3/9/25

Class D
Electricity &
Magnetism
Lesson 16
Bellingham Academy

Quiz
1. Inductors in series. Two inductors 𝐿! and 𝐿" are connected in series and are
separated by a large distance so that the magnetic field of one cannot affect
the other. Show that the equivalent inductance is given by 𝐿#$ = 𝐿! + 𝐿"

Series connection ∆𝑉 = ∆𝑉! + ∆𝑉" 𝑖! = 𝑖" = 𝑖

𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖! 𝑑𝑖" 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
−𝐿#$ = −𝐿! − 𝐿" 𝐿#$ = (𝐿! + 𝐿") 𝐿#$ = 𝐿! + 𝐿"
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

2. Inductors in parallel. Two inductors 𝐿! and 𝐿" are connected in parallel and
separated by a large distance so that the magnetic field of one cannot affect
! ! !
the other. Show that the equivalent inductance is given by = +
%!" %# %$

𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖! 𝑑𝑖"
Parallel connection ∆𝑉 = ∆𝑉! = ∆𝑉" 𝑖 = 𝑖! + 𝑖" = +
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖! 𝑑𝑖" ∆𝑉 ∆𝑉 ∆𝑉 1 1 1
−𝐿#$ = −𝐿! = −𝐿" = ∆𝑉 − =− − = +
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐿#$ 𝐿! 𝐿" 𝐿#$ 𝐿! 𝐿"

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 2

1
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Summary
1. Generator, metal detector and transformer are 3 important
applications of EM induction.
2. An inductor, also called a coil, a solenoid, stores energy in a
magnetic field when electric current flows through it. As a circuit
element it always opposes changes in current.
3. We define the ratio of magnetic flux and current as inductance:
! #!
𝐿 = % ; Its differential form is L = %
" #"
#!% #!% #" #"
4. From Faraday’s law we can get ℰ$ = − =− = −𝐿 ;
#% #" #% #%
So, we can relate the induced emf to the change of current.

5. If a constant emf ℇ is introduced into a single-loop RL circuit the

current rises from 0 to an equilibrium value of ℇ/𝑅
& $
6. 𝑖 = (1 − 𝑒 (%/* ), time constant 𝜏 =
' '

7. When the source of constant emf is removed, the current

decays from a value 𝑖+ according to 𝑖 = 𝑖+𝑒 (%/*

8. If an inductor L carries a current i, the inductor’s magnetic field stores an energy

, ,
given by 𝑈$ = - 𝐿𝐼 -; the density of stored magnetic energy is 𝑢. = -/ 𝐵-.
&
Class D, Bellingham Academ y 3

Lesson 16: EM Oscillation and EM fields

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 4

2
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LC Circuits
Radios, cell phones, televisions—is based on
electromagnetic signals that oscillate at a well-defined
frequency. This is realized by LC circuit.

The circuit diagram shows a capacitor with

initial charge Q0, an inductor, and a switch.

The switch has been open for a long time,

so there is no current in the circuit.

Then, at t = 0, the switch is closed.

How does the circuit respond?

Let’s think it through qualitatively before getting into the mathematics.

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 5

LC Circuit vs. Spring-Block System

Closing the switch to discharge the capacitor The block doesn’t stop when it reaches the origin; Its inertia
is like releasing the block. In this analogy you keeps it going. Likewise, the current does not stop when the
let the charge go. capacitor is fully discharged. The current will continue.

The capacitor discharges until

the current is a maximum.

The current continues until the The current continues until the capacitor is
initial capacitor charge is restored. fully recharged with opposite polarization.

Now the discharge goes in

the opposite direction.

The block back to the origin. Likewise, the The spring is fully compressed. Likewise, the
capacitor is fully discharged and ready to be current fully recharges the capacitor with the
charged it in opposite direction. opposite polarization.
Class D, Bellingham Academ y 6

3
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LC Circuit Analysis
At any instant Kirchhoff’s loop rule is always true: ∆𝑉, + ∆𝑉% = 0
'
The potential difference across a capacitor is ∆𝑉, = , and the potential
,
difference across an inductor can be obtained from Faraday’s law. ∆𝑉% =
&- &- &. &.
− &(% = − &.% &( = −𝐿 &(

𝑄 𝑑𝐼 &' &' 𝑄 𝑑 "𝑄

−𝐿 =0 Q is reducing, is negative, so I = − +𝐿 " =0
𝐶 𝑑𝑡 &( &( 𝐶 𝑑𝑡
𝑑 "𝑄 𝑄 1 /
+ =0 𝑄̈ + 𝑄=0 Remember 𝑥̈ +
)
𝑥 =0?
𝑑𝑡 " 𝐿𝐶 𝐿𝐶
We can make 2 conclusions: 1) the oscillation is simple harmonic motion.
! !
2) 𝜔" = ; 𝜔=
%, %,
2𝜋
𝑇= = 2𝜋 𝐿𝐶 𝑄(𝑡) = 𝑄)*+ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 (assuming at t=0, Q(t)=Qmax)
𝜔

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 7

LC Circuit Analysis
There is zero resistance in the circuit. But neither the capacitor nor inductor
is an Ohm device. So, we should not try to understand the current by
applying the Ohm’s law.
𝑄 𝑄)*+
𝑄(𝑡) = 𝑄)*+ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 ∆𝑉, = = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡
𝐶 𝐶
𝑑𝑄 𝑄)*+
𝐼=− = 𝜔𝑄)*+ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 = 𝐼)*+ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝐼)*+ = 𝜔𝑄)*+ =
𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝐶

0 !
An LC circuit is an electric oscillator, oscillating at frequency 𝑓 = "1 = "1 %,
.

The current is zero when the capacitor is fully charged, as expected, for
example at t=0, the sudden trend of current increase makes the inductor to
fully against it.
The charge is zero when the current is maximum, which is difficult to
visualize. The charges on the capacity leaves faster and faster until the last
drop.

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 8

4
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11 " 1 "
From Energy Standpoint 𝑈2 =
2𝐶
𝑄 𝑈3 =
2
𝐿𝐼

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 9

From Energy Standpoint

The total energy U present at any instant 11 - 1 -
in an oscillating LC circuit is given by 𝑈 = 𝑈0 + 𝑈. = 𝑄 + 𝐿𝐼
2𝐶 2

𝑈0 is the energy stored in the electric field of the capacitor;

𝑈. is the energy stored in the magnetic field of the inductor.
Since we have assumed the circuit resistance to be zero, no energy is
transferred to thermal energy and U remains constant with time.

𝑑𝑈 𝑑 11 - 1 - 𝑄 𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝐼 𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝐼 𝑑-𝑄
= 𝑄 + 𝐿𝐼 = + 𝐿𝐼 = 0 𝐼=− =− -
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 𝐶 2 𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑-𝑄 1
𝐿 + 𝑄=0 This is the same equation as in slide 7.
𝑑𝑡 - 𝐶
𝑑𝑄
Solve to get 𝑄(𝑡) = 𝑄123 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 (assuming at t=0, Q(t)=Qmax) 𝐼=− = 𝜔𝑄123 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 = 𝐼123 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡
11 - 11 - 1 - 1 - 1 1
𝑈0 = 𝑄 = 𝑄 𝑐𝑜𝑠 -𝜔𝑡 𝑈. = 𝐿𝐼 = 𝐿𝐼123 𝑠𝑖𝑛-𝜔𝑡 = 𝐿𝜔-𝑄123
- 𝑠𝑖𝑛-𝜔𝑡 𝜔- =
2𝐶 2 𝐶 123 2 2 2 𝐿𝐶
11 - The figure shows plots of 𝑈0 (𝑡) and 𝑈. (𝑡)
𝑈. = 𝑄 𝑠𝑖𝑛-𝜔𝑡
2 𝐶 123
Class D, Bellingham Academ y 10

10

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LC Circuit and Spring-Block System

In this analogy the capacitor with charge is like the block with mass;

The amount (Q) of charge is like the position (x) of the mass;
#4 #3⃗
Current ( #% ) is like velocity ( #% );

Inductor’s stubbornness is like the block’s inertia. Mathematically, inductance

(L) is like the mass (m).

,, -
The electric potential energy (𝑈0 = 𝑄 ) of the capacitor push the charges back and force; This is like the
-6
,
elastic potential energy (𝑈0 = 𝑘𝑥 -) of the spring pulling the mass back and force. Mathematically, the spring
-
constant k is like 1/C.
,
Then without calculation we can infer that the angular frequency of the LC circuit must be 𝜔 = ; This is like
$6
7
the angular frequency of the spring-block 𝜔 = 1

This cycling process repeats over and over, charging the capacitor first one way, then the other. This is called
electromagnetic oscillation.

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 11

11

Example
A charged capacitor and an inductor are connected in series at time t = 0. In terms
of the period T of the resulting oscillations, determine how much later the
following reach their maximum value:
(a) the charge on the capacitor;
(b) the voltage across the capacitor, with its original polarity;
(c) the energy stored in the electric field; and
(d) the current.

(a) T/2
(b) T
(c) T/2
(d) T/4

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 12

12

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Example
A capacitor in an LC oscillator has a maximum potential difference of 20 V
and a maximum energy of 160 𝜇𝐽. When the capacitor has a potential
difference of 5 V, what are
(a) the emf across the inductor and
(b) the energy stored in the magnetic field?

(a) ∆𝑉, + ∆𝑉% = 0 5 + ∆𝑉% = 0 ∆𝑉% = −5𝑉

(b) 𝑈 = 𝑈2 + 𝑈3 = 𝑈2_)*+ = 160𝜇𝐽

1 𝑈2_)*+ 𝑈2 1 𝑈2_)*+ 160𝜇𝐽

𝑈2 = 𝐶(∆𝑉, )" = = 𝐶 𝑈2 = (∆𝑉, )"= ×(5𝑉)"= 10𝜇𝐽
2 (∆𝑉,_)*+ )" (∆𝑉, )" 2 (∆𝑉,_)*+ )" (20𝑉)"

𝑈3 = 𝑈2_)*+ − 𝑈2 = 160𝜇𝐽 − 10𝜇𝐽 = 150𝜇𝐽

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 13

13

Application of LC circuits
,
An LC circuit, like a mass on a spring, wants to respond only at its natural oscillation frequency 𝑓 = . A strong
-8 $6
response at the natural frequency is called resonance, and resonance is the basis for all telecommunications.
When you drag a violin bow across a string, there are all kinds of vibration frequencies due to the friction between
the horsehair and the string. But only the string’s natural frequency is picked up by the violin.

The input circuit in radios, televisions, and cell phones is an LC circuit

driven by the signal picked up by the antenna. This signal is the
superposition of hundreds of sinusoidal waves at different frequencies, one
from each radio station’s transmitter in the area, but the circuit responds
only to the one signal that matches the circuit’s natural frequency.

That particular signal generates a large-amplitude current that can be

further amplified and decoded to become the output that you hear.
Most of the LC circuit has tunable capacitor from 26.5 pF to 424 pF. Multiple
radio waves excites a signal in the antenna. We can pick up desired signal by
tuning the resonance frequency, which is tuned by changing the capacitance.
All other lower or higher frequencies are filtered out.
This is how our radio and TV works when we change a channel (frequency).

Nikola Tesla gives 1st public demonstration of radio, March 1, 1893

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 14

14

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Example
The Amplitude Modulated (AM radio) carrier frequencies are
in the frequency range 535-1605 kHz. Carrier frequencies
of 540 to 1600 kHz are assigned at 10 kHz intervals. You
have a 1.0 mH inductor. What capacitor should you choose
to make an oscillator with a frequency of 920 kHz? (This
frequency is near the center of the AM radio band.)

1 1
𝑇 = 2𝜋 𝐿𝐶 𝑓= 𝑓" =
2𝜋 𝐿𝐶 4𝜋 "𝐿𝐶

1 1
𝐶= = = 3.0×105!! 𝐹 = 30 𝑝𝐹
4𝜋 "𝐿𝑓 " 4𝜋 "×1.0×1056×(9.2×107)"

YouTube YouTube

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 15

15

Example
A 1.5𝜇𝐹 capacitor is charged to 57 V by a battery, which is then removed. At time t = 0, a
12 mH coil is connected in series with the capacitor to form an LC oscillator.
(a) What is the potential difference ∆𝑉% (𝑡) across the inductor as a function of time?
(b) What is the maximum rate (di/dt)max at which the current i changes in the circuit?
𝑄 𝑄)*+
(a) 𝑄(𝑡) = 𝑄)*+ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 ∆𝑉, = = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 = ∆𝑉,_)*+ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡
𝐶 𝐶
1 1
𝜔= = = 7454 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
𝐿𝐶 12×1056×1.5×1058

∆𝑉, = 57cos(7454𝑡) ∆𝑉, + ∆𝑉% = 0 ∆𝑉% = −∆𝑉, = −57cos(7454𝑡)

For only the difference we can just take the magnitude ∆𝑉% (𝑡) = 57cos(7454𝑡)

&' 𝑑𝐼
(b) 𝐼 = − = 𝜔𝑄)*+ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 = 𝜔"𝑄)*+ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡
&(
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐼 𝐶∆𝑉,_)*+ ∆𝑉,_)*+ 57
( ))*+ = 𝜔"𝑄)*+ = 𝜔"𝐶∆𝑉,_)*+ = = = = 4.75×106𝐴/𝑠
𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝐶 𝐿 12×1056

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 16

16

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Electric Field and Magnetic Field

So far you have learned that that charges separation and charge distribution creates
electric fields and that moving charges, or currents, create magnetic fields.

But consider the situation in Figure (a), where Brittney, carrying charge q, runs
past Alec with velocity v. Alec sees a moving charge, and he knows that this charge
creates a magnetic field.

But from Brittney’s perspective, the charge is at rest. Stationary charges don’t
create magnetic fields, so Brittney claims that the magnetic field is zero. Is there,
or is there not, a magnetic field?

In Figure (b) Brittney is carrying the charge through a magnetic field that Alec has
created. Alec sees a charge moving in a magnetic field, so he knows there’s a
force 𝐹⃗ = 𝑞 𝑣×𝐵
⃗ on the charge.

But for Brittney the charge is at rest. Stationary charges don’t experience
magnetic forces, so Brittney claims that 𝐹⃗ = 0.

We may be uncertain about magnetic fields, but there can be no ambiguity over forces. After all, forces cause observable
and measurable effects, so Alec and Brittney should be able to agree on whether or not the charge experiences a force.

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 17

17

Electric Field and Magnetic Field

It is important to notice that Brittney runs with constant velocity; and that both
Alec and Brittney are in inertial reference frames.

In inertia reference frames Newton’s laws of motion are valid, so we can’t say that
there’s anything abnormal or unusual about Alec’s and Brittney’s observations.

This paradox has arisen because magnetic fields and forces depend on velocity, but
we haven’t made it clear “who’s velocity?” in “which inertia reference frame?”

Such a paradox gives us a strong hint that 𝐸 and 𝐵 are not separate and
independent entities. They are closely intertwined.

So, let’s talk about reference frames

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 18

18

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Reference Frames
We have two reference frames labeled A for Alec and B for Brittney. Alec
observes that frame B moves in x direction relative to A with velocity 𝑣⃗39

Of course, Brittney sees that frame A is moving in –x direction relative to

B with velocity −𝑣⃗39
Both frames are inertial frame, so 𝑣⃗39 is constant.
There is a particle C in motion. Alec in frame A measures the motion
of the particle and find that its velocity relative to frame A is 𝑣⃗,9.

At the same instant, Brittney in B finds that the particle’s velocity relative to frame B is 𝑣⃗,3

Based on an intuitive Galileo transformation: 𝑣⃗,9 = 𝑣⃗,3 + 𝑣⃗39

The Galilean transformation of velocity tells us that the velocity of the particle relative to
reference frame A is its velocity relative to frame B plus (vector addition!) the velocity of frame B
relative to frame A.

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 19

19

Reference Frames
𝑣⃗,9 = 𝑣⃗,3 + 𝑣⃗39

If the particle C is in acceleration, then 𝑎⃗,9 as measured in frame A,

compare to the acceleration 𝑎⃗,3 measured in frame B:

𝑑𝑣⃗,9 𝑑𝑣⃗,3 𝑑𝑣⃗39 Inertia frame, 𝑣⃗39 is constant.

&:%'
=0
= + &(
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑎⃗,9 = 𝑎⃗,3

Brittney and Alec may measure different positions and velocities for a particle, but
they must agree on its acceleration.

And if they agree on its acceleration, by using Newton’s second law, they must agree on
the net force acting on the particle. That is, experimenters in all inertial reference
frames agree about the net force acting on a particle.

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 20

20

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Magnetic Field or Electric Field?

Imagine that Alec has measured the electric field 𝐸 and the magnetic field 𝐵
in reference frame A. Our past investigations give us no reason to think that
Brittney’s measurements of the fields will differ from Alec’s.

To find out if this is true, Alec establishes a region of space with a uniform magnetic field 𝐵9 but no
electric field (𝐸9 = 0). Then, he shoots a positive charge q through the magnetic field. At an instant when
q is moving horizontally with velocity 𝑣⃗,9. Alec observes that the particle experiences a Lorentz force
𝐹⃗9 = 𝑞 𝑣⃗,9×𝐵9. The direction of the force is straight up.

Suppose that Brittney, in frame B, runs alongside the charge with the same velocity 𝑣⃗39 = 𝑣⃗,9. Then To her,
in frame B, the charge is at rest. But, because both experimenters must agree about net forces, which in
this case is the force due to the magnetic field, Brittney must observe the same upward force on the
charge that Alec observed. But there is no magnetic force on a stationary charge, so how can this be?

Because Brittney sees a stationary charge being acted on by an upward force, her only possible conclusion
is that there is an upward-pointing electric field! Be reminded that electric field was initially defined in
terms of the force experienced by a stationary charge.

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 21

21

The Transformation of Electric and Magnetic Fields

If the electric field in frame B is 𝐸3, then the force on the charge is
𝐹⃗3 = 𝑞𝐸3. But we know that both frames must agree that 𝐹⃗3 = 𝐹⃗9

𝑞𝐸3 = 𝑞 𝑣⃗,9×𝐵9

𝑣⃗39 = 𝑣⃗,9

𝐸3 = 𝑣⃗39×𝐵9

As Brittney runs past Alec, she finds that at least part of Alec’s magnetic field
has become an electric field! Whether a field is seen as “electric” or
“magnetic” depends on the motion of the reference frame relative to the
sources of the field.

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 22

22

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The Transformation of Electric and Magnetic Fields

More generally, suppose Alec in reference frame A creates both an
electric field 𝐸9 and a magnetic field 𝐵9. A charge moving in A with
velocity 𝑣⃗,9 experiences a net force of 𝐹⃗9 = 𝑞(𝐸9 + 𝑣⃗,9×𝐵9)

The charge is at rest in a reference frame B that moves with velocity 𝑣⃗39 = 𝑣⃗,9,
so the net force in B can only be due to electric field. 𝐹⃗3 = 𝑞𝐸3

Equating the net forces, because experimenters in all inertial reference

frames agree about net forces, we find that

𝑞𝐸3 = 𝑞(𝐸9 + 𝑣⃗,9×𝐵9) 𝑣⃗39 = 𝑣⃗,9

𝐸3 = 𝐸9 + 𝑣⃗39×𝐵9
This is the equation that transforms the electric and magnetic fields measured in reference frame A
into the electric field measured in a frame B that moves relative to A with constant velocity 𝑣⃗39.

Although we used a charge as a probe to find the equation, the equation is strictly true about fields in
different reference frames; it makes no mention of charges.

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 23

23

Example
A laboratory experimenter has created the parallel electric and magnetic
fields. Finding electric field 𝐸 = 10,000𝚤̂ 𝑉/𝑚 and 𝐵 = 0.10𝚤̂ 𝑇. A proton is
shot into these fields with velocity 𝑣⃗ = 1.0×107𝚥̂ 𝑚/𝑠. What is the electric
field in the proton’s reference frame?
MODEL: Let the laboratory be reference frame A and a frame moving
with the proton be reference frame B. The relative velocity is 𝑣⃗39 =
𝑣⃗ = 1.0×107𝚥̂ 𝑚/𝑠
Visual: The figure shows the geometry. The laboratory fields, now labeled A, are
parallel to the x-axis while 𝑣⃗39 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣⃗ iare in the y-direction. Thus 𝑣⃗39×𝐵9 points in
the negative z-direction.

𝐸3 = 𝐸9 + 𝑣⃗39×𝐵9 = 10,000𝚤̂ + 1.0×107𝚥×0.10

̂ 𝚤̂ = 10,000𝚤̂ − 10,000𝑘] 𝑉/𝑚

𝐸3 = 1.41×10; 𝑉/𝑚, 45° 𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

The force on the proton is the same in both reference frames. But in the proton’s reference frame
that force is due entirely to an electric field tilted 45° below the x-axis.

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 24

24

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The Transformation of Electric and Magnetic Fields

To find a transformation equation for the magnetic field, FIGURE (a) shows charge q
at rest in reference frame A. Alec measures the fields of a stationary point charge:
1 𝑞
𝐸9 = 𝑟̂ 𝐵9 = 0
4𝜋𝜀+ 𝑟 -
What are the fields at this point in space as measured by Brittney in frame B?
1 𝑞
First of all, we can use the equation 𝐸. = 𝐸9 + 𝑣⃗.9 ×𝐵9 to find 𝐸. = 𝐸9 = 𝑟̂
4𝜋𝜀+ 𝑟 -
This means that Coulomb’s law is still valid in a frame in which the point charge is moving.

But Brittney also measures a magnetic field 𝐵. , because, as seen in FIGURE (b),
charge q is moving in reference frame B with 𝑣⃗6. = −𝑣⃗.9 . The magnetic field of
a moving point charge is given by the Biot-Savart law:

𝜇+ 𝑞 𝜇+ 𝑞 1 𝑞
𝐵. = 𝑣⃗ ×𝑟̂ = − 𝑣⃗ ×𝑟̂ Rewrite 𝐵. = −𝜀+𝜇+𝑣⃗.9 × 𝑟̂ = −𝜀+𝜇+𝑣⃗.9 ×𝐸9
4𝜋 𝑟 - 6. 4𝜋 𝑟 - .9 4𝜋𝜀+ 𝑟 -

The Biot-Savart law for the magnetic field of a moving point charge is nothing other than the
Coulomb electric field of a stationary point charge transformed into a moving reference frame.

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 25

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The Transformation of Electric and Magnetic Fields

Using same argument of net force equal in different inertia reference frames, we can obtain (This is your homework)
that if Alec in frame A create a magnetic field 𝐵9 while 𝐸9 = 0, then the magnetic field 𝐵. measured by Brittney is
𝐵. = 𝐵9

Then in combination the transformation equation for the magnetic field is 𝐵. = 𝐵9 − 𝜀+𝜇+𝑣⃗.9 ×𝐸9
Notice something interesting in 𝜀+𝜇+ 1 𝑄𝑞
𝐹= 𝜀+ ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶 -/𝑁𝑚-
4𝜋𝜀+ 𝑟 -
𝜇+ 𝐼 ,: ,:; 1𝐶
𝐵= 𝜇+ ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑚/𝐴 𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 By definition: 1𝑇 = 61/; = 1𝐴 =
2𝜋 𝑟 61 𝑠

𝐶- 𝑇𝑚 𝐶 - 𝑁𝑠 𝑠 𝑠- ,
= 𝑚 = - Then the units of is 𝑚/𝑠
𝑁𝑚- 𝐴 -
𝑁𝑚 𝐶𝑚 𝐶 𝑚 &&/&

1 1
= = 3.00×10= 𝑚/𝑠 This is the speed of light, c
𝜀+𝜇+ (8.85×10(,-𝐶 -/𝑁𝑚-)(4𝜋×10(<𝑇𝑚/𝐴)

With this, our Galilean field transformation equations are 𝐸. = 𝐸9 + 𝑣⃗.9 ×𝐵9
1
𝐵. = 𝐵9 − 𝑣⃗ ×𝐸
𝑐 - .9 9

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Electromagnetic Field
𝐸. = 𝐸9 + 𝑣⃗.9 ×𝐵9
1
𝐵. = 𝐵9 − 𝑣⃗ ×𝐸
𝑐 - .9 9

We can no longer believe that electric and magnetic fields have a

separate, independent existence. Changing from one reference
frame to another mixes and rearranges the fields.

Different experimenters watching an event will agree on the

outcome, such as the change of the motion of a charged particle, but
they will attribute it to different combinations of 𝐸 and 𝐵 fields.

Our conclusion is that there is a single electromagnetic field that

presents different faces, in terms of 𝑬 and 𝑩 , to different viewers.

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 27

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Example: Two views of a magnet

The 1.0 T field of a large laboratory magnet points straight up. A rocket
flies past the laboratory, parallel to the ground, at 1000 m/s. What are
the fields between the magnet’s pole tips as measured— very quickly!—
by scientists on the rocket?

𝐸9 = 0 𝐵9 = 1.0𝑇 Pointing up.

𝐸. = 𝐸9 + 𝑣⃗.9 ×𝐵9 = 0 + 1000×1.0 = 1000 𝑉/𝑚 Out of page

1
𝐵. = 𝐵9 − 𝑣⃗ ×𝐸 = 1.0 𝑇 Pointing up.
𝑐 - .9 9

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 28

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A “Small” Problem
If two positive charges moving side by side through frame A with 𝑣⃗69 , charge 𝑞, creates
an electric field and a magnetic field at the position of charge 𝑞-. These field in the eyes
of Brittney who is moving at same velocity as the 2 charges are
1 𝑞,
𝐸. = 𝚥̂ 𝐵. = 0
4𝜋𝜀+ 𝑟 -
In the eyes of Alec, who is in the static frame A, or is travelling in −𝑣⃗69 relative to Brittney,
1 𝑞,
𝐸9 = 𝐸. + 𝑣⃗9. ×𝐵. = 𝐸. − 𝑣⃗69 ×0 = 𝐸. = 𝚥̂ Coulomb's law Law is still valid in a moving frame.
4𝜋𝜀+ 𝑟 -
1 1 1 𝜇+ 𝑞, 𝜇+ 𝑞,𝑣69
𝐵9 = 𝐵. − - 𝑣⃗9. ×𝐸. = 0 − - −𝑣⃗69 ×𝐸. = - 𝑣⃗69 ×𝐸. = 𝑣⃗ ×𝚥̂ = 𝑘] This is the Biot-Savart Law.
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 4𝜋 𝑟 - 69 4𝜋 𝑟 -
, ? /& ?#A(' ]
But here comes the “small” problem: if there are 𝐸9 = 𝚥;̂ 𝐵9 = 𝑘, What is electric field and magnetic
>8&& @$ >8 @$
field in the eyes of Brittney? We need to do the transformation one more time:
1 𝜇+ 𝑞,𝑣69 1 1 𝑞
𝐵. = 𝐵9 − - 𝑣⃗.9 ×𝐸9 = 𝑘] − - 𝑣⃗.9 × 𝚥̂ = 0 This is consistent.
𝑐 4𝜋 𝑟 - 𝑐 4𝜋𝜀+ 𝑟 -
- -
1 𝑞, 𝜇+ 𝑞,𝑣69 1 𝑞, 𝜇+ 𝑞,𝑣69 1 𝑞, 1 𝑞, 𝑣69
𝐸. = 𝐸9 + 𝑣⃗69 ×𝐵9 = 𝚥̂ + 𝑣⃗69 × 𝑘] = − 𝚥̂ = -
1 − 𝜇+𝜀+𝑣69 𝚥̂ = 1 − - 𝚥̂
4𝜋𝜀+ 𝑟 - 4𝜋 𝑟 - 4𝜋𝜀+ 𝑟 - 4𝜋 𝑟 - 4𝜋𝜀+ 𝑟 - 4𝜋𝜀+ 𝑟 - 𝑐

The field transformation equations have given a “wrong” result for 𝐸. !

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 29

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Relativity
-
1 𝑞, 1 𝑞, 𝑣69 1 𝑞,
𝐸9 = 𝚥̂ 𝐸. = 1 − - 𝚥̂ 𝐸. = 𝚥̂
4𝜋𝜀+ 𝑟 - 4𝜋𝜀+ 𝑟 - 𝑐 4𝜋𝜀+ 𝑟 -
Instead of
𝜇+ 𝑞,𝑣69
𝐵9 = 𝑘] 𝐵. = 0 𝐵. = 0
4𝜋 𝑟 -

It turns out that the field transformations, which are based on Galilean relativity, aren’t quite right.

We would need Einstein’s relativity taking into account of space-time transformations to

give the correct field transformations.
However, the Galilean field transformations are equivalent to the relativistically correct
:$
transformations when 𝑣 ≪ 𝑐, in which case ≪1
<$
:$
Our use of the field transformation equations has an additional rule: Set <$
= 0.
This is an acceptable rule for speeds 𝑣 < 10= 𝑚/𝑠.

Our journey of investigation has provided us with a deeper understanding

of electric and magnetic fields.

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 30

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Summary
1. LC circuit causes charges to oscillate. It is very much like a spring-
block system; Oscillation period of an LC circuit is 𝑇 = 2𝜋 𝐿𝐶

2. Charge inside the capacitor oscillates as 𝑄(𝑡) = 𝑄123 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡; Current

#4
inside the inductor oscillates as 𝐼 = − = 𝜔𝑄123 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 = 𝐼123 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
#%
3. Energy stored in capacitor and inductor also oscillates:
,, - ,, -
𝑈0 = 𝑄123 𝑐𝑜𝑠 -𝜔𝑡; 𝑈. = 𝑄123 𝑠𝑖𝑛-𝜔𝑡
-6 -6

4. The most important application of LC circuits is

telecommunication (TV, cell-phone, radio, etc.).

5. Observed acceleration, hence net force and effect of the

net force should be same among all inertia reference frames.
6. Electric field and magnetic field depend on actual reference frames;
,
Under Galilean transformation 𝐸. = 𝐸9 + 𝑣⃗.9 ×𝐵9 ; 𝐵. = 𝐵9 − $ 𝑣⃗.9 ×𝐸9
B
7. There is a single electromagnetic field that presents different
faces, in terms of 𝐸 and 𝐵 , to different viewers.

8. Galilean transformation are equivalent to the relativistic transformations when 𝑣 ≪ 𝑐.

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 31

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Homework
(A) Watch YouTube (take notes)

1. AK LECTURES: LC Circuits and Current Oscillation 10’09”

2. AK LECTURES: Energy Storage in LC Circuits and

Electromagnetic Oscillations 12’23”

3. AK LECTURES: Galilean Transformation Equations for Velocity 7’52”

(B) Review D15 answers, D16 handouts and Chapter 31 “electromagnetic

Oscillations and Alternating Current” section 1.

(C) Complete all the problems in the exercise D16

(D) Preview Chapter 32 “Maxwell’s Equations; Magnetism of Matter ” section 1-3;

Chapter 33 “Electromagnetic Waves” section 1.

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 32

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