Historic Changeability of Word-Structure

Language is never stable: it undergoes changes on all its levels: phonetic, morphological, lexical,
phraseological, etc.
As for some morphemes, in the course of time they may become fused together or may be lost
altogether. As a result of this process, radical changes in the structure of the word may take
place: root-morphemes may turn into affixational or semi-affixational morphemes, polymorphic
words may become monomorphic, compound words may be transformed into derived or even
simple words.
E.g.: the present-day suffixes -hood, -dom, -like, -ship were in OE root-morphemes and stems of
independently functioning words.
The present day English monomorphemic words «husband» and «woman» were in OE
compound words, consisting of two stems:
hus-bond-a(OE) > hús + bóndi(ON) = house bond
wif-man (OE) - woman (a simple word).
In the process of historical development some word-structures underwent reinterpretation: there are
cases when simple root-words came to be understood as derived words consisting of two
constituents.
E.g.: beggar, editor, cobbler - the representation of such words led to the formation of simple verbs
like - «to beg», «to edit», «to cobble».

Productive and Nonproductive Ways of Word-Formation

There are different ways of forming words. Word-formation is the process of creating words from
the material available in the language after certain structural and semantic formulae and patterns,
e.g.: paint-er, week-end, TV, doctor - to doctor.
Productive word-formation is widely used to form a lot of new words with the help of: 1)
affixation, 2) word-composition, 3) conversion, 4) shortening.
Non-productive ways of word-formation are not used now to form new words, they are: 1) back-
formation, 2) sound-and-stress interchange.

AFFIXATION
1. Affixation as a type of word-formation.
2. Kinds of affixes.
3. Prefixation.
4. Suffixation.

Affixation as a Type of Word-Formation

Affixation is the formation of new words by adding derivational affixes to different types of stems.
On the derivational level derived words consist of a primary stem (simple, derived, compound) and a
derivational affix.
E.g.: specialist = A (a simple stem) +-ist.
helplessness = (N + less - a derived stem) + -ness.
chairmanship = (N + N - a compound stem) + -ship.
Degrees of derivation:
the zero degree - the stem of such words coincides with a root morpheme: penny, help, black;
the 1st degree - the stem of such words consists of a root-morpheme and a derivational affix:
penni-less, help-less, black-ness;
the 2nd degree - words formed by two consecutive stages of coining: help-less-ness, friend-li-
ness
 Kinds of Affixes
Prefixes:
1. Prefixation is mostly typical of verbs.
2. Prefixes change the lexical meaning of the stems (read - reread).
3. Only some prefixes change the part of speech formed: to en-train, to em-bronze.
Suffixes:
1.Suffixation is mostly characteristic of noun and adjective formation.
2.Suffixes also change the lexical meaning of words: helpless.
3.The majority of suffixes change the part of speech formed: child-less, to black-en. Only some
suffixes do not change part of speech: brown - brownish, child - childhood, friend - friendship. They
transfer a word into another semantic group (from concrete to abstract): child-childhood.

Prefixation
Prefixation is the formation of words with the help of prefixes. There are about 51 prefixes in the
system of Modern English word-formation.
Prefixes may be classified into several groups on different principles: in accordance with their l)
origin, 2) meaning, 3) function and according to 4) the parts of speech formed.
Diachronical Classification
Native prefixes:be - beset, mis - misdeed, un - unable, out - outlet, under - undergo, over -
overall, after - afterthought.
Foreign prefixes:pre - predominate, post - postword,coo - coordinate, inter - interchange,
super - superstar, sub - subdivide, pro - prorate, extra - extraofficial, anti - antiwar, ultra -
ultramodern.

Many of the native prefixes were originally independent words, gradually they lost independence
and turned into prefixes (out-, under-, over-). Prefixes mis-, un- have always functioned as prefixes.
In the course of time English has adopted a great many prefixes from foreign languages. One
must bear in mind that prefixes are borrowed not separately, but as constituent parts of borrowed
words.
Quite a number of borrowed prefixes have become of international currency: extra-, inter-,
sub-, anti-, counter-, super-.

Synchronical Classification

According to the meaning:

1. negative prefixes: un - unemployed, non - nonproductive, in - incorrect, dis -
disarmament, a - amoral;
2. reversative prefixes: un - unfasten, de - deform, dis - disconnect;
3. prefixes of time and order: fore - foretell, pre - prewar, post - postwar, ex –expresident;
4. prefix of repetition: re - reread;
5.locative prefixes: super - supersonic, sub - subway, inter - intercontinental, trans -
transatlantic, over - overcoat;
6.pejorative prefixes: mal - maltreat, pseudo - pseudoscientific.

According to the part of speech formed:

be - belittle, de - deface, detrain, en - entrap, enslave.
According to stylistic reference:
- stylistically neutral (native, Latin),
- stylistically colored (some
According to productivity:
- productive (re-, un-, dis-),
- nonproductive (a-, for-, with-, forth-).

Suffixation
Suffixation is the formation of words with the help of suffixes.

Diachronic Approach
Native suffixes:-ness, -ish, -dom, -hood, -ing, etc.
Foreign suffixes: -ation, -ment, -ance,-tron, -ist, -ism, -ess, -all, -ade.
Many of the suffixes of native origin were originally independent words. In the course of time
they gradually lost their independence and turned into derivational suffixes. E.g., such noun
suffixes as -dom, -hood, -ship, may be traced back to words:
-dom (OE dom = judgement, sentence)
-hood (OE had = state, condition)
Many suffixes, however, have always been known as derivational suffixes in the history of the
English language: -ish, -less, -ness, etc.
Foreign suffixes, as well as prefixes, were borrowed from other languages in the words, not
separately.

Synchronical Classification According to the part of speech:

1) noun-forming suffixes: -er, -dom, -ness, -ist, -ation, -ism, -ment, -age, -ant, -ее, -ty, -ess;
2) adjective-forming suffixes: -able, -less, -ful, -ic, -ous, -ent, -ish, -аl,
-ative;
3) verb-forming suffixes: -en, -fy, -ize, -ate;
4) adverb-forming suffixes: -ly, -ard.
According to the meaning:
1. noun suffixes:
a) agent, profession, occupation: -er, -eer, -ant, -ist, etc.;
b) appurtenance: -an - Arabian, -ian - Russian, -ese - Japanese;
c) collectivity: -age, -dom, -ery, -hood, -ship;
d) abstract ideas: -age, -ence, -ancy, -dom, -hood, -ship, -ment, -ism, -
tion, -sion, -th, -ty, -ness;
2. adjective suffixes:
a) presence of quality: -ous, -ful, -able (-ible);
b) absence of quality: -less.
According to stylistic reference:
- stylistically neutral,
- stylistically colored: -oid, -i/form, -tron.
According to productivity:
- productive,
- non-productive: -ock, -lock, -t.
* Neologisms and nonce-words, i. e. words coined and used only for a particular occasion are usually
formed on the level of living speech and reflect the most productive and progressive patterns in
word-building. When a literary critic writes about a certain book that it is an unputdownable thriller,
we will seek in vain this strange and impressive adjective in dictionaries, for it is a nonce-word
coined on the current pattern of Modern English and is evidence of the high productivity of the
adjective-forming borrowed suffix -able and the native prefix un-.

WORD-COMPOSITION

1. Compounding as a type of word-formation.

2. Structure of compound words: their inseparability.
3. Meaning of compound words. Motivation in compounds.
4. Classification of compounds.
5. Sources of compounds.

Compounding as a Type of Word-Formation

Compounding (or word-composition) is a productive type of word-formation. Compounds

are made up by joining together at least two stems, mostly stems of notional parts of speech.
Compounds have different degree of complexity: they may consist of simple and derived
stems.

Structure of Compound Words: Their Inseparability

Compounds are structurally and phonetically inseparable. Structurally compounds are
characterized by the specific order and arrangement of stems.
The order in which the two stems are placed together within a compound is
strictly fixed in Modern English and it is the second stem which is the structural and semantic
center of the compound, e.g.: baby-sitter, writing-table.
Phonetically compounds are also marked by a specific structure of their own. No phonetic
changes of stems take place in composition, but the compound word gets a new stress pattern,
different from the stress in the words with similar stems, e.g.: 'key, 'hole ->'key-hole. Compounds
have three stress patterns:
1. A high or unity stress on the first component: 'doorway, 'drawback,'blackboard.
2. A double stress: with a primary stress on the first component and a weaker, secondary
stress on the second component: 'blood,vessel, 'washing-ma,chine.
3. A level stress: 'open-'eyed, 'icy-'cold, 'grass-'green.
Graphically most compounds have two types of spelling: they are written either solidly or
with a hyphen. It differs from author to author and from dictionary to dictionary,
e.g.: war-path = warpath;
blood-transfusion = bloodtransfusion
word-group = wordgroup

Meaning of Compound Words. Motivation in Compounds

Semantically the majority of compounds are motivated units: their meaning is derived from the
combined lexical meanings of their components. The semantic center of the compound is the
lexical meaning of the second component modified and restricted by the meaning of the first,
e.g.: a handbag = a bag carried in the hand;
an earring = a ring to wear in the ear.
But the meaning of a compound is not a simple sum of lexical meanings of its components:
the new meaning dominates over the individual meanings of the components. The lexical
meanings of both components are closely fused together to create a new semantic unit,
e.g.: a time-bomb = a bomb designed to explode at a certain time.
The meaning of the compound is also derived from the meaning of its distributional pattern.
A simple change in the order of stems with the same lexical meanings results in a drastic change
in the lexical meaning of the compound,
e.g.: fruit-market is different from market-fruit;
boat-life is different from life-boat.
So, the lexical meaning of a compound is derived from the combined lexical meanings of its
components and the structural meaning of its distributional pattern.
According to different degrees of motivation compounds are:
completely motivated - both components are used in their direct meanings: shoe-maker,
sportsman;
partially motivated - one component - in the direct, the other - in indirect meaning: flower-bed,
castle-builder;
completely nonmotivated (with lack of motivation) - there is no connection between the
meaning of the compound and the lexical meanings of the components: fiddlesticks (nonsense), eye-
wash (smth. said or done to deceive a person).

Classification of Compounds
According to the degree of semantic independence of stems compounds are:
1) subordinative - the components are neither structurally nor semantically equal in importance,
the head member is the 2nd component:baby-sitter, speedometer;
2) coordinative - both stems are semantically equally important, bothwords are structural and
semantic centers.
Coordinative compounds may be:
a) reduplicative - made up by repetition of the same word: fifty-fifty,
hush-hush, goody-goody;
b) phonetically variated rhythmic twin forms: chit-chat, zigzag, claptrap, helter-skelter;
c) additive - are formed from stems of the independently functioning words of the same part of
speech. They denote a person or an object that is two things at the same time.
 Functional classification - compounds are viewed as different parts of speech, which is
indicated by the second stem:
- nouns: birthday, week-end, mother-in-law;
- adjectives: peace-loving, long-legged;
- adverbs: somewhere, indoors, inside;
- pronouns: somebody, something;
- connectives: within, without;
- verbs:
a) verbal and adverbial stems: to bypass, to inlay, to offset,
b) verbs formed by means of conversion: to week-end, to gooseflesh, to blacklist.
According to the means of connection:
-formed by placing one simple stem with a linking element after the other: speedometer,
Afro-Asian (o), handicraft (i); statesman, sales-man (s);
-without any linking element: headache, manmade.
According to the type of stems joined together:
-compounds proper: formed by joining together stems of words available in the language,
with or without the help of special linking element, e.g. street-lamp, age-long;
-derivational compounds: one of the stems is derived, e.g. bed-sitter, type-writer, long-
legged.
Patterns of Compounds Compound nouns:
N + N - pencil-case
[N + (V + er)] - peace-fighter
[N + (V + tion/ment)] - office-management, price-reduction
In general compounds are formed from the stems of words available in the language according
to productive patterns: dog-days, rosy-cheeked.
Compounds can also be the result of a gradual process of semantic isolation and structural
fusion of free word-groups, e.g.: forget-me-not, bread-and-butter, hook-and-ladder, man-of-war, up-
to-date.

CONVERSION
1. Definition. Treatment of conversion.
2. Semantic relations between conversion pairs.
3. Traditional and occasional conversion.

Definition. Treatment of Conversion

Conversion (to convert) - is highly productive in replenishing the English word-stock with new
words. The term «conversion» refers to numerous cases of phonetic identity of two words
belonging to different parts of speech, e.g.: paper - to paper, work - to work.
From the angle of their morphemic structure these words are root-words. On the derivational
level, however, one of them (the 2nd) is a derived word, as it belongs to a different part of speech
and is understood through semantic relations with the other, i.e. is motivated by it. The question
arises: what serves as a word-building means in these cases? The answer is that the two words
differ in the paradigm, and it is the paradigm that is used as a word-building means in cases of
conversion. Hence, conversion is the formation of a new word through changes in its paradigm.
There are two main cases of conversion:
- formation of verbs from nouns and rarely from other parts of speech:doctor - to doctor
(from noun); thin - to thin (from adjective); down - to down(from preposition);
- formation of nouns from verbs and rarely from other parts of speech: to cut - a cut (from
verb); but - to but (from conjunction); ups and downs (from adverbs).
 Semantic Relations between Conversion Pairs
As one of the two words within a conversion pair is semantically derived from the other, it is of
great theoretical and practical importance to determine the semantic relations between the words
related through conversion.
I. Verbs converted from nouns. If the noun refers to some object of reality (both animate and
inanimate) the converted verb may denote:
1. action characteristic of the object, e.g. witness - to witness; ape – to ape; dog - to dog;
2. instrumental use of the object, e.g. elbow - to elbow; hammer – to hammer; stone - to
stone;
3. acquistion, or addition of the object, e.g. fish - to fish; tail - to tail;grass - to grass; dust -
to dust;
4. deprivation of the object, e.g. skin - to skin; dust - to dust; bone – to bone; stone - to stone;
tail - to tail;
5. location (with nouns denoting places, buildings, containers), e.g. bag -to bag; pocket - to
pocket; house - to house; tail - to tail;
6.temporal relations, e.g. winter - to winter; week-end - to week-end.
II. Nouns converted from verbs may denote:
1. instance (moment) of an action, e.g. to jump - a jump; to swim – aswim; to step - a step;
to laugh - a laugh;
2. agent or doer of an action, e.g. to help - a help; to cheat - a cheat; to bore - a bore;
3. manner of the action, e.g. to drive - a drive; to walk - a walk; to stand-a stand;
4. object or result of action, e.g. to peel - peel; to cut - a cut; to find – afind; to make - a make.
There are cases of polysemy of verbs or nouns in conversion pairs, e.g.: to dust, to tail, to stone.

Traditional and Occasional Conversion

Modern English vocabulary is exceedingly rich in conversion pairs. Conversion in Modern
English is extremely productive: new conversion pairs appear in fiction, newspaper articles and in
oral communication in all spheres of human activity gradually forcing their way into the existing
vocabulary and into the dictionaries as well. New conversion pairs are created on the analogy with
those which already exist in the word-stock according to the semantic patterns described above.
In Modern English, conversion has become highly productive in the formation of verbs,
especially from compound nouns and of words formed by conversion and affixation, e.g.: microfilm
- to microfilm; baby-sitter - to baby-sit; tear-gas - to tear-gas; bloodtransfusion - to
bloodtransfuse.
Types of conversion:
- traditional - the accepted use of words which are recorded in dictionaries, e.g. cook - to cook;
- occasional - such words are used in a given context only, for some occasion and do not enter
the word-stock of the language, e.g. girl - to girl; boot-to boot; butcher - to butcher. «I want to boot
you of this house» (Priestly).

SHORTENING
1. Shortening as a minor way of word-formation.
2. Graphical shortening.
3. Lexical shortening.
4. Blending.

Shortening as a Minor Way of Word-Formation

Shortening of words is the way of the formation of new words by means of substituting a part of the
word for a whole. This process affects both words and word-groups. Therefore, the term
«shortening of words» is to be regarded as conventional.
Types of shortening:
- graphical abbreviations,
- lexical shortening, lexical abbreviations, clippings, blendings.
All shortened words function in the language as any other ordinary word does, so they can
take on grammatical inflections: exams, MPs , PMs ; may be used with both types of articles:
the BBC, a bike, the lib; they may be combined with derivational affixes and may be used in
compounding: YCL-er; MP-ess; Euro-MP; etc.

Graphical Shortening
These are signs representing words and word groups of high frequency of occurrence in written
speech: scientific books, articles, advertisements, letters, etc.
Letters:
St - Street; Rd - Road; c/o - care of; Mr., Mrs., Dr., i.e.; P.S.; P.P.S.
Scientific books, dictionaries:
п., v., a., adv., prep., e.g., usu.; cf. - compare; L., &, Fr., p.m., p., pp., par- paragraph; f. -
following; P.t.o.; ib., op., cit, etc.
Advertisements, announcements:
Jan., Feb., Apr., Sept., Oct., Nov., d - penny, L - denarius; oz - ounce (28,3 gm); in - inch
(2,54 cm); sec. - second; gm - gramme; cm - centimeter; ft- foot (0,35m); Mon., Tues., Thurs.,
Fri., Sat.; L.P.- Long Playing; Tel.; a.o.b. - any other business; B.L.W. - black and white (film);
m.p.h. - miles per hour.
English graphical abbreviations include rather numerous shortened variants of Latin and
French words and word-groups,e.g.
a.m. (L. ante meridiem) - in the morning;
p.m. (L. post meridiem) - in the afternoon;
i.e. (L. id est) - that is;
a.d. (L. Anno Domini) - of our era;
B.C. (L. Before Christ) - of the past era;
ib. (L. ibidem) - in the same place;
b.f. (Fr. bona fide) - sincerely;
e.g. (L. exempli gratia), etc.
Latin abbreviations are usually read as their English equivalents.
Ways of formation of graphical abbreviations:
- initial shortening: a.m.; P.t.o.;
- syllable shortening: Oct.
In reading many of them are substituted by the words and phrases that they represent: Dr. -
Doctor; Nov. - November; govt. - government.

Lexical Shortening
Lexical Abbreviation
It is natural that in the course of time and language development some graphical abbreviations
should penetrate into the sphere of oral speech and turn into lexical abbreviations, used both in oral
and written speech, e.g.: MP, S.O.S., TV, etc.
They are formed by a simultaneous operation of shortening and com pounding. They are made
up of the initial sounds, e.g. TV, or syllables of the components of a word-group, e.g. pop-music, or a
compound word: V-day.
Ways of reading lexical abbreviations:
- As a succession of alphabetical reading of the constituent letters:G.M.T.- Greenwich
Mean Time; a V.I.P. - a very important person; EEC -European Economic Community.
- As a succession of sounds denoted by the constituent letters, i.e. as if the abbreviations were
ordinary words: UNO - United Nation Organization;NATO – North Atlantic Treaty Organization;
UNESCO - United Nation Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.
 As a rule, lexical abbreviations do not include functional words (prepositions, articles, etc.),
although there are some exceptions, e.g.: R. and D. - Research and Development Program.
In two-member word-groups as a rule the first component is shortened: V-day; H-bomb; M-day
(the first day of mobilization); D-day (decimal); L-driver (learner driver).
In three-member word-groups the first two components are shortened, e.g.: V.J.-Day; H.M. The
Queen.
Clipping
Clipping consists in the cutting off one or several syllables of a word. In some cases, it is the
stressed syllable which is left after cutting off, e.g.: sis -sister; doc. - doctor; telly - television; Alf -
Alfred; Ed - Edward; Sam -Samuel.
Sometimes, however, the unstressed syllable remains, e.g.: phone - telephone; Alec -
Alexander; plane - airplane; Bess - Elizabeth.
Kinds of clipping:
1. aphaeresis - initial clipping, e.g.: phone - telephone; cologne - aude-cologne;
2. apocope - final clipping, e.g.: demo - demonstration; steno - stenographer; disco -
discotheque; limo - limousine; lib - liberation;
3. syncope - middle clipping, e.g.: maths - mathematics; pants - pantaloons; specs -
spectacles;
4. mixed type - clipping at the beginning and at the end, e.g.: frig, fridge-refrigeration; tec -
detective; flu - influenza.
As a rule, in Modern English nouns are shortened; there are very few clipped adjectives
and they all belong to jargonisms, e.g.: dilly - delightful; comfy - comfortable; impass -
impossible; mizzy - miserable. As for clipped verbs they are usually formed from clipped nouns
by means of conversion, e.g.: to taxi - taxi; to phone - phone.
In most cases a shortened word exists in the language together with the longer word from
which it is derived and usually has the same lexical meaning, differing only in emotive charge
and style. In this case we speak about the variants of one and the same word, e.g.: exam -
examination, sis - sister. When there is a semantic difference between a shortened unit and a
longer one they must be called two distinct words, e.g.: cab - cabriolet
Shortening affects not only words but word-groups as well. Clipped phrases appear as a
result of:
- ellipses - omission of a word or words in a phrase when the remaining part keeps the
lexical meaning of the whole phrase,
- substantivation - dropping out of the final noun in an attributive phrase,when the
remaining adjective keeps the meaning and all the syntactical functions of the noun,
- clipping of substantivated words followed by ellipses,e.g.: pub (subst.) = public
(clipping) house (ellipses); a sit-down (subst.) = a sit-down (subst.) demonstration (ellipses); pop
(subst.) = popular (clipping) music (ellipses); nuke (subst.) = nuclear (clipping) bomb (ellipses).
Substantivation is often accompanied by productive suffixation, e.g.: a two-decker - a two-
deck bus; outdoorsy - outdoors types of people; old-timer-old time man.

Blending
Blending is a specific type of shortening. Blends are formed by means of merging parts of
words (not morphemes) into one new word. In other words blending is compounding by means of
clipped words. Many blends are shortlived, others - long-lived, e.g.: Oxbridge; medicare; popcert
(popular concert); fruice (fruite + juice); pomato (potato + tomato); medinews (medical news);
botel (boat + hotel); yarden (yard + garden); cashomat (cash + automat); breathalyser (breath +
analyser); chifforobe (chiffonier + wardrobe); docudrama(documentary + drama); leam (lazer +
beam); etc.

Some of the Minor Types of Modern Word-Building.

 Sound Imitation (Onomatopoeia,Echoism)

Words coined by this interesting type of word-building are made by imitating different kinds of
sounds that may be produced by animals, birds, insects, human beings and inanimate objects.
It is of some interest that sounds produced by the same kind ofanimal are frequently represented
by quite different sound groups indifferent languages. For instance, English dogs bark or howl.
The English cock cries cock-adoodle-doo. In England ducks quack and frogs croak , cats mew or
miaow(meow). The same can be said about cows: they moo.
Some names of animals and especially of birds and insects are also produced by sound-imitation:
crow, cuckoo, humming-bird, whippoor-will, cricket.

There is a hypothesis that sound-imitation as a way of wordformation should be viewed as

something much wider than just the production of words by the imitation of purely acoustic
phenomena.
Some scholars suggest that words may imitate through their soundform certain unacoustic
features and qualities of inanimate objects,actions and processes or that the meaning of the word
can be regarded as the immediate relation of the sound group to the object. If a young
chicken or kitten is described as fluffy there seems to be something in the sound of the adjective
that conveys the softness and the downyquality of its plumage or its fur. Such verbs as to glance,
to glide, toslide, to slip are supposed to convey by their very sound the nature ofthe smooth, easy
movement over a slippery surface. The sound formof the words shimmer, glimmer, glitter seems
to reproduce the wavering, tremulous nature of the faint light. The sound of the verbs to
rush, to dash, to flash may be said to reflect the brevity, swiftness and energetic nature of their
corresponding actions. The word thrill has something in the quality of its sound that very aptly
conveys thetremulous, tingling sensation it expresses.

Reduplication

In reduplication new words are made by doubling a stem, eitherwithout any phonetic changes as
in bye-bye (coll, for good-bye) orwith a variation of the root-vowel or consonant as in ping-pong,
chitchat (this second type is called gradational reduplication).
This type of word-building is greatly facilitated in Modern Englishby the vast number of
monosyllables. Stylistically speaking, mostwords made by reduplication represent informal
groups: colloquialisms and slang. E. g. walkie-talkie ("a portable radio"), riff-raff ("the
worthless or disreputable element of society"; "the dregs of society"),chi-chi (sl. for chic as in a
chi-chi girl).

Back-Formation
(Reversion)

The earliest examples of this type of word-building are the verb to beg that was made from the
French borrowing beggar, to burgle from burglar, to cobble from cobbler. In all these cases the
verb was made from the noun by subtracting what was mistakenly associated with the English
suffix -er. The pattern of the type to work — worker was firmly established in the subconscious
of English-speaking people at the time when these formations appeared, and it was taken for
granted that any noun denoting profession or occupation is certain to have a corresponding verb
of the same root. So, in the case of the verbs to beg, to burgle, to cobble the process was
reversed: instead of a noun made from a verb by affixation (as in painter from to paint), a verb
was produced from a noun by subtraction.
That is why this type of word-building received the name of back-formation or reversion.
Later examples of back-formation are to butle from butler, to baby-sit from baby-sitter, to force-
land from forced landing, to bloodtransfuse from blood-transfusing.