6/7/2021

Course name

MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

Assoc. Prof. Tran Anh Son©

[email protected]

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY HO CHI MINH CITY

Pa ge
HO CHI MINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

Chapter 3

Bulk Deformation Processes

Assoc. Prof. Tran Anh Son©

[email protected]

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY HO CHI MINH CITY

Pa ge
HO CHI MINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

Learning outcomes

At the end of this lesson, the students would be able to:

1. Understand the principles of bulk deformation processes for

metal materials.

2. Classification and application of those processes

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Content
1. Introduction

2. Rolling Processes

3. Forging Processes

4. Extrusion and Drawing Processes

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References
1. Kalpakjian, S. and Schmid, S.R., Manufacturing Engneering and
Technology. 6thed. 2009.

2. Groover, M.P., Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing Materials,

Processes, and Systems. 4thed. 2010.

3. Some photos and video clips are collected from internet resources

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1. Introduction

 What are different between

forming and shaping?

https ://www.ci vmats.com/news/news74/news74.HTML

In 3 munities …
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Forming and shaping

❑ Forming processes: the starting material (usually called the workpiece,
stock, or blank) may be in the shape of a plate, sheet, bar, rod, wire, or
tubing of various cross sections.
❑ Shaping processes: typically involve the molding and casting of soft or
molten materials, and the finished product is usually at or near the final
desired shape. It may require little or no further finishing.

❖ Note that, there are not always clear distinctions between the two terms.

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❑ The forming and shaping operations produce

▪ long continuous products (rolling, extrusion, and drawing processes), such as plates,
sheets, tubing, wire, and bars with various cross sections.

▪ discrete products (forging, sheet metal forming and stamping, powder metallurgy, ceramic
casting, glass pressing, plastic molding,…)

❑ Processes of forming and shaping

▪ For metal:
▪ Bulk-Deformation Processes (Rolling, Forging, Extrusion, Piercing,…) IS INTRODUCED IN THIS
CHAPTER including Rolling processes, Forging processes, and Extrusion and Drawing processes.
▪ Sheet metal forming, and Power metallurgy.

▪ For non-metal: Processing of Plastics and Composite, Processing of Glass, Ceramic, and
Semi-conductor.

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2. Metal rolling
a. The Flat-rolling Process

b. Various Rolling Processes

(Shape rolling, Roll forging, Knew rolling,
Ring rolling, Thread rolling, Tube rolling,…)

https ://www.mechanicalbooster.com/2021/04/what-is-rolling-process-
defi nition-working-types-defects-and-application.html

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a. Metal rolling

❑ Rolling operations reduce the thickness

or change the cross section of a
material through compressive forces
exerted by rolls

❑ Thick starting stock can be rolled into

blooms, billets, or slabs, or these
shapes can be obtained directly from
continuous casting.

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❑ Blooms:
▪ square or rectangular cross section, thickness >
15 cm and a width no greater than twice the
thickness.
▪ further by shape rolling into structural shapes
such as I-beams and railroad rails.

❑ Billets:
▪ smaller than a bloom and has a square or
circular cross section.

▪ later are rolled into various shapes, such as

round rods and bars, using shaped rolls.

❑ Slabs:
▪ rectangular solid where the width is greater than
twice the thickness.

▪ then are rolled into plates and sheets.

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Hot Rolling and Cold Rolling

Hot rolling, Cold rolling,

▪ The starting material should be heated to a ▪ is carried out below the recrystallization
uniform elevated temperature of the material temperature (at room temperature)
being rolled (to about 50 to 100°C above the ▪ compared with hot rolling, produces thinner sheets
recrystallization temperature). and strips with a much:
▪ A finishing temperature ensures the production o better surface finish (because of lack of
of a uniform fine grain size and prevents the scale),
possibility of unwanted strain hardening.
o better dimensional tolerances (because of
less thermal expansion)
o enhanced mechanical properties - increased
hardness (because of strain hardening)

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Hot working Cold working

refines metal grains distortion of grains

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Rolling processes

a. Flat rolling process f. Thread rolling process

b. Shape rolling process g. Rotary tube piercing process

c. Roll forging process h. Tube rolling process

d. Knew rolling process

e. Ring rolling process

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Comparison of hot working and cold working

Hot working Cold working
Temperature Above the recrystallization temperature but below Below the recrystallization temperature
the melting point
Residual stresses Are not developed Are developed
Stress required for Less High
deformation
Grain structure Refines metal grains Distortion of grains
Hardening of metal No Yes
Mechanical Properties - does not affect ultimate tensile strength, - improves ultimate tensile strength, yield and
hardness, corrosion and fatigue resistance of fatigue strength, but reduces the corrosion
the metal resistance of the metal
- improves some mechanical properties like - impact strength and elongation are reduced
impact strength and elongation
Surface finishing Poor because of oxidation and scaling Better
Tolerance Close dimensional tolerances cannot be Superior dimensional accuracy can be
Maintained Obtained
Application Where heavy deformation is required Where work hardening is required

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a. Flat-rolling Process
Maximum possible draft

h = ho − h f =  2 R

The higher the friction and

the larger the roll radius

❑ A metal strip of thickness enters the roll gap and is reduced to thickness by a pair of rotating rolls.

❑ The velocity of the strip increases from Vo (enter the roll gap) to the highest Vf at the exit.

❑ There is relative sliding between the roll and the strip along the arc of contact in the roll gap, L

❑ At the no-slip point: Vs = Vr

▪ To the left of this point: Vr > Vs → the roll moves faster than the strip

▪ To the right of this point: Vs > Vr → the strip moves faster than the roll

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Thickness: les than 6.0 mm from 6.0 to 300 mm less than 0.2 mm

❑ Plates:
▪ more than 6 mm thick, and until 300 mm thick.

▪ are used for structural applications (ship hulls, boilers, bridges, machinery, and machinery frames and ship shell…).

❑ Sheets:
▪ less than 6 mm thick. Normally, from 0.5 up to 6 mm.

▪ typically are provided to manufacturing facilities as coils, flat sheets for further processing into various products.

❑ Foils:
▪ metal foil is categorized by sheet metal with a thickness less than 0.2 mm.

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❑ The roll force in flat rolling (frictionless model)

F = L.wY
. avg
Where: L is the roll-strip contact length, w is the width of the strip, and Yavg is the average true stress of the strip in the
roll gap

❑ The torque on the roll

2 FLN 2 FLN
Power (in KW) = Power (in HP) =
60000 33000
Where: F is in newtons, L is in meters, and N is the revolutions per minute of the roll

❖ Roll forces can be reduced by the following means:

▪ Reducing friction at the roll–workpiece interface

▪ Using smaller diameter rolls to reduce the contact area

▪ Taking smaller reductions per pass to reduce the contact area

▪ Rolling at elevated temperatures to lower the strength of the material

▪ Applying front and/or back tensions to the strip

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Geometric Considerations
Spreading in Flat Rolling
Bending of Rolls Spreading increases with:
a. decreasing width-to-
thickness ratio of the
entering strip,
b. Increasing friction,
c. Decreasing ratio of the roll
radius to the strip
thickness.

Spreading can be prevented

also by using additional rolls

Grinding the rolls with diameter at the center

is slightly larger than at their edges (camber)

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Defects in Rolled Plates and Sheets

a. Wavy edges;

b. Zipper cracks in the center of the strip;

c. Edge cracks;

d. Alligatoring.

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Other Characteristics of Rolled Metals

❑ Residual Stresses.
a. Residual stresses developed in rolling
with small-diameter rolls or at small
reductions in thickness per pass.
b. Residual stresses developed in rolling
with large-diameter rolls or at high
reductions per pass

❑ Dimensional Tolerances.

▪ Thickness tolerances: 0.1 to 0.35 mm

▪ Flatness tolerances: 15mm/m (hot); 55mm/m (cold)

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Rolling Mills

a) four-high mill c) three-high mill;

b) two-high mill; d) cluster mill.

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Video
Explore The Extremely Large Capacity Hot-Rolling Mill | Producing Steel Coil And Rebar.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mxAmgrRXcf4

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b. Shape Rolling
❑ Straight and long structural shapes
are formed by shape rolling

▪ channels, I-beams, railroad rails,

and solid bars

❑ the design of a series of rolls

requires considerable experience
to avoid

▪ external and internal defects,

▪ hold dimensional tolerances,

▪ reduce roll wear

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c. Roll Forging

❑ The cross section of a round bar is shaped

by passing it through a pair of rolls with
profiled grooves

❑ Typically, is used to produce products:

▪ tapered shafts and leaf springs

▪ table knives

▪ hand tools

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Video
Manipulation to forging rolls (EUMUCO RW2) - TOMÁŠEK engineering s.r.o

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tK3wQ2vjTvQ

Roll forging machine product line

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8jtcn3dacrk

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d. Skew Rolling

❑ Typically, used for making ball bearings

❑ Continuously: the process similar to roll

forging. roughly spherical blanks are
formed by the action of the rotating rolls.

❑ Discretely: a round short bar is put

between two dies with hemispherical
cavities.

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Video
Casting steel balls,forging steel balls,rolling steel balls

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7NomUWv7Dq8

Steel Ball Manufacturing Process and Making Machine for Sale

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PeKe6Weylas&t=164s

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e. Ring Rolling

❑ In ring rolling, a thick ring is expanded into

a large-diameter thinner one.

❑ The ring is placed between two rolls, one

of which is driven while the other is idle.

❑ The thickness is reduced by bringing the

rolls closer together as they rotate.

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Video
QSC Forge: Rolled Ring

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jvfHNNXRiYk

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f. Thread Rolling
❑ Thread rolling is a cold-forming
process by which straight or tapered
threads are formed on round rods or
wire.
❑ The threads are formed on the rod or
wire by
▪ a pair of flat reciprocating dies

▪ 2-roller dies

❑ Unlike machining, which cuts through

the grains of the metal, the rolling of
threads imparts improved strength.

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Video
Model 740 Large Acme Rolling

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bclnb_Cp4sE

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g. Rotary Tube Piercing

❑ Rotary Tube Piercing is a hot-working

operation for making long, thick-walled
seamless pipe and tubing
❑ The axes of the rolls by pulling the round
bar through the rolls by the axial
component of the rotary motion.
❑ An internal mandrel assists the operation
by expanding the hole and sizing the
inside diameter of the tube

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h. Tube Rolling

❑ The diameter and thickness of pipes and tubing can be reduced by tube rolling, which
utilizes shaped rolls and a fixed mandrel (a) or a floating mandrel (b).
❑ Some of these operations can be carried out either with (c) or without (d) an internal mandrel

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Video
Seamless steel pipe manufacturing process

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ewA1v-s0Dp4

6/7/2021 As s oc. Prof. Tra n Anh Son Pa ge 35

Video
Straight Seam ERW Pipe Piles Manufacturing Process - Atlas Pipe Piles

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dhxztlUxWlQ

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Review Questions
1. Describe the difference between a bloom, 6. Describe the difference between hot- and
a slab, and a billet. cold working.
2. What is the difference between a plate and 7. How are I-beams or railroads produced?
a sheet? 8. How are metal balls (skew rolling)
3. Define (a) roll gap, (b) neutral point, and produced?
(c) draft. 9. How are ring rolling produced?
4. List the defects commonly observed in flat 10. How are grain and strength of thread
rolling. rolling comparing to thread machining?
5. Why is the surface finish of a rolled product 11. How are seamless tubes produced?
better in cold rolling than in hot rolling?
12. How are welded tubes produced?

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3. Metal Forging
a. Open-die forging

b. Impression-die and Closed-die forging

c. Various forging Processes

http://www.metals-china.com/open-die-forging-process-
a nd-advantages.html

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Forging process
❑ Forging is a basic process in which the workpiece is shaped by compressive forces
applied through various dies and tooling.
❑ One of the oldest metalworking operations, dating back at least to 4000 B.C.,
▪ to make weapons, jewelry, coins,…

▪ by hammering metal with tools made of stone.

❑ Forged parts now,

▪ cutlery, hand tools

▪ large rotors for turbines, gears, bolts and rivets

▪ components for machinery, aircraft, and railroads

▪ a variety of other transportation equipment.

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❑ Forging operations produce discrete parts using die and tool.

❑ Forged parts have good strength and toughness, and are very reliable for highly stressed and
critical applications

❑ The deformation can be performed in all temperature statuses (hot, cold, warm, or isothermal),
but most forging is done with workpieces above the recrystallization temperature.

❑ Cold forgings
▪ require higher forces

▪ Workpiece must be ductile material

▪ produce a good surface finish and dimensional accuracy

❑ Hot forgings
▪ require lower forces

▪ the dimensional accuracy and surface finish of the parts are not as good as in cold forging

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Grain flow comparison

Casting Machining from a blank Forging

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❑ The quality, dimensional tolerances, and surface finish of a forging depend

on how well these operations are performed and controlled.
❑ Dimensional tolerances: 0.5 - 1% of the dimensions of the forging.
▪ In good practice, tolerance is (hot forging of steel) less than 6 mm

▪ In precision forging, tolerance is less than 0.25 mm.

❑ Other factors that contribute to dimensional inaccuracies are

▪ draft angles, radii, fillets, die wear, die closure

▪ mismatching of the dies.

❑ The surface finish of the forging depends on

▪ blank preparation, die surface finish, die wear, and the effectiveness of the lubricant.

6/7/2021 As s oc. Prof. Tra n Anh Son Pa ge 44

Forging processes

a. Open-die forging

b. Impression-die and Closed-die Forging

c. Coining

d. Heading

e. Rotary swaging

f. Tube swaging

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a. Open-die forging

(a) Solid cylindrical billet upset between two flat dies.

(b) Uniform deformation of the billet without friction.
(c) Deformation with friction

❑ A solid workpiece places between two flat dies and is reduced in height by
compressing it.
❑ Barreling of the billet caused by friction forces at the billet–die interfaces. It can
be minimized by using an effective lubricant.
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Video
Open die forging

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oHH5rqtYdrY

6/7/2021 As s oc. Prof. Tra n Anh Son Pa ge 47

Cogging (or drawing out - an basic open-die forging operation)

Forging force, F

 2 r 
F = Y f  r 2 1 + 
 3h 
Yf flow stress of the material
 friction coefficient
r and h radius and height of the
workpiece

❑ The thickness of bars and rings can be reduced cogging

❑ The contact area between the die and the workpiece is small, a long section of a bar
can be reduced in thickness without requiring large forces or heavy machinery.

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b. Impression-die and Closed-die Forging

Impression-die
❑ The workpiece takes the shape
of the die cavity while being
forged between two shaped
dies at elevated temperatures
(lower the required forces and
attain enhanced ductility in the
workpiece).

❑ During deformation, some of

the material flows outward and
forms a flash.
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Stages in forging

Trimming flash from a forged part

Dies may be made of several pieces

(segmented), including die inserts.
The inserts can be replaced easily
in the case of wear or failure in a
particular section of the die and
usually are made of stronger and
harder materials.

❑ The flash has an important role in impression-die forging: help material fulfilling into
the die cavity.

❑ Cause the material flows in the direction of least resistance (because it requires
less energy), the material flows preferentially into the die cavity, ultimately filling it
completely

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Video
Our process of closed-impression die forging

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AW_sgdZgFCU

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Closed-die Forging (flashless forging)

❑ In true closed-die forging, flash does not form and the workpiece completely fills the die cavity.

❑ The forging pressure is very high.

❑ The blank has high precise volume.

▪ Undersized blanks prevent the complete filling of the die cavity;

▪ Oversized blanks generate excessive pressures and may cause dies to fail prematurely or the machine to jam

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c. Coining
❑ This is essentially a closed-die forging
process
❑ Typically, produces coins, medallions,
and jewelry.
❑ The blank or slug is coined in a
completely closed die cavity.
❑ In order to produce fine details, the
pressures required can be as high as
five or six times the strength of the
material.

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Video
Hydraulic Press for Coin Making

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e8aqDZ-vCRk

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d. Heading (Upset forging)

❑ Heading is performed on the end of a
round rod or wire in order to increase the
cross section.

❑ Typical products are nails, bolt heads,

screws, rivets, and various other fasteners.
❑ Heading can be carried out cold, warm, or hot
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e. Piercing

❑ This is a process of
indenting (but not breaking
through) the surface of a
workpiece with a punch in
order to produce a cavity or
an impression.

❑ Example, making the

hexagonal cavity in bolt
heads
6/7/2021 As s oc. Prof. Tra n Anh Son Pa ge 56

f. Rotary swaging
❑ Also known as radial forging, rotary forging, or
simply swaging

❑ A solid rod or tube is subjected to radial impact

forces by a set of reciprocating dies of the machine.

❑ The workpiece is stationary and the dies rotate

(while moving radially in their slots).

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g. Tube swaging

❑ In this process, the internal diameter and/or the

thickness of the tube is reduced with or without
the use of internal mandrels

https ://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AcZHYo6NWO8

6/7/2021 As s oc. Prof. Tra n Anh Son Pa ge 58

Forging Machines

a. Mechanical press

b. Knuckle-joint press.

c. Screw press.

d. Hydraulic press.

6/7/2021 As s oc. Prof. Tra n Anh Son Pa ge 59

Review Questions
1. How is the grain flow in forging comparing 6. How are coins produced in coining?
to machining and casting? 7. How is a hexagonal cavity produced in a
2. Describe the difference between hot- and bolt head?
cold forging. 8. How can a tape tube be produced?
3. Why is flash important in impression die
forging? How can remove flash in the
finish?
4. Why is control of the volume of the blank
important in closed-die forging?
5. What are the advantages and limitations of
using die inserts? Give some examples.

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4. Extrusion and
Drawing
a. Hot extrusion

b. Cold extrusion

c. Drawing

6/7/2021 As s oc. Prof. Tra n Anh Son Pa ge 61

Extrusion and Drawing

❑ Extrusion and drawing involve, respectively, pushing or pulling a material through a die
basically for the purpose of reducing or changing its cross-sectional area.
❑ Typical parts:
▪ long pieces having a wide variety of constant cross sections
▪ rods, shafts, bars for machinery and automotive

▪ power-train applications, aluminum ladders, collapsible tubes, wire for numerous electrical and
mechanical applications
▪ musical instruments.

❑ Materials:
▪ aluminum, copper, steel, magnesium, and lead;

▪ other metals and alloys also can be extruded, with various levels of difficulty.

6/7/2021 As s oc. Prof. Tra n Anh Son Pa ge 62

Extrusion,

❑ A cylindrical billet is forced through a die.

❑ A wide variety of solid or hollow cross

sections may be produced by extrusion
▪ railings for sliding doors, window frames,

▪ tubing having various cross sections, aluminum

ladder frames,

▪ numerous structural and architectural shapes.

❑ Extrusion is carried out at room or elevated

temperatures.

❑ Extrusion at room temperature often is

combined with forging operations (cold
extrusion).

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Drawing,
❑ An operation that was developed
between 1000 and 1500 A.D.,
❑ The cross section of solid rod,
wire, or tubing is reduced or
changed in shape by pulling it
through a die.
❑ Drawn rods are used for
▪ shafts, spindles, and small pistons
▪ raw material for fasteners (such as
rivets, bolts, and screws).

6/7/2021 As s oc. Prof. Tra n Anh Son Pa ge 64

a. Extrusion Process
Three basic types of extrusion

➢ Direct extrusion (or forward extrusion)

➢ Indirect extrusion

➢ Hydrostatic extrusion. Another less common type of extrusion is lateral (or side) extrusion.

6/7/2021 As s oc. Prof. Tra n Anh Son Pa ge 65

Hot Extrusion

❑ Extrusion is carried out at elevated

temperatures

▪ metals do not have sufficient ductility at

room temperature

▪ and in order to reduce the forces required

a. die for nonferrous

metals
b. die for ferrous metals
c. die for a T-shaped
extrusion

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Extrusion of a seamless tube

a. using an internal mandrel that moves independently of the ram

b. using a spider die to produce seamless tubing.

6/7/2021 As s oc. Prof. Tra n Anh Son Pa ge 67

Video
Titanium Extrusion Manufacturing Process

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P0vE1oJNAjM

6/7/2021 As s oc. Prof. Tra n Anh Son Pa ge 68

Cold extrusion,

❑ Developed in the 1940s

❑ is a combination of operations, such as direct and

indirect extrusion and forging.

❑ Slugs (blank) cut from cold-finished or hot-rolled

bars, wire, or plates, less than about 40 in diameter.

❑ The magnitude of the stresses on the tooling in cold

extrusion is very high depending on the hardness of
the workpiece material.

❑ The punch hardness 60 – 65 HRC; die hardness 58

– 62 HRC.

Cold-Extruded Spark Plug

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Video
Aluminum Extrusion

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iiGlq7408ME

6/7/2021 As s oc. Prof. Tra n Anh Son Pa ge 70

Extrusion Defects
❑ Surface Cracking (bamboo defect): occur at lower temperatures

❑ Pipe: surface oxides and impurities toward the center of the billet
❑ Internal Cracking: they appear on the inside surfaces of tubes
a. increases with increasing die angle,
b. increases with increasing amount of impurities,

c. decreases with increasing extrusion ratio and friction.

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b. Drawing process

❑ The cross section of a long rod or wire is reduced or changed by pulling

it through a die (a draw die)

❑ Drawing (pull material) and extrusion (push material)

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Tube-Drawing Operations

❑ Examples of tube-
drawing operations,
with and without an
internal mandrel.

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Drawing Dies

Terminology of a typical die used Tungsten-carbide die insert in

for drawing a round rod or wire. a steel casing.

6/7/2021 As s oc. Prof. Tra n Anh Son Pa ge 74

Review Questions
1. How does extrusion differ from rolling 6. How are tubes extruded? Can they
and forging? also be drawn? Explain.?
2. Explain the difference between 7. It is possible to extrude straight gears;
extrusion and drawing. can helical gears also be extruded?
3. What is a spider die? What is it used Explain?
for? 8. What is the difference between piping
4. What types of defects may occur in (a) and bambooing?
extrusion and (b) drawing?
5. Describe the difference between direct
and reverseextrusion.

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THANK YOU

[email protected]

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology

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