Introduction to Computer Graphics

Today there are very few aspects of our lives not affected by computers. Practically
every cash or monetary transaction that takes place daily involves a computer. In many
cases, the same is true of computer graphics. Whether you see them on television, in
newspapers, in weather reports or while at the doctor’s surgery, computer images are
all around you.

“A picture is worth a thousand words” is a well-known saying and highlights the

advantages and benefits of the visual presentation of our data. We are able to obtain a
comprehensive overall view of our data and also study features and areas of particular
interest.

A well-chosen graph is able to transform a complex table of numbers into meaningful

results. You know that such graphs are used to illustrate papers, reports and thesis, as
well as providing the basis for presentation material in the form of slides and overhead
transparencies. A range of tools and facilities are available to enable users to visualize
their data, and this document provides a brief summary and overview.

Computer graphics can be used in many disciplines like Charting, Presentations,

Drawing, Painting and Design, Image Processing and Scientific Visualization are
some among them.

In particular, we will emphasize the following:

a) Basic concepts of Computer Graphics
b) Different types of Computer Graphics
c) Origin of Computer Graphics
d) Working of an interactive graphics display
e) Importance of speed in displaying pictures
f) The change in size an orientation of pictures
g) Applications of Computer Graphics

Basic concepts of Computer Graphics

I hope all of you are fond of video games and you may be good at playing them. Have

you seen the game of ping-pong? It’s a game played by two people with a pair video

game controller and a home television set. You can see that when a game is switched

on, a small bright spot, representing a ball, is seen bouncing to and fro across the

screen.
Now each player uses his video game controller to position a paddle to bounce the ball

back to his opponent. The player who hits the ball past his opponent wins a point and

the one who gains 15 points wins the game. Now how did you invent this video game?

This has been done with the aid of Computer Graphics. Video games represent a

major use in the home of computer graphics. Computer graphics helps to create and

manipulate pictures with the aid of computers.

Computer graphics is concerned with all aspects of producing images using a

computer. It concerns with the pictorial synthesis of real or imaginary objects from their

computer-based models.

Different types of Computer Graphics

Computer Graphics can be broadly divided into two categories:
1. Non Interactive Computer Graphics: In non-interactive computer graphics

otherwise known as passive computer graphics, the observer has no control over

the image. Familiar examples of this type of computer graphics include the titles

shown on TV and other forms of computer art.

2. Interactive Computer Graphics: Interactive Computer Graphics involve a two way

communication between computer and user.

Here the observer is given some control over the image by providing him with an input

device for example the video game controller of the ping pong game. This helps him

to signal his request to the computer. The computer on receiving signals from the input

device can modify the displayed picture appropriately. To the user it appears that the

picture is changing instantaneously in response to his commands. He can give a series

of commands, each one generating a graphical response from the computer. In this way

he maintains a conversation, or dialogue, with the computer.

Interactive computer graphics affects our lives in a number of indirect ways. For

example, it helps to train the pilots of our airplanes. We can create a flight simulator
 which may help the pilots to get trained not in a real aircraft but on the grounds at the

control of the flight simulator.

The flight simulator is a mockup of an aircraft flight deck, containing all the usual

controls and surrounded by screens on which we have the projected computer

generated views of the terrain visible on take off and landing. Flight simulators have

many advantages over the real aircrafts for training purposes, including fuel savings,

safety, and the ability to familiarize the trainee with a large number of the world’s

airports.

Origin of Computer Graphics

Years of research and development were made to achieve the goals in the field of
computer graphics.
 In 1950 the first computer driven display was used to generate only simple
pictures. This display made use of a cathode ray tube similar to the one used in
television sets. During 1950’s interactive computer graphics made little progress
because the computers of that period were so unsuited to interactive use. These
computers were used to perform only lengthy calculations.

The single vent that did the most to promote interactive computer graphics as an
important new field was the publication in 1962 of a brilliant thesis by Ivan E.
Sutherland. His thesis, entitled ‘Sketchpad: A Man- Machine Graphical
Communication System proved to many readers that interactive computer graphics
was a viable, useful, and exciting field of research. By the mid -1960’s large computer
graphics research projects were under taken at MIT, Bell Telephone Labs and General
Motors. Thus the golden age of computer graphics began. The instant appeal of
computer graphics to users of all ages has helped it to spread into many applications
throughout the world.

What is computer Graphics? Explain Interactive and Non-interactive

Computer graphics is an art of drawing pictures, lines, charts,
etc using computers with the help of programming. Computer
graphics is made up of number of pixels. Pixel is the smallest
graphical picture or unit represented on the computer screen.
Basically there are two types of computer graphics namely-

1. Interactive Computer Graphics: Interactive Computer Graphics involves

a two way communication between computer and user. Here the observer
is given some control over the image by providing him with an input device
 for example the video game controller of the ping pong game. This helps
him to signal his request to the computer.
The computer on receiving signals from the input device can modify the
displayed picture appropriately. To the user it appears that the picture is
changing instantaneously in response to his commands. He can give a
series of commands, each one generating a graphical response from the
computer. In this way he maintains a conversation, or dialogue, with the
computer.
Interactive computer graphics affects our lives in a number of indirect
ways. For example, it helps to train the pilots of our airplanes. We can
create a flight simulator which may help the pilots to get trained not in a
real aircraft but on the grounds at the control of the flight simulator. The
flight simulator is a mockup of an aircraft flight deck, containing all the usual
controls and surrounded by screens on which we have the projected
computer generated views of the terrain visible on take-off and landing.
Flight simulators have many advantages over the real aircrafts for training
purposes, including fuel savings, safety, and the ability to familiarize the
trainee with a large number of the world’s airports.
2. Non Interactive Computer Graphics: In non-interactive computer
graphics otherwise known as passive computer graphics. It is the
computer graphics in which user does not have any kind of control over the
image. Image is merely the product of static stored program and will work
according to the instructions given in the program linearly. The image is
totally under the control of program instructions not under the user.
Example: screen savers.
Applications of Computer Graphics
The following are also considered graphics applications-
 Paint programs: Allow you to create rough freehand drawings. The images are stored
as bit maps and can easily be edited. It is a graphics program that enables you to draw
pictures on the display screen which is represented as bit maps (bit-mapped graphics).
In contrast, draw programs use vector graphics (object-oriented images), which scale
better.
Most paint programs provide the tools (shown below) in the form of icons. By selecting
an icon, you can perform functions associated with the tool. In addition to these tools,
paint programs also provide easy ways to draw common shapes such as straight lines,
rectangles, circles, and ovals.
Sophisticated paint applications are often called image editing programs. These
applications support many of the features of draw programs, such as the ability to work
with objects. Each object, however, is represented as a bit map rather than as a vector
image.
 Illustration/design programs: Supports more advanced features than paint programs,
particularly for drawing curved lines. The images are usually stored in vector-based
formats. Illustration/design programs are often called draw programs. Presentation
graphics software: Lets you create bar charts, pie charts, graphics, and other types of
 images for slide shows and reports. The charts can be based on data imported from
spreadsheet applications.
A type of business software that enables users to create highly stylized images for slide
shows and reports. The software includes functions for creating various types of charts
and graphs and for inserting text in a variety of fonts. Most systems enable you to
import data from a spreadsheet application to create the charts and graphs.
Presentation graphics is often called business graphics.
 Animation software: Enables you to chain and sequence a series of images to
simulate movement. Each image is like a frame in a movie. It can be defined as a
simulation of movement created by displaying a series of pictures, or frames. A cartoon
on television is one example of animation. Animation on computers is one of the chief
ingredients of multimedia presentations. There are many software applications that
enable you to create animations that you can display on a computer monitor.
There is a difference between animation and video. Whereas video takes continuous
motion and breaks it up into discrete frames, animation starts with independent
pictures and puts them together to form the illusion of continuous motion.
 CAD software: Enables architects and engineers to draft designs. It is the acronym for
computer-aided design. A CAD system is a combination of hardware and software that
enables engineers and architects to design everything from furniture to airplanes. In
addition to the software, CAD systems require a high-quality graphics monitor; a mouse,
light pen, or digitizing tablet for drawing; and a special printer or plotter for printing
design specifications.
CAD systems allow an engineer to view a design from any angle with the push of a
button and to zoom in or out for close-ups and long-distance views. In addition, the
computer keeps track of design dependencies so that when the engineer changes one
value, all other values that depend on it are automatically changed accordingly. Until the
mid-1980s, all CAD systems were specially constructed computers. Now, you can buy
CAD software that runs on general-purpose workstations and personal computers.
 Desktop publishing: Provides a full set of word-processing features as well as fine
control over placement of text and graphics, so that you can create newsletters,
advertisements, books, and other types of documents. It means by using a personal
computer or workstation high-quality printed documents can be produced. A desktop
publishing system allows you to use different typefaces, specify various margins and
justifications, and embed illustrations and graphs directly into the text. The most
powerful desktop publishing systems enable you to create illustrations; while less
powerful systems let you insert illustrations created by other programs.
As word-processing programs become more and more powerful, the line separating
such programs from desktop publishing systems is becoming blurred. In general,
though, desktop publishing applications give you more control over typographical
characteristics, such as kerning, and provide more support for full-color output.
A particularly important feature of desktop publishing systems is that they enable you to
see on the display screen exactly how the document will appear when printed. Systems
that support this feature are called WYSIWYGs (what you see is what you get). Until
recently, hardware costs made desktop publishing systems impractical for most uses.
But as the prices of personal computers and printers have fallen, desktop publishing
systems have become increasingly popular for producing newsletters, brochures,
books, and other documents that formerly required a typesetter.
Once you have produced a document with a desktop publishing system, you can output
it directly to a printer or you can produce a PostScript file which you can then take to a
service bureau. The service bureau has special machines that convert the PostScript
file to film, which can then be used to make plates for offset printing. Offset printing
produces higher-quality documents, especially if color is used, but is generally more
expensive than laser printing.
In general, applications that support graphics require a powerful CPU and a large
amount of memory. Many graphics applications—for example, computer animation
systems—require more computing power than is available on personal computers and
will run only on powerful workstations or specially designed graphics computers. This is
true of all three-dimensional computer graphics applications.
In addition to the CPU and memory, graphics software requires a graphics monitor and
support for one of the many graphics standards. Most PC programs, for instance,
require VGA graphics. If your computer does not have built-in support for a specific
graphics system, you can insert a video adapter card.
The quality of most graphics devices is determined by their resolution—how many
pixels per square inch they can represent—and their color capabilities.

Applications of Computer Graphics.

As ancient says “ a pixel is worth thousand words”, graphics is essential everywhere to
understand the things, concepts, etc easily. Computer graphics is useful in almost all
part of our life. In the following sections we are discussing some of the popular areas
of computergraphics.
Design and Drawing : In almost all areas of engineering, be it civil, mechanical,
electronic etc., drawings are of prime importance. In fact, drawing is said to be the
language of engineers. The ability of computers to store complex drawings and
display them on demand was one of the major attractions for using computers in
graphic mode. However, these were further advantages.
Most of these drawings were the result of engineering calculations. In fact,
programs can be written to make these calculations and the results can be used to
draw diagrams on the screen. If changes are to be made, one can get back to
the design formulae and so on. Thus, the are of design and drawing was one of the
earliest and most useful applications of graphics.
Animation: But what brought the computers pretty close to the average
individuals is the concept of animation moving pictures. It is the well known
principle of moving pictures that a succession of related pictures, when flashed
with sufficient speed will make the succession of pictures appear to be moving. In
movies, a sequence of such pictures is shot and are displayed with sufficient speed
to make them appear moving. Computers can do it in another way.
The properties of the picture can be modified at a fairly fast rate to make it
appear moving. For example, if a hand is to be moved, say, the successive
positions of the hand at different periods of time can be computed and pictures
showing the position of the hand at these positions can be flashed on the screen.
This led to the concept of “animation” or moving pictures. In the initial stages,
animation was mainly used in computer games.
However, this led to a host of other possibilities. As we see later on in this course,
computers not only allow you to display the figures but also offer you facilities to
manipulate them in various ways – you can enlarge, reduce, rotate, twist, morph
(make one picture gradually change to another – like an advertisement showing a
cheetah change into a motor bike) and do a whole lot of other things.
Thus, a whole lot of films made use of computers to generate tricks. In fact, several
advertisement films and cartons strips are built with no actors at all – only the
computer generated pictures.
Multimedia applications : The use of sound cards to make computers produce
sound effect led to other uses of graphics. The concept of virtual reality, where in
one can be taken through an unreal experience, like going through an unbuilt
house ( to see how it feels inside, once it is built ) are possible by the use of
computer graphics technology .
In fact the ability of computers to convert electronic signals (0 & 1) to data and then
on to figures and pictures has made it possible for us to get photographs of distant
planets like mars being reproduced here on the earth in almost real time.
Simulation : The other revolutionary change that graphics made was in the area of
simulation. Basically simulation is a mockup of an environment elsewhere to study or
experience it. The availability of easily interactive devices (mouse is one of them, we
are going to see a few other later in the course) made it possible to build simulators.
One example is of flight simulators, wherein the trainee, sitting in front of a
computer, can operate on the interactive devices as if he were operating on the
flight controls and the changes he is expected to see outside his window are made to
appear on the screen, so that he can master the skills of flight operations before
actually trying his hand on the actual flights.
The graphic capabilities of computers are used in a very large variety of areas like
criminology (to recreate faces of victims, assailants etz.,) medical fields (recreating
pictures of internal cavities, using signals sent by miniature cameras), recreation of
Satellite pictures etc.

What is Frame Buffer:

A frame buffer is a large, contiguous piece of computer memory. At a minimum there is
one memory bit for each pixel in the raster; this amount of memory is called a bit-plane.
The picture is built up in the frame buffer one bit at a time.

You know that a memory bit has only two states, therefore a single bit plane yields a
black-and white display. You know that a frame buffer is a digital device and the CRT
is an analog device. Therefore, a conversion from a digital representation to an analog
signal must take place when information is read from the frame buffer and displayed on
the raster CRT graphics device. For this you can use a digital to analog converter
(DAC).Each pixel in the frame buffer must be accessed and converted before it is
visible on the raster CRT.

N-bit colour Frame buffer

Color or gray scales are incorporated into a frame buffer raster graphics device by
using additional bit planes. The intensity of each pixel on the CRT is controlled by
a corresponding pixel location in each of the N bit planes. The binary value from each
of the N bit planes is loaded into corresponding positions in a register. The resulting
binary number is interpreted as an intensity level between 0 (dark) and 2 n -1 (full
intensity).
This is converted into an analog voltage between 0 and the maximum voltage of the
electron gun by the DAC. A total of 2 N intensity levels are possible. Figure given below
illustrates a system with 3 bit planes for a total of 8 (2 3) intensity levels. Each bit plane
requires the full complement of memory for a given raster resolution; e.g., a 3-bit plane
frame buffer for a 1024 X1024 raster requires 3,145,728 (3 X 1024 X1024) memory
bits.

An increase in the number of available intensity levels is achieved for a modest increase
in required memory by using a lookup table. Upon reading the bit planes in the frame
buffer, the resulting number is used as an index into the lookup table. The look up table
must contain 2N entries. Each entry in the lookup table is W bit wise. W may be greater
than N. When this occurs, 2W intensities are available; but only 2 N different intensities
are available at one time. To get additional intensities, the lookup table must be
changed.
Because there are three primary colours, a simple color frame buffer is implemented
with three bit planes, one for each primary color. Each bit plane drives an individual
color gun for each of the three primary colors used in color video. These three primaries
(red, green, and blue) are combined at the CRT to yield eight colors.