of impending stall.

FAA-H-8083-3C Airplane Flying Handbook

84
ELEVATOR TRIM STALL
Description
A stall resulting from application of full power during a go-around when positive control of the airplane is
not maintained. It is imperative that a stall not occur during an actual go-around as there may not be
sufficient altitude to recover.

Objective
To demonstrate recovery procedures for overcoming strong trim forces and how to maintain control of the
airplane by using proper and timely trim techniques.

Setup
• Clear the area
• Choose forced landing area
• Configure aircraft for final approach for landing: GUMPS, approach power (____” Hg,___
RPM), full flaps down, gear extended, carburetor heat on, altitude so recovery is ≥1500’ AGL
• Select outside references
• Reduce power to idle
• Maintain altitude until normal glide speed is reached (______KIAS)
• Trim nose up (full up for best effect) to simulate landing approach to maintain final approach
speed
• Apply full power to simulate a go-around
o The combined forces of power, engine torque, back elevator trim will make the nose
pitch up sharply with a left-turning tendency; as the pitch attitude increases to a point
well above normal climb attitude, the potential for a stall exists

Recovery
• Immediately apply positive forward elevator pressure to lower nose and return to normal
climbing attitude
• Trim to relieve excessive control pressure
• Continue normal go-around procedures and level off at the desired altitude
• Maintain ball centered
• Look for traffic

Common Errors
• Failure to adequately clear the area
• Failure to establish specified landing gear and flap configuration prior to entry
• Improper or inadequate demonstration of the recognition of and the recovery from an elevator
trim stall

References: FAA-H-8083-3C Airplane Flying Handbook

85
SPINS
Description
An aggravated stall that results in what is termed “autorotation” wherein the airplane follows a downward
corkscrew path. A stall is a pre-requisite for spin development, usually in uncoordinated flight, slips or
skids. Failure to recognize impending stall with uncoordinated flight is a leading cause of pilot fatalities.
The set up for spin training is a power-off stall. Spins may be practiced to left and right.

Objective
To teach stall and spin aerodynamics, recognition, and recovery.

Setup
• Pre-flight: weight and balance of the aircraft must be calculated before the maneuver to
confirm that the airplane is within the utility category, aircraft configuration per the POH
(Flap and Gear position)
• All loose items must be removed from cabin and from personnel in aircraft
• Clear the area
• Configure aircraft per the POH: (_______RPM), altitude sufficient for recovery not below
1500’ AGL (ideally 5000’ AGL to start)
• Select outside references for orientation
• Power-off stall: reduce power to idle, simultaneously raise the nose to full aft elevator
• Add full rudder in direction of desired spin as airplane stalls
• Keep full back pressure on elevator to the limit of travel
• Allow spin to develop into a steady-state (developed) spin

Recovery
• Power – reduce to idle
• Ailerons – position to neutral
• Rudder – full opposite against the rotation
• Elevator – brisk elevator control full forward to brake stall
• After spin rotation stops, Neutralize rudder, roll wings level to horizon
• Smoothly apply back-elevator pressure to raise the nose to level flight

“PARE” is the recovery technique. Spins are an aerobatic maneuver. 14 CFR 91.303 governs where
aerobatic maneuvers may be done: Uncongested area, not in class B, C, D, or E airspace near an airport
or airway. 3+ statute mile visibility is required. A parachute is ordinarily required, but not for spins that are
done when required for a rating (14 CFR 91.307(d)). The airplane must be in the utility category or
aerobatic category to withstand the loads imposed during a spin. (Load factors for aircraft categories:
Utility +4.4, -1.76; Normal +3.8, -1.52; Aerobatic +6.0, -3.0.)

Instructor: Discuss aerodynamics and phases of spins and PARE recovery procedure
Discuss scenarios where spins are likely to develop- critical phases of flight
Verify aircraft categories and certification for spins
Review the aircraft weight and balance for utility category
Demonstrate spin Entry, Incipient, Developed, Recovery phases

Student: Discuss the aerodynamics of spins and PARE recovery procedure

Discuss scenarios where spins are likely to develop
Verify aircraft category and certification for spins
Calculate aircraft weight and balance for utility category
Demonstrate spin entry and recovery.

86
Advanced spin techniques: include power on spin (over the top), cross controlled spin
(simulates base to final, aka under the bottom spin), Inverted spin (negative G spin).
These and others can be learned by a qualified instructor or aerobatic pilot.

Common Errors
• Failure to establish proper configuration prior to spin entry
• Failure to achieve and maintain a full stall during spin entry
• Failure to use full back elevator on entry resulting in spiral
• Failure to close throttle when a spin entry is achieved
• Failure to recognize the indications of an imminent, unintentional spin
• Improper use of flight controls during spin entry, rotation, or recovery
• Disorientation during a spin
• Failure to distinguish between a high-speed spiral and a spin
• Excessive speed or accelerated stall during recovery
• Failure to recover with minimum loss of altitude (timid control use)
• Unable to describe hazards of attempting to spin an airplane not approved for spins

Completion Standards: Student is able to demonstrate appropriate checklist usage with proper
configuration of aircraft, dividing attention to between outside references and instruments, checking for
traffic, apply power and control inputs smoothly with positive aircraft control with recovery.

References
FAA-H-8083-3C Airplane Flying Handbook

87
RECTANGULAR COURSE
Description
A training maneuver in which the ground track of the airplane is equidistant from all sides of a selected
rectangular area on the ground. These are skills fundamental to flying a normal traffic pattern at an
airport. The skill involves determining wind direction, tracking a straight path with wind correction, the
effect on ground speed, bank and turning radius, coordinated flight.

Objective
To teach the conditions encountered in an airport traffic pattern.

Elements
• Clear the area
• Choose forced landing area (ideally within rectangular pattern)
• Configure aircraft for maneuvering: flaps and gear up, traffic pattern power and speed
(____” mmHg, _____RPM _____KIAS), approx. traffic pattern altitude of 600 – 1000’ AGL
• Select outside references (ideally a large rectangular field or parking lot), deciding on either
a left or right turns course
• Enter the pattern on the downwind, usually at 45º to the direction of the downwind,
maintaining airspeed and ball centered
o It can be entered on any leg of the course, but ideally enter on downwind
• At the first corner, turn to base leg, which is more than 90º due to a necessary crab angle
on the base leg; the bank will be steeper than normal due to the tailwind at start of the turn
• Crab (left) as necessary to maintain a straight base leg
• At the second corner, turn to upwind leg, which is less than 90º due to the crab or wind
correction on base; the bank will be shallower than normal due to headwind at end of turn
• Fly the upwind, which should require no wind correction
• At the third corner, turn to crosswind leg, which is less than 90º due to a necessary crab
angle(to right) on the crosswind leg; the bank will be shallower than normal due to the
headwind at start of the turn
• Crab (to right) as necessary to maintain a straight crosswind leg
• At the fourth corner, turn to downwind leg, which is more than 90º due to the crab or wind
correction on crosswind; the bank will be steeper than normal due to tailwind at end of turn
• Complete additional circuits or exit from downwind by turning 45º from the downwind leg
• Maintain coordination
• Look for traffic
•
Instructor: Discuss WCA and tracking a road/straight path
Discuss effects of wind, ground speed on bank angle, turn radius
Discuss determining wind direction and speed
Demonstrate downwind entry and rectangular course

Student: Discuss WCA and tracking a road/straight path

Discuss effects of wind, ground speed on bank angle, turn radius
Discuss determining wind direction and speed
Demonstrate downwind entry and rectangular course

Common Errors
• Failure to adequately clear the area
• Poor planning, orientation or division of attention.

88
 • Uncoordinated use of flight controls
• Improper correction for wind drift
• Failure to maintain selected altitude or airspeed.
• Selection of a ground reference where there is no suitable emergency landing area within
gliding distance.
• Inadequate visual look out for traffic

Completion Standards: Student is able to demonstrate appropriate checklist usage with proper
configuration of aircraft, dividing attention to between outside references and instruments, checking for
traffic, apply power and control inputs smoothly with positive aircraft control. Can complete student action
items listed above.
Completion Standards: Student is able to demonstrate appropriate checklist usage with proper
configuration of aircraft, dividing attention to between outside references and instruments, checking for
traffic, apply power and control inputs smoothly with positive aircraft control. Maintains altitude + 100 ft, ,
airspeed +10 kts. Completes Student action items listed above.

References
FAA-H-8083-3C Airplane Flying Handbook

Tips and Tricks: If large rectangular geographic landmark not available, then pick four
landmarks around the airport of training and practice tracking to each landmark maintaining
traffic pattern altitude. On Down wind, drift toward or away from runway relative to aircraft
structure (position of runway relative to place on wing or strut) can help provide feedback for
wind correction angle. Then try at new airport. This will then develop a habit of automatically
picking suitable landmarks at unfamiliar airports so pilot can fly consistent patterns and
approaches. This lesson should be attempted only after student has mastered the lessons on
straight and level flight and turns tracking to landmarks with wind correction.
Practice 90 degree turns: on each turn, pick an object just off the tip of the wing tip and then
track to that object. Doing this 4 x will lead to a nice rectangular pattern without a runway or
other large structure to reference! This will help flying rectangular patterns at any airport at
anytime.
The art of tracking. Determining the flight path of the aircraft takes practice. First track up and
down a road with a cross wind to visualize flight path. Then pick a land mark and try tracking to
it using object on ground that are near edge of cowl to detect drift. Find a point that does not
drift left or right as it gets closer to the cowl, then follow that “path” toward the horizon. That is
your track. It is rarely ever where the nose of the aircraft is pointed. This also becomes more
obvious as the student “crabs” to the runway on final for cross wind landings. After practice,
the “drift” or “track” of the aircraft becomes more automatic and makes flying consistent
square patterns second nature. After developing this skill, pick an object off wing tip and turn to
track to it. This a skill that helps fly patterns at any airport, even ones you are not familiar with.
Judging distance from runway: Use ground tracking and also the position of the runway on a
familiar point off the wing or strut. Keep the same distance at all runways, large or small, and
your approaches and landings will become more consistent and professional.

89
TURNS AROUND A POINT
Description
A maneuver requiring a constant radius turn about a point on the ground. Piloting requires the student to
develop automatic skills for maneuvering in reference to the ground to ensure coordinated flight, accurate
ground tracking, with division of attention inside and outside the cockpit. Inadequate preparation of these
automatic skills can lead to dangerous pilot distraction and loss of control of the aircraft, especially at low
altitudes such as descent with maneuver to land or something as simple as a fly over of a friend’s house
or scenic attraction.

Objective
To teach turning technique, subconscious control of the airplane, division of attention, effects of bank
angle to radius of a turn, perception of altitude and correction of wind drift.

Elements
• Clear the area
• Altitude: 800 to 1000 ft AGL, maintain +/- 100 ft of selected altitude.
• Power: set to maintain Va. (near bottom of green on RPM/manifold pressure)
• Configure aircraft: flaps and gear up
• Select outside reference land marks, center of circle and equidistant points (see diagram
below)
• Enter the circle on downwind and close enough to allow < 30 to 40º bank
• Turn to the steepest bank at the start of the circle (on downwind)
• Maintain radius of circle by flying the points around the circle, adjusting bank as necessary
to compensate for wind
• Complete two 360 degree circles
• Roll out on same heading as entry.
• Maintain ball centered
• Look for traffic throughout

Instructor: Discuss factors related entry, wind drift correction, altitude and airspeed control
Discuss determination of ground references to complete a constant radius turn
Demonstrate technique of Turns around a point.

Student: Discuss factors related entry, wind drift correction, altitude and airspeed control
Discuss determination of ground references to complete a constant radius turn
Demonstrate technique of Turns around a point.

Common Errors
• Failure to adequately clear the area
• Rushes set up and maneuver entry
• Poor planning, orientation, or division of attention
• Improper correction for wind drift
• Uncoordinated use of flight controls
• Failure to maintain selected altitude or airspeed
• Inadequate visual lookout for other aircraft

Completion Standards: Student is able to demonstrate appropriate checklist usage with proper
configuration of aircraft, dividing attention to between outside references and instruments, checking for

90
traffic, apply power and control inputs smoothly with positive aircraft control. Maintains altitude + 100 ft, ,
airspeed +/- 10 kts. Completes Student action items as listed above.

References
FAA-H-8083-3C Airplane Flying Handbook

Tips and tricks for Turns around a Point: it is ok to fly over the intended center point to assess for
landmarks prior to execution. (road intersection, building, large tree)

- Take your time, set power, trim out aircraft and wait for aircraft to stabilize airspeed

-choose 4 points equidistant from the center 1, 2, 3 and 4 (see bleow).

-Enter maneuver over point 1 (downwind) close enough to obtain an initial bank of 30 to 40
degrees (steepest of maneuver). If initial bank shallow, start the maneuver closer to the center
(pick closer points 1,2, 3 and 4).

-fly from one equidistant point to the next, using bank as necessary to over fly each point.

-Flying from one point to the next will relieve the pilot of thinking about bank and ground speed
as the pilot will automatically bank appropriately. Note, the maneuver primary purpose is to fly a
“Circle” around the point and use control inputs as necessary to accomplish this.

91
S-TURNS ACROSS A ROAD
Description
A practice maneuver in which the airplane’s ground track describes semicircles with equal radii on each
sides of a selected straight line on the ground. This is a maneuver designed to build on the skills
developed in Rectangular path and Turns-Around a Point.

Objective
To teach the ability to compensate for drift during turns, orient the flight path with ground references,
follow an assigned ground track, arrive at specified points on assigned headings, and divide the pilot’s
attention. Developing proficient and automatic piloting skills to increases precision and safety

Elements
• Clear the area
• Configure aircraft: flaps and gear up,
• Power: near bottom of green RPM/Manifold pressure to obtain Va
• Altitude between 600-1000’ AGL,
• Select a straight ground reference perpendicular to the wind (Road)
• Approach perpendicular and on downwind to road/reference(have a tailwind)
• Start first turn to the left (steepest bank) upon crossing the ground reference
• Landmarks: choose landmarks equidistant across road and fly to them, Banking as
necessary to correct for wind. See diagram below.
• A proper maneuver will result in wings level and parallel to the reference (road) upon
crossing
• Start second turn to the right (shallowest bank) upon crossing the ground reference
• At completion of the maneuver, wings should be level and parallel to the reference
upon crossing
• Maintain coordination
• Look for traffic

Instructor: Discuss factors related entry, wind drift correction, altitude and airspeed control
Discuss determination of ground references to complete a constant radius turns
Demonstrate technique of S Turns across a road.

Student: Discuss factors related entry, wind drift correction, attitude and airspeed control
Discuss determination of ground references to complete a constant radius turn
Demonstrate technique of Turns Across a Road

Common Errors
• Failure to adequately clear the area
• Failure to establish appropriate bank on entry
• Poor planning, orientation, or division of attention
• Improper correction for wind drift
• Uncoordinated use of flight controls
• Asymmetric ground track
• Failure to maintain selected altitude or airspeed
• Inadequate visual lookout for other aircraft
• Heavy control use

92
Completion Standards: Student is able to demonstrate appropriate checklist usage with proper
configuration of aircraft, dividing attention to between outside references and instruments, checking for
traffic, apply power and control inputs smoothly with positive aircraft control. Maintains altitude + 100 ft, ,
airspeed +/- 10 kts. Completes Student action items as listed above.

References
FAA-H-8083-3C Airplane Flying Handbook

Tips and tricks: flying S turns around a road can be done similar to turns around the point. With proper
selection of landmarks, the pilot will make the correct degree of bank for the wind conditions by flying
point to point. The degree of bank at each point then is an academic observation without practical
application to the maneuver. See concept in tips and trick in the Turns around a point lesson plan.

93
EIGHTS ON PYLONS (PYLON EIGHTS)
Description:
The aircraft if flown in a horizontal figure eight around two pylons at constant power and changing
altitude. The path around the pylons is not required to be symmetric (it will only be symmetric in a zero
wind condition). The key component of the maneuver is to “pivot” the aircraft around each pylon such that
the tip of the wing appears to be pointing directly at the pylon through the turn. The pivotal altitude
changes with ground speed. The initial entry pivotal altitude is calculated based on estimated ground
speed (see calculations below in flight planning).

Objective
To develop the ability to control the airplane accurately while dividing attention between the flightpath and
the selected points on the ground.

Elements
• Flight Planning:

o Pivotal altitude in AGL = (GS in Knots)² / 11.3 or (GS in MPH)² / 15

o Pivotal altitude at 100 KIAS = 885’ AGL, if 10 knots of winds, lowest groundspeed is
90 KIAS = 717’ AGL, highest groundspeed is 110 KIAS = 1071’ AGL

• Clear the area

• Configure aircraft: Clean.
• Power: Near bottom of green (RPM/Manifold) to obtain Va
• Select pylon – Fly with the winds at the 45º quartering tailwind position, maintaining pivotal
altitude until an ideal pylon (point as a ground reference) is selected, which should be within
the 45º off the left side of the flight path and close enough for a 30º to 40º bank
• Bank onto pylon (30º to 40º) – Maintain straight-and-level flight at pivotal altitude until
abeam the first pylon (it should be off the left wingtip
• Adjust pivotal altitude – pitch up if wing is ahead of pylon, pitch down if wing is behind
pylon.
• First half of turn into pylon, gradually decrease pivotal altitude as you turn about the
pylon, turning directly into the wind.
• The last half of turn around the first pylon, you will be turning out of the wind, and you will
gradually increase pivotal altitude as ground speed increases.
• Keep wingtip reference on pylon – adjust pitch and bank as necessary to hold wingtip (i.e.
a row of rivets along the wingtip)
• Wings level (3-5 seconds) – Begin the rollout to straight-and-level flight as the first turn is
completed, then maintain straight-and-level flight and crab into the wind as necessary,
flying straight-and-level for 3 to 5 seconds, climbing if necessary to return to pivotal
altitude
• Select second pylon – Select a second pylon, within 45º off the right side of the flight path
and close enough for a 30º to 40º bank
• Bank onto pylon (30º to 40º) – Maintain straight-and-level flight at pivotal altitude until
abeam the second pylon (it should be off the right wingtip), then roll 30º to 40º angle of bank,
noting that your line of reference may look different in the opposite turn
• First half of turn into second pylon, gradually decrease pivotal altitude as you turn about
the pylon, turning directly into the wind.
• Second half of turn out of second pylon: you will be turning out of the wind, and you will
gradually increase pivotal altitude to starting altitude
• Keep wingtip reference on pylon –adjust pitch as necessary to hold wingtip (i.e. a row of
rivets along the wingtip) on pylons

94
 • Avoid slips and skids
• Repeat the maneuver as necessary or recover by exiting from the straight-leg between turns
• Look for traffic throughout

Instructor: Discuss factors related entry, wind drift correction, altitude and airspeed control
Discuss determination of ground references, pivotal altitude, line of sight reference
Demonstrate technique of Eight on Pylons.

Student: Discuss factors related entry, wind drift correction, altitude and airspeed control
Determination of ground references, pivotal altitudes, line of sight reference.
Demonstrate technique of Eight on Pylons.

Common Errors
• Failure to clear area
• Rushed or Faulty entry procedure
• Using rudder to yaw wing over pylon
• Improper “line of sight” reference
• Improper planning for turn entries and rollouts
• Improper correction for wind drift between pylons
• Excessive gain or loss of altitude

Completion Standards: Student is able to demonstrate appropriate checklist usage with proper
configuration of aircraft, dividing attention to between outside references and instruments, checking for
traffic, apply power and control inputs smoothly with positive aircraft control. Completes Student action
items as listed above.

References
FAA-H-8083-3C Airplane Flying Handbook

95
Tips and Tricks: In order to keep the wing tip on the pylon, the pilot will have to continuously change
altitude through the turn. Higher ground speeds require higher altitudes, lower ground speed requires
lower altitudes. When turning away from a tailwind, ground speed slows, the pylon will appear to advance
in front of the wing. The pilot will have to pitch down to “catch up” to the pylon until into a direct head
wind. As the turn continues and the pilot turns out of the headwind, ground speed increases and pylon
lags behind wing tip. The pilot will have to pitch up to higher altitude (slowing ground speed) to allow
pylon to move forward to reference point on wing tip. The radius from the reference point varies with the
direction of the cross wind through the turn and thus presents an asymmetrical radius of turn..

Select pylons along a road or similar landmark if possible. Even if entry relative to wind is not perfectly
text book, it will make the maneuver and orientation much easier to learn. For example, if wind is roughly
from north or south, use an east west road. An alternative way to select pylons: fly with the wind
perpendicular to the flightpath, select your first pylon, 7 seconds later your midpoint, 7 seconds later your
second pylon. Then circle back to enter maneuver.

On initial entry: If pilot needs to descend aggressively, calculated pivotal altitude was too high. If the pilot
needs to pitch up on initial entry into first turn, calculated pivotal altitude was too low.

Staying on the pylon: If pylon moves ahead, slow down by increasing pitch (increase pivotal altitude),
and vice versa. If the pylon moves back, pull back; if the pylon moves forward, push forward.

On bank: when downwind the aircraft will drift away from pylon and require a shallower bank. As aircraft
travels to the upwind side of pylon, the aircraft will drift closer to pylon and require a steeper bank to
maintain wing on pylon

On exit from first pylon: the aircraft should have climbed to the correct pivotal altitude for entry to the
second pylon. Maintain this altitude while tracking (crabbing) to second pylon.

Rudder trouble: If pilot has difficulty with over use of rudder, yawing instead of pitch to correct pylon
position, pilot should practice the maneuver a few times with feet on floor and off the rudders. After
proficiency with pitch corrections, the rudder use can resume with “pressures” at the bottom of the pedal.

96
STEEP TURNS
Description
A performance maneuver consisting of a turn in either direction using a bank angle between 45º -55º.
This is a visual maneuver best done by outside reference, only occasionally checking instruments
to verify performance.

Objective
To develop the smoothness, coordination, orientation, division of attention, and control techniques
necessary for the execution of maximum performance turns
Elements
• Clear the area
• Configure aircraft: No flaps, gear up
• Airspeed less than VA
• Altitude ≥1500, > 3000(multiengine)’ AGL
• Select outside references (road etc is better than DG or HSI)
• Power- add small amount of power (100-200 rpm or 1 to 2” manifold pressure) to
maintain airspeed + 10 kts
• Pitch up slightly to maintain angle of attack/lift that will be lost when rolling into bank.
• Bank of 45º (50º for commercial) to maintain altitude ± 100’
• Correct altitude loss by reducing bank, pitch up and re bank.
• Correct altitude gain by increasing bank and relaxing back pressure.
• Use external references: horizon for bank while also looking for traffic
• Anticipate roll-out by leading approx. 20º (half bank angle) to original heading ± 10º
• Upon completion of 360º turn (usually left), complete a second 360º to the opposite
direction
• Upon completion of second turn, pitch down on roll out and Decrease power to
prevent excessive altitude gain
• Maintain Coordination: rudder used for rolling to and out of bank, little “inside” rudder
pressure during turn.
• Look for traffic- DURING maneuver!!

Instructor: Discuss factors related entry, exit, altitude, and airspeed control
Demonstrate technique of Steep Turns.

Student: Discuss factors related entry, exit, altitude and airspeed control
Demonstrate technique of Steep Turns.

Common Errors
• Failure to clear area
• Improper pitch, bank, and power coordination during entry and rollout.
• Improper procedure in correcting altitude deviations
• Loss of orientation, rolling out on wrong heading.
• Gaining altitude in right turns or losing altitude in left turns (parallax error)
• Failure to maintain a constant bank angle
• Attempting to perform maneuver by instrument reference instead of visual
• Failure to scan for traffic during the maneuver
Completion Standards: Student is able to demonstrate appropriate checklist usage with proper
configuration of aircraft, dividing attention to between outside references and instruments, checking for
traffic. Maintains entry altitude + 100 ft, airspeed, + 10 kts, rolls out on entry heading + 10o, 45
degrees bank for private pilot, > 50 degrees for commercial pilot.

97
References
FAA-H-8083-3C Airplane Flying Handbook

Aerodynamics- In level flight, rolling into a steep bank redirects a significant component of the vertical
lift into horizontal lift. The horizontal component of lift is what “pulls” the aircraft in a circle like it is
tethered to a pole with a rope. However, the remaining component of vertical lift is not sufficient to
maintain altitude. To compensate, just prior to rolling into the bank, pitching the aircraft up slightly (1 or
2 degrees) increases the angle of attack and the total lift available to have more vertical lift once
established in the turn to maintain level flight. However, the increase lift creates drag which slows the
aircraft down. Therefore, a small amount of power must be added at the initiation of the maneuver to
maintain airspeed. AT the initiation of the maneuver, the order of operations is Power, Pitch, Bank. If
you are nose low and try to increase pitch by pulling yoke back after the bank is established, you are at
risk of steeping the bank more than lifting the nose (the elevator in a steep bank pulls nose into the
turn) . This decreases vertical lift and may cause the aircraft to descend!!! If the nose is slightly above
the horizon, aft yoke pressure tends to tighten the turn and keep nose on horizon. See note below.

Maintaining Altitude: Pitch up before bank. Then, it is recommended to use the “drift” of the horizon up
or down relative to the windscreen/airframe to detect changes in altitude. The pilot can detect changes
more rapidly than reference to the instruments. Additionally, this method works in ALL aircraft and does
not require finding a different reference point on airframe or cowling between left and right turns.

To correct altitude deviations: If losing altitude, un-bank, pitch up and re bank. If climbing, increase
bank slightly and relax back pressure on yoke. Verify performance by cross referencing instruments.

Maintaining Bank: Similarly, bank angle should be estimated by the relative position of the aircraft wings
to the horizon. The instruments should be glanced at 2 to 3 times per turn to verify performance.

Maintaining airspeed: Adding a couple of inches or RPM of power on initiation of procedure will keep
airspeed within tolerance. Practice adding small amount of power by feel or sound. Remember to
reduce power at finish point when rolling out of second turn.

Practice recommendations: COVER all the instruments and perform by looking only outside! When
proficient, uncover instruments. The instructor performs maneuver, student determines if altitude is
gained or lost by observing the horizon relative to the wind screen. When the student detects a change
in altitude, a quick cross check of the altimeter will demonstrate the human eye can detect small
changes faster than the instruments. It is not recommended to hold a particular part of the cowling
(rivet line) on the horizon as this will change in left and right turns if the pilot is sitting off centerline.
Additionally, if the horizon drift method is used, the pilot look for traffic in direction of turn.

After turn is established and proper NOSE pitch attitude: try adding a little back pressure to yoke. The
elevator works like a bit more like a rudder and tightens the turn and holds nose on horizon. The slight
increase in “G” load will help “lock in” aircraft so there is less altitude drift, tightens turn so maneuver is
completed more rapidly.

Adverse yaw: is associated with aileron displacement. In shallow turns, once established, ailerons are
neutralized and no rudder needed during turn. In steep turns, outside wing is traveling faster than inside
wing, creating more lift and more drag. This, a small amount of “inside” or “Bottom” rudder needed in
steep turns.

98
STEEP SPIRAL (ASEL, ASES, Commercial)
Description
A maximum performance maneuver that requires you to combine steep-spiraling descent with the basic
elements of turns about a point. Aircraft POWER OFF in clean configuration, constant airspeed (best
glide), constant turn radius, maximum bank of 60 degrees for 3 complete turns with roll out to specified
heading or point. Start into the wind.

Objective
To develop pilot techniques for airspeed control, wind drift control, planning, orientation, and division of
attention, with practical application for emergency landings. Objective with a 60º bank is to get down fast
(high bank eliminates lift component) safely.

Elements
• Clear the area,
• Altitude sufficient to allow three complete turns and still be ≥1500’ AGL, (typically: 4000’ AGL
minimum)
• Choose forced landing area (ideally adjacent to encircling point)
• Configure aircraft: straight-and-level, GUMPS , flaps 0º
• Select outside references (point to encircle, ideally adjacent to a forced landing area)
• Throttle to idle, propeller to high RPM
• Establish best glide speed (_____ KIAS 0º Flaps)
• Establish a constant radius circle allowing a bank of ≤60º about ground reference point
o Close enough to allow no more than 60º of bank at the steepest point
• Maintaining a constant airspeed by adjusting pitch and bank as necessary to correct for
wind
• Trim as necessary
• Clear the engine when into the wind (advance throttle to normal cruise momentarily)
• Complete at least three complete 360º turns, but do not descend below 1500’ AGL unless
the maneuver is to be followed by an emergency landing
• Roll out to specified heading or point, simultaneously add power
• Maintain coordination
• Look for traffic

Instructor: Discuss factors related entry, exit, altitude and airspeed control
Demonstrate technique of Steep Spiral.

Student: Discuss factors related entry, exit, altitude and airspeed control
Demonstrate technique of Steep Spiral.

Common Errors
• Failure to clear area
• Improper pitch, bank, yaw, and power coordination during entry or completion
• Improper planning and lack of maintenance of constant airspeed and radius
• Failure to stay orientated to the number of turns and the rollout heading
• Inadequate wind drift correction
• Failure to scan for other traffic

Completion Standards: Student is able to demonstrate appropriate checklist usage with proper
configuration of aircraft, dividing attention to between outside references and instruments, checking for

99
traffic, apply power and control inputs smoothly with positive aircraft control. Completes Student action
items as listed above.

References
FAA-H-8083-3C Airplane Flying Handbook

Tips and tricks:

At the higher altitudes and wind speeds, insufficient bank will cause aircraft to drift significantly away
from target. So the student should be prepared for high bank angles on down wind and wings level on
upwind when winds aloft are high to maintain equal distance from target/turning point.

The most difficult part of this maneuver is maintaining best glide airspeed, especially at altitude where
the wind may be faster. The ground speed increases significantly when on downwind and requires large
bank angles (up 60) and rates of descent which may increase airspeed. To slow down, unbank pitch up
and rebank to correct airspeed. Consequently on upwind, may need to pitch down to increase airspeed.

If the student is having difficulty with the maneuver, then have the student practice steep turns followed
by turns around a point at 3000 to 4000 ft AGL (without the descent) before resuming to full steep spiral
procedure.

100
CHANDELLE
Description
A maximum performance 180º climbing turn starting from straight and level flight. At completion of the
turn the aircraft is in a nose high position at minimum controllable airspeed (near stall) and maximum
power. Both left and right turns are to be practiced.

Objective
To teach planning, orientation, division of attention and control feel for maximum performance flight.

Elements
• Clear the area
• Choose forced landing area
• Configure aircraft for maneuvering: ≤ VA with propeller to full. flaps up, cowl flaps open,
altitude ≥1500’ AGL
• Select outside references (off wingtip for 90º point)

0-90 degrees: Constant Bank, full power, increasing pitch

• Establish a coordinated constant 30° bank turn
• Throttle to full
• Gradually increase pitch to arrive at 90° reference point with max desired pitch
• Anticipate need for rudder pressure

90-180 degrees: Decreasing bank, constant pitch, finish near stall speed
• Maintain pitch attitude at 90º while reducing bank to 180º point
o As aircraft slows, greater back elevator is required to maintain pitch
• At 180° point, roll wings level, slightly above stall speed
o Rolling out of a left chandelle requires more right rudder pressure
o Rolling out of a right chandelle requires less rudder pressure

• Gently reduce pitch to straight-and-level but maintain altitude and build airspeed
• Adjust throttle to maintain altitude
• Maintain coordination (lots of right rudder at end of maneuver)
• Look for traffic
•
Instructor: Discuss factors related entry, exit, Bank and pitch control
Demonstrate technique of Chandelle.

Student: Discuss factors related entry, exit, bank and pitch control
Demonstrate technique of Left and right Chandelles.

Common Errors
• Failure to adequately clear the area
• Pitches up too fast in first 90 degrees, losing too much airspeed
• Lets nose drop between 90-180 degrees, losing climb performance, finishes too fast
• Failure to start the roll out recovery at the 90° point in the turn
• Allowing the pitch attitude to increase or decrease as the bank is rolled out during the second
90° of turn
• Stall during maneuver
• Too shallow bank, resulting in a stall
• Too steep in bank, resulting in failure to gain maximum performance

101
Completion Standards: Student is able to demonstrate appropriate checklist usage with proper
configuration of aircraft, dividing attention to between outside references and instruments, checking for
traffic, apply power and control inputs smoothly with positive aircraft control. Completes Student action
items as listed above.

References
FAA-H-8083-3C Airplane Flying Handbook

Tips and Tricks:

-Power on stall airspeed and pitch test: Do you know the power on stall speed of your aircraft?
Before starting maneuver, determine the pitch attitude in degrees (ie 170) that is just below a power on
stall. NOTE THE PITCH ATTITUDE AND AIRSPEED (it will be below Vs1). Use this pitch attitude as your
target of maximum pitch reached at the end of the first 90 degrees of the maneuver. Then as aircraft
slows, apply more back elevator to maintain that pitch attitude and you will always finish at the correct
speed without stalling.

The starting Airspeed is Va, finishing airspeed is determined during the power on stall test listed
above. The airspeed at 90 degrees should be half way between!

-If the airspeed is fast at the 90 degree point, shallow the bank to delay the rollout to 180
degrees to allow airspeed to bleed off. Next time pitch up a bit higher

- if the airspeed is slow at the 90 degree point, delay shallowing bank to hasten achieving the
180 degrees and subsequent rollout. Next time pitch a little lower.

-after the 90 degree point, aft pressure on the yoke will need to be increased to maintain same
pitch angle. Nose drop before 180 degrees is a common error that leads to high airspeed at finish.

-bringing nose up to quickly or too high in the first 90 degrees is a common error leading to loss
of airspeed too quickly and also leads to the nose dropping later in the maneuver

-maximum pitch at 90 degrees can be estimated ahead of time by determining Minimum deck
angle (pitch) required to induce a power on stall in the clean configuration. See above.

-insufficient right rudder as rolls out on finish at 180 degrees is very common error.

102
LAZY EIGHT
Description
A maneuver that is basically two 180º turns in opposite directions, with each turn including a climb and
descent using outside references with minimum attention inside the cockpit. See below.

Objective
To develop the smoothness, coordination, orientation, planning, division of attention, and ability to
maintain precise aircraft control through a wide range of airspeeds and altitudes. At no time during the
maneuver are the forces on the controls constant.

Elements
• Clear the area
• Configure aircraft: Clean configuration
• Power : just above bottom of green RPM/manifold (< Va) , altitude ≥1500’ AGL
• Select outside references (45º, 90º, 135º and 1800 points)
• From 0 to 450 Gradual pitch up about 10 degrees, bank 15 degrees,
45º point highest pitch. 15º of bank
• From 45º to 90º hold nose high till speed decays and nose falls through horizon at 90
degree point, bank steepens to 30-40 degrees
90º point nose falls through level, max altitude, 30º-bank, just above stall
• From 90º to 135º slowly roll out bank, lowering the nose
135º lowest pitch, bank 15º
• From 135º to 180º continue roll out SLOWLY and gradual level out
1800 level, original altitude
• Repeat above in opposite direction
• Arrive at 180º point straight-and-level at the original heading, altitude and airspeed
• Maintain coordination
• Look for traffic

103
Instructor: Discuss factors related to outside reference, entry, exit, attitude control
Demonstrate technique of Lazy Eight.

Student: Discuss factors related entry, exit, altitude and airspeed control
Demonstrate technique of Lazy Eight

Common Errors
• Failure to clear area
• Poor selection of reference points
• Uncoordinated use of fight controls
• Asymmetrical loops resulting from poorly planned pitch and bank attitude changes
• Rolling into or out of maneuver too quickly
• Loss of orientation
• Excessive deviation from reference points
• Failure to scan for traffic during the maneuver

Completion Standards: Student is able to demonstrate appropriate checklist usage with proper
configuration of aircraft, dividing attention to between outside references and instruments, checking for
traffic, apply power and control inputs smoothly with positive aircraft control. Completes Student action
items as listed above, rollout +/- 10 degrees, +/- 100 ft at bottom.

References
FAA-H-8083-3C Airplane Flying Handbook

Tips and Tricks: The instructor should demonstrate the maneuver twice. The first time calling out the
aircraft attitude (pitch and bank) at each 45 degree increment so the student can get a good sight picture
of the maneuver. The second time, the instructor emphasizes the technique to perform the maneuver
(initial pitch up approx. 10 degrees, slowly bank to 15 degrees, holding pitch attitude till airspeed bleeds
and approaching 90 degree point let nose “fall” through horizon. Then start gradually rolling out of bank
with slight forward pressure to return to starting altitude on reaching the 180 degree point)

104
BASIC INSTRUMENT MANEUVERS
Attention/Motivation:. Practicing basic instrument maneuvers and emergency procedures improves
the pilots confidence in handling the aircraft by reference to instruments and increases the safety of flight
should you inadvertently fly into IMC. Performing these maneuvers must be done slowly, methodically
with patience and DON’T panic. Emphasis is on positive aircraft control and then radio communications.

Objective
To teach basic flight maneuvers solely by reference to instruments and emergency procedures necessary
to escape to visual conditions.

Elements
• Clear the area
• Configure aircraft for cruise or as necessary
• Student: wear a view-limiting device
• Straight-and-level flight – maintain heading and altitude using attitude indicator and
heading indicator, cross reference Altimeter.
• Turn to headings (Standard rate) – bank using attitude indicator (approx. 15º see tips and
tricks below), cross reference turn coordinator
• Constant Airspeed Climbs, Descents, Leveling off (see tips and tricks below)
o Climbs: gradually add Full Power
▪ Level out reducing power to SAME power before climb, trim if necessary
o Descents: reduce Power, adjust Pitch, Trim if necessary
▪ Level out adding power to SAME setting before descent, trim as necessary
• Maintain coordination
• Instructor looks for traffic while student performs under a hood

Practice recommendations: Once student becomes comfortable with basic instrument

maneuvers, practice VFR into IMC egress and navigation

1) 180-degree standard rate turn for emergency egress

2) Call ATC- use Guard 121.5 if local frequency uncertain
3) “May day May Day May Day – VFR pilot in IMC” Declare the emergency
4) navigate to VFR as directed by ATC Track to VOR or USE GPS

Instructor: Discuss techniques for stable control of aircraft under instrument conditions:
Attitude indicator use, instrument cross check, Trim for level flight,
climbs and descents with power,
Standard rate Turns
Use of autopilot if available in real IMC
Review roll out and level off procedures
Review radio communications, climb call confess
Review ATC, radar services

Student: Demonstrate basic instrument procedures, ATC use and tracking to VOR
Demonstrate appropriate emergency procedures: climb call confess

Common Errors
• “fixation” and “omission” errors on cross check
• Improper entry, rollout, or level off
• Faulty trim
• Heavy grip on yoke, Over/under control inputs

105
Completion Standards: Student is able to demonstrate appropriate checklist usage with proper
configuration of aircraft, dividing attention to between outside references and instruments, checking for
traffic, apply power and control inputs smoothly with positive aircraft control. Completes Student action
items as listed above. Maintain altitude + 200 ft,, heading + 200, airspeed + 10 kts.

References
FAA-H-8083-15B Instrument Flying Handbook Chapter 7

Tips and Tricks for Basic Instrument Maneuvers :

1) Command and Performance: Although several different scanning techniques are
recommended in FAA publications, professional pilots and beginning students
alike tend to adapt most rapidly to the “Command and Performance” method
which emphasizes the Attitude indicator as the primary control instrument. The
aircraft will always perform the same for a given configuration and power
setting. If having difficulty holding altitude or heading, always return to Attitude
indicator, wings level, pitch on horizon will hold heading and altitude. Trim trim
trim to hands off flying. Use a light grip (three fingers)
2) Climbs, descents, leveling off. Once aircraft is trimmed In straight and level
flight, make all climbs, descents and LEVEL OFF with power. Once at new
altitude, return power to the same settings and no further trim changes will be
required. (Note: at top of a climb, allow aircraft to accelerate to cruise before
reducing power)
3) In a complex aircraft, 1” of manifold pressure drop= 100ft/min descent. If you
want to descend 500 ft/min, decrease MP by 5”, for 800 ft/min, decrease by 8
inches. For fixed pitch prop, 300 to 400 RPM decrease will produce a 500 ft/min
descent.
4) A standard rate turn can be made by banking 10% of airspeed + 5 degrees. So if
cruising at 100 kts, a standard rate turn would be a 15 degree bank. With this
method, the instrument scan put more attention on attitude indicator. The turn
coordinator can be generally ignored so aircraft control is simplified
5) Tracking to a VOR: Tune frequency (ID Navaid), Dial CDI to center with “TOO”
flag, Turn to Magnetic heading indicated at top of CDI. Tune, Dial, Turn.
6) To maintain a VOR or LOC course: Once intercept a course, use the 1-2-3 rule to
make small corrections. Ie make STD rate turn with Attitude indicator, counting
1-2-3 (yields about a 10 degree correction). This way, you don’t have to stare at
DG and heading bug, becoming fixated and losing altitude, attitude and other
control. Make course corrections incrementally. Once needle starts to center,
turn back with the 1-2-3 rule so you don’t keep flying through the course. If,
after centering CDI and syncing your heading bug, you find you are off course by
needle deflection, always turn back to the heading bug first before making a 1-
2-3 sec correction toward the deflected needle. This will keep you from making
over corrections.

106
UNUSUAL ATTITUDES
Description
Use of instruments solely as a mean to recover from steep climbing or descending turns, necessary for
inadvertent entry into IMC. Unusual attitudes can also be entered by poor trim during cruise with
associated attention diversion. Attempting to recover by “feel” or automatic response may aggravate the
unusual attitude or overstress the airframe resulting in structural failure.

Objective
To teach proper techniques required to return the airplane to straight and level flight from unusual
attitudes.

Elements
• Clear the area
• Instructor: choose forced landing area
• Configure aircraft less than Va, clean configuration
• Student: wear a view-limiting device
• Instructor: put aircraft into an unusual attitude
• Student: Recover from unusual attitude using only instruments in order presented:
o Nose low, High airspeed:
• reduce power to idle
• Roll wings level,
• pitch to level flight (avoid exceeding G limits on airframe)
o Nose high, low airspeed:
• increase power to full
• Pitch forward to level (prevent stall)
• Roll wings level
• Return to normal cruise flight
• Maintain coordination throughout recovery
• Instructor looks for traffic while student performs under a hood

Instructor: Discuss recognition of unusual attitudes by instrument indications

Discuss rational for recovery sequence of power, pitch, bank in nose high vs nose low
Assist student in performance of above maneuvers.

Student: Discuss recognition of unusual attitudes by instrument indications

Discuss rational for recovery sequence of power, pitch, bank in nose high vs nose low
Demonstrate recovery from unusual attitudes

Common Errors
• Recovering with improper sequence
• Attempting to recover by “feel” rather than instrument indications
• Inappropriate control applications during recovery
• Difficulty determining when the airplane is passing through a level flight attitude

Completion Standards: Apply power and control inputs smoothly, in correct order for pitch up vs
pitch down attitudes. Completes Student action items as listed above.

References
FAA-H-8083-15B Instrument Flying Handbook

107
Emergency Descent
Description
A maximum performance maneuver that requires you to combine spiraling descent with division of
attention to emergency procedures. This is a Power off, maximum drag descent. Please note, follow
recommended procedure in the POH.

Objective
To develop pilot techniques for airspeed control, planning, orientation, and division of attention, with
practical application for emergency landings.

Elements
• Clear the area
• Choose forced landing area (ideally adjacent to encircling point)
• Configure aircraft: straight-and-level at or just below flap speed, altitude sufficient to allow
three complete turns and still be ≥1000’ AGL, (5000’ AGL minimum)
• Descent checklist
• Select outside references (point to encircle, ideally adjacent to a forced landing area)

• Maximize Drag:
Throttle to idle
Propeller to high RPM
Flaps up or down (in some aircraft, full flaps may not give greatest descent rate
secondary to airspeed limitations. If configuration not stated in POH, trial at various flap
settings with CFI)
Gear down in complex aircraft.

• Maximum speed without exceeding the flap (Vfe), gear(Vle), or Vne speed (Va if
turbulent).
o Establish a bank of 30 to 45º
• Maintaining maximum safe airspeed by adjusting pitch and bank as necessary
• Trim as necessary
• Clear the engine when into the wind (advance throttle to normal cruise momentarily)
• Recovery after descent is established/stabilized when practicing: do not descend below
1000’ AGL unless the maneuver is to be followed by an emergency landing
• Look for traffic

Completion Standards
Rapid controlled descent, maintaining maximum airspeed and descent rate without exceeding 45
degrees of bank or maximum safe speed (flap or gear extension) speed.

Common Errors
• Failure to clear area
• Failure to identify the reason for an emergency descent
• Failure to maintain appropriate airspeed
• Improper procedures for recovering from an emergency descent.
• Failure to scan for other traffic
• Failure to clear engine into wind

References
FAA-H-8083-3C Airplane Flying Handbook, POH

108
Aeronautical Decision Making
Introduction: Most accidents are a result of a series of errors in judgment that put the pilot in a
dangerous situation. The most important aspect in making a safe flight is good judgment
weighing the various factors that influence the flight. The purpose of this lesson is to help the
student pilot develop a framework of assessment tools and skills to make good aeronautical
decisions
Aeronautical Decision Making: A systematic approach to the mental process to consistently
determine the best course of action in response to a given set of circumstances.
Elements:
personal attitudes hazardous to safe flight
behavior modification techniques
recognizing and coping with stress
Risk assessment skills (decide, pave, I’msafe) and mitigation
SRM/CRM resource management
Common operational pitfalls
Instructor Actions:
Review components of above elements with student at every flight lesson
Discuss scenarios which may encourage hazardous attitudes, operational pitfalls
During flight training, set up scenarios that require the student to use Crew resource or
ADM
Student Action
Recite hazardous attitudes and antidotes
Demonstrate use of “PAVE” and “I’M SAFE” check lists
Recall at least 4 of the operational pitfalls
Develop consistent habits consistent with ADM
Evaluation: Student uses the components of ADM and CRM to make good decisions during
flight training

References: AC 60-20, FAA-H-8083-25B

109
Instructor Notes:
DECIDE model: Detect situation
Estimate Risks
Choose course of action
Identify (alternate?) solutions
Do the actions
Evaluate effects of actions
3 P model: Perceive
Process
Perform
Risk Management:
*PAVE: four fundamental risk elements
Pilot --------------------→ “Im Safe”
Aircraft – handle the job?
eVironment (weather, runway)
External Pressures –Time, fuel, expectations, getting home
*I’m Safe Illness *SRM: 5 p model Plan
Medication Pilot
Stress Plane
Alcohol People
Fatigue Programming
Eating
Hazardous Attitudes:
Anti-authority “Don’t Tell Me!!” Follow the rules, they are usually right
Impulsivity “Just do IT NOW!!! No so fast… think!
Invulnerable “wont happen to me” Yes it could happen to you
Macho “I can do it” taking chances is foolish
Resignation “Whats the use?” Your not helpless, do something

110
Common operational pitfalls:
Peer pressure
Get there-itis
Scud Running, continued flight into IMC
Operating with inadequate fuel reserves
Neglect in flight planning, preflight inspections, checklists use
Getting behind the aircraft (not thinking or planning ahead)
Flying outside the envelope- asking the aircraft or your skills too much

111
PILOTING CONSIDERATIONS
Objective
To familiarize the student with currency requirements, health requirements, medical requirements, etc.

Elements
• Health (“I’M SAFE”)
• Medical requirements
• Aeromedical physiology
• Currency requirements
• Log books

Schedule
Discussion 0:30

Equipment
14 CFR (FAR/AIM)

Instructor Actions
Discuss the following regulations and requirements:

Health considerations: “I’M SAFE”: Illness, Medication, Stress, Alcohol, Fatigue, Eating

Medical requirements: (14 CFR 61.23) 3rd class medical lasts 60 calendar months (< age 40) or 24
calendar months (> age 40). A current medical is required to exercise the privileges allowed by the pilot
certificates held unless operating under BASIC MED.

BASIC MED: (AC 68-1) Basic med is for part 91 general aviation pilots and reduces need to see FAA
Airmen Medical Examiner and can use the services of their primary care physician and a drivers license
which is cheaper and more convenient. To operate under Basic MED, all pilots need an initial FAA
medical on or after July 15, 2006 and then
:
1) Hold a US Drivers License
2) Complete online FAA Medical Education Course every 24 months
3) Complete online Comprehensive Medical Evaluation Form (CMEC) and take any state
licensed physician to complete every 48 months
3) Place copy of FAA course completion and Medical Form in Log book

Basic Med Operational restrictions:

-max 5 passengers
-Aircraft authorized for 6 or less
- Aircraft less than 6000 lbs gross
- Fly in US, Below FL 180, < 250kts
-NOT for hire

Disqualifying conditions: Cannot fly under Basic Med if develop new occurrence Heart attack, Stroke,
seizure, loss of consciousness. FAR for complete list.

112
Physical disabilities, medical issues: Aviation Medical Examiner (AME), statement of demonstrated ability
(SODA), contact FSDO for more info

Aeromedical physiology: (chapter 8 of the AIM):

Hypoxia-12.5-14000 (>30 min for crew), >14 crew, >15 passengers

HA, tired, decrease cognition, sleep, visual impairment
Hyperventilation-anxiety causes rapid breathing, which increases anxiety, causes more
hyperventilation- severe panic
Ear infection (Vertigo)/sinus problems (incapacitating pain with altitude change)
Spatial disorientation-night, IMC, vestibular illlusions, autokinesis
Optical Illusion- sloped, wide or narrow runway
Motion sickness
Carbon monoxide poisoning- Heavier than air, from cabin heat/exhaust leak, same as hypoxia
Fatigue/Stress
Dehydration
Alcohol and drugs-8 hours bottle to throttle, decrease reactions, loss of attention
Decompression Sickness: 24 hrs safe, 12 hrs ok if shallow dive, less than 8000ft

Strongly recommend watching YouTube videos on several of the above

topics to make them more relevant and practical understanding than memorizing
the bare minimum from FAA texts.

Currency requirements: (14 CFR 61.57) 3 take-off’s and landings every 90 days for daytime, 3 full-stop
take-off’s and landings every 90 days for nighttime to fly with passengers. Also, a biennial flight review
(14 CFR 61.56) consisting of 1 hour of ground that at least covers 14 CFR 91 and 1 hour of flight
maneuvers as deemed adequate by the instructor. The pilot certificate (other than student certificate)
lasts indefinitely (14 CFR 61.19). Moving requires an update sent to the FAA within 30 days (14 CFR
61.60). Currency does not equal proficiency!!!

Log book requirements: (14 CFR 61.51) Need Log only training and experience required to obtain
certificates, ratings, a flight review, or currency requirements. Expand on how to log time and what to log.

Evaluation
Insure understanding of piloting considerations, currency requirements, etc.

References
AIM Chapter 8, 14 CFR 61 and 91

113
AERODYNAMICS
Attention/Motivation: Understanding basic Aerodynamics allows a pilot to understand the behavior
and flight characteristics of aircraft. More importantly, provides a basis of understanding for limitations of
aircraft. A basic understanding of these principles will allow the pilot to rationally operate an aircraft within
its normal operating envelop and thus provide a margin of safety for flight.

Objective
To teach basic aerodynamic principles to the student pilot to aid in decision making and rational for safe
operating procedures of aircraft.

Elements
• Four forces
• Airfoils
• Drag
• Stability & controllability
• Turning tendencies
• Load factors
• Ground effect
• Wingtip vortices

Schedule
Discussion 2:00

Equipment
Model aircraft

Instructor Actions
Discuss the following:
Standard Atmosphere: 590F(150C), 29.92”Hg (1013.2 mb)
Standard Temp lapse rate=20C/1000ft to FL360
Standard Pressure Lapse rate=1”Hg/1000ft to 10,000 ft.
Pressure Altitude-
1) dial in 29.92.
2) Demonstrate how calculate pressure altitude at various airports/altitudes/barometric
pressures (required to be able to use most performance charts in POH)
pressure altitude = (29.92 - current pressure setting) x 1,000 + field elevation
Density Altitude- PA corrected for Temperature. POWER/THRUST/LIFT effect
Four forces: lift, weight, thrust, drag are all equal in steady flight. (newton’s 3rd)

114
Wing definitions: leading edge, trailing edge, camber(curve), chord line.
• Aspect ratio—wingspan to mean chord line
High aspect ratio (long & skinny)= more lift, less drag. (glider)
• Angle of incidence—angle between the chord and the longitudinal axis
• Angle of attack (AoA) –relative wind to chord
• Wing always stalls at the critical angle of attack!!! Any airspeed, any attitude!!!

Lift: Bernoulli’s principle: increase velocity/decreased pressure over top of wing

Lift perpendicular to relative wind
Increase in AOA or Speed increases lift which increases drag

115
Drag:
• Parasite—“high speed drag” at low AOA increases as the square of the airspeed
o Form drag—shape of the aircraft, i.e. streamlined object
o Skin friction—surface finish
o Interference—Intersection of two surfaces at angle – ie wing to fuselage.
• Induced—“low speed drag” from high AOA. Byproduct of lift (horizontal component) and Wing
tip vortices, varies inversely as the square of the airspeed. Diminished in ground effect.

L/Dmax drag graph. Drag vs Airspeed – max endurance –lowest power to sustain level flight.(figure 4-8
in PHAK)
Region of reversed command-airspeed between stall and max endurance(more power to fly
slower!)

Wingtip vortices (PHAK 5-8):

• Spanwise movement of air along wing due to pressure differential
• Air from bottom of wing moves outward and upward over the wingtips, creating a vortex
• Vortices turbulence increase drag
• High angle of attack = more violent vortices
• Heavier, clean and slower aircraft = more violet vortices

Wake turbulence on take-off/landing:

• Stay above glidepath
• Land beyond the point of landing of the preceding heavier aircraft—look for puffs of tire smoke
• Liftoff prior to the point a larger aircraft took off
• Light quartering tailwind keeps vortices on the runway the longest (the most dangerous)

116
Ground effect (PHAK 5-11):
• Within one wingspan of earth’s surface, wingtip vortices are reduced
• Provides decrease in induced drag
• Wing will require a lower angle of attack in ground effect to produce the same lift

Axes of rotation (about CG): longitudinal (roll/ailerons), lateral (pitch/elevator), vertical (yaw/rudder).

Stability (see PHAK 4-12) (Use marble and bowl analogy):

• Stability is the inherent quality of an airplane to correct for conditions that may disturb its equilibrium,
and to return or to continue on the original flight path
• Static stability: Initial tendency of an object to return to its original position after being disturbed
o positive returns to original state; neutral: remains at new state; negative: keeps moving
beyond
• Dynamic Stability: Oscillation Response over time
o Positive: dampened oscillations; neutral: oscillations unchanged; negative: oscillations
increase in magnitude

117
Longitudinal stability (about lateral axis: pitch):
• Most affected by pilot, especially aircraft loading
• Draw Center of Pressure (Lift), CG, horizontal stabilizer down force (balance CL)
• Horizontal stabilizer is an upside-down wing, downward force to balance the forward CG.
• Unstable if CG moves too close to or behind the center of lift
• Discuss down wash, thrust, airspeed on T tail vs conventional

Lateral stability (about longitudinal axis: “Roll stability”)

• Dihedral (sideslip, low wing w/ higher AOA)
• Wing position—high wing aircraft are more laterally stable than low wings (Cg moment arm lower)

Vertical stability (about the vertical axis: “Yaw stability”)

• Vertical stabilizer and aft fuselage: weather vane-directional stability (Keel effect)
• Swept back wings also provide directional stability
• Increased induced drag on the wing that is moved forward pulls it back, Causes Dutch roll tendency

Controllability versus Maneuverability

• Controllability—capability of an aircraft to respond/displace to the pilot’s control inputs
• Maneuverability— determined by its ability change attitude/velocity/flight path (includes withstanding
stresses/G loads)
• An F-16 sacrifices stability for controllability, maneuverability and tolerates a LOT of Gs!

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Turning tendencies (PHAK 5-28)
• Torque—opposite reaction to the engine (Newton’s third law): leads to a left roll
• Spiraling slipstream—pushes on port side of vertical stabilizer, causing left yaw
• Gyroscopic action (precession)—a pitch down will cause a left yaw 90º from the top of the
propeller, a pitch up will cause a right yaw 90º from the bottom of the propeller disk
• P-factor—downward blade has a higher angle of attack during a high pitch attitude, causing greater
thrust on the right side of the propeller disk, creating a left yaw (and vice versa)

Load Factor: weight of aircraft X the acceleration forces (expressed in G’s).

Steep Turns: Show a vector diagram for lift (horizontal/vertical) vs load (centrifugal/weight) LEVEL TURN
60º of bank equals 2G’s. (PHAK Fig. 5-53), 700=3Gs! (LEVEL TURN!)
Stall speed proportional to square root of load factor. (1.4 x 60=84 at 60 degree bank.)

Limit load factors (bend but not break): See load factor chart
Normal 3.8 to -1.52
Utility 4.4 to -1.76
Aerobatic 6.0 to -3.0. 1
1.5 factor of safety built in.,

Vg diagram (PHAK Fig. 5-55). Load factor vs Airspeed for given gross weight/altitude
Normal stall speed at 1 g
Va-maneuvering speed (stalls at structural limit: 3.8 G for Normal, 4.4 Utility)
Vno vs Vne

119
Discuss Rate of Turn vs Radius of Turn (airspeed vs Bank)
Radius of turn: proportional to V2 (double speed, quadruple turn radius)
Radius of turn inversely to bank angle (double bank angle, half the turn radius)

Evaluation
Lesson is complete when student can demonstrate fundamental understanding of aerodynamics through
discussion of outlined principles, answer questions related to these principles.

References
FAA-H-8083-25B Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (PHAK) Chapter 4 and 5
Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) 7-3-1

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AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS
Objective
To teach the student the basics of aircraft systems.

Elements
• Primary flight controls: elevator, ailerons, rudder
• Secondary Flight Controls: Flaps, leading edge devices, spoilers, trim
• Power plant
• Oil
• Avionics

Schedule
Discussion 0:45

Equipment
Aircraft, Pilot Operating Handbook (POH) or FAA-approved Airplane Flight Manual (AFM). Model aircraft

Instructor Actions
Discuss the components of primary flight controls:

Primary Flight Controls:

Primary control surface Airplane Axis of Type of
movement rotation stability

aileron roll longitudinal lateral

elevator pitch lateral longitudinal
rudder yaw vertical directional

 Ailerons:
o Control roll about longitudinal axis
o Discuss how ailerons change angle of attack and cause roll

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 o Adverse yaw can be counter acted with rudder use, or special aileron designs: differential
ailerons, Frise-type ailerons, ailerons coupled to the rudder

• Elevator:
o Controls pitch about lateral axis
o Main purpose is to pitch up and pitch down (change the wing’s angle of attack)
o Some aircraft (e.g. Pipers) use a stabilator

Rudder:
o Controls the airplane about its vertical axis – yaw (nose going left/right)
primary purpose is to offset adverse turning tendencies (adverse yaw in turns and left
turning tendencies on take off, climbs), cross wind landings, and taxiing.
o Controlled through the use of foot pedals, connected to the rudder by bell cranks, cables
and pulleys
o Rudder induces yaw- accelerates one wing, slows other wing which can induce bank

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Secondary Controls:
• Flaps:
o Increase lift and drag
o Flaps have three main functions:
slower landing speed
steeper angle of descent
shorten takeoff
o Plain—simplest, changes camber, increases lift, greatly increases drag
o Split—more lift and more drag
o Slotted—(most common) increases lift more than drag. Delays air separation.
o Fowler flap—a variety of slotted flap; changes camber and increases wing area
o Extending the flaps will increase lift, cause a pitch up and loss of airspeed

• Trim: : o Used to relieve control pressures, Trim tabs, balance (linked) tabs, ground adjustable tabs

• Leading edge devices:

o Fixed slots—direct airflow to upper wing surface and delay airflow separation; stall is
delayed to greater angle of attack
o Moveable slats—leading edge segments on tracks; may be automatic or pilot-operated
o Leading edge flaps—increase coefficient of lift and camber
• Spoilers:
o High-drag device; reduces lift, increases drag
o Used for roll control on some aircraft , Can shorten ground roll

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Introduction to other aircraft systems.
Reciprocating engines classified by cylinder arrangement (radial, inline, v-type, opposed), method of
cooling (liquid or air), method of intake (carburetor, fuel-injection, turbo-charged), etc
Main components: cylinders (contain intake/exhaust valves, spark plugs, pistons); crankcase
(contains crankshaft, connecting rods)
Four-stroke operating cycle: intake, compression, power, exhaust rapid engine failure)

Normal combustion vs pre-ignition (carbon deposits) vs detonation (hot, high power, lean, low
octane fuel-causes

Normal Ignition: fuel air mixture burns in a progressive wave from spark plug toward retreating cylinder
on the power stroke adding push to cylinder.

Detonation: fuel air mixture explodes all at same time with violent expansion faster than retreating piston.
More likely with lean mixture, high power settings with poor cooling (low airspeed in a climb). Detonation
also occurs with using LOW octane fuel- using Jet A or 80 octane in aircraft designed for 100 octane fuel.
Respond with reduce power, enrichen mixture, descend for airspeed to cool engine.
Pre-ignition: Carbon deposits in cylinder or on spark plug become red hot and cause air fuel mixture to
ignite prematurely against an advancing cylinder on the compression stroke. Also occurs when aircraft
ingests unfiltered air (Carb heat on when on ground), silica is trapped in spark plugs and can become hot
source for pre-ignition! Watch carb heat, clean spark plugs!

124
Magnetos- 2 per engine (each supplies one spark plug per cylinder with 2 sets of spark plugs per
cylinder, see diagram end of lesson) generates own spark (no electrical system needed), Uses P-
lead to ground out and prevent “spark” when ignition turned to off. 2 plugs per cylinder Increases
efficiency of fuel burn and 2 magnetos redundancy for reliable engine operation.

Testing Mags:
Both to a single mag- RPM drop is related to incomplete fuel combustion by loss of one
of two spark plugs on each engine
Larger than expected drop- mag need service or fowled spark plugs
No RPM drop- P lead is broken and will have hot mag. Engine can still
run with both mags “OFF”. Risk of spontaneous engine start with prop handling.

Oil: Lubricates, reduces friction, cools,

Wet-sump system—sump is an integral part of the engine
Filter, cooler, filler cap/dipstick, quick-drain valve (bottom of sump)
Pressure and temperature gauges (required instruments)

Carburetor: It is the evaporative cooling of fuel in a carburetor that causes ice formation And Carb
Icing detected by drop in RPM/Manifold pressure- add Carb Heat when in low power settings or
power loss starts to occur

125
126
 Fuel Injection: The fuel-air control has both a “throttle body” that meters fuel into the intake
manifold and a “fuel control unit” that controls fuel directly the intake valve of each
cylinder. The fuel is not “evaporated” into the throttle body like a carburetor and thus is
not prone to “Carb Ice”.

• Avionics:
Communication and navigation radios
VOR, ADF, GPS
Transponder
Autopilot (if available)
Avionics cooling fan—cools and eliminates moisture (if available)
Microphone/headset intercom
Static dischargers (wicks)

Evaluation
Lesson is complete when student can demonstrate and discuss aircraft control surfaces, power plant and
other major systems.

References
FAA-H-8083-25 Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge Chapter 4-5, POH / AFM Chapter 7

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FUEL SYSTEM
Objective
To teach the components and operating procedures of the fuel system.

Elements
• Components
• Pre-flight
• Normal operation
• Emergency operation

Schedule
Discussion 0:30

Equipment
Aircraft, Pilot Operating Handbook (POH) or FAA-approved Airplane Flight Manual (AFM)

Instructor Actions
Discuss the following:
For Baron, see POH. Discuss cross feed, boost pump, Janitrol heater, heated fuel vent
Components:
• Fuel Tanks—fuel flows by gravity from the tanks
Fuel capacity, useable fuel, Type fuel
Fuel grades: detonation if low octane
• Fuel vents: where and why used.
• Fuel gauges
• Fuel sumps and drains
• Fuel selector valve
• Fuel strainer
• Fuel primer
• Fuel pressure gauge
• Engine-driven fuel pump
• Electric auxiliary fuel pump –priming, engine failure, POH recs hot or high departure
Discuss pre-ignition and detonation
Discuss refueling, including grounding, use of a ladder, etc.
Refueling before flight, should recheck sumps after the fuel has settled (at least 10 minutes).
Discuss preflight of the fuel system per POH.

Discuss fuel grades: Aviation gasoline (AVGAS) is identified by an octane or performance number
(grade). The higher the grade of AVGAS, the more pressure the fuel can withstand without detonating. If
the proper grade of fuel is not available, use the next higher grade as a substitute (but not JET A). Never
use a lower grade. This can cause the cylinder head temperature and engine oil temperature to exceed
their normal operating range, which may result in detonation. Detonation can cause engine failure within
seconds to few minutes. Available AVGAS is 80 (dyed red), 100 (dyed green), and 100LL (dyed blue).

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Evaluation
Lesson is complete when student can demonstrate and discuss proper use of fuel system.

References
FAA-H-8083-25B Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge 7-25 to 7-28, POH / AFM

129
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
Objective
To teach the components and operating procedures of the electrical system.

Elements
• Components
• Pre-flight
• Emergency operation

Schedule
Discussion 0:30

Equipment
Aircraft, Pilot Operating Handbook (POH) or FAA-approved Airplane Flight Manual (AFM)

Instructor Actions
Discuss the following components:
• 28V DC vs 14V DC System –
• Battery – Location, access and maintenance -12 or 24 volt battery, charged with 14 or 28 volts
• Alternator – Belt-driven vs gear, Amps output 50, 60 or 100
Alternator needs well charged battery to work (Field Current to generate output)
If battery is low and aircraft “jump” started or propped, alternator may not work for flight.
• Buses: Primary (powered with “Battery” switch) and Avionics (powered with “Avionics” switch)
• Master Switch – split switch: battery (power to primary bus) and alternator (power to Field Current
lead to activate alternator)
• Avionics Power Switch – power from primary to avionics bus; prevent surge to avionics during
engine start up (turn on after engine started and voltage stabilized)
• Ammeter and volt meter
• Alternator Control Unit (ACU)-aka “Voltage Regulator”- regulates field current to maintain voltage
If over voltage condition, ACU will shut down alternator to prevent damage to battery/avionics
If alternator off line (low voltage during flight),check breaker, recycle ACU with “Alternator” switch
If alternator stays off line- load shed and land as soon as practicable.
• Circuit Breakers and Fuses –may reset once when “popped”, else have equipment serviced
• Ground Service Plug Receptacle (Optional) – for use with external power during cold weather
starting or lengthy maintenance work
• Lighting System: 3 navigation, taxi, landing, rotating beacon, strobes, courtesy, interior, flood, post
lights (outside instruments), integral (inside instruments)
• Electrical instruments (turn coordinator, clock electric, others vacuum driven)
• Radio and navigation devices

Discuss
pre-flight checklist in POH/AFM for electrical system items.
electrical fire checklist in the POH/AFM.
ammeter shows excessive rate of charge.
low voltage light illuminates during low RPM operations

Evaluation

Lesson is complete when student can demonstrate and discuss proper use of electrical system

130
References
FAA-H-8083-25B Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge 7-30, POH / AFM

131
LANDING GEAR – Example Beechcraft Baron E55
Objective
To teach the components and operating procedures of the landing gear system.

Elements
• Components
• Pre-flight
• Normal operation
• Emergency operation

Schedule
Discussion 0:30
In-flight 0:40

Equipment
Aircraft, Pilot Operating Handbook (POH) or FAA-approved Airplane Flight Manual (AFM)

Instructor Actions
Discuss the components –electric motor
• Nose gear—nitrogen/oil nose gear shock strut, positive mechanical down lock
• Nose gear doors—mechanically opened and closed by nose gear
• Main gear—tubular steel struts, positive mechanical down locks
• Gear switch- always down during ground ops- in case squat switch in op
• Landing gear position indicator lights—required for flight
o green = down, red = in transit
o Lights are interchangeable
o Up and down switches for each gear, in series
• squat switch—Left Main, open on the ground, prevents inadvertent gear retraction
• Gear-up warning system—intermittent tone if manifold pressure <14” Hg

Discuss pre-flight of landing gear:

• Cockpit—push to test gear indicator lights
• Check that gear handle is down
• Outside—check struts, braces, uplock rollers, cables, springs, actuators
• Clear the wheel wells
 Make sure squat switch is open
Discuss normal operation:
• VLe (__) KIAS
• 4 seconds to extend or retract for 28 v systems
• Keep hand on gearlever until operation is complete, both for raising/lowering gear
• Tap brakes before retraction—tires expand due to centrifugal force and heat
• Extend gear before entering traffic pattern
• All landings to a full stop-no touch and go
• Clean up after landing only after exit runway

Discuss Abnormal and Emergency operations

In transit or confirmation gear up and locked fails
Gear down light fail trouble shoot
Gear indicator lights dimed by nav lights, panel lights or dim switch
Manual gear extension procedures.
Loss of alternator or electrical power=manual gear extension to confirm down and locked.

132
For Hydraulic Gear systems, refer to aircraft specific POH for system description, operation and
emergency procedures.

Student Actions
Demonstrate and explain adequate gear pre-flight. Demonstrate proper use of landing gear during flight.
Conduct a manual gear extension in-flight.

Evaluation
Lesson is complete when student can demonstrate and discuss proper use of landing gear in all flight
scenarios.

References
FAA-H-8083-25 Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge p. 5-22, FAA-H-8083-15A Airplane Flying
Handbook p. 11-9, POH / AFM pp. 3-8, 4-18, 4-21, 7-11, 7-27

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PROPELLER SYSTEM
Objective
To familiarize the student with common propeller systems.

Elements
• Propeller basics
• Pre-flight
• Constant-speed propellers

Schedule
Discussion 0:45

Equipment
Aircraft, Pilot Operating Handbook (POH) or FAA-approved Airplane Flight Manual (AFM)

Instructor Actions
Discuss:
fixed pitch, constant speed, feathering, reversing, and ground-adjustable.
Propeller blades as airfoils with twist, same thrust despite the increased speed at tips

pre-flight of propellers: knicks, cracks > 1/16”“, it must be looked at by a mechanic.

Oil leaking, corrosion, loose blade

Mechanics of the constant speed propeller and the governor system.

High pitch/Low RPM
Low pitch/high RPM
Engine as air pump- working against throttle body (orifice opens and closes with throttle)
manifold pressures- equal ambient pressure when engine is stopped- for example, manifold
pressure will equal barometric corrected for field elevation. Approximately 25 inches at Denver on
standard day.
manifold pressures drop as close throttle in running engine
Manifold pressures rise as throttle open to meet vacuum of engine

134
Prop governor: The prop governor uses oil pressure to drive a piston in the propellor hub to change
pitch. See internet link below for excellent description of prop governor system.

Discuss Engine Overspeeding in a Constant Speed Prop: loss of engine oil or governor pressure and
resulting default high-RPM low-pitch means engine failure is imminent!
Discuss settings for take-off and landing.
Discuss the dangers of overspeeding prop

Evaluation
Lesson is complete when student can discuss the differences between constant speed propeller system
and fixed propeller. The student demonstrates understanding of manifold pressure and its relationship to
Engine power and prop speed.

References
http://www.mccauley.textron.com/prop/prop-tech/pg00intro.html, http://flash.aopa.org/asf/engine_prop/

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FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS
Objective
To teach the student about VFR instruments, their function, and the requirements.

Elements
• VFR required instruments
• Vacuum-driven gyroscopic instruments
• Electric-driven gyroscopic instruments
• Pitot-static system
• Compass errors

Schedule
Discussion 1:30

Equipment
Aircraft

Instructor Actions
Day VFR Required instruments ( 14 CFR 91.205)
Airspeed indicator
Altimeter
Compass
Tachometer (each engine)
Oil pressure gauge
Oil Temperature gauge (temp gauge for liquid cooled)
Manifold pressure gauge (altitude engine)
Fuel Gauge (each tank)
Landing gear position indicator (if retracts)
Red/White anti-collision light system (1996 after)
If for hire: beyond gliding to land: floatation devices, pyrotechnic signal
Seatbelts (with should harnesses 1978 after)
ELT
Night VFR requirements: day VFR plus:
Red/White Anti-collision lights-all aircraft
Position lights
Electrical source + Spare fuses as required
For complex aircraft: landing gear position indicators.
Flights for Hire: electric landing light.

In -OP equipment: Aircraft Equipment Is required by 14 CFR 91.213:

1-Minimum Equipment list (MEL) (usually for commercial or on demand turbine aircraft)
2-14 CFR 91.205, required equip for type of flight see above list
3-Type certificate
4- required equipment list or KOEL in POH
5-Airworthiness Directive (check maintenance logs)
IF in-op equipment required by above, aircraft may only be flown if:
Deficiency repaired by certified technician/aircraft mechanic
Or Ferry Permit obtained via Mechanic and FSDO for trip to repair shop
If in-op equipment NOT required by above, aircraft may be flown if:
Equipment Deactivated/Removed from aircraft “DR PHIL”
Placarded In OP & Maintenance recorded
Determined by pilot or certified mechanic not a hazard

136
Discuss Vacuum-Driven Gyroscopic Instruments: Rigidity and precession
Attitude Indicator: Tumbling, caging, adjusting
Directional Gryo (Heading Indicator/HSI) markings, precession

Discuss Electric Gyroscopic Instruments:

Turn Coordinator (with Inclinometer): standard rate turn, review slips/skids
Direction and rate, not bank
Pitot-Static System: (check q 24 months)
1) Airspeed Indicator: Construction, how works, indications (V-Speeds)

“Air pressure Indicator”. Only reads actual speed of aircraft on Standard day at Sea Level.

Pitot “RAM” pressure - static pressure = Dynamic pressure (Indicated airspeed)

Consider aircraft with rocket travels at 100 kts at all altitudes:
At sea level- Reference “air density”: Airspeed indicates 100 kts
In outer space – “Zero Air density” Airspeed indicates 0 kts
At 22,000 ft approx. 50% air density: Airspeed indicates 50 kts

Indicated Air Speed (IAS): is a correlation to “Air pressures”. Wings use air pressure for lift.
Therefore, Aircraft will always stall at the SAME IAS no matter the altitude. Consequently,
approach is typically 1.3 x Vs. So, our approach speed is the same at ANY altitude. IAS is
primarily used to determine when aircraft will stall and to verify gear, flap and approach speeds,

Calibrated Airspeed (CAS): IAS corrected for install errors. At slow airspeeds (Near stall) may
have corrections of 3 to 7 kts. At cruise speeds, CAS is very close to IAS for calculations
and flight planning. Therefore, for cruise, IAS can be used to substitute for CAS in calculations of
TAS.

True Airspeed (TAS): Is the actual speed of the aircraft through the air. It is essentially the
“Rocket speed” in the example above. TAS=CAS corrected for compressibility (air density).
Obtain from POH or calculate. In ZERO wind TAS=ground speed.

Calculate TAS with flight computer

TAS used to calculate Ground speed in flight planning
Estimate TAS (10,000 ft and below)- add 2% to IAS for every 1000 ft of altitude.
At 10,000 ft, TAS will be approximately 20% more than the IAS

Consider the following:

1) aircraft TAS = 100kts
2) Headwind = 100kts
3) Ground speed = 0 kts
4) IAS = depends on density of air!! See example above.

aircraft is not moving across ground but still has a TAS=100 kts!! It could be parked!

Consider landing at high altitude airport: IAS is used for approach speed, but TAS will
always be HIGHER! Therefore, Ground speed will be higher than sea level as will landing
distance. At takeoff, aircraft must accelerate to a HIGHER true airspeed to reach
Indicated lift off speed (often with less available power and thrust) and thus much longer
take off roll.

137
 2) Altimeter: aneroid wafers at 29.92, Kollsman window to adjust for non-standard pressures

Above Ground Level- (AGL) absolute altitude- how far you will fall before hitting ground
Mean Sea Level Altitude (MSL)True Altitude- height above average level of world’s ocean
Pressure Altitude(PA)- MSL altitude corrected for non-standard pressure

NOTE: MSL altitude is location of aircraft, NOT always airport elevation

PA= MSL altitude +(29.92-Barometric pressure)x1000
Required to determine aircraft performance in most POH charts

Density Altitude (DA)-Pressure altitude corrected for non- standard Temp

ERROR in Altimeter (“High to Low pressure or Hot to Cold Temp, Look Out Below!”)

Kollsman for non-standard pressure1”=1000ft

Altimeter should be within 75’ of field elevation.

3) Vertical Speed Indicator: Altimeter with a “Calibrated leak”. trend and rate information
6-9 second lag, preflight reads zero

Explain Pitot-Static System Blockages:

• Complete blockage (Pitot tube and drain, static ports): airspeed and altimeter will stay constant and
VSI will indicate zero
• Pitot tube complete blockage (static port open): airspeed acts like altimeter
• Pitot tube blocked, drain clear (static port open): airspeed will decrease to zero
• Static port blocked (only): higher altitude than when the blockage occurred, airspeed will show
slower(subtracting too much pressure), and vice versa
• Alternate Static Source: Altimeter and ASI read high

Magnetic compass errors: variation (magnetic versus true north), deviation, magnetic dip errors

Northerly Turning Error (“Leads turning toward North, Lags turning toward South”-UNOS- Under
steer turning north, Oversteer turning south)
Acceleration Errors (east or west heading, ANDS: Accelerate turns to the North, Decelerate turns
to the South).

Evaluation
Lesson is complete when student has a thorough knowledge of required instruments and compass errors.

References
FAA-H-8083-25B PHAK 8-1 to 8-26

138
139
140
TAS= CAS (IAS) corrected for compressability (PA and Temp)

141
142
AIRCRAFT DOCUMENTS AND MAINTENANCE
Objective
To familiarize the student about the required documents needed to legally operate an aircraft as well as
the maintenance required to keep the aircraft in a legal status.

Elements
• Certification and documentation required
• Maintenance and inspections
• Preventative maintenance

Schedule
Discussion 0:45

Equipment
Aircraft, Aircraft Maintenance Records

Instructor Actions
The pilot in command decides if the aircraft is airworthy (14 CFR 91.7).
Discuss required documents “AROW”:
Airworthiness certificate (14 CFR 91.203)
Registration certificate (14 CFR 91.203),
Operating manual and placards (14 CFR 91.9)
Weight and balance

Discuss required inspections “AVIATE-A”:

Annual Inspection (12 calendar months) (14 CFR 91.409)
VOR (30 days for IFR, annual for VFR) (14 CFR 91.171)
Inspection at 100 Hours off of tachometer (14 CFR 91.409)
Altimeter/Pitot Static System (24 calendar months) 91.411)
Transponder/Mode C (24 calendar months) (14 CFR 91.413)
ELT (50% battery life/1 hr cum. use, annual) (14 CFR 91.207)
Airworthiness Directives (AD’s, aka Recalls) (14 CFR 91.403, 91.417)
AD Compliance report- as required by 91.417

Preventative maintenance can be accomplished by any certificated pilot (14 CFR 43 Appendix A). ie
changing oil, changing a tire.
Repairs must be completed by FAA-certified mechanics. If they are major or minor repairs, as defined
by 14 CFR 43 Appendix A, defines what level of oversight and qualification is required of the mechanic
or repair facility.

Special flight permit is a Special Airworthiness Certificate issued authorizing operation of an aircraft that
does not currently meet applicable airworthiness requirements but is safe for a specific flight (e.g. to a
repair facility).

Evaluation

Lesson is complete when student can demonstrate and comprehend emergency considerations

References
FAA-H-8083-25 Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge Chapter 8

143
WEIGHT AND BALANCE
Attention/Motivation: The weight and balance of aircraft can significantly affect the
performance and safety of flight.. Knowledge of this area is critical to safety of flight.

Objective
To teach the student aircraft weight and balance and related safety considerations.

Elements
• Weight and balance definitions
• Effects of greater weight
• Effects of CG location
Discuss how to calculate weight and balance

Schedule
Discussion 1:00

Equipment
Aircraft, airplane Pilot Operating Handbook or FAA-approved Airplane Flight Manual

Instructor Actions
Discuss following definitions:
Standard Empty Weight- aircraft, oil, unusable fuel, hydraulic fluid
Basic Empty Weight- above + installed options
Max Landing, ramp, takeoff weights
Useful Load=Max gross weight-BEW
CG-Center of Gravity
Datum, Arm(Station), Moment (arm x wt)
CG Limits
Standard Weights: fuel 6lbs/gal, oil 7.5 lbs/gal
Discuss adverse balance: Stability, control
Forward CG: trim up(more down force on tail), higher AOA, more drag, higher stall
speed, slower cruise, less range, more stable (stall/spin recovery)
Aft CG: trim down (less down force on tail) lower AOA, less drag, lower stall speed,
faster cruise, more range, less stable.

144
Discuss the effects of greater weight (higher take-off speeds, longer take-off run, reduced rate and angle
of climb, lower maximum altitude, shorter range, reduced cruising speed, reduced maneuverability, higher
stalling speed, higher approach and landing speed, longer landing roll, excessive weight on
nose/tailwheel).

Gross weight: More weight requires more airspeed to create more lift. Stall speed is higher. Therefore
Approach speed is higher (1.3 x Vso), take off and landing distances higher. Lower weight is better.

Most POH publish Vx, Vy, Vs1, Vso, Vg, Vref (approach speed) at max gross. All these speeds decrease
with decreasing gross weight. Rule of thumb is to decrease Vx, Vy, Vref by 1 kias for each 100 lbs below
max gross.
Vg- decreases by approximately 2 kias for each 100 lbs below max gross weight.

Climb performance is based on the excess bHP above that for level flight. Consequently, climb ability
increases significantly at lower gross weight.

CG: Aft CG reduces the down force required by the horizontal stabilizer. Consequently, the total down
force for level flight is lower. The AOA is also lower. The aircraft requires less lift, therefore Vs is lower
and so is Vref. The aircraft can fly both slower on approach and faster in cruise (lower AOA, less drag,
requires less bHP and less fuel burn.

Discuss and demonstrate calculations using examples from the POH.

Weight x Arm = Moment

Datum reference is arbitrary but defines “stations” (Station=Arm) for any given aircraft
The safe loading CG is determined by manufacture and published in POH
Where the safe loading range for CG relative to the referenced Datum.

Discuss/demonstrate shifting wt shift/total wt=dCG/dArm

Discuss/demonstrate add/remove wt (dWT)(dX) = (WTotal)(dCG)

Discuss how lateral CG is not computed but can cause wing heaviness.
Discuss and demonstrate CG moment envelope and loading graphs from POH

Student Actions Calculate weight and balance under a variety of scenarios or as directed.

Evaluation
Lesson is complete when student can demonstrate and calculate weight and balance and discuss
performance issues and safety envelops related to weight and balance parameters. .

References
FAA-H-8083-25B Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge Chapter 10

145
146
147
148
AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE
Objective
To teach the student about factors that affect aircraft performance such as weight, atmospheric
conditions, runway environment, aircraft configuration and power settings. Additionally consider the
physics and forces acting on the aircraft in various phases of performance. Calculate performance of
aircraft for specific flight conditions using performance charts available in POH.

Elements
•Pressure altitude
•Density Altitude
•Climb performance-angle vs rate
•Range performance
•L/Dmax
•Region of Reverse Command
•Take off/Landing performance
•Runway surface and gradient
•Performance Charts
•Crosswind components
Schedule: Discussion 1:00

Equipment: Performance Charts from POH, E6B Calculator, Local Weather

Instructor Actions:
Standard Temp Lapse Rate: 20C per 1000 ft up to FL360
Standard Pressure Lapse Rate: 1” Hg per 1000 ft up to 10,000 ft
Standard Temp/Pressure at Sea Level: 150C (590F) and 29.92”Hg (1013 Mb)

Both pressure and temperature affect the density of an air mass. It is the density of air that affects
aircraft performance. Consequently, we must quantify the effect of BOTH pressure and temperature on
an air mass to determine aircraft performance. We start with pressure (pressure altitude) then add
temperature (Density Altitude) to assess aircraft performance.

Barometric Pressure: weather reporting systems report “Altimeter Setting” and not actual
measured barometric pressure. Atmospheric pressure is measured at various weather stations, then
“Corrected” or extrapolated to what the sea level pressure is at that same location. For example,
on a standard day, the atmospheric pressure at Denver (assume field elevation 5000 ft MSL) will
measure 24.92. Then 5” is added for the pressure lapse rate to determine the Sea Level Pressure at that
location. Thus 29.92 “Hg is reported on a standard day from Denver as a Sea Level Pressure (SLP). On a
non-standard day, if the pressure measured is 25.02, then 30.02 is the altimeter reported at Denver

Altimeter settings: the altimeter measures the pressure difference from the reference setting
(what the pilot dials in) and indicates this as the “altitude” associated with that pressure. During a climb,
air pressure drops at an average of 1” per thousand feet (upto 10,000 ft). If the pressure drop is 5”Hg, the
altimeter reads 5,000 ft. Altitude gain. When the altimeter is set to the local reported altimeter setting, it
will report the same as the field elevation (+/- 75 ft).

Pressure altitude Concept: On a theoretical standard day with standard pressure lapse rate,
every Pressure will have a well-defined Altitude associated with it: 29.92= Sea Level, 28.92=1000ft above
Sea Level, 30.92 =1000 ft. below sea level. Since barometric pressure is constantly changing and
reported “Altimeter Settings” are corrected for sea level, the challenge is to determine what the

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current atmospheric pressure is at your current location to calculate aircraft performance. We then
associate that pressure with its “Altitude”. This gives us the reference “pressure altitude”.
Low Pressure=High Altitude.
Determine Pressure Altitude (PA):
1) Set altimeter to 29.92. Altimeter sense pressure difference from standard and
reports the equivalent “pressure altitude”. Most commonly used in flight levels for
aircraft separation.
2) Calculate Pressure Altitude: Field Elevation=5000 ft, Altimeter 30.92. This method
is most commonly used to determine aircraft performance for flight planning.
a) standard pressure - current pressure (29.92-30.92= Minus 1.0”)
b) Convert this to Altitude difference -1.0” = negative 1000 ft
c) PA= field elevation+ difference: 5000 + negative 1000 = 4000ft
3) Calculate Pressure Altitude at expected Cruise altitude: same as above, substitute
expected “MSL” altitude at cruise for field elevation.

Typical non standard Barometer settings may change your “pressure altitude” by a few hundred feet on
average. The effect on aircraft performance is small compared to temperature or actual altitude changes
of thousands of feet.

Density Altitude: Pressure altitude corrected for effects of non-standard temperature on

density. Increasing temperature expands an air mass, decreasing its density. Low Air mass density (poor
aircraft performance) is correlated with HIGH “density altitude”. Calculate with E6B or reference chart.

Temperature has a much greater effect on Density altitude than non-standard barometer settings.

Increase in altitudes has a much greater effect than non-standard barometer settings.

High Density Altitude: (I prefer to call this “High altitude density”) Decreases engine power,
propeller efficiency/thrust, Aircraft has to reach Increased TAS for same IAS. So requires more runway on
take-off/land, poor climb performance. May offset by unloading aircraft of fuel, people, luggage, and
taking off in cool morning or evening. Use performance charts!
Decrease in Engine power: decrease density of air means less oxygen to combine with
the fuel. Naturally aspirated engines must be leaned at full power to 125-150 degrees rich of peak EGT
before take off and climb at high altitude densities. Refer to POH for leaning in cruise. Turbo charging
compresses the air to help preserve Air density and available Oxygen for each combustion cycle and thus
available engine bHP for high altitude operations..

Climb performance is based on the excess bHP above that for level flight. Therefore,
with decreased bHP, climb performance is reduced at high altitude. Additionally, more weight
requires more bHP for a climb. Consequently, climb ability increases significantly at lower gross
weight. Consider taking less cargo, less passengers, less fuel or taking off during cooler part of
day.

Decrease Propellor Thrust: Less dense air means the propellor moves less mass of air
for every rotation. Decrease mass of air movement, decreases thrust available. This effect occurs
independent of Turbo charging.
Decrease Lift: Lower density air means you have to accelerate to a higher TAS to create
the same amount of lift to take off, cruise, and land the aircraft. Therefore the ground speed is higher for
all operations. NOTE: IAS does NOT change with Altitude. Use the same IAS for take off and landing.

Climb performance is based on the excess bHP above that for level flight.
Consequently, climb ability increases significantly at lower gross weight.

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Gross weight: More weight requires more airspeed to create more lift. Stall speed is higher. Therefore
Approach speed is higher (1.3 x Vso), take off and landing distances higher. Lower weight is better.

Most POH publish Vx, Vy, Vs1, Vso, Vg, Vref (approach speed) at max gross. All these speeds decrease
with decreasing gross weight. Rule of thumb is to decrease Vx, Vy, Vref by 1 kias for each 100 lbs below
max gross.

Vg- decreases by approximately 2 kias for each 100 lbs below max gross weight.

CG: Aft CG reduces the down force required by the horizontal stabilizer. Consequently, the total down
force for level flight is lower. The AOA is also lower. The aircraft requires less lift, therefore Vs is lower
and so is Vref. The aircraft can fly both slower on approach and faster in cruise (lower AOA, less drag,
requires less bHP and less fuel burn.

Humidity: Water vapor is actually lighter than air. Therefore, high humidity decreases density of
an air mass. Humidity is generally not used in computations of aircraft performance. However a decrease
performance can be expected in humid conditions.

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Performance
Thrust: a force (acceleration similar to gravity) measured in pounds or newtons.
Produced by “mass of air accelerated by propellor” creates an equal and opposite reaction
pushing aircraft forward. Technically, Thrust is the “reactive” force to the air moving behind the
aircraft

Power: rate of performing work over time (force x distance)/time. Horsepower or Kilowatts.
Produced by engine, turns prop to produce thrust.

Straight and level Flight: Parasitic drag predominates. If double speed, 4x drag, requires 8x
power. (See fig 11-5)

Climb Performance: (rate of climb) Use excess power above that required for level flight.( Also
may exchange excess airspeed to gain limited altitude).

Increase weight requires greater airspeed to create more lift (and more drag)
reducing available excess power.

Increased weight adds drag directly by increasing the horizontal vector of force opposite
direction of thrust (review force vector diagram of a mass on an incline)

Increased altitude: reduces power available (decreased engine performance) to reduce

climb performance

Vg-best glide occurs at L/D max, typically a level pitch attitude and IAS between Vx and Vy.

Vg speed increases and decreases with weight. Most POH publish Vg at max gross.
Best Glide Distance traveled does not change with weight. For identical aircraft, the heavier
loaded aircraft will have a faster Vg but glide the same distance as the lighter slower aircraft.

Glide Ratio- Distance traveled per altitude lost. Does not change with weight. Typically, 1.5 miles
per thousand feet in Cessna 152 or 172

Minimum Sink- slightly slower than Vg. Usually close to Vx. Keeps you in the air longer, but don’t
travel as far as best glide.

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Indicated Airspeed (IAS): estimate of speed determined by Ram Air pressure minus static
pressure. Aircraft V speeds (stall, flap, climb, rotation, gear etc) always occur at same IAS no matter what
Altitude or True Air Speed may be. IAS is the practical airspeed for flying and operating the aircraft. The
difference from Calibrated Airspeed (CAS) is relatively minor at speeds much above Vs. When calculating
True Airspeed, IAS may be substituted for CAS during cruise.

Air speed indicator is really an “Air pressure Indicator”. Only reads actual speed of aircraft on
Standard day at Sea Level.

Pitot “RAM” pressure - static pressure = Dynamic pressure (airspeed)

Consider aircraft with rocket travels at 100 kts at any given altitude (think TAS)
At sea level- Reference “air density”: Airspeed indicates 100 kts
In outer space – “Zero Air density” Airspeed indicates 0 kts
At 22,000 ft approx. 50% air density: Airspeed indicates 50 kts

Indicated Air Speed (IAS): is a correlation to “Air pressures”. Wings use air pressure for lift.
Therefore, Aircraft will always stall at the SAME IAS no matter the altitude. Consequently,
approach is typically 1.3 x Vs. So, our approach speed is the same at ANY altitude. IAS is
primarily used to determine when aircraft will stall and to verify approach speeds.

Calibrated Airspeed (CAS): IAS corrected for install errors. At slow airspeeds (Near stall) may
have corrections of 3 to 7 kts. At cruise speeds, CAS is very close to IAS for calculations
and flight planning. Therefore, for cruise, IAS can be used to substitute for CAS in calculations of
TAS.

True Airspeed (TAS): Is the actual speed of the aircraft relative to the surrounding air. It is
essentially the “Rocket speed” in the example above.
TAS=IAS only at sea level on a standard day. Otherwise

TAS=CAS(IAS) corrected for compressibility (air density, Density altitude).

Calculated with CAS (IAS), Temperature, Altitude, barometric pressure.

TAS is published in many POH for various flight conditions and power settings.

In ZERO wind TAS=ground speed.

Calculate TAS with flight computer (rough estimate IAS + 2% per 1000 ft altitude)
TAS +/- head/tail wind used to calculate Ground speed in flight planning

For most non-turbo piston aircraft, the best TAS is typically between 6000 to 8000 ft msl

TAS Rule of Thumb: TAS is 2% greater than IAS for each 1000 ft about sea level, up to 10,000 ft. At
5,000 ft, TAS is roughly 10% higher than IAS on a standard temperature day. At 10,000 ft, TAS is 20%
greater than indicated. Practical application: Aircraft at 10,000 can expect to have TAS = 200 kts, but
IAS=160 kts due to the lower density air not producing enough “Ram air pressure”.

Ground Speed- speed of aircraft relative to the GROUND. Only equal to TAS in ZERO wind conditions.
Consider a balloon floating in air has TAS=0. However, if the Balloon is in air mass that is moving 50 kts.
The Balloon TAS=0, Balloon GS=50 kts. GS =TAS adjusted for headwind/tailwind.

NOTE: Continuous Tailwinds and Headwinds DO NOT affect IAS nor TAS! In wind shear, if there is a
sudden change in direction or speed of wind can affect IAS significantly and result in loss of performance.

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 Max Angle of Climb: Airspeed (Vx) at which aircraft obtains greatest altitude in shortest
horizontal distance. Best AOA that maximizes Excess Thrust available (work=Force x distance).
Proportionate to stall speed. As stall speed increases with weight, so does Vx (IAS). Most POH publish
Vx at Max gross

Vx (IAS) Increases with altitude (approx. 1 kts per 1000 ft)

Max Rate of Climb: Airspeed (Vy) at which aircraft obtains greatest altitude in least time (POH
publishes at max gross at standard temp/press). Best AOA that maximizes Excess POWER
available. (Power =work x time)

Vy (IAS) decreases with altitude (approx. 0.5 kts per 1000 ft) as does actual climb performance.

Vy (IAS) increases with weight (need more lift, get more drag) and actual rate of climb will
decrease. Most POH publish only Vy at max gross.

Review other performance air speeds: Vs1, Vso, Va, Vle, Vno, Vne Vr

Absolute Ceiling: Aircraft unable to climb. Vy=Vx.

Service Ceiling: Aircraft able to climb 100 ft/min

Range Performance:

Max range occurs at L/Dmax airspeed. (See fig 11.5 above). This is not a discreet airspeed as it
requires changes in airspeed and power for particular weight. See aircraft specific POH for power settings
to maximize range.

Max endurance: how long aircraft can stay in air occurs at minimum flying power (bottom of
green) and minimum fuel flow (does not provide max range). Again, consult specific POH for power
settings to maximize endurance.

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 Region of Reverse Command: Airspeeds less than max endurance (L/Dmax). Requires more
power and fuel to fly slower at a CONSTANT altitude. Increase in AOA=more drag=more power required.

Take-off and landing performance:

Related to airspeed, ground speed, weight and runway surfaces.

Increase weight- increases stall speed thus approach and lift off speed. Also the
increased weight increases the inertia and takes longer to accelerate/decelerate requiring more runway.

Increase Airspeed: 10% increase in speed increases landing distance 20%

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 Grass surfaces- Takeoff and landing roll distance on dry SHORT grass is typically 20%
greater, take off on wet short grass is 30% greater and landing 60% greater. See AC 91-79A

Hydroplaning: floating on wet runway with no directional control. Hydroplane speed = 9

x sq root of tire pressure. For tire pressure of 36, hydroplaning will occur at 54 knots. If pressure is 30 psi,
hydroplaning will occur at 49 kts. Keep your tire properly inflated.

Runway Gradient: 2% grade (2 ft rise or fall per 100 ft of runway) can significantly
increase/decrease take off/landing distances. Increase landing roll 10% for each 1% of downslope.
Upslope runway significantly increases take off roll. Runway slope information is found in the Chart
Supplement.

Braking effectiveness: Ability to stop without skidding tires. See AC 91-79A

Runway Conditions reports provided on ATIS. See AIM 4-3-9. Typically 5-5-5 means
wet runway 1st, middle and last third of runway. Range is 0 (no braking action) to 6 (normal braking
action)

1) Wet runway increases landing distance 30% (x1.3)

2) Standing water or slush increase landing distance x 2
3) Snow increase landing distance 60% (x1.6)
4) Icy runway increase landing distance x3

Head Wind vs Tail wind: Affects ground speed. 10 kt headwind decreases ground
speed 10 kts at touch down (aircraft lands at same IAS independent of wind direction. 5 kt tailwind can
increase take off or landing distance 20% or more. 10kt tailwind may increase take off/landing
distance as much as 40%.

High Density Altitude-Refer to POH for performance.

Review specific Aircraft Performance Charts with Flight Instructor for various phases of
flight.

Evaluation
Lesson is complete when student can discuss the outlined Aircraft Performance factors and also
demonstrate how to calculate specific aircraft performance from the POH with examples provided by
instructor.

References

FAA-H-8083-25B Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge, aircraft POH

156
WEATHER THEORY
Objective
To teach student about basic weather theory and how to anticipate possible weather conditions.

Elements
• Atmosphere
• Wind
• Moisture and stability
• Clouds
• Fronts

Schedule
Discussion 2:00

Equipment
FAA-H-8083-25 Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge, AC 00-6A Aviation Weather

Instructor Actions
Discuss the following:
• Nature of the atmosphere (78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 1% other)
• Troposphere, the first layer of the atmosphere, contains most of the weather, and goes up from
20,000’ to 48,000’ MSL at the poles
• Pressure –how measured (inches of Hg) mercury barometer vs modern aneroid barometer
“station pressures” are converted and reported in “sea level pressures”
• The cause of weather: uneven heating by the sun creates pressure and circulation patterns
WATER: ¾ earth covered in water. -specific heat of water=absorbs LOTS of energy with
minimal temperature increase.
Land masses have lower specific heat than water (think rocks and black top) and warm up
VERY quickly in the sun.
Equator hotter than Poles, Land Masses Hotter than Oceans:
This gives rise to un-even heating of earth. Also equator gets more sun than poles = uneven
heating. Air is primarily heated through contact with earth (called Conduction).
Hot air over equator and dark terrain rises to warm lower atmosphere through “Convection”. Air
is cooler over oceans and poles. Un-even heating creates the air circulation. Water evaporating
into the atmosphere carries lots of energy to create storms.
Radiation; Heating at a distance by energy waves (sunlight, microwaves, etc) These energy waves
are poorly absorbed by air generally does not warm air much. Consequently, solid objects absorb
and then release heat primarily through radiation. Radiation is the primary mechanism of how the
earth is warmed and also cools.
Conduction; Heating by direct contact with solid surface. This is primary way surface air is warmed
or cooled via direct contact with the earth surface.
Convection: Hot air rises and mixes with higher level air to warm it. Primary way upper air levels are
warmed.

Coriolis force: Rotation of earth causes air masses descending from Poles (cold, dense, high
pressure) toward Equator (warm, low pressure) to deflect east and west
• How air flows from high (clockwise) to low (counterclockwise, i.e. cyclonic) – wind
Low pressure-wind flows counterclockwise, in toward center and upward (lifting force for
thunderstorms)
High pressure- Wind flows clockwise, down from center and outward (stable, clear weather)

157
• How oceans and mountains affect wind –water/vegetation absorb/release heat slowly, Sand/rock
absorb/release heat quickly-cause of thermals/turbulence on warm days and “Sea Breeze”.

• Turbulence due to mountains (mountain waves, lenticular clouds) and man-made objects
Beware of winds > 20 kts over mountain ridges- severe turbulence and down drafts on leeward
(downwind) side of ridge/peak. Take mountain flying course if flying in and around mountains!

Moisture, humidity and relative humidity

• inversions –temperature increases with altitude. Typically thin layer of stable air near ground or
sometimes occurs with a warm front overtaking a colder air mass. Associated with haze, fog, poor
visibility
• Temperature and dew point spread- predict fog and cloud bases.
Adiabatic Lapse rate: dry = 30C, Moist =20C per 1000/ft--
humid air less dense, less stable. Moist air rising does not cool very fast (latent heat of
condensation warms air as it rises). Moist air continues to be less dense than dry air around it.
This is why it is considered “unstable” “low lapse rate” = unstable air mass.

Water Vapor molecules are lighter than air: moist air less dense- has MORE energy!

Latent heat of vaporization- large amounts of heat required to change water from liquid
to Vapor. Water vapor carries lots of POTENTIAL energy/heat.
Latent Heat of Condensation- Water condensing from vapor to liquid releases a large
amount of heat into the air, keeps air warm and rising. Think of HOT air balloon. As water
condenses, it releases heat just like turning on flame in HOT air balloon makes it rise.
This is the Energy for thunderstorms. Water brings LIFE and Thunderstorms.

Unstable Air- Warm and Moist (less dense, tends to rise)

Stable Air – Dry and cool. (more dense, tends not to rise). Also related to temperature inversions.
Warm, less dense air is above cold dense air, so the colder air does not rise.
Lifting Action- any force to propels air up. When air is lifted, it cools, water condenses and forms
clouds and possibly rain. If air is stable, it tends to form Stratus clouds. Unstable it forms
Cumulous clouds and thunderstorms.

Types of lifting Action that promote weather:

Cold fronts- push less dense warm moist air UP
Warm Fronts- are pushed up when meets more dense cold air- creates weather
Low pressure- air tends to move from surface up to stratosphere -creates weather
(High pressure – Air tends to move DOWN and prevent weather)

Dry Lines in the south west are denser than moist air in gulf. Dry lines push up warm gulf
air and create thunderstorms in Texas and lower Midwest.
Orographic lift: Winds moving against mountains causing lifting action
Thermals- pop up thunderstorms in Southwest deserts and over Caribbean islands.in
summer as sun warms land masses which then warm surface air which rises as thermal

• Fog –how does it form? Air on ground cools to dew point, vapor condenses to fog.
Radiation Fog: Inversion-earth loses heat overnight- cools air near ground, calm cool clear night.
Frontal Fog: Front passage with rain in cool weather (spring and fall).
Advection Fog: warm moist air moves over cooler surface (eg. land air moves over cool water)
Up Slope fog- wind pushes air mass up side of mountain and cools to dew point
Steam Fog (Sea Smoke)-, water vapor from warm sea condenses in overlaying cold air
• Cloud formation (vapor in the air, refer to condensation nuclei), types of clouds (cumulus, stratus,
cirrus, nimbus, )
• Relate stability to clouds (unstable = cumuliform, stable = stratiform)

158
Low Level Wind Shear: sudden drastic change in direction or velocity (vertical or horizontal) can
suddenly change performance or control of aircraft, dangerous near ground or on final approach.
Associated with high winds aloft, Frontal passage, thunderstorms (gust fronts and microbursts).
Avoid area, divert or add significant speed to final approach. Use caution! High wind shear can
upset even large jet airliners.

Causes of Low Level Wind Shear:

Clear Air Turbulence- in winter with low laying jet stream
Gust Front- related to frontal passage (large temp changes with fast moving fronts)
Microburst- severe down draft as air pushed down by heavy rain in thunderstorm
Mountain waves- created by high winds aloft- often carried hundreds of miles downwind
of large mountain ranges- “Rockies”, Sierra Nevadas, Smoky Mountains
Local Shear – buildings and obstructions near landing environment
Temperature inversion- calm air near surface, high winds just above surface, Mountains!

• Thunderstorms warm, moist and unstable. Latent heat of evaporation/condensation, lifting forces
Stages of thunderstorm, microburst, wind shear, hail, turbulence, “roll cloud”

• Cloud cover (few, scattered) and ceilings (broken, overcast)

• Precipitation
• Air masses (lifting forces) –
Air mass stability- decreases with heat, moisture, fast moving fronts, low pressures

• Fronts (boundaries between air masses); flying across a front will lead to wind shift and likely some
form of weather (always know where the fronts are in a long-distance flight)
Fronts act like a “plow” when air masses collide. One air mass is “lifted” causing cloud
formation and promote thunderstorms
• Warm fronts: usually carries moisture, slow moving, typically moves from south to north
o Associated with cirriform or stratiform clouds, fog. Cumulonimbus in summer; light to
moderate precipitation; poor visibility; winds from south-southeast rising temperature
o Freezing rain: beware warm front during winter! Rain descends into freezing air near
ground.(requires an inversion).

159
 • Cold fronts: Dry, dense, cold, fast moving. Comes from northern latitudes and produces severe
weather
O Associated with cumulus clouds, cumulonimbus; heavy rain, thunderstorms; falling
pressure and falling dew points and cooler temperatures.

• Stationary fronts: two air masses holding position for days; the weather at the front is usually a mix
of warm and cold front weather
• Occluded fronts (when a fast-moving cold front catches up to a slow-moving warm front):
o Temperatures of the colliding fronts play a large part in the weather of occluded fronts
o Conditions vary depending on the air mass ahead of the warm front being overtaken. The
air mass ahead of the warm front is always “colder”.

o Cold front occlusion (On the Left side of the figure above) Two cold air masses sandwich a
warm front pushing the warm front aloft. The fast-moving cold front “pinches” the warm
air against the less cold air mass ahead of the warm front; Mostly just the warm air is
pushed up. the weather at this front is usually a mix of warm followed by cold front
weather and is relatively stable
o Warm front occlusion (on the right side of the figure above): Two cold fronts sandwich the
warm front pushing it up. However the fast-moving cold front is “warmer” than the cold
mass ahead of the warm front. In this case, the fast-moving cold front is pushed up over
top of the colder air mass on the other side. So, there is “lifting” of both the fast-moving
cold front and the Warm air mass caught in the middle. So, there are “two” air masses
being pushed up resulting in the most severe weather including embedded
thunderstorms, rain, fog, etc

Evaluation
Lesson is complete when student can discuss various aspects of weather phenomena.

References
FAA-H-8083-25 Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge, AC 00-6A Aviation Weather

160
WEATHER SERVICES
Objective
To teach sources of weather information.

Elements
• Four forces
Schedule
Discussion 2:00

Equipment
AC 00-6A Aviation Weather, Sectional or Terminal chart

Instructor Actions
Discuss the following, and in the case of each weather source, go through real examples.
Preflight actions: 14 CFR 91.103 requires that the PIC shall become familiar with all available information
concerning that flight including weather information when flying beyond the vicinity of an airport.
To contact FSS: 1-800-WX-BRIEF, Duat, Duats, Visit in person, 122.2 or discrete frequency (see
sectional chart). A FSS standard briefing gives complete and customized description of all conditions that
may affect the proposed flight, based on route and altitude to by flown. Includes adverse conditions,
synopsis, current and forecast conditions, winds and temps aloft, NOTAM’s, anything else requested.
Time Visualize Briefing
6+ hours before departure big picture outlook
1-4 hours before departure detailed picture standard
just before departure & during flight updated picture abbreviated
CURRENT WEATHER PRODUCTS:
• Satellite Weather picture:
o graphically display cloud position and approx. thickness and height
o issued every 30 minutes and as needed
o valid at time of report
• Radar Summary Chart:
o graphically display areas of precipitation—not clouds
o issued hourly and as needed
o valid at time of report
o contours indicate intensity of precipitation
• Weather Depiction Chart:
o same as significant weather chart
o issued every 3 hours
o valid at time of report
• Freezing Level Chart
• Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR) (AIM 7-1-30): Review in AIM!!

Pilot Weather Report PIREP’s (UA/UUA):

o provide information on actual flight conditions as experienced by pilots
o issued upon receipt
o valid at time of report
o UA = normal, UUA = urgent

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FORECAST WEATHER:
• AIRMET (WA):
o Airman’s meteorological information
o Moderate icing (zulu AIRMET), turbulence (tango AIRMET), IFR (sierra AIRMET),
mountain obscuration, sustained surface winds >30 knots
• SIGMET (WS):
o significant meteorological information
o severe turbulence, icing, widespread duststorms, sandstorms, volcanic ash lowering
visibility to <3 sm
o valid 4 hours (except 6 hours for hurricanes)
• Convective SIGMET (WST):
o severe thunderstorms with surface winds greater than 50 knots, hail at the surface greater
than or equal to 3/4 inch in diameter, tornadoes, embedded thunderstorms, lines of
thunderstorms, or thunderstorms with heavy or greater precipitation
o valid 2 hours
• Prognostic Charts:
o 24-, 36-, and 72-hour formats
o graphically display general weather conditions for contiguous U.S.
o 4 times daily
o left panel valid 12 hours, right panel valid 24 hours
o types and positions of fronts and pressure systems
o pressures in millibars.
o significant weather chart shows areas of VFR, MVFR, IFR, freezing level
• Convective Outlook Chart
• Area Forecast (FA): Discontinued by FAA

• Terminal Aerodrome Forecast (TAF):

o describes forecast weather for an area within 5sm of airport
o issued 4 times daily
o valid 24 hours to 30 hrs
• Winds and Temperatures Aloft Forecast (FD):
o provide estimated wind direction, speed, and temperatures at selected stations and
altitudes
o issued 2 times daily
o valid as stated—6, 12, or 24 hours
o winds greater than 100, subtract 50 from wind direction

IN-FLIGHT WEATHER SOURCES:

• Automatic Terminal Information System ATIS:
o airport name, time (UTC), wind direction and speed, visibility and obstructions, cloud
coverage, temp and dew point, altimeter, remarks.
o different from AWOS/ASOS in that ATIS is usually only issued hourly and includes
NOTAM’s
• AWOS, ASOS:
o AWOS—automated weather observation system (AIM 4-3-26, 7-1-12)

o ASOS—automated surface observation system

• FSS
o en-route flight advisory service ( “Flight Watch” aka EFAS Discontinued )
o 122.0 MHz above 5000’ AGL –no longer available- contact FSS
o operated by the local center
• TWEB:
o continuous transcribed weather broadcast.

162
 o available over selected NAVAID’s (T on chart)
• HIWAS : discontinuted
NOTAM’s:
• Notification of unforeseen changes in the national airspace system, not known in sufficiently in
advance to publicize by other means, that may affect the pilot’s decision to make a flight
• May be divided into three categories: local (e.g. taxi way closures), distant (e.g. VOR out of service),
FDC (issued by the Flight Data Center, regulatory in nature such as temporary flight restrictions,
instrument approach procedure changes, etc)
• Obtain the same way a briefing can be obtained (FSS, Duats, Duat, etc)

Evaluation
• Exhibit knowledge of the elements related to weather information by analyzing weather reports,
charts, and forecasts from various sources with emphasis on—
o METAR, TAF, and FA.
o surface analysis chart.
o radar summary chart.
o winds and temperature aloft chart.
o significant weather prognostic charts.
o convective outlook chart.
o AWOS, ASOS, and ATIS reports.
• Make a competent “go/no-go” decision based on available weather information.

References
AC 00-6A Aviation Weather, FAA-H-8083-25B Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge Chapter 13

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AIRSPACE
Attention/Motivation: There are specific requirements to operate in any given airspace. These
requirements were developed to ensure safety of aircraft, separation of aircraft and provides weather
minima for entering each airspace and equipment requirements. This is one fundamental areas all pilots
at any experience level must be familiar with.

Objective
To familiarize the student with controlled and uncontrolled airspace operations
and considerations for flight.

Elements
• Class A,B,C,D,E,G
• Special-Use Airspace
• Other airspace
• Special VFR

Schedule
Discussion 1:00 hour

Equipment
Sectional and/or Terminal Charts

Instructor Actions
Discuss each of the controlled airspaces A-E, and G, and their visibility and cloud requirements, entry
requirements, etc.)
Present various weather and flight scenarios to the student for discussion and learning
-on a cross country with deteriorating weather, what airports can you legal fly into?
-you are flying a J-3 Cub, can you fly into that Class C airport?
-A prominent politician is visiting a nearby large city, how far away do you have to stay?
- How do you check for TFRs and when should you check for them?
-You are on a cross country and do not want to fly around a large MOA, what do you do?

Airspace:

• Class A—18,000’ MSL to FL600, IFR clearance

• Class B—surface to 10,000’ MSL, Mode C Veil, ATC clearance
• Class C—surface to 4000’ AGL, 10 nm, Mode C, 2-way Comm
• Class D—surface to 2500’ AGL, 5 nm, 2-way comm
• Class E—Everywhere else:
14,500’ MSL unless designated surface, 700’, 1200’ AGL
Upto Class A, and above FL600
• Class G—surface to overlying Class E airspace

Mode C Transponder required

1) In or above B, C
2) within Mode C veil
3) above 10,000 ft MSL
4) Crossing ADIZ

“ADAPT” website to get Authorization from FAA before entering if negative ADSB transponder

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Airspace VFR Weather Minimums: ( 14 CFR 91.155-7, AIM 4-4-6)

3 miles visibility, 1000 ft ceiling min controlled airspace to surface of airport

Class A Instrument Flight only

Class B 3 miles, clear of cloud
Class CDE 3 miles, 152

Class G night 3 miles, 152

1 mile, clear of clouds within ½ mile of runway

Class G 1 mile, clear of clouds below 1200 AGL (within 1/2 mile at night)
1 mile, 152 above 1200 AGL
5 miles, 111 above 10,000 ft MSL

Class E 5miles, 111 above 10,000 ft MS

Speed limits (14 CFR 91.117)

Below 10,000ft MSL max airspeed 250 kts

Below 2,500 ft AGL, 4 nm of class C or D, max airspeed 200 kts
Below Class B, max airspeed 200 kts
Within Class B, max 250 kts

Otherwise, no civil aircraft may operate greater than Mach 1 (14 CFR 91.817)

Special Use Airspace (AIM 3-4-1)

• Prohibited areas—flight not permitted
• Restricted areas—flight subject to restrictions (artillery, aerial gunnery, etc.), permission required
• Warning areas—3nm beyond coast, similar to restricted, but no permission required
• MOA—military training activities, a military version of “warning areas”
• Alert areas—ok to enter, high volume of activity (pilot training, unusual aerial activity)
• Controlled firing areas—not charted, activities are suspended if aircraft approach, no permission
required

Other Airspace Areas (AIM 3-5-1)

• MTR—military training route; military aircraft > 250 kts; 4 digits < 1500AGL
• TFR—temporary flight restriction –Notams, www.tfr.faa.gov
• Parachute jump operations
• Published VFR routes
• VFR flyways, corridors, transition routes—back of TAC chart, class B airspace
• TRSA—(e.g. Palm Springs, Rockford); Class D with Radar services participation is voluntary but
recommended (AIM 4-1-17)
• National Security Areas—requested not to fly through; flight may be prohibited at certain times,
check NOTAMs

Special VFR (14 CFR 91.157, AIM 4-4-6) :Request to get into/out of controlled airports poor weather
• 1sm visibility, clear of clouds
• At night, must have an instrument rating and IFR-equipped aircraft
• Must request SVFR, ATC cannot offer
• Not allowed at some airports—see sectional or terminal chart

Marginal VFR (not a clearance)

• Visibility between 3-5 statute miles and/or ceiling between 1000-3000’ AGL

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Evaluation
Lesson is complete when student can discuss the structure of the national airspace system, entry
requirements and operational considerations.

References
FAA-H-8083-25 Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge Chapter 15, FAA-H-8083-15B Instrument Flying
Handbook Chapter 8, Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) Chapter 3

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AIRPORT OPERATIONS
Motivation/Attention: In order to safely depart and arrive at an airport, a basic understanding is
required of the rules, signage and communications required. Towered/controlled airports require
authorization or clearance before movement on airfield, takeoff and landing. Additional action may be
required if radio communication is lost in order to safely and legally arrive at an airport.

Objective
To teach the student with the operations in and around the runway environment.

Elements
•Towered vs Non-towered Airports
• Sources for airport data: charts, A/FD, NOTAMs
• Airport signs and markings
• Airport lighting
• Wind Direction indicators
• Traffic Patterns
• Runway incursion avoidance
• LAHSO
• Wake Turbulence Avoidance
• Radio Communications

Schedule :60 minutes

Equipment
FAA-H-8083-3C Airplane Flying Handbook, FAA-H-8083-25 Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge,
Airport/Facility Directory, Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM), VFR Radio Communications hand out.

Instructor Actions
Discuss types of airports (controlled, uncontrolled).
Discuss Airport/Facility Directory information, Notams (L, D, FDC), charts
Discuss runway markings, signs, lights and beacon, wind indicators, traffic pattern
Discuss runway incursions, Land and Hold Short Operations (LAHSO), clearances.
Discuss wake turbulence avoidance. (clean slow, heavy)
Review communication alphabet, phraseology and VFR handout
Discuss lost communications procedures (light gun signals). Tx/Rx & 7600 transponder.

Green Flashing- proceed to runway, not cleared yet for take off or land
Green continuous-Cleared to take off/land
Red- stop or circle
Red Flash- Exit runway or don’t land
White Flashing-taxi back to starting point
Red/Green flash-use EXTREME caution

Evaluation
Lesson is complete when student can demonstrate and comprehend runway signage, lighting, discuss
lost communications procedures, and wake turbulence avoidance.

References FAA-H-8083-3C Airplane Flying Handbook, FAA-H-8083-25B Handbook of Aeronautical

Knowledge Chapter 14, Aeronautical Information Manual 7-3

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170
Spins

Attention/Motivation: Inadvertent stalls while slow and uncoordinated, such as approach to landing,
turning base to final or correcting final approach course, can result in a spin entry close to the ground
and is one of the primary causes of fatal aircraft accidents. Understanding the aerodynamics and
situations where this might occur, recognition of impending stalls and conditions that may produce a
spin will allow the pilot to avoid or take corrective action before loss of control occurs. Spin training also
allows pilots to gain firsthand experience on how they occur and recovery techniques.

Objectives The student to learn the aerodynamics of spins, how to recognize a spin and the proper
recovery techniques.

Elements
Aerodynamics of spins
Spin Procedures
Weight and Balance Requirements
Normal vs Utility/Acrobatic spin
Schedule : 30 minutes ground, 1 hour flight

Equipment: White board, aircraft certified for spins

Instructors:
Spin – uncoordinated stall – Stall with “Yaw” that results in “autorotation”, corkscrew to ground
Caused by stall with sideslip or yaw (uncoordinated)
Autorotation occurs as high wing lower AOA less stalled/drag than low
Yaw and roll toward lower wing with pitch down
Risk of spin- stall can occur at any airspeed, any attitude and all phases of flight.
However the critical phases of flight have higher risk: Take off, landing, pattern,
go around, “base to final” combines banking load and uncoordinated stall.
Avoidance: avoid stall, keep ball centered. Watch airspeed, don’t overbank
Spin Procedures:
Aircraft approved for spins- see POH/placard/type certificate
Weight and Balance to ensure w/in utility category envelop
Aft CG may make recovery impossible
Review recommended entry/recovery procedures
Altitude sufficient to recover > 1500 ft AGL
Parachutes not required for training (CFR 91.307 d)
Phases of spin:
Entry Phase (stall): power idle, slow pitch up, full rudder at stall,
full elevator up, aileron neutral
Incipient phase (stall, rotation starts 1-2 turns).
Developed phase: rotation, airspeed, vertical speed stable, flight path vertical
Recovery : consult POH.
P- power to Idle
A-ailerons neutral
R- full rudder opposite ()
E- Elevator forward

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 After rotation stops, neutralize rudder, apply slow elevator back pressure
Normal category aircraft are not to be used for intentional spins. Only tested for one spin and
no assurance can recover from a fully developed spin. (14 CFR part 23)

Common Errors:
Failure to apply full rudder to initiate spin or in recovery
Failure to apply/maintain full up elevator resulting in spiral
Failure to achieve full stall for spin entry
Failure to apply sufficient forward elevator on recovery
Slow/cautious control movements on recovery
Excessive back elevator on recovery w possible second stall
Insufficient back elevator pressure in recovery results in excessive speed

Completion Standards: the applicant exhibits knowledge of the elements related to spin awareness by
explaining Aerodynamic factors related to spins, Flight situations where unintentional spins may occur,
Procedures for recovery from unintentional spins.

References: 14 CFR Part 23; Type Certificate Data Sheet; AC 61-67; FAA-H-8083-3C; POH/AFM

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NAVIGATION: VHF Omnidirection Range. “VOR” & DME
Objective
To train the student in VOR navigation and intercepting VOR courses.

Elements
• VOR/TACAN/DME background
• Tuning and identifying
• Selecting a radial
• Turning to a VOR
• Station passage
• Reverse sensing
• Intercepting radials
• VOR intersections
• VOR failure

Schedule
Pre-flight instruction 1:00
Instructor demonstrate 0:30
Student practice 1:00
Post-flight instruction 0:30

Equipment
Aircraft equipped with VOR, Sectional chart

Instructor Actions
VHF Omnidirectional Range: VOR, VOR/DME, VORTAC
108-117.95 MHz
Reference phase (360 radial), variable phase (Omniphase)
Morse Code identifier every 10 seconds
HIWAS, RCO, etc
Terminal, Low, High altitude (25, 40, 100 nm)
Radials (magnetic), Victor airways, check notams
VOR test facility(180 bearing, 360 radial), air and ground check points, dual VORs
+ 40 ground, + 60 air
Preflight- 30 day check, record time, place, error, sign.
IS the VOR out of service?? Notams, morse code identifier, Nav Flag, unstable needle.
CDI and how they work, OBS (course selector)
1) Determine, tune and verify VOR information.
2) Determine relative position to VOR and how to fly to VOR/intercept radial or bearing.
3) Wind correction (bracketing with diminishing corrections)
4) “Bearing” is “to” the station. “Radial” is “From” the station.

Station passage and cone of confusion.

Flying inbound, then outbound: DON’T CHANGE OBS!!!
Reverse sensing. (when flying opposite direction of TO/FROM flag)
Effect of heading on VOR usage.
Identify VOR failures: no identifier transmitted, Notams, flags, erratic needle, doesn’t match gps.

CDI- OBS, 100/side, 20/mark, 1nm/mark at 30 nm

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RMI- HI slaved to compass, relative bearing for VOR/NDB, no CDI
HSI- HI slaved to compass with CDI, no reverse sensing

Rules of 60: when 60 miles from VOR, 1 degree equals 1 mile

Seconds/radial x 60 = seconds to station
(or seconds/100 = minutes to station)

Distance to station: GS x time to station

Degrees of correction to destination when off course:
miles off course/miles traveled x 60 = degrees to correct to parallel
miles off course/miles to go x 60 = degrees to correct to destination

DME (UHF) – 962-1213 MHz.

DME interrogates ground station, station replies. Time interval calcs distance/speed/time
Slant range, less accurate close.
DME idents every 30 seconds.
Co-located with LOC, VOR etc. Used in DME arcs.

Student Actions
Tune and ID a VOR. Identify position of aircraft relative to a VOR. Fly a course direct to a VOR and
identify station passage. Identify reverse sensing and demonstrate how to correct for it. Intercept and
track a VOR course as directed. Identify a VOR intersection.

Evaluation
Exhibits knowledge of VOR usage. Can demonstrate tracking to a VOR. Adequate demonstration of
counteracting VOR reverse sensing.

Common Errors
• Careless tuning and identification of station
• Failure to check receiver for accuracy/sensitivity
• Turning in the wrong direction during orientation (common when visualizing position rather than
heading)
• Failure to check ambiguity (TO/FROM) indicator (reverse sensing)
• Overshooting or undershooting radials on interception
• Over controlling corrections during track, especially close to the station
• Misinterpretation of station passage
• Chasing the CDI, resulting in homing instead of tracking

References FAA-H-8083-25B, Pilots Handbook of Aeronautic Knowledge, 16-22to 16-27, FAA-H-8083-

15B Instrument Flying Handbook 9-8 to 9-16

NOTE: for tips and tricks on tracking to or from a VOR, see flight lesson on
Instrument Flight

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VFR FLIGHT PLANNING
Attention/Motivation: Each pilot in command shall, before beginning a flight, become familiar
with all available information concerning that flight. This information must include: for a flight
not in the vicinity of an airport, weather reports and forecasts, fuel requirements, alternatives
available if the flight cannot be completed, and any known traffic delays of which the pilot in
command has been advised by ATC."

FAR 91.103 says that the PIC also needs to be familiar with winds, temperatures, takeoff and
landing distances, aircraft performance, airport elevations, runway length and slopes, gross
weight.

Objective
To teach judgment and considerations when planning a VFR cross-country flight.

Elements
• Weather considerations
• Sectional charts and the A/FD
• Airspace and visibility requirements
• Terrain, altitude, cruising requirements
• POH performance charts and density altitude
• Fuel requirements
• Pilotage and Dead Reckoning
• Plotting a flight and using a navigational log
• True courses, magnetic headings and wind
• E6-B
• Discuss advanced navigation methods (in brief)
• FAA Flight Plans
• Flight Following
• Lost procedures
• Review Aeronautical Decision Making

Schedule
Discussion 3:00
Pre-flight instruction 0:40
VFR Cross-Country Flight (as needed)
Post-flight instruction 0:20

Equipment
14 CFR and Aeronautical Information Manual (FAR/AIM), Sectional charts, Airport/Facility Directory, FAA-
H-8083-25 Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge, E6-B circular slide rule, navigation log, chart
plotter, aircraft pilot operating handbook (POH)

Instructor Actions
Discuss weather requirements, how to obtain weather, weather considerations.
Discuss Determining Winds aloft
REVIEW basic weather minimums (14 CFR 91.155). See Lesson National Airspace.
Review Airspace: Scenario of declining weather, where to land and entry requirements
Discuss sectional charts and their legend in detail. CHECK for CURRENCY!
Sectionals 1:500K, TAC 1:250k , WAC 1:106 scale
Latitude/Longitude, Prime Meridian, isogonic lines

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Discuss terrain considerations, altitude considerations, VFR altitudes.
Discuss Airport Facility directory, contents and use (CURRENCY)
Airport elevation, runways, lighting, fuel, frequencies, traffic
Review Notams. Q 28 d, obtain TFRs (FDC Notams)

Dead Reckoning= Calculating a compass heading to follow a planned True Course or Ground track.
Using calculated ground speeds to determine time to waypoint. Typical way points that are at least 50
miles apart give the most accurate time estimate to verify performance and fuel burn (sum of 50
calculated way points introduces many more errors than a sum of only 3 way points)

1) True Course- measured on the chart relative to Lines of Longitude or Latitude

2) Winds Aloft reported in True
apply WCA to True Course= True Heading
3) Magnetic Variation-east or west of true North (east is least, west best)
Apply Variation to True Heading = Magnetic Heading
4) Compass Deviation- error of aircraft compass to earth’s magnetic lines
Apply Deviation to Magnetic Heading = Compass heading

TC+WCA=TH.
TH+Variation= MH
MH+Deviation=CH

Pilotage: looking out the window while flying to identify landmarks to verify position that was estimated by
dead reckoning. Pilotage waypoints are not the same as Dead Reckoning way points and frequently are
at closer intervals. Pilotage way points may only be a few miles apart and are used to verify ground track.
Intervals between pilotage way points depend on prevailing visibility. For poor visibility conditions,
pilotage way points may need to be very close. Sometimes a waypoint can be used for both pilotage and
dead reckoning.

Discuss and demonstrate Wind Triangle and Vector analysis

Calculate TC, TH, MH, WCA, GS, Fuel, Time enroute

Discuss E6-B circular slide rule

Time and distance calculations
Fuel consumption
TAS and DA calculations
WCA, GS determinations
X wind component

Discuss how to use a plotter with a chart. Introduce the navigation log.

Discuss fuel requirements (14 CFR 91.151): 30 minutes extra fuel for day VFR, 45 minutes for night VFR.
And how to calculate fuel burn from POH.
Review flight performance charts for fuel consumption, landing/takeoff performance
Review Weight and balance

Discuss the FAA Flight Plan (14 CFR 91.153, AIM 5-1-4), how to file it, how to open (1hr) and close it (30
mins eta), , and results if it isn’t closed.
Discuss Flight Following and ATC communications in cross-country flight.
Discuss lost procedures.
Climb, Call, Confess: improves vision, radio comms, radar detection
Water towers
Fly to VOR or use VOR cross radials to fix position
Use the GPS

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Flight Diversion: when to divert, rules of thumb for course corrections and distance

Review VOR Navigation lesson

Review ADM

Student Actions
Exhibit knowledge on all aspects of flight planning. Plan then fly a dual VFR cross-country flight.

Evaluation
Evaluate based on planning and success of an actual VFR dual cross-country flight per the requirements
listened in 14 CFR 61.109.

Common Errors
• Failure to plan appropriately based on the weather
• Failure to create an adequate navigation plan that considers fuel, winds, terrain, etc
• Failure to have all necessary publications available during flight
• Failure to understand the complexities of the airspace system

References
AIM, 14 CFR 91, FAA-H-8083-25B Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge Chapter 11 and 16). Relate to
POH performance charts.

Foreflight characteristics, limitations, and potential traps:

1) Winds Aloft and Time of Departure. Make sure you have the correct time of departure (TOD)
in the MAP page to get correct winds aloft for the trip, otherwise the calculations default to
current winds aloft.
2) Magnetic Headings and Winds aloft. If you want to determine magnetic headings (MH) and
courses not corrected for winds aloft, then make sure the TOD is about 2 weeks into the future
or disconnect from WIFI and Cellular service.
3) Magnetic Courses on Flight segments greater than 50 nm. Note that the MH provided on
very long legs include corrections for
a) magnetic variation
b) winds aloft averaged over the entire segments greater than *50 nm.
3) magnetic change in course flying a “great circle”

*The winds aloft on legs greater than 50 nm are averaged over the entire leg.
Consequently, this average cannot be used with confidence for determining WCA, MH,
Ground speed on longer legs.
4)Enroute performance. This may require consulting aircraft performance charts. Enroute fuel
burn and TAS will vary depending on Altitude selections, Temps aloft, Leaning techniques.
Update your aircraft performance profile for each flight for more accurate flight planning and
fuel burn.

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 5) Determining Fuel Time and Distance to Top of Climb: Foreflight cannot accurately
determine Fuel, Time, Distance to top of climb, nor can it reliably determine fuel burn in
descent, these are estimated from limited rudimentary static data points the pilot
provides in the aircraft profile. Additionally, foreflight does not accommodate starting
altitude, temperature, pressure altitude, gross weight, and variable climb performance
through climb. These variables must be determined from performance charts and
updated for EVERY flight for accurate calculations
6) Departure Procedures: In regards to Departure procedures listed under airport,
Departures only lists named ODPs and departure procedures. Unnamed ODPs (text
only) are listed in the “take-off minimums” (ODP and diverse vector area) section of
the Terminal Procedures. A good example is the un-named ODP for runway 8 at KRIL. It
is recommended “take off minimums/ODPs” be consulted departing routinely,
especially departing an unfamiliar airport.
7) Dead Reckoning Calculations: To demonstrate converting True Course (TC), to True
Heading (TH), Magnetic Course (MC), Magnetic Heading (MH), Wind Correction Angle
(WCA), Magnetic Variation using foreflight requires some “reverse engineering”.
Otherwise these concepts are more easily demonstrated on paper VFR sectionals with a
plotter and E6B.

a) place Estimated Time of Departure (ETD) 2 weeks in the future (to remove
wind correction),

b) use way points/short segments (less than 50 nm) so “great Circle” and
magnetic variation are not “averaged” into the magnetic course. The provided
Magnetic Course can be used to calculate/demonstrate the TC and TH.

c) Then the charted magnetic variation and winds aloft determined and
applied.

d) Using the VFR charts in foreflight the lines of longitude and latitude can be
used along with the “ruler” function to help demonstrate these concepts.

e) True Course can be displayed on “ruler” function via: “More”- “Settings”-

“Units/time”- “Bearing/tack instruments”- change from “magnetic” to “True”.

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VFR Cross Country Flight Planning Check list
CHARTS and references (make sure current)
___Airport diagram departing airport

___required sectionals

___Chart Supplement (Airport Facility Directory)

___ NAV LOG

___ Plotter, Pencils

___ E6B or similar computer/calculator

NOTAMS
___ ARTCC (Center)

___ FDC (TFR)

___ Enroute/navaids

___ Departure, Arrival and Alternate Airport

Weather information
___ Prognosis Charts

___ Radar/Satelite

___ Weather depiction (or other advanced graphical charts)

___ Metars and TAFs at departure, arrival and alternate airport, and some in between

___ Airmets Zulu, Tango, Sierra (Icing, Turbulence, IFR/mountain obscuration)

___ Sigmets (Convective, turbulence etc)

___ Freezing Levels

___ Convection forecast

___ FSS outlook, abv and std briefing

Destination
___Fuel Availability, FBO Services, Crew Car, Tie down, Hangar, Afterhours access, Transportation

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Equipment for particular flight conditions
___ Clothing for time of year
___ rafts, life vests, PLB
___ Flashlights, pencils, knee board
___ Personal comfort items, snacks, water

Cross Country Planning Overview

Night before
1) Determine departure and arrival airport
2) Determine route of flight
3) Get outlook briefing or gather pertinent weather info
4) Draw or plot route including departure and arrival procedures
5) Make special note of climb requirements and terrain
6) Take note of Elevation figures, terrain
7) Place all check points on nav log w/distances
8) Log airport info, runways, lengths, frequencies on log, include alternates
9) Calculate fuel requirements, fuel stops
10) Weight and balance

1-2 hours before

1) Pre flight aircraft
2) Obtain full weather or std briefing from FSS
3) Determine take off and landing distances as necessary
4) Determine cruising altitude, winds aloft
5) Determine WCA and MH
6) Calculate True Airspeed, Ground speed, fuel use, power settings
7) Determine time between check points
8) Determine Alternate requirements, total fuel needs, reserves
9) Prepare and file flight plan minimum of 30 minutes before departure
10) Determine alternate plan if cannot complete secondary to weather or other malady
11) Personal Minimums Check list IMSAFE, PAVE

Last minute Weather check, radar, metars/tafs (minums), icing, convection

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FLIGHT ILLUSIONS AND VISION OF FLIGHT
Objective
To familiarize the student with currency requirements, health requirements, medical requirements, etc.

Elements
• VFR flight illusions
• Vision of flight considerations

Schedule
Discussion 0:30

Equipment
14 CFR (FAR/AIM)

Instructor Actions
Discuss the following:

• Visual Scanning and Collision avoidance:

Scan horizon 100 segments, one second
Objects that appear fixed on screen=collision course
Always turn right to avoid collision
Aircraft blind spots (high wing, low wing, under nose)
clearing turns before maneuvers
Lift wing before turn
Look for aircraft on final before entering taxi
Get your head out of the cockpit and look for traffic
Avoid formation flights unless specifically trained and planned

• Vestibular Illusions:
• Leans, Coriolis, and graveyard spiral : Slowly entering or in a steady state turn allows
semicircular canals to adjust to this position giving sensation pilot is not turning. Rapid
change out of this position leads to illusion of turning opposite way. This can allow
disorientated pilot to maneuver the aircraft into a dangerous attitude. In the graveyard
spiral, while losing altitude, the pilot pulls up tightening the spiral.
• Somatogravic: rapid acceleration creates illusion of being nose high/up
• Inversion: abrupt change from climb to straight an level gives sensation of tumbling
backwards.
• Elevator: Rapid acceleration up/down (updraft/down draft) simulates being in a
climb/dive and thus an inappropriate response from pilot.

• Visual Illusions Leading to Landing Errors and loss of control

o False horizon – clouds or at night, lights on terrain, gives the sense of a horizon other
than the actual horizon
o Autokinesis – staring at a point of light at night, the point will appear to dance around
o Runway width illusions – narrow-than-usual runways give the illusion the aircraft is
higher than actual, and vice versa
o Runway and terrain slopes illusion – an upsloping runway, terrain, or both, give the
illusion the aircraft is higher than actual, and vice versa

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 o Featureless terrain illusion – lack of terrain features give the illusion that an aircraft is
higher than it is –night, over water
o Atmospheric illusions – rain on the windscreen can create the illusion of greater height,
haze can give illusion of greater distance
o Ground lighting illusions – lights along a straight path can be mistaken for a runway

• Vision of Night Flight

o Dim light, eyes require 30 minutes to adjust (avoid bright light before flight)
dim cockpit lights to lowest easily seen.
o Red lighting for optimum night vision
o Oxygen use by the human eye in dark settings, night vision can be impaired as low as
5000’
o Fatigue/Dehydration- visual acuity decreases

Evaluation
Insure understanding of illusions of VFR flight and vision of flight.

References
AIM Chapter 8, FAA-H-8083-25B PHAK, Chapt 17

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NIGHT OPERATIONS
Objective
To familiarize the student with night operation considerations for flight.

Elements
• Night and aeromedical physiology
• Airplane night requirements
• Taxiing considerations
• Flight considerations
• Airport operations considerations

Schedule
Discussion 0:30

Instructor Actions
Discuss flight operations at night.
Review aeromedical physiology “Flight Illusions and Vision of Flight”

Discuss lighting on airplane, pre-flight all lighting. Position lights between sunset and sunrise.

Night VFR requirements: day VFR plus:

Red/White Anti-collision lights-all aircraft
Position lights
Electrical source + Spare fuses as required
Complex aircraft: landing gear position indicators.
Flights for Hire: electric landing light

From Sunset to Sunrise:

Position/Nav lights On
Anti-collision (strobes) lights on unless PIC determines unsafe
Rotating Beacon ON.

Park or move aircraft in or near night flight ops area:

Clearly illuminated
Lighted position lights or marked by obstruction lights
Anchor aircraft: anchor light

Recommend position lights and collision (strobe) lights on before starting engine.

Taxi Operations: Limit strobes. Airport diagram. taxi light

Night Flight: use instruments (altitude/attitude). Poor visibility if disappearing ground lights.
NIGHT flight over water, mountains, desolate areas- no lights,no horizon. Treat as IMC!

Navigation using VOR’s or GPS.. Verify attitude and altitude by reference to flight instruments. Consider
flight following and filing a flight plan for all night operations

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Airport operations: Airport/Facility Directory for lighting, hours of operation, and pilot-controlled lighting
(PCL).
PCL (7 clicks in 5 seconds = high, 5 clicks = medium, 3 clicks = low).
Review airport beacons- green/white- civilian, green/white/white- military etc
Overfly unfamiliar airport
Review airport surrounding terrain and obstructions
Use approach lights and VASI or PAPI when available (wind direction/runway choice)
Use the landing light
All night landings are to full stop.

Two flashlights (red source), spare fuses, batteries

P- pilot- allow eyes to adjust 30 minutes to low light, USE instruments!

A-aircraft has required equipment working per 91.205, plus flashlights
V-environment- weather, obstacles, loss of horizon, moonless night, cloudy night, flight over water/terrain
E-external factors- eval airport lighting, obstacles, VASI, PAPI

BEWARE FEATURELESS TERRAIN-black hole effect will SUCK you in!

BEWARE FALSE HORIZONS and NO HORIZONS- use instruments! Consider IMC/IFR
BEWARE GROUND LIGHTING ILLUSIONS: pilots have mistaken lights on ground as stars or runways.

• Vision of Night Flight

o Dim light, eyes require 30 minutes to adjust (avoid bright light before flight)
dim cockpit lights to lowest easily seen.
o Red lighting for optimum night vision
o Oxygen use by the human eye in dark settings, night vision can be impaired as low as
5000’
o Fatigue/Dehydration- visual acuity decreases

Evaluation
Lesson is complete when student can demonstrate and comprehend night operations considerations.

References
FAA-H-8083-25B Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge Chapter 16, FAA-H-8083-3C Airplane Flying
Handbook

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HIGH ALTITUDE OPERATIONS
Objective
To teach the student about high altitude operations.

Elements
• Regulatory requirements for oxygen use
• Physiologic hazards associated with high altitude ops
• Pressurized aircraft and oxygen systems
• Aviation grade oxygen
• Care and storage of high pressure oxygen
• Rapid decompression and responses
• Cabin pressurization concepts and operation

Schedule
Discussion: 30

Equipment

FAA-H-8083-25 Pilots Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge

Instructor Actions
Discuss: Part 91.211
Oxygen requirements: 12,500-14,000 > 30 min Crew
>14,000 Crew
>15,000 Passengers

Pressurized Aircraft: >FL250 10 min supply ALL

>FL350 one pilot MASK
>FL350 Two pilots 5 sec don one hand available
>FL410 MASK
Aircraft pressurization systems:
Pressure source Turbine or Turbocharger
Outflow valve-releases excess cabin pressure to maintain 8000 ft.
Safety/Dump valve-
Pressure relief prevents excessive pressure differential with in structural limits
Vacuum relief prevents ambient pressure from exceeding cabin pressure
Dump valve- emergency use to equalize ambient and cabin pressure
Cabin Pressure instrumentation: see illustration

Oxygen systems: Cannulas up to 18,000ft

Masks with regulators above 18,000 ft
Demand systems up to FL400
Pressure Demand above FL400
Pulse Oximeters: not required but cheap and very important, measures oxygen levels

Decompression: Explosive < ½ second LUNG damage

Rapid-no lung damage
Rapid loss of consciousness
Decompression sickness- Bends

Effects of hypoxia: (exacerbated with Alcohol and Fatigue)

Cyanosis, tachypnea, tachycardia, euphoria, headache, drowsiness

189
 Impaired judgment, motor skills, memory, concentration, vision, speech

Response to Decompression or Hypoxia:

Don Oxygen
Secure passengers
Emergency Descent

Oxygen equipment service: secure bottles,

Wash hands, clean and free from grease, petroleum products
O2 service separate from fuel service
Aviation grade O2- same as industrial and medical, regulators and equipment

Evaluation
Lesson is complete when student has demonstrates knowledge and understanding of Oxygen
requirements, hypoxia, decompression, preventative and corrective measures to be taken.

References
FAA-H-8083-25B PHAK,7-37 to 7-39, 17-4 . FAR 91.211

190
EMERGENCY PROCEDURES and SURVIVAL GEAR
Attention/motivation: Although emergency are not common, being prepared and practice
for emergency situations can significantly reduce risks and improve outcomes should an
emergency occur.

Objective
To familiarize the student with emergency procedures and motivation for life long practice to improve
odds of survival.

Elements
• Airplane emergency scenarios (memory items/checklist)
Emergency Landings-forced, precautionary, ditching
DON’T TRY TO SAVE THE AIRCRAFT!
Engine failure after take off
Emergency Descents (see flight lesson)
Fire in flight-engine, electrical, cabin
Control malfunction- flap, trim, elevator
Landing Gear malfunction
Systems Malfunction- electrical, pitot-static, run away trim (autopilot)
Engine indications- loss of oil pressure, overheat
Fuel starvation
Carb or induction Icing
Door/window open in flight

• ELT -121.5 vs 406 MHz.

• Transponder
• 121.5 MHz
• Survival supplies and considerations
• Night flight considerations

Schedule
Discussion 60 minutes

Equipment
Airplane’s Aircraft Flight Manual or Pilot Operating Handbook

Instructor Actions
Discuss emergency procedures listed in the AFM/POH and as listed above.
Discuss the ELT, its required checks (12 calendar months, 50% of life, or 1 hour of cumulative use, per
14 CFR 91.207).
121.5 ELT transmits on 121.5 and 243.0 MHz. NOT MONITORED BY SARSAT! Search area expansive
406 ELT- transmits on 406MHz and sends GPS location. Is monitored by SARSAT. Search area precise!
Stay at crash site if possible, otherwise care ELT with you.
Flying on a flight plan or flight following
Carry food, clothing, blankets, mirror, water, flotation devices etc depending on terrain and
location
Discuss use of transponder frequencies: 7500 Hijack, 7600 Lost Communications, 7700 Emergency..
Emergency radio frequency is 121.5 MHz (and 243.0 MHz for military radios).

191
For night flights, always have multiple sources of light (flashlights, etc).

Completion Standard/Evaluation
Lesson is complete when student can discuss importance of memory items vs check list for various
scenarios in preparation for practicing emergency procedures.
Student can discuss use of ELT and Transponder in emergencies, the appropriate codes and rational for
emergency equipment and tactics.

References
Airplane’s Aircraft Flight Manual or Pilot Operating Handbook, 14 CFR 91.207, FAA-H-8083-3C, Airplane Flying
Handbook

192
 VFR ATC Communications
Arrival Class B,C, TRSA
Obtain ATIS w/in 60 nm

-metar Time Wind Visibility Ceiling T/Dew P Altimeter

05 1950Z 220 18 kts 6 sm Brkn 4000 18/M3 2976

-active runway 25
-contact approach 118.3
-information identifier “tango” or “sierra” etc

Approach w/in 20 nm (further for large B,C airspace) CLASS B, C, TRSA

(below examples expect/imply pilot repeats back the provided instructions to approach)

PILOT APPROACH PILOT

-who calling “Rockford Approach” “Skyhawk 723PG” “Rockford Approach”
-who you are “Skyhawk 7235PG” “Rockford Approach” “Skyhawk 723PG”
-where “20 nm NE, 6500 ft” “Squawk 4253” “Squawk 4253”
-what want “for landing” “Ident” “Ident”
-with inform “with information Tango”

“Skyhawk 3PG” “Rockford Approach”

“Rockford Approach” “Skyhawk 3PG”
“Radar Contact” “Enter Right base 25”
“16 nm NE Rockford Airport”
“Enter Right BASE Runway 25”

OR OR
“Skyhawk 3PG” “Rockford Approach”
“Rockford Approach” “Skyhawk 3PG”
“Radar Vectors for 25” “Radar vectors 25”
“Fly heading 180” “Fly Heading 180”

5 to 10 nm Approach “Skyhawk 723PG” “Rockford Approach”

Will hand you off to “Rockford Approach” “Skyhawk 723PG”
Tower “Contact Tower 118.3” “Contact Tower 118.3

OR OR
“Skyhawk 723PG” “Rockford Approach”
“Rockford Approach” “Skyhawk 723PG”
“Join Right Base 25” “Join Right Base 25
“and contact tower” “ Contact Tower”

Tower as directed by Approach (Class B, C, TRSA)

PILOT TOWER PILOT

-who call “Rockford Tower” “Skyhawk 723 PG” “Rockford Tower”
-who UR “Skyhawk 723PG” “Rockford Tower” “Skyhawk 723 PG”
-where/what “on RIGHT base for 25” “Cleared to land Runway 25” “Cleared to land 25”

Ground: When clear of runway and taxi instructions not given by tower: “Rockford Ground, Skyhawk 723PG clear
of runway 25 at taxiway Golf., taxi instructions to NE lot” see example under Class D arrival Ground.

193
 VFR ATC Communications
Arrival Class D Airspace
Obtain ATIS w/in 60 nm

-metar Time Wind Visibility Ceiling T/Dew P Altimeter

05 1950Z 220 18 kts 6 sm Brkn 4000 18/M3 2976

-active runway 25
-contact approach 118.3
-information identifier “tango” or “sierra” etc

Tower w/in 10 nm (if class D airspace, ie Janesville) ( see above for Class B, C, TRSA)

PILOT TOWER PILOT

-who calling “Janesville Tower” “Skyhawk 723PG” “Janesville Tower”
-who you are “Skyhawk 723PG” “Janesville Tower” “Skyhawk 723PG”
-where “10 nm SE, 2500 ft” “Right base for 14” “Right Base 14”
-what want “for landing” “Report over power plant” “Report over power plant”
-with inform “with information Tango”

“Janesville Tower” “Skyhawk 723PG” “Janesville Tower”

“Skyhawk 723PG” “Janesville Tower” “Skyhawk 723PG”
“Over power plant” “Cleared to land 14” “Cleared to land 14”

Ground when clear of runway (and taxi instructions not given by tower) Class B,C, D, TRSA

PILOT GROUND
-who calling “Rockford Ground” “Skyhawk 723PG”
-who UR “Skyhawk 723PG” “Rockford Ground”
-where “Cleared of 25 at taxiway Alpha” “right on Lima”
-what want “taxi instruction to NE lot” “Left on Bravo”
“Back taxi on 19 to Echo”
“Right on Golf”
“Taxi to Foxtrot and hold short of 19”
“Rockford Ground”
“Student Pilot in Skyhawk 723PG”
“Request progressive taxi instructions”

194
 VFR ATC Communications
Departure Class B,C, TRSA
Obtain ATIS

-metar Time Wind Visibility Ceiling T/Dew P Altimeter

05 1950Z 220 18 kts 6 sm Brkn 4000 18/M3 2976

-active runway 25
-contact GROUND or CLEARANCE/DELIVERY as instructed
-information identifier “tango” or “sierra” etc

Clearance Delivery (IFR or if directed by ATIS) B,C or TRSA

PILOT CLEARANCE/DELIVERY
-who calling “Cinncinatti Clearance/Delivery” C - Cleared to Poplar Grove
-who UR “Skyhawk 723 PG” R - VFR
-where “FBO, NE LOT” A - at or below 3000 ft
-what want “Departing to Poplar Grove” F - Departure freq 128.7
-Route “VFR” T – squawk 4245
-Altitide “2500” other: expect runway 24
- inform “information Sierra” depart runway heading

Ground -if you have already contacted clearance delivery and received above info, then respond as
below
PILOT GROUND
-who calling “Cincinnatti Ground” “Taxi to Runway 27”
-who UR “Skyhawk 723PG” “via “Alpha 3, Alpha, Delta”
-where “NE Lot” “hold short Runway 13”
-what want “ready for taxi”
-clearance “with CLEARANCE”

Ground –if VFR and directed by ATIS and you are NOT contacting Clearance/Delivery first.

PILOT GROUND
-who calling “Rockford Ground” C - Cleared to Poplar Grove
-who UR “Skyhawk 723 PG” R - VFR
-where “NE LOT” A - at or below 3000 ft
-what want “Departing to Poplar Grove” F - Departure freq 128.7
-Route “VFR” T – squawk 4245
-Altitide “2500” “Taxi to Runway 24”
- inform “information Sierra” “via Bravo”

195
 VFR ATC Communications
Departure Class B,C, TRSA

Tower -Continued from above (once you have arrived at runway you are departing from)

PILOT TOWER PILOT

-who calling “Cincinnati Tower” “Skyhawk 723PG” “Cincinnati Tower”
-who UR “Skyhawk 723PG” “Cincinnati Tower” “Skyhawk 723PG”
-where “at Runway 27” “Position & Hold runway 27” “Position & Hold 27”
-what want “ready for departure” OR

“Skyhawk 723PG” “Cincinnati Tower”

“Cincinnati Tower” “Skyhawk 723PG”
“Turn left on course” “Turn left on course”
“cleared for departure “cleared for departure 27”
Runway 27”

OR
“Skyhawk 723PG” “Cincinnati Tower”
“Cincinnati Tower” “Skyhawk 723PG”
“Fly runway heading” “Fly runway heading”
“Cleared for departure runway 27” “Cleared for departure 27”

After departure “Skyhawk 723PG” “Cincinnati Tower”

“Contact Departure” “Skyhawk 723PG”
“Contact Departure”
Departure
PILOT DEPARTURE PILOT
-who calling “Cincinnati Departure” “Skyhawk 723PG” (if you don’t know what
-who UR “Skyhawk 723PG” “Cincinnati Departure” to say at this point, don’t
-where “1800 for 4000” “Climb and maintain 4000 ft” be a pilot, just quit)
“Maintain VFR”
-what want not applicable “Turn right on course”

Leaving airspace “Skyhawk 723PG” “Cincinnati Departure”

“Cincinnati Departure” “Skyhawk 723PG”
“Leaving service Area” “Squawk 1200”
“Frequency change approved”
“Squawk 1200”

196
 VFR ATC Communications
Departure Class D Airspace
Obtain ATIS

-metar Time Wind Visibility Ceiling T/Dew P Altimeter

05 1950Z 140 18 kts 6 sm Brkn 4000 18/M3 2976

-active runway 14
-contact GROUND as instructed
-information identifier “tango” or “sierra” etc

Ground –if VFR and directed by ATIS and you are NOT contacting Clearance/Delivery first.

PILOT GROUND
-who calling “Janesville Ground” “Skyhawk 723 PG”
-who UR “Skyhawk 723 PG” “Janesville Ground”
-where “FBO restuarant” “Taxi to 14 via Bravo”
-what want “Departing to South East”
-Route “VFR”
-Altitude
- inform “information Sierra”

Tower
“Janesville Tower” “Skyhawk 723PG”
“Skyhawk 723PG” “Janesville Tower”
“At Runway 14” “Fly runway heading”
“Ready for Departure” “Turn on Course”
“Cleared for takeoff Runway 14”

197
National Transportation Safety Board- Accidents, Incidents
and reporting.
Attention/motivation: Although Accidents and incidents are not common, being
knowledgeable about reporting requirements is required knowledge and will help you in
case you have and accident and incident to make timely reports as may be required.

Objective
To familiarize the student with NTSB definitions and reporting procedures.

Elements
• Definitions
Aircraft Accident
Aircraft Incident
Serious Injury
Substantial damage
Unmanned ircraft accident
• Notification Requirements
• Information to be provided
Preservation of aircraft wreckage, records
Reports and statements to be filed
AOPA legal services

Schedule
Discussion 20 minutes

Equipment
FAR/AIM

Instructor Actions
Discuss Definitions
Accident- substantial damage, injury or death at time of boarding till disembark aircraft with
Intention of flight

Incident- anything less than an accident that could affect safety of flight

Serious injury- requires hospitalization > 48 hrs within 7 days of accident, fracture of any major
bone, severe bleeding, severe muscle skin or nerve damage.

Fatal injury – death within 30 days of accident

Substantial damage – affects structural strength, performance or flight characteristics and

requires major repair or replacement. Does not include isolated engine damage/failure, dents,
poke holes, ground damage such as prop strike, damage to gear, fairings, dents, poke holes,
wing tips.

Immediate Notification of NTSB office:

Flight control malfunction/failure
Incapacitation of flight crew member
Failure of turbine engine with departure of engine components (besides via exhaust)
In flight fire
In flight collision

198
 Damage to property in excess of $25,000
Release of loss of portion of propeller in flight
Complete loss of information from > 50% of electronic displays (EFIS, MFD, PFD, GPS etc)
Airborne Collision Avoidance Advisories (from TCAS) compliance to avoid collision between 2
aircraft on an IFR flight plan
An Aircraft is overdue and believed to be involved in an accident

For Large multi engine aircraft (>12,500 lbs gross) see FAR 830.5
For Commercial Carriers, additional reports apply, see FAR 830.5

Information to be provided, Refer to FAR 830.6

Preservation of wreckage, cargo and records: operator of aircraft involved in accident which requires
report to NTSB, must preserve and not move all wreckage, cargo, mail, records of aircraft and
maintenance until NTSB takes them unless:
Required to remove injured persons
To protect wreckage from further damage
Protect public from injury

Reports: within 10 days after accident, or 7days after overdue aircraft is missing. For an incident, report
filed only if requested by NTSB representative.

Completion Standard/Evaluation
Lesson is complete when student can discuss and recall definitions and reporting requirements and FAR
reference.

References
FAR/AIM FAR 830

199