-

PROBABILITY OF
The probability of an event 𝐴 Similarly, if A1 , A 2 , A3 , . .. , An are
denoted by 𝑃(𝐴) is defined as the mutually exclusive events, then
sum of the weights of all the sample
points in 𝐴, where: P ( A 1 ∪ A 2 ∪ A 3 ∪ . . .∪ A n )=P ( A1 ) + P ( A2 ) + P ( A
0 ≤ 𝑃(𝐴) ≤ 1
𝑃(∅) = 0
𝑃(𝑆) = 1
THEORY 5: If A and A ' are
complementary events, then

P ( A ) + P ( A ' )=1
THEORY 1: If an experiment can result in
any one of N different equally likely
outcomes, and if exactly n of these
CONDITIONAL
outcomes correspond to event A , then
the probability of event A is
n
PROBABILITY
P ( A )=
N - The conditional probability of B
given A , denoted by P ( B| A ) is
THEORY 2: If A and B are any two
defined by
events, then
P( A ∩ B)
P ( A ∪ B )=P ( A ) + P ( B ) −P( A ∩ B) P ( B| A )= ; P( A)>0
P (A )

THEORY 3: If A , B ,∧C are any three - Two events A and B are

events, then independent if and only if
P ( A ∪ B ∪C )=P ( A ) + P ( B )+ P ( C )−P ( A ∩ B )−P ( A ∩C
P ( B)|−P ( B ∩C
A )=P )+ P(( AA|B
( B )∧P B∩CA) )
∩)=P(

THEORY 4: If A and B are mutually otherwise, A and B are dependent.

exclusive, then
P ( A ∪ B )=P ( A ) + P ( B ) THEORY 1: If in an experiment the
events A and B can both occur, then

P ( A ∩B )=P ( A ) ∙ P ( B| A )
THEORY 2: Two events A and B are
independent if and only if P ( B )=P ( B| A 1 ) ∙ P ( A1 ) + P ( B| A2 ) ∙ P ( A 2) + .. .+ P (
P ( A ∩B )=P( A)∙ P(B)
examples:
THEORY 3: If in an experiment, the 1. Three coins are tossed
events A1 , A 2 , A3 , . .. , Ak can occur, then simultaneously. Find the probability of
getting (a) exactly one head, (b) at least
one head, and (c) at most one head.
P ( A 1 ∩ A 2 ∩ A 3 ∩ .. . ∩ A k ) =P ( A 1 ) ∙ P ( A2| A1 ) ∙ P ( A 3| A 1 ∩ A 2 ) ∙ . . .∙ P( Ak ∨A 1 ∩ A 2 ∩ .. . ∩ A k−1 )
Sol:
a. Find P(exactly 1 H )
If the events A1 , A 2 , A3 , . .. , Ak are
For P(exactly 1 H )
independent, then
n
P ( exactly 1 H )=
N
P ( A 1 ∩ A 2 ∩ A 3 ∩ .. . ∩ A k ) =P ( A 1 ) ∙ P ( A2 ) ∙ P ( A 3) ∙ . .. ∙ P( Ak )
where:
N=¿ { HHH , HHT , HTH ,THH , HTT , THT ,TTH

BAYES’
n={ HTT ,THT , TTH }=3

THEOREM Hence
3
P ( exactly 1 H )=
- Let A1 , A 2 , A3 , . .. , An be a collection 8

of n mutually exclusive and b. Find P(at least 1 H )

exhaustive events with P ( A i ) >0 for For P(at least 1 H )

n
i=1 , 2 ,3 , . . ,n , then for any other P ( at least 1 H )=
N
event B for which P ( B )> 0,
where:
P( A k ∩ B)
P ( A k|B ) = n
n={ HTT ,THT , TTH , HHT , HTH ,THH , HHH }
∑ P ( Ai ∩ B ) Hence
i=1
7
P ( B|A k ) ∙ P ( A k ) P ( at least 1 H )=
8
¿
P ( B| A 1) ∙ P ( A 1 ) + P ( B| A 2 ) ∙ P ( A2 ) +. . .+ P ( B| A n ) ∙ P( A n)

where k =1 ,2 , . .. , n .

- Let A1 , A 2 , A3 , . .. , An be mutually
exclusive and exhaustive events,
then for any other event B, the law
c. Find P(at most 1 H) For P ¿

For P(at most 1 H) P¿

n 2 1
P ( at most 1 H )= ¿ +
N 15 3
where: P¿
n={ TTT , TTH , THT , HTT }=4
Hence 3. If 5 cards are dealt at random from a

4 1 standard deck of 52 cards, what is the

P ( at most 1 H )= ∨ ← Answer
8 2 probability that at least one is ace?
Solution:

2. Two balls are drawn at random and Find P( A ' ) = probability that at least
without replacement from an urn one is ace
containing 4 red balls and 6 blue balls. Let:
Find the probability that both balls are of 𝐴 →the event that the hand has no ace
the same color. 𝐴’→the event that the hand has at least
Sol: one ace
Find P ¿ For P( A)
For P(2 red balls ) n
P ( A )=
n N
P ( 2red balls )=
N where:
where:: n=¿ 48C5 ¿ 1,712,304
n=¿ 4C2 ¿ 6 N=¿ 52C5 ¿ 2,598,960
N=¿ 10C2 ¿ 45 Hence
Hence 1,712,304
P ( A )= =0.6588
6 2 2,598,960
P ( 2red balls )= ∨
45 15 For P( A ' )
For P(2 blue balls)
P ( A ' )=1−P( A)
n
P ( 2 blueballs )= ¿ 1−0.6588
N
where: P ( A ' )=0.3412
n=¿ 6C2 ¿ 15
N=¿ 10C2 ¿ 45
Hence
15 1
P ( 2 blueballs )= ∨
45 3
4. The probability that it will rain in For P(B)
Manila tomorrow is 0.30, and the
n(B)
probability it will rain in Quezon City is P ( B )=
N
0.40. The probability that it will rain in
both cities tomorrow is 0.20. What is the where:
probability that it will rain in at least one
n ( B )=4
of the two cities?
Sol: N=52
Find P(M ∪Q) = probability that it will
Hence
rain in at least one of the two cities
4 1
For P(M ∪Q) P ( B )= ∨
52 13
P ( M ∪Q ) =P ( M ) + P ( Q )−P( M ∩Q)
For P ( A ∪ B )
¿ 0.30+ 0.40−0.20
P ( M ∪Q ) =0.50 P ( A ∪ B )=P ( A ) + P(B)

3 1
5. A card is drawn from a standard deck ¿ +
13 13
of 52 cards. What is the probability that
it is a face card or an eight? 4
P ( A ∪ B )=
Sol: 13
Find P ( A ∪ B ) = probability that a face
or an eight card is drawn
6. It is known that 25% of a certain
Let:
𝐴 → event that a face card is drawn
company’s washing machines require

𝐵 → event that an eight card is drawn service while under warranty, whereas

For P( A) only 15% of its dryers need such

n( A) service. If someone purchases both
P ( A )=
N
washer and dryer made by this
where::
n ( A ) =12 company, what is the probability that

N=52 both machines need warranty service?

Hence
Sol:
12 3
P ( A )= ∨ Find P(W ∩ D) = probability that both
52 13
machines need warranty service
𝑊 → event that the washer needs 8. A survey of attitudes about one’s job
service while under warranty yields the data in the following table:
𝐷 → event that the dryer needs service
while under warranty
P ( W ∩ D )=P(W )∙ P ( D)
A person from this group is selected at
¿ ( 0.25 ) (0.15) random. Given that the selected person
P ( W ∩ D )=0.0375 is a bus driver, find the probability that
he or she is happy

7. A box contains 5 red and 4 white Sol:

marbles. Two marbles are drawn Find P ( H |B ) = probability that a bus

successively from the box without driver is selected and he is a happy
replacement and it is noted that the person
second one is white. What is the Let:
probability that the first is also white? 𝐻 → the event that a happy person is
Sol: selected
Find P ( W 1|W 2 ) = probability that first 𝐵 → the event that a bus driver is

marble drawn is also white selected

Let: For P ( H |B )

𝑊1 → the event white marble on the first P ( H ∩ B)

P ( H|B )=
draw P(B)
𝑊2 → the event white marble on the 50
second draw 200
P ( H|B )=
125
For P ( W 1|W 2 )
200
P ( W 1 ∩W 2 ) P ( W 2|W 1 ) ∙ P (W 1 )
P ( W 1|W 2 ) = =
P (W 1) P(W 1)
50 2
P ( H |B )= ∨
125 5
(¿ 38 )( 49 )
4 9. Machine M 1 produces 30% of the
9
day’s production of a certain product,
3
P ( W 1|W 2 ) = while machines M 2 and M 3 produce
8
25% and 45% respectively. Suppose
machines M 1 , M 2 ,∧M 3 turnout 2%, 3%,
and 4% defective products respectively
each
day. If an item is picked at random and
is found to be defective, what is the
probability that it came from machine
M 1?
Sol:
Find P ( A|¿ ) = probability that the

defective item came from M 1

Let:
A , B ,∧C denote the sets of products
produced by M 1 , M 2 ,∧M 3 respectively

For P ( A|¿ )

P (¿|A ) ∙ P( A)
P ( A|¿ ) =
P ( ¿| A ) ∙ P ( A ) + P ( ¿|B ) ∙ P ( B )+ P ( ¿|C ) ∙ P(C)

( 0.02 ) ( 0.30)
¿
( 0.02 )( 0.30 ) + ( 0.03 ) ( 0 .25 ) + ( 0.04 ) (0.45)

P ( A|defective )=0.1905
 PROBABILITY
RANDOM a. If x 1 , x 2 ,. . . , x n are the values assumed
by a random variable with respective
probabilities P ( x 1) , P ( x 2 ) ,.
VARIABLE . . , P ( x n ); then its mean μ is given by:

 A numerical variable whose

measured value can change from μ=x 1 ∙ P ( x 1 ) + x 2 ∙ P ( x 2 ) +. . .+ x n ∙ P ( x n )
one replicate of the experiment to n
¿ ∑ xi ∙ P ( xi )
another. i=1
 A discrete random variable is a
random variable with a finite b. The variance of the probability
(countably infinite) set of real distribution of a discrete random
numbers for its range. variable X is defined as;
 A continuous random variable is a n n
σ 2=∑ ( x i−μ ) ∙ P ( x i )=∑ x2i ∙ P ( x i )−μ 2
2
random variable with an interval
i=1 i=1
(either finite or infinite) of real
numbers for its range.
c. The cumulative distribution F ( x ) of a
discrete random variable X with

DISCRETE probability distribution f ( x ) is given by:

PROBABILITY F ( x )=P ( X ≤ x )
¿ ∑ f (t ) ; for−∞ < x <∞
DISTRIBUTIO t≤ x

NS
The set of ordered pairs [𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥)] is
examples:
-
1. What are the possible outcomes and
called the probability function or
the value of x of a random variable X
probability distribution of the discrete
random variable 𝑋, if for each
where X is the number of tails when a

possible outcome 𝑥,
coin is tossed three times? Find also the
probability distribution and the
(a ) f (x ) ≥ 0
n
( b ) ∑ f ( x i) =1
i=1
cumulative distribution. Solve for F ( x )

{
Sol:
0 ; for x <0
For A
1
Find S = the possible outcomes or the ; for 0 ≤ x <1
8
sample space. F ( x )= 1 ; for 1≤ x <3
2
7
; for 2 ≤ x <3
8

𝑆={𝑇𝑇𝑇, 𝑇𝑇𝐻,𝑇𝐻𝑇, 𝐻𝑇𝑇, 𝑇𝐻𝐻,

1 ; for x ≥ 3

𝐻𝑇𝐻, 𝐻𝐻𝑇, 𝐻𝐻𝐻}

For B 2. The number of accidents in a certain
town during a week is a random
Find f ( x ) = the probability distribution
variable with the following probability
function:

For C
Find F ( x ) = the cumulative distribution
Find the probability that during a week
Solve for F ( 0 )
there will be (a) no accident, (b) at least
1 one accident, and (c) at most one
F ( 0 )=f ( 0 )=
8
accident.
Solve for F ( 1 )
Sol:
F ( 1 ) =f ( 0 ) + f ( 1 )
For A
1 3
¿ + Find P ( X=0 ) = the probability that no
8 8
accident occur
1
F ( 1) = P ( X=0 )=P ( 0 )
2
Solve for F ( 2 ) P ( X=0 )=0.50
For B
F ( 2 ) =f ( 0 ) + f ( 1 )+ f ( 2 )
Find P ( X ≥1 ) = the probability that at
1 3 3
¿ + + least one accident occur
8 8 8
7 P ( X ≥1 )=P (1 )+ P ( 2 ) + P ( 3 )
F ( 2) =
8 ¿ 0.30+ 0.15+0.05
Solve for ¿ F ( 3 ) P ( X ≥1 )=0.50
F ( 3 )=f ( 0 )+ f ( 1 ) +f ( 2 ) + f (3 )
1 3 3 1
¿ + + +
8 8 8 8
Find C 2 2 2
σ =( 0−2.83 ) ( 0.04 ) + ( 1−2.83 ) ( 0.12 ) + ( 2−2.83 )
2
Find P ( X ≤1 ) = the probability that at σ =1.721
most one accident occur

P ( X ≤1 ) =P ( 0 ) + P (1 )
¿ 0.50+ 0.30
P ( X ≤1 ) =0.80

3. The distribution of the number of

raisins in a cookie is given as follows:

Find the mean and variance of the

number of raisins in a cookie.
Sol:
For A
Find μ = the mean
5
μ=∑ xi ∙ P ( x i )
i=0

¿ x 0 ∙ P ( x 0 ) + x 1 ∙ P ( x 1 ) + x 2 ∙ P ( x 2) + x3 ∙ P ( x 3 ) + x 4 ∙ P ( x 4 ) + x 5 ∙ P ( x 5 )
¿ ( 0 ) ( 0.04 ) + ( 1 )( 0.12 )+ ( 2 )( 0.23 )+ ( 3 ) ( 0.32 )+ ( 4 )( 0.16 ) + ( 5 ) ( 0.13 )
μ=2.83
For B
Find σ 2 = the variance
5
σ =∑ ( x i−μ ) ∙ P ( x i )
2 2

i=1
CONTINUOUS
∞
P ( X < 4 ) =∫ f ( x ) dx
−∞

PROBABILITY ¿∫
4
2
( 1+ x ) dx
27
DISTRIBUTIO 2

[( ) ( )]
2 2
2 4 2
NS ¿
27
4+ − 2+
2 2
16
- The function f ( x ) is a density function P ( X < 4) =
27
for the continuous random variable X For B
defined over the set of real numbers Find P ( 3< X <5 )
R , if: ∞
P ( 3< X <5 )=∫ f ( x ) dx
−∞
a . f ( x ) ≥ 0; for all x ∈ R 5
2
∞ P ( 3< X <5 )=∫ ( 1+ x ) dx
b . ∫ f ( x ) dx=1 3 27

[( ) ( )]
−∞
2 2
2 5 3
b ¿ 5+ − 3+
c . P ( a< X <b )=∫ f ( x ) dx 27 2 2
a
20
- The cumulative distribution F ( x ) of a P ( 3< X <5 )=
27
continuous variable X with density
function f ( x ) is given by: For C
∞
F ( x )=P ( X ≤ x ) Verify ∫ f ( x ) dx=1
−∞
x
¿ ∫ f ( t ) dt ; for−∞ < x < ∞ ∞ 5
2
−∞ ∫ f ( x ) dx=∫ 27
( 1+ x ) dx
−∞ 2

[ ]
2
examples: 2 x
¿ x+
27 2
1. A continuous random variable X that

[( ) ( )]
2 2
can assume values x=2 and x=5 has a 2 5 2
¿ 5+ − 2+
2 27 2 2
density function given by f ( x )= ( 1+ x ) .
27 ∞

Find: (a) P ( X < 4 ) and (b) P ( 3< X <5 ) . (c) ∫ f ( x ) dx=1

−∞
∞
Verify ∫ f ( x ) dx=1.
−∞ 2. For the density function of the
Sol:
previous problem; find F ( x ) and use this
For A
Find F ( x )
x
F ( x )= ∫ f ( t ) dt
−∞

x
2
¿∫ ( 1+t ) dt
2 27

[ ]
2
2 t
¿ t+
27 2

[( ) ( )]
2 2
2 x 2
¿ x + − 2+
27 2 2
1 2
F ( x )= ( x +2 x−8 )
27
For B
Find P ( 2< X < 4 )

P ( 2< X < 4 ) =F ( 4 )−F ( 2 )

1
¿
27
{ [ 4 + 2 ( 4 ) −8 ]− [ 2 +2 ( 2 )−8 ] }
2 2

16
P ( 2< X < 4 ) =
27
 JOINT
- The function f ( x , y ) is a joint Sol:

probability function of the discrete a) Find f ( x , y )

PROBABILITY
random variables X and Y if:

i . f ( x , y ) ≥ 0 ; for all ( x , y )
Solving for f ( 0 ,1 ) ; 0 orange, 1 apple, 3
bananas

ii . ∑ ∑ f ( x , y )=1 f ( 0 ,1 )=
n
x y N
iii . P [ ( X , Y ) ∈ A ] =∑ ∑ f ( x , y ) ; for any where:
A
n = 3C 0 ∙ 2C 1 ∙ 3C 3 = 2
region A in the xy plane
N = 8C4 = 70
2 1
- The function f ( x , y ) is a joint density
f ( 0 ,1 )= =
70 35
function of the continuous random Solving for f ( 0 ,2 ) ; 0 orange, 2 apples,
variables X and Y if: 2 bananas
i . f ( x , y ) ≥ 0 ; for all ( x , y ) n
f ( 0 ,2 ) =
N
∞ ∞
ii . ∫ ∫ f ( x , y ) dxdy =1 where:
−∞ −∞
n = 3C 0 ∙ 2C 2 ∙ 3C 2 = 3
N = 8C4 = 70
i ii . P [ ( X ,Y ) ∈ A ] =∫∫ f ( x , y ) dxdy ;
3
for any region A in the xy plane
f ( 0 ,2 ) =
70
Solving for f ( 1 , 0 ) ; 1 orange, 0 apple, 3
example: bananas
1. From a sack fruit containing 3
n
oranges, 2 apples, and 3 bananas; a
f ( 1 , 0 )=
N
random samples of 4 pieces of fruit is where:
selected, if X is the number of oranges n = 3C 1 ∙ 2C 0 ∙ 3C 3 = 3
and Y is the number of apples in the N = 8C4 = 70
sample; find: (a) the joint probability 3
f ( 1 , 0 )=
distribution of X and Y , and (b) 70
P [ ( X , Y ) ∈ A ] where A is the region
{ ( x , y )∨( x+ y ) ≤ 2 }.
Solving for f ( 1 , 1 ); 1 orange, 1 apple, 2 Solving for f ( 2 , 2 ); 2 oranges, 2 apples,
bananas 0 banana
n n
f ( 1 , 1 )= f ( 2 , 2 )=
N N
where: where:
n = 3C1 ∙ 2C1 ∙ 3C2 = 18 n = 3C 1 ∙ 2C 2 ∙ 3C 0 = 3
N = 8C4 = 70 N = 8C4 = 70
18 9 3
f ( 1 , 1 )= = f ( 2 , 2 )=
70 35 70
Solving for f ( 1 , 2 ); 1 orange, 2 apples, 1 Solving for f ( 3 , 0 ); 3 oranges, 0 apple,
banana 1 banana
n n
f ( 1 , 2 )= f ( 3 , 0 )=
N N
where: where:
n = 3C 1 ∙ 2C 2 ∙ 3C 1 = 9 n = 3C 3 ∙ 2C 0 ∙ 3C 1 = 3
N = 8C4 = 70 N = 8C4 = 70
9 3
f ( 1 , 2 )= f ( 3 , 0 )=
70 70
Solving for f ( 2 , 0 ) ; 2 oranges, 0 apple, 2 Solving for f ( 3 , 1 ) ; 3 oranges, 1 apple,
bananas 0 banana
n n
f ( 2 , 0) = f ( 3 , 1 )=
N N
where: where:
n = 3C 2 ∙ 2C 0 ∙ 3C 2 = 9 n = 3C 3 ∙ 2C 1 ∙ 3C 0 = 2
N = 8C4 = 70 N = 8C4 = 70
9 2 1
f (2 , 0)= f ( 3 , 1 )= =
70 70 35
Solving for f ( 2 , 1 ); 2 oranges, 1 apple, 1 Hence

banana f ( x , y )=
n
f ( 2 , 1 )=
N
where:
n = 3C2 ∙ 2C1 ∙ 3C1 = 18
N = 8C4 = 70
18 9
f ( 2 , 1 )= =
b. determine P [ ( X , Y ) ∈ A ]

Solving for P [ ( X , Y ) ∈ A ]

P [ ( X , Y ) ∈ A ] =f ( 0 ,1 )+ f ( 0 , 2 )+ f ( 1 , 0 ) +f ( 1 , 1 )+ f ( 2 , 0 )
1 3 3 9 9
¿ + + + +
35 70 70 35 70
1
P [ ( X , Y ) ∈ A ]=
2

2. The amount of kerosene, in thousands

of liters, in a tank at the beginning of
any day is a random variable Y from
which a random amount X is sold.
Suppose that the tank is not resupplied
during the day so that x ≤ y , and assume
that the joint density function of these
variables is

f ( x , y )= {2 0<0 x<elsewhere
y ,0< y <1

∞ ∞
Verify ∫ ∫ f ( x , y ) dxdy=1
−∞ −∞

Sol:
∞ ∞ 1 y

∫ ∫ f ( x , y ) dxdy =∫∫ 2 dxdy

−∞ −∞ 0 0

1
y
¿ ∫ [ 2 x ] dy
0 0
1
¿ ∫ ( 2 y−0 ) dy
0

[ ]
2
y 1
¿2
2 0
2 2
¿ ( 1 ) −( 0 )
∞ ∞

∫ ∫ f ( x , y ) dxdy =1
−∞ −∞
MARGINAL
Evaluate the marginal and conditional
probability distribution.

AND Sol:
a) Find g ( x )

CONDITIONAL 3
g ( x )=∑ f ( x , y ) ; x=1 , 2 ,3
DISTRIBUTIO y=1

g ( 1 )=f (1 , 1 ) +f ( 1 , 2 )+ f ( 1 ,3 )
N 1 2
g ( 1 )=0+ +
5 15
a. The marginal distribution of X alone
Y alone are 1

}
g ( 1 )=
g ( x )=∑ f (x , y ) 3
y for d iscrete case
h ( y )=∑ f (x , y) g ( 2 )=f ( 2, 1 ) + f ( 2 , 2 ) +f ( 2 , 3 )
x
1 1 1
and ¿ + +

}
∞
6 9 4
g ( x )=∫ f ( x , y ) dy 19
g ( 2 )=
−∞
∞
for continuous case 36
h ( y )= ∫ f ( x , y ) dx g ( 3 )=f ( 3 ,1 ) + f ( 3 ,2 )+ f ( 3 ,3 )
−∞
1 1
¿ +0+
b. The conditional distribution of the 12 18
random variable Y given that X =x is 5
g ( 3 )=
defined by 36
f (x , y ) Hence;
f ( y │ x )= ; g ( x )> 0
g(x)
Similarly, the conditional distribution of
the random variable X given that Y = y
b) Find h ( y )
is defined by 3

f (x , y ) h ( y )=∑ f ( x , y ) ; y=1 , 2 ,3
f ( x │ y )= ; h ( y ) >0 x=1
h( y)
h ( 1 )=f ( 1 ,1 ) + f (2 , 1 ) + f ( 3 , 1 )
1 1
example: ¿ 0+ +
16 12
1. Suppose that the random variables X
1
and Y have the following joint probability h ( 1 )=
4
distribution shown in the table:
h ( 2 )=f ( 1 ,2 ) + f ( 2, 2 ) + f (3 ,2 )
1 1
 h ( 3 ) =f ( 1 ,3 )+ f ( 2 ,3 )+ f ( 3 , 3 ) f ( x , 2)
f ( x │2 ) = ; x=1 , 2, 3
2 1 1 h ( 2)
¿ + +
15 4 12 f ( x , 2)
f ( x │2 ) =
79 14
h (3)=
180 45
Hence; 45
f ( x │2 ) = f ( x , 2)
14
45
f ( 1 │2 )= f ( 1, 2 )
14
c) Find f ( x │ y )

f ( x │ y )=
f (x , y )
; h ( y ) >0
¿ ()
45 1
14 5
h( y) 9
f ( 1 │2 )=
f ( x , 1) 14
f ( x │1 )= ; x=1 ,2 , 3
h ( 1) 45
f ( 2 │2 )= f ( 2 ,2 )
f ( x , 1) 14
f ( x │1 )=
()
1 45 1
¿
4 14 9
f ( x │1 )=4 f ( x , 1 ) 5
f ( 2 │2 )=
f ( 1 │1 ) =4 f ( 1 ,1 ) 14

¿ 4 ( 0) 45
f ( 3 │ 2 )= f ( 3 , 2)
14
f ( 1 │1 ) =0
45
¿ ( 0)
f ( 2 │1 )=4 f ( 2 ,1 ) 14

¿4 ( 16 ) Hence;
f ( 3 │ 2 )=0

2
f ( 2 │1 )=
3
f ( 3 │ 1 )=4 f ( 3 , 1 )
f ( x , 3)
¿4 ( )1
12
f ( x │3 ) =
h ( 3)
; x=1 , 2 ,3

1 f ( x , 3)
f ( 3 │ 1 )= f ( x │3 ) =
3 79
Hence;
180
180
f ( x │3 ) = f ( x ,3 )
79
 180 Hence;
f ( 2 │3 )= f ( 2 , 3)
79

¿
180 1
79 4 ()
45 f (2 , y )
f ( 2 │3 )= f ( y │2 )= ; y=1 ,2 , 3
79 g (2)
180 f (2 , y )
f ( 3 │ 3 )= f (3 ,3 ) f ( y │2 )=
79 19
36
¿
180 1
79 18( ) f ( y │2 )=
36
f (2 , y )
19
10
f ( 3 │ 3 )= 36
79 f ( 1 │2 )= f (2 , 1)
19
Hence;

¿ ()
36 1
19 6
6
f ( 1 │2 )=
d) Find f ( y │ x ) 19

f (x , y ) 36
f ( 2 │2 )= f (2 , 2)
f ( y │ x )= ; g ( x )> 0 19
g(x)

f ( 1 │ x )=
f (1 , y )
g ( 1)
; y=1, 2 , 3
¿ ()
36 1
19 9
4
f (1 , y ) f ( 2 │2 )=
f ( 1 │ x )= 19
1
3 36
f ( 3 │ 2 )= f ( 2, 3 )
19
f ( 1 │ x )=3 f ( 1, y )
f ( 1 │1 ) =3 f ( 1 ,1 ) ¿ ()
36 1
19 4
¿ 3 ( 0) 9
f ( 3 │ 2 )=
f ( 1 │1 ) =0 19
f ( 2 │1 )=3 f ( 1 ,2 ) Hence;

¿3 ( 15 )
3
f ( 2 │1 )= f (3 , y )
5 f ( y │3 )= ; y=1 , 2 ,3
g (3 )
f ( 3 │ 1 )=3 f ( 1 , 3 )
 f (3 , y ) Sol:
f ( y │3 )=
5

36
36 Find P ( 14 < X < 12 │Y = 14 )
f ( y │3 )= f (3 , y ) Solving for f ( x │ y )
5
36 f (x , y )
f ( 1 │3 )= f (3 , 1 ) f ( x │ y )=
5 h( y)

( )
36 1 Where;
¿
5 12 ∞ y
h ( y )= ∫ f ( x , y ) dx=∫ 2 dx
3 −∞ 0
f ( 1 │3 )=
5 y
h ( y )= [ 2 x ] =2 ( y −0 )
36 0
f ( 2 │3 )= f (3 ,2 )
5 h ( y )=2 y
36 Hence;
¿ (0 )
5
f (x , y ) 2
f ( 2 │3 )=0 f ( x │ y )= =
h( y) 2y
36 1
f ( 3 │ 3 )= f ( 3 ,3 ) f ( x │ y )=
5 y

¿ ( )
36 1
5 18 Solving for P ( 14 < X < 12 │Y = 34 )
2 1
f ( 3 │ 3 )= 2

Hence;
5
P ( 14 < X < 12 │Y = 34 )=∫ 1y dx
1
4

[]
x 2
¿
3 1
2. The amount of kerosene, in thousands 4 4
of liters, in a tank at the beginning of
any day is a random variable Y from ¿ (
4 1 1
−
3 2 4 )
which a random amount X is sold.
Suppose that he tank is not resupplied P ( 14 < X < 12 │Y = 34 )= 13
during the day so that x ≤ y , and assume
that the joint density function of these
variables is

2 0< x< y ,0< y <1

f ( x , y )=
 MATHEMATICAL
a. Let X be a random variable with a synthetic fabric is continuous rolls of

probability distribution f ( x ) , the mean or uniform width as shown in the table;

expected value of X is

μ=E ( X )=∑ xf ( x ) ; for discrete case

x Find the average number of
∞ imperfections per 10 meters of this
μ=E ( X )= ∫ xf ( x ) dx ; for continuous case fabric.
−∞
Sol:
Find μ the mean or average number of
b. Let X be a random variable with
imperfections
probability distribution f ( x ) , the mean or
4
expected value of the random variable μ=∑ xf ( x )
x=0
g ( X ) is
¿ ( 0 ) ( 0.41 ) + ( 1 ) ( 0.37 ) + ( 2 )( 0.16 )+ ¿
μ g ( X )=E [ g ( X ) ] =∑ g ( x ) f ( x ) ; for discrete
( 3 ) ( 0.05 ) + ( 4 ) ( 0.01 )
case
∞ μ=0.88
μ g ( X )=E [ g ( X ) ] = ∫ g ( x ) f ( x ) dx ; for
−∞
2. The density function of coded
continuous case
measurements of pitch diameter of
threads of a fitting is
c. Let X and Y be random variables with

{
4
joint probability distribution f ( x , y ), the ; 0< x< 1
f ( x )= π ( 1+ x 2 )
mean or expected value of the random
0 elsewhere
variable g ( X , Y ) is
Find the expected value of X .
μ g ( X , Y )=E [ g ( X , Y ) ] =∑ ∑ g ( x , y ) f ( x , y ) ;
x y
Sol:

for discrete case Find μ ; the mean

∞ ∞ ∞

μ g ( X , Y )=E [ g ( X , Y ) ] = ∫ ∫ g ( x , y ) f ( x , y ) dx dy ; μ=E ( X )= ∫ xf ( x ) dx
− ∞ −∞ −∞

[ ]
for continuous case 1
4
¿∫ x dx
0 π ( 1+ x 2)
examples:
1
1. The probability distribution of X , the 4 xdx
μ= ∫
number of imperfections per 10 meters π 0 1+ x 2
Let: b) Find μ X and μY
2
u=1+ x Solving for μ X and μY
du=2 xdx 4
μ X =∑ xf ( x , y )
1
du=xdx x=2
2
¿ 2 [ f ( 2 ,1 )+ f ( 2 ,3 )+ f ( 2 ,5 ) ] + 4 [ f ( 4 , 1 ) +f ( 4 , 3 ) +f
μ=
1 4
2 π ()
[ ln (1+ x 2) ] 1
0
¿ 2 ( 0.10+0.20+ 0.10 ) +4 ( 0.15+0.30+0.15 )
μ X =3.20
2
¿ { ln [ 1+ (1 ) ] −ln [ 1+ 0 ] }
2
π 5
μY =∑ yf ( x , y )
μ=0.4413 y=1

¿ ( 1 ) [ f ( 2 ,1 )+ f ( 4 ,1 ) ] + ( 3 ) [ f ( 2 , 1 ) +f ( 4 , 3 ) ] + ( 5 ) [ f ( 2
3. Suppose that X and Y have the
¿ ( 1 ) ( 0.10+0.15 ) + ( 3 )( 0.20¿+ 0.30 ) + ( 5 ) ( 0.10+0.1
following joint probability function as
μY =3
shown in the table. (a) Find the expected
value of g ( X , Y )=X Y 2 . (b) Find μ X and

μY .

Sol:
a) Find E [ g ( X , Y ) ]
4 5
E [ g ( X , Y ) ] =E ( X Y 2 ) =∑ ∑ x y 2 f ( x , y )
x=2 y=1

2 2 2 2 2 2
¿ ( 2 ) ( 1 ) f (2 , 1 ) + ( 2 ) ( 3 ) f ( 2 ,3 ) + ( 2 )( 5 ) f ( 2 ,5 )+ ( 4 )( 1 ) f ( 4 , 1 )+ ( 4 )( 3 ) f ( 4 , 3 ) + ( 4 ) ( 5 ) f ( 4 , 5 )
E [ g ( X , Y ) ] =( 2 ) ( 0.10 ) + ( 18 ) ( 0.20 ) + ( 50 )( 0.10 )+ ( 4 )( 0.15 )+ ( 36 ) ( 0.30 ) + ( 100 ) ( 0.15 )
E [ g ( X , Y ) ] =35.20
 DISCRETE UNIFORM,
binomial, and
DISCRETE
multinomial
MULTINOMIA
UNIFORM
L
DISTRIBUTIO
N DISTRIBUTIO
- If the random variable X assumes

the value x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ,. . . , x k with equal

probability, then the discrete
N
uniform distribution is defined by - If a given trial can result in the k
1 outcomes E1 , E2 ,. . . ., E k with
f ( x , k )= ; x=x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ,. . . , x k
k
probabilities p1 , p2 , . .. . , p k , then the
- The mean and the variance of the
probability distribution of the
discrete uniform distribution f ( x , k )
random variables X 1 , X 2 , .. . . , X k ,
are
representing the number of
occurrences for E1 , E2 ,. . . ., E k in n
ߤൌ ߪ ଶ
ൌ independent trial is
݇ ݇

BINOMIAL ( x , x ,n. .. . ,
f ( x 1 , x 2 , .. . . , x k ; p1 , p2 , .. . . , p k , n ) =
1 2

DISTRIBUTIO
Where;
k k

∑ x i=n∧∑ pi =1
N i=1 i=1

- If a binomial trial can result in a

success with probability p and a examples:
1. A roulette wheel is divided into 25
failure with probability q=1− p ,
sections of equal area numbered from 1
then the probability distribution of
to 25. Find a formula for the probability
the random variable X , the number
distribution of X , the number that
of successes in n independent trial
occurs when the wheel is spin. Find the
is
Sol: 2. A baseball player’s batting average is
a) Find f ( x ; k ) = formula for the 0.25. What is the probability that he

probability distribution gets exactly one hit in his next four

For f ( x ; k ) times at bat?

Sol:
1
f ( x ; k ) =f ( x ; 25 )= ; Find P ( X=1 ) = probability that the
25
x=1 , 2 ,3 , . .. , 25 player gets one hit
For P ( X=1 )
b) Find P ( X <5 ) = probability that the
number is less than 5 P ( X=1 )=b ( 1 ; 4 , 0.25 )
For P ( X <5 )
¿
P ( X <5 ) =f ( 1 ; 25 ) +f ( 2 ; 25 ) + f (3 ; 25 )+ f (4 ; 25)
( 1)
4 1
(0.25) (0.75)
3

P ( X=1 )=0.4219
1 1 1 1
¿ + + +
25 25 25 25
4 3. A traffic control engineer reports that
P ( X <5 ) =
25 75% of the vehicles passing through a

c) Find μ∧σ 2= the mean and the check point are from within the state.
What is the probability that at least
variance
three of the next five vehicles are from
For μ
out of the state?
Sol:

ߤൌ Find P ( X ≥3 ) = probability that at least

k
3 vehicles are from out of the state
For P ( X ≥3 )
1+ 2+ 3+4 +5+. . ..+23+ 24+25
¿ P ( X ≥3 )=P ( X=3 )+ P ( X=4 ) + P ( X =5 )
25
¿ b ( 3 ; 5 , 0.25 ) +b ( 4 ; 5 , 0.25 ) +b ( 5 :5 , 0.25 )
μ=13
For σ 2 ¿ ( 53) (0.25) (0.75) +(54)(0.25) (0.75) +(55)(0.25
3 2 4 1

P ( X ≥3 )=0.1035
ߪଶ ൌ
݇

( 1−13 )2 + ( 2−13 )2+ (3−13 )2 +. . .+ ( 25−13 )2

¿
25
2
σ =52
4. It is known that 75% of the mice
inoculated with a serum are protected
from a certain disease. If three mice are
inoculated, what is the probability that at
most two of the mice contract the
disease?
Sol:
Find P ( X ≤2 ); probability that at most 2
of the mice contract the disease
P ( X ≤2 )=b ( 0 ; 3 , 0.25 ) +b ( 1 ; 3 , 0.25 ) +b ( 2 ; 3 ,0.25 )

¿ ( 30)( 0.25 ) ( 0.75 ) +(31) ( 0.25) ( 0.75) +(32) ( 0.25) ( 0.75)

0 3 1 2 2 1

P ( X ≤2 )=0.9844
 HYPERGEOMETRIC
AND NEGATIVE
f ( x 1 , x 2 , .. . , x k ; a 1 , a 2 , . .. , a k , N , n )
HYPERGEOME
BINOMIAL
TRIC ( )( ) ( ) ¿
a1 a2
x1 x2
a
.. . k
xk

DISTRIBUTIO ( Nn )
N Where;
k k
- The probability distribution of
∑ x i=n ∑ ai=N
hypergeometric random variable X , i=1 i=1

the number of successes in a random

sample of size n selected from N
items of which k are labeled success
HYPERGEOME
and ( N−k ) labeled failure is TRIC
h ( x ; N , n , k )=
( x )( n− x )
k N −k
;
DISTRIBUTIO
(n)
N
N
- If repeated independent trials can
x=0 , 1 , 2, 3 , . .. , n result in a success with probability p
- The mean and variance of the
and a failure with probability
hypergeometric distribution
q=1− p , then the probability
h ( x ; N , n , k ) are distribution of the random variable

μ=
nk 2 N−n k
N
;σ = n
N −1 N
1−
k
N ( ) X , the number of trial on which the
th
k success is given by

- If N items can be partitioned into the

¿
b ( x ; k , p )= (kx−1
−1 )
p q
k x−k
;x
k cells A1 , A 2 ,. . . , A k with a 1 , a2 , . .. , a k
¿ k , k +1 , k +2 , . ..
elements respectively, then the
probability distribution of the random
examples:
variables X 1 , X 2 , .. . , X k representing
1. From a lot of 10 missiles, 4 are
the number of elements selected selected at random and fired. If the lot
from A , A ,. . . , A in a random
Sol: Sol:
a) Find P ( X=4 ) = probability all 4 will
Find P ( X ≥12 ) = probability that least
fire
12 favor the new tax
For P ( X=4 )
For P ( X ≥12 )

P ( X=x ) =h ( x ; N , n , k )=
( )( ) k N −k
x n−x
P ( X ≥12 )=P ( X=12 ) + P ( X =13 ) + P ( X=14 ) + P
¿ h ( 12 ; 10,000 ,15 , 6,000 ) +h ( 13 ; 10,000 , 15 ,6,0
( Nn )
( )(
6,000 10,000−6,000
12 15−12 ) ( 13 )(
6,000 1

( 4 )( 4−4 )
7 10−7 P ( X ≥12 )= +
P ( X=4 )=h ( 4 ;10 , 4 , 7 )= (10,000
15 ) ( 1

(104) P ( X ≥12 )=0.0903

(¿ 74)(30) 3. Find the probability that a person

(104) tossing 4 coins will get either all heads

or tails for the fourth time on the
P ( X=4 )=0.1667 seventh toss.
b) Find P ( X ≤2 ) = probability at most 2 Sol:
¿
will not fire Determine b ( x ; k , p)
¿
For P ( X ≤2 ) For b ( x ; k , p)

P ( X ≤2 )=P ( X=0 )+ P ( X=1 ) + P ( X=2 )

¿ h ( 0 ; 10 , 4 , 3 ) + h ( 1 ; 10 , 4 , 3 ) +h ( 2 ; 10 , 4 , 3 )

(¿ 30)(10−3
4−0 ) +
( )(
3 10−3
1 4−1 ) +
( 2 )( 4−2 )
3 10−3

( 104) (104) (104)

(¿ 30)( 74) + (31)(73) + (32)(72)
(104) ( 104) ( 104)
P ( X ≤2 )=0.9667

2. It is estimated that 4,000 of the

10,000 voting residents of a town are
against a new sales tax. If 15 eligible
 ( 18 )
b ¿ ( x ; k , p )=b ¿ 7 ; 4 ,

4−1 )( 8 ) ( 8 )
¿(
4 7−4
7−1 1 7

¿ ( )( ) ( )
4 3
6 1 7
3 8 8
¿
b ( x ; k , p )=0.0033
 GEOMETRIC AND
GEOMETRIC
POISSON
DISTRIBUTIO
- The mean and variance of the
Poisson distribution p ( x ; λt ) both
have the same value, λt .
N
- If the repeated independent trials examples:
can result in a success with 1. The probability that a student pilot
probability p and failure with passes the written test for his private
probability q=1− p , then the pilot’s license is 0.70. Find the
probability distribution of the random probability that a person passes the test

variable X , the number of trials on (a) on the third try and (b) before the

which the first success occurs, is fourth try.

given by Sol:
( x−1) a. FInd P ( X=3 ); probability that the
g ( x ; p ) =p q x=1 , 2 ,3 ,. . .
person passes the test on the third try

- The mean and variance of a random For P ( X=3 )

variable following the geometric P ( X=3 )=g ( x ; p ) =g ( 3 ; 0.70 )

distribution are x−1
¿ pq
1 2 1− p
μ= σ= 2 ¿( 0.70)(0.30)
3−1
p p
P ( X=3 )=0.0630
b. Find P ( X < 4 ) ;probability that the
POISSON person passes the test before the fourth
try

DISTRIBUTIO For P ( X < 4 )

P ( X < 4 ) =g ( 1 ; 0.70 ) + g ( 2 ; 0.70 ) + g ( 3 ; 0.70 )

N
1−1 2−1
P ( X < 4 ) =( 0.70 ) ( 0.30 ) + ( 0.70 ) ( 0.30 ) + ( 0.70 )
P ( X < 4 ) =0.9730
- The probability distribution of the
Poisson random variable X ,
representing the number of
outcomes occurring in a given time
interval or specified region denoted
2. On the average a certain intersection
results in three traffic accidents per
week. What is the probability that
exactly five accidents will occur at this
intersection in any given week?
Sol:
Find P ( X=5 ) ; probability that exactly 5
accidents occur
For P ( X=5 )

P ( X=5 )= p ( x ; μ ) =p (5 ; 3)
−3
¿e ¿¿
P ( X=5 )=0.1008
 NORMAL
NORMAL
DISTRIBUTIO
N ‫ݔ‬ଵ ߤ ‫ݔ‬ଶ ‫ݔ‬
- The normal distribution is defined by x2
1
x2
(
−1 x− μ

P ( x 1< X < x 2 )=∫ n ( x ; μ , σ ) dx = ∫e 2 σ

the density function of the normal
x
1
σ √2 π x 1
random variable X , with mean μ and
- Whenever X assumes a value x , the
variance σ 2 is defined by
corresponding value of Z is given
( )
2
−1 x−μ
1 2 σ by;
n ( x ; μ , σ )= e ;−∞< x< ∞
σ √2 π X−μ
Z=
i. The normal curve which represents the σ
normal random variable X and having Hence,
the bell-shaped distribution is shown in z2 −z
2
z2
1
the figure. P ( x 1< X < x 2 )= ∫e
√2π z
2
dz=∫ n ( z ; 0 , 1 ) dz=P
1 z1

Similarly,

P ( X ≤ x )=P Z ≤ ( x−μ
σ )
- Where Z is a normal random
variable with mean zero and
variance one.
ii. The total area under the curve and - The distribution of a normal random
above the horizontal axis is equal to one. variable with mean zero and
iii. The curve is symmetric about a variance one is called a standard
vertical axis through the mean μ. normal distribution.

AREA UNDER
THE NORMAL
CURVE
- The area under the curve bounded
examples: 2. The number of loaves of bread can be
1. Suppose X has a normal distribution sold during a day by a certain
with μ=20 and σ =4 . Find the following supermarket is normally distributed with

probabilities: (a) P ( X ≤26 ) ,(b) P ( X ≥18 ) , μ=1,000 and σ =100 loaves. If the
and (c) P ( 15 ≤ X ≤ 21 ) . market stocks 1,200 loaves on a given
day, what is the probability that the
Sol:
loaves will be sold out before the day is
a. Find P ( X ≤26 )
over?
P ( X ≤26 )=P Z ≤
26−20
4 [
=P (Z ≤ 1.5)
] Sol:
Find P ( X ≥1,200 )

ʹͲ

Using the Table

ʹ ‫ݔ‬ Ͳ ͳǤ
ͷ ‫ݖ‬ P ( X ≥1,200 )=P Z ≥
[ 1,200−1,000
100 ]
¿ P ( Z ≥2 )
P ( X ≤26 )=0.9332
b. Find P ( X ≥18 )
ͳǡ000 ͳǡʹ ͲͲ ‫ݔ‬ 0 ʹ ‫ݖ‬

P ( X ≥18 )=P Z ≥
[ 18−20
4 ]
= P( Z ≥−0.50) Using the Table
P ( X ≥1,200 )=0.0228

ͳͺ ʹ Ͳ ‫ݔ‬ െͲǤ
ͷͲ Ͳ ‫ݖ‬
3. The lengths of trout in a certain lake
Using the Table
are normally distributed with a mean of
P ( X ≥18 )=0.6915 7 inches and a standard deviation of 2
c. Find P ( 15 ≤ X ≤ 21 ) inches. If the fish and game department

P ( 15 ≤ X ≤ 21 )=P
[ 15−20
4
≤Z≤
21−20
4 ]
would like fishermen to keep only the
=P (−1.25 ≤ Z ≤ 0.25)
largest 20% of the trout, what should
the minimum size for keeper’s be?
ͳ5 ՛ ʹͳ ‫ݔ‬ െ ͳǤ
ʹ5 ՛ ͲǤʹͷ ‫ݖ‬ Sol:
ʹͲ Ͳ

Find c ; the minimum size for a keeper

Using the Table
P ( 15 ≤ X ≤ 21 )=0.5987−0.1056
¿ 0.4931
P ( X ≥ c )=P Z ≥
[ c−7
2 ]
=0.2

or

[
P Z≤
c−7
2 ]
=0.8
Using the Table
P [ Z ≤0.84 ] =0.8
Hence
c−7
=0.84
2
c=2 ( 0.84 ) +7
c=8.68∈¿
 BASIC
STATISTICS METHODS
- A science that deals with the
methods of collecting, organizing, FOR
and summarizing quantitative data
which are analyzed and interpreted.
DESCRIBING
a. Descriptive Statistics - utilizes
numerical and graphical methods to look
SETS OF
for patterns, to summarize and to DATA
present the information in a set of data. a. Nominal Data - these are
b. Inferential Statistics - utilizes sample measurements that simply classify the
data to make estimates, decisions, units of the sample or population into
predictions about a larger set of data. categories.
b. Ordinal Data - these are
measurements that enable the units of
POPULATION, the sample or population to be ordered

SAMPLE, AND or ranked with respect to the variable of

interest.

VARIABLE c. Interval Data - these are

measurements that enable the
a. Population - a set of existing units or
items such as people, objects, determination of the differential of the

transactions, or events. characteristic being measured between

b. Sample - a sub-collection of items one unit of the sample or population

drawn from population and another.

c. Variable - a characteristic or property d. Ratio Data - these are measurements

of an individual unit such as height of a that enable the determination of the

person, time of a reflex, amount of multiple of the characteristic being

transaction, etc. measured between one unit of the

sample or population and another.
e. Qualitative Data - these are
measurements that have meaningful
numbers associated with the, these
include interval and ratio data.
FREQUENCY
ii. Greater than cumulative
distribution; > cumf → refers to the
distribution whose frequencies are

DISTRIBUTIO greater than or above the lower class

boundary.

N
CLASS
INTERVALS,
- This refers to the organization of data
in tabular form showing the
frequency of occurrence of the
values or objects in each class or
CLASS MARK
category. AND CLASS
a. Frequency is the number of times a
value appears in the listing or data. BOUNDARIES
b. The relative frequency distribution of
a given set of data shows the proportion a. Class Interval - refers to the grouping

in percent the frequency of each class to per category defined by the lower limit

the total frequency. and the upper

= The relative frequency denoted by % f limit.

is given by b. Class Mark - defined as the midpoint

of a class interval and is computed by:
f
% f = x 100%

where:
n
[
lower limit + upper limit
Class Mark ¿ of the class of the class ]
f → frequency of each class 2
n → sample size c. Class Boundary - a point that

c. The cumulative frequency distribution represents the halfway or dividing point

can be obtained by simply adding the between successive classes.

class frequencies. There are two types of i. The class size or class width is

cumulative frequency distribution equal to the difference between two

i. Less than cumulative frequency consecutive upper limits around that

distribution; < cumf → refers to a class.

distribution whose frequencies are less ii. The range R refers to the

than or below the upper class boundary difference between the highest and

they correspond. lowest value in the distribution

CONSTRUCTI MEASURE OF
ON OF CENTRAL
FREQUENCY TENDENCY
a. Mean - the value obtained by adding
DISTRIBUTIO the values in the distribution and

N
dividing the sum by the total number of
values or items; it is also the simplest
- Consider the following steps in
and most efficient measure of central
constructing a frequency distribution:
tendency.
a. Get the highest and lowest value in
i. Mean for Ungrouped Data
the distribution.
- The mean for ungrouped
b. Compute the value of the range.
data denoted by x is given
c. Determine the number of classes
by;
i. There is no standard method to
follow in determining the number of x=
∑x
n
classes.
- When each value in the
ii. The number of classes must
distribution is associated to
not be less than 5 and should not be
a certain weight or degree of
more than 15.
importance, hence the
iii. In some instances, the number
weighted mean will be;
of classes k can be approximated by
using the formula;
x=
∑x
k = 1 + 3.5 log n ∑w
d. Find the size of the class interval. The ii. Mean of Grouped Data
value can be obtained by the desired - In using the Midpoint
number of classes. Method; the midpoint of
e. Construct the classes by choosing a each class interval is taken
convenient value to start the first class. as the representative of
f. Determine the frequency of each class each class.
by counting the number of items that fall Hence
in each interval.
x=
∑ fx
n
where:
f → represents the frequency of each
n → total number of frequencies or the ii. Median for Grouped Data
sample size - The procedure requires the
- The Unit Deviation Method construction of the less
uses unit deviation and is than cumulative frequency
usually implemented by column; (< cumf).
considering an arbitrary point Hence

[ ]
as the initial step in n
~ −cumf b
approximating the value of the x = xb + 2
c
mean. fm
Hence where:

x = xa + [ ]
∑ fd
n
c
x b → lower boundary limit of the median
class
where: cumf b → cumulative frequency before
x a → assumed mean; or the midpoint of the median class
the class interval with the highest f m → frequency of the median class
frequency c → size of the class interval
f → frequency of each class c. Mode - the most frequent value in the
d → unit deviation distribution and is denoted by ^x .
c → size of the class interval i. Mode for Ungrouped Data
n → sample size - Mode can be obtained
b. Median - the middle most value in the through inspection.
distribution and is denoted by ~
x. ii. Mode for grouped Data

i. Median for Ungrouped Data - Identify the modal class;

- In determining the median for that is the interval which

ungrouped data; the values contains the highest

must be arranged first terms of frequency in the

magnitude either from lowest distribution.

to highest or vice versa. Hence

Hence

x ¿ x n+1 ; if n is odd
~
^x = x b +
[ ]d1
d1 +d 2
c

2 where:
x b → lower boundary limit of the modal
x
~
x¿ () n
2
+ ¿x n
( 2 +1) ; if n is even class
¿
2
d 1 ; d 2 → difference between the where:

frequency of the modal class and the k = 1, 2, 3, . . . , 9

frequency of the interval before and c. Percentile - this refers to the value

after the modal class respectively that divides the distribution into 100

c → size of the class interval equal parts and is denoted by P.

Pk = x b + [ kn
100
−cumf b
]c
QUARTILES, fm

DECILES, AND
where:
k = 1, 2, 3, . . . , 99

PERCENTILES examples:
a. Quartiles - these refer to the value
1. A die was rolled 80 times and the
that divide the distribution into four
results are shown;
equal parts and is denoted by Q.
- The procedure of computing the
value of the first, second, and third
quartiles is the same as that of
computing the median.
Hence
Find the weighted mean.

Q1 = x b + [ n
4
−cumf b
]c
fm

Q2 = x b + [ 2n
4
−cumf b
c ]
fm Sol:
Find x

Q3 = x b + [ 3n
4 ]
−cumf b
c
x=
∑ wx = 279
w 80
fm x=3.49
b. Decile - this refers t to the value that
divides the distribution into 10 equal
parts and is denoted by D. Hence

Dk = x b + [ kn
10
−cumf b
c ]
2. The ages of 8 students in a certain x 4 + x 5 86+95
¿ ¿
class were taken and shown below: 2 2
15, 18, 17, 16, 19, 21, 20, 16 ~
x ¿ 90.5 cm
Determine the mean age of the
students.
Sol:
Find x

x=
∑x
n
15+18+17+16+ 19+21+20+16
¿
8
x=17.75

3. Determine the median of the following

measurements in cm.
a. 42, 38, 64, 18, 53, 24, 46, 75, 32
b. 101, 95, 110, 68, 79, 124, 86, 54
So:
a. Find ~
x
Arrange in ascending order;
18, 24, 32, 38, 42, 46, 53, 64, 75

x = x n+1 ; n is odd
~
2

~
x = x 5 = 42 cm

b. Find ~
x
Arrange in ascending order;
54, 68, 79, 86, 95, 101, 110, 124

x
~
x¿ ( n2 )+ ¿x ( n
+1 ) ; n is even
2
¿
2
x
~
x¿ ( 82 )+¿ x( 8
+1 )
2
¿
2