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Connect to the internet: In order to communicate through the internet, you need to have an
internet connection. This can be done through a variety of devices such as a computer, smartphone,
tablet, or other internet-enabled devices.

• Choose a communication method: There are many ways to communicate through the
internet, such as email, instant messaging, voice or video chat, social media, or file sharing.
Choose the method that suits your needs and preferences.
• Access the communication tool: Depending on the communication method, you may need
to access a specific application or website. For example, you might use a web browser to
access your email or log in to a messaging app.
• Address and compose your message: Enter the recipient's email address or username and
compose your message, making sure to include any attachments or other relevant
information.
• Send the message: Once your message is complete, send it through the appropriate channel.
Depending on the method you're using, this may involve clicking a "Send" button or hitting
"Enter" on your keyboard.
• Wait for a response: Depending on the communication method and the recipient's
availability, you may receive a response right away or it may take some time.
• Continue the conversation: If the communication is ongoing, you can continue the
conversation by responding to the recipient's messages and continuing to exchange
information and ideas.

Accessing the internet typically involves the following steps:

1. Get an Internet Service Provider (ISP): To access the internet, you need to subscribe to an
ISP, which is a company that provides internet connectivity to individuals and businesses.
Some common ISPs include Comcast, AT&T, and Verizon.
2. Choose a method of access: Once you have an ISP, you need to choose a method of
accessing the internet. This can be done through various devices such as a computer,
smartphone, tablet, or other internet-enabled devices.
3. Connect to the internet: Depending on the method of access, you need to connect to the
internet through a wired or wireless connection. For example, if you're using a computer, you
may connect to the internet through an Ethernet cable or Wi-Fi.
4. Launch a web browser: Once you're connected to the internet, launch a web browser such
as Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, or Safari.
5. Enter a web address: In the address bar of the web browser, type the web address of the
website you want to visit. If you don't know the web address, you can use a search engine
like Google or Bing to find it.
6. Wait for the website to load: Once you enter the web address, the web browser will send a
request to the website's server, and the website will load in the browser window.
7. Navigate the website: Once the website has loaded, you can navigate it using links, buttons,
and other interactive elements. You can also search for content on the website using a
search bar, if available.
8. Log in (if necessary): If the website requires you to log in to access certain content or
features, enter your login credentials (such as a username and password) to gain access.
9. Use the internet: Once you have accessed a website, you can use the internet to read news,
watch videos, shop online, communicate with others, and perform many other activities.

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Giant Area Network (GAN)

A giant area network (GAN) is a type of computer network that covers a wide geographical area and
connects multiple smaller networks or local area networks (LANs) together. GANs are typically used
by large organizations or companies with multiple offices located in different regions or countries.

An example of a GAN would be a multinational corporation that has offices and facilities located in
different parts of the world. These offices might each have their own LANs, but they need to
communicate and share resources with each other, such as files, data, and applications.

To accomplish this, the corporation could establish a GAN that connects all of their LANs together.
This GAN could use various technologies such as leased lines, satellite links, or the internet to create
a secure and reliable connection between all of the LANs.

Once the GAN is established, employees at different offices can communicate with each other using
various tools such as email, instant messaging, or video conferencing. They can also access shared
resources such as databases, files, and software applications, regardless of where they are located in
the world. This improves collaboration, efficiency, and productivity, while also reducing costs and
increasing security.

Extras:
Research paper on GAN
Paper 1: "A Novel Approach to Enhance the Performance of Giant Area Networks" by Abhishek Kumar
Sharma and Rajeev Kumar. This paper proposes a novel approach to enhance the performance of
GANs by using an intelligent routing algorithm that takes into account various parameters such as
network traffic, bandwidth availability, and latency. The authors demonstrate through simulation
that their approach improves the throughput, delay, and packet loss rate of GANs compared to
traditional routing algorithms.

Paper 2: "Design of Giant Area Network for Disaster Management" by Sujata Kulkarni and Pooja
Kulkarni. This paper presents a design for a GAN that can be used for disaster management and
emergency response. The authors propose using a mesh network topology with multiple gateways
and mobile ad-hoc networks (MANETs) to ensure robustness and flexibility. They also suggest using
satellite communication and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) to provide connectivity in areas where
traditional infrastructure is damaged or unavailable. The authors conclude that their design can
improve the effectiveness of disaster management and help save lives in emergency situations.

Q:Can you explain me how GAN that can be used for disaster management and emergency
response
A Giant Area Network (GAN) can be a valuable tool for disaster management and emergency
response, as it can provide reliable and efficient communication between first responders, relief
organizations, and affected communities. Here are some ways in which a GAN can be used for
disaster management and emergency response:

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1. Providing connectivity in disaster-stricken areas: In the aftermath of a disaster, traditional

communication infrastructure such as telephone lines and cell towers may be damaged or
overloaded. A GAN can be set up using satellite communication or unmanned aerial vehicles
(UAVs) to provide connectivity in these areas, allowing first responders to coordinate their
efforts and connect with affected communities.
2. Sharing real-time data and information: A GAN can be used to share real-time data and
information such as maps, satellite imagery, and weather forecasts. This can help first
responders to make informed decisions about where to direct their resources and how to
allocate them most effectively.
3. Coordinating relief efforts: A GAN can be used to coordinate relief efforts between different
organizations and agencies involved in disaster management. For example, relief
organizations can use the GAN to share information about their resources and capabilities,
while government agencies can use it to communicate their response plans and directives.
4. Providing telemedicine services: In the event of a disaster, medical facilities may be
overwhelmed or inaccessible. A GAN can be used to provide telemedicine services, allowing
doctors and medical professionals to provide remote consultations and treatments to
affected communities.
5. Communicating with affected communities: A GAN can be used to communicate with
affected communities, providing them with information about the disaster and the relief
efforts underway. It can also be used to collect information from the communities about
their needs and priorities, which can inform relief efforts.

Overall, a GAN can be a valuable tool for disaster management and emergency response, helping to
coordinate efforts and provide critical communication in times of crisis.

Applications of GAN:
Disaster management and emergency response: As discussed earlier, a GAN can be used to provide
connectivity in disaster-stricken areas, coordinate relief efforts, and provide telemedicine services.

1. Education: A GAN can be used to connect multiple campuses of educational institutions,

enabling students and faculty to communicate and share resources such as lecture materials,
research papers, and software applications.
2. Military operations: A GAN can be used to connect military bases and units in different
regions or countries, enabling them to communicate and share information in real-time. This
can improve coordination and situational awareness during military operations.
3. Transportation and logistics: A GAN can be used to connect different nodes in a
transportation network, such as airports, seaports, and railway stations. This can help to
optimize the flow of goods and people, improve safety, and reduce delays.
4. Banking and finance: A GAN can be used to connect different branches of banks and
financial institutions, enabling them to share information and provide services to customers
more efficiently. This can improve customer satisfaction, reduce costs, and increase revenue.

INTERNET ORGANISATION
The Internet is not owned by any single person or organization. Instead, it is a concept that relies on
a physical infrastructure that connects networks to other networks. To ensure that the development

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of the Internet is coordinated and governed, a number of loosely coupled organizations exist. These
organizations work together to oversee different aspects of the Internet.

The Internet Society (ISOC) is one such organization that is responsible for the long-term
coordination of the Internet's development. The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) is another
organization that consists of a global community of experts who work to produce high-quality
technical documents that improve the quality and performance of the Internet.

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The Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) is a non-profit organization that
is responsible for allocating IP address space, managing generic top-level domains (gTLDs) and
country code top-level domains (ccTLDs), and managing the domain name system (DNS). The
Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) is a predecessor of ICANN and manages various duties
related to ICANN's responsibilities.

The Internet Architecture Board (IAB) oversees the architecture of the Internet as a whole and the
development of protocols that promote scalability, openness of standards, and evolution of the
Internet architecture. The Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG) is responsible for the technical
management of IETF activities and the Internet standards process.

The Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) conducts research on various aspects of the Internet,
including protocols, applications, architecture, and technology. The Internet Research Steering Group
(IRSG) oversees the work of the IRTF and provides a favorable environment for research.

Finally, the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) develops web technology standards that are not
directly related to ISOC, IETF, or IAB. The Regional Internet Registries (RIRs) are responsible for
managing and allocating Internet number resources such as IP addresses and AS numbers.

CYBER ETHICS
Ethics refers to the principles and values that guide individuals and organizations in their interactions
with technology and information. Adhering to ethical standards in cybersecurity is important not
only to promote good practices but also to avoid legal and reputational consequences. Here are
some key ethics to consider in the context of cybersecurity:

1. Confidentiality: Protecting the confidentiality of sensitive information is a fundamental

ethical principle in cybersecurity. This means that individuals and organizations should only
access and disclose information that is necessary for their work, and that they should take
reasonable measures to secure this information from unauthorized access.
2. Integrity: Maintaining the integrity of information is another key ethical principle in
cybersecurity. This means that information should not be altered or tampered with without
authorization, and that individuals and organizations should take steps to ensure the
accuracy and completeness of information.
3. Availability: Ensuring the availability of information and systems is also an ethical principle in
cybersecurity. This means that individuals and organizations should take steps to prevent and
mitigate downtime or disruptions to systems, and that they should ensure that information is
accessible to those who need it.
4. Responsibility: Taking responsibility for one's actions and their consequences is an ethical
principle that applies to all aspects of cybersecurity. This means that individuals and
organizations should take steps to prevent harm to others, and that they should be
accountable for any breaches or incidents that occur under their watch.
5. Respect: Showing respect for the privacy and autonomy of individuals is another important
ethical principle in cybersecurity. This means that individuals and organizations should obtain
consent before collecting or using personal information, and that they should be transparent
about their practices and policies.
6. Continuous Improvement: Finally, continuous improvement is an important ethical principle
in cybersecurity. This means that individuals and organizations should be proactive in

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identifying and mitigating risks, and that they should continually evaluate and improve their
security practices and technologies.

Overall, ethical principles in cybersecurity promote responsible and transparent practices that help
protect individuals and organizations from harm, and that foster trust and confidence in technology
and information.

QUESTION AND ANSWERS:

1. What are Cyber Ethics?

Cyber Ethics are the moral principles and guidelines that govern the behavior of individuals and
organizations engaged in activities related to computers, networks, and the internet.

2. Importance of Cyber Ethics:

Cyber Ethics are important because they help ensure that people use computers and the internet in
a responsible and ethical manner. This helps prevent cybercrime, cyberbullying, and other harmful
activities online.

3. Key Issues in Cyber Ethics:

Some key issues in cyber ethics include online privacy, cyberbullying, plagiarism, software piracy,
hacking, and identity theft.

4. Ethical Hacking:

Ethical hacking is the practice of testing a computer system, network, or web application to find
security vulnerabilities that an attacker could exploit. Ethical hacking is legal and is used by
organizations to improve their security posture.

5. Cybercrime:

Cybercrime refers to criminal activities that are carried out using computers or the internet. Common
examples of cybercrime include identity theft, fraud, and hacking.

6. Cyberbullying:

Cyberbullying refers to the use of technology to harass, humiliate, or intimidate someone.

Cyberbullying can take many forms, including sending threatening messages, sharing embarrassing
photos or videos, and spreading rumors.

7. Online Privacy:

Online privacy refers to the ability of individuals to control their personal information online. It is
important to protect online privacy by using strong passwords, avoiding sharing personal information
with strangers, and being careful about what information is shared on social media.

8. Intellectual Property:

Intellectual property refers to creations of the mind, such as inventions, literary and artistic works,
and symbols, names, images, and designs used in commerce. It is important to respect intellectual
property by not using copyrighted material without permission.

9. Cybersecurity:

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Cybersecurity refers to the protection of computer systems, networks, and data from theft, damage,
or unauthorized access. Cybersecurity is important for individuals and organizations to protect their
sensitive information and prevent cybercrime.

10. Ethical Considerations for Software Development:

Software developers should consider ethical implications of their work, such as protecting user
privacy, avoiding harmful biases in algorithms, and being transparent about the use of data.

INTERNET SERVICES
Internet services are online services that provide various functionalities to users over the internet.
These services are available 24/7 and can be accessed from anywhere in the world with an internet
connection.

Some common examples of internet services include:

1. Email services: These are services that allow users to send and receive emails.
2. File sharing services: These are services that allow users to share files with others over the
internet.
3. Social media services: These are services that allow users to connect and interact with each
other on various platforms.
4. Cloud storage services: These are services that allow users to store their data online and
access it from anywhere in the world.
5. Search engines: These are services that allow users to search for information on the internet.
6. Online shopping services: These are services that allow users to buy and sell products
online.
7. Online banking services: These are services that allow users to conduct banking transactions
over the internet.

Overall, internet services have become an integral part of our daily lives and have revolutionized the
way we communicate, work, and conduct transactions.

ELECTRONIC MAIL
Email as a method of sending messages from one user to another using electronic mailboxes and
computer servers. Emails can contain text, files, images, or other attachments. The message is routed
through different servers using the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) until it reaches the
recipient's email server. The email is then delivered to the incoming mail server which is stored as
the user waits for the signal to accept it using either Post Office Protocol (POP3) or Internet Message
Access Protocol (IMAP). The email can be retrieved using a software program called a Mail User
Agent (MUA) installed on the user's system, known as an email client, or a web interface called
webmail. The store-and-forward model of email is used where email servers accept, forward, deliver,
and store messages on behalf of users.

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WORKING OF E-MAIL

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1. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): When an email is sent, the sender's email client or
server uses the SMTP protocol to communicate with the sender's outgoing mail server, also
known as the SMTP server. The sender's client establishes a connection with the SMTP
server and provides it with the recipient's email address, the sender's email address, and the
content of the email.
2. DNS (Domain Name System): The SMTP server uses the recipient's email address to
determine the domain name of the recipient's email server. It queries the DNS system to
obtain the IP address of the recipient's email server.
3. SMTP Relay: If the recipient's email server is different from the sender's SMTP server, the
sender's server acts as an SMTP relay. It establishes a connection with the recipient's email
server and transmits the email over the internet using the SMTP protocol.
4. POP (Post Office Protocol) or IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol): Once the
recipient's email server receives the email, the recipient's email client retrieves the email
from the server using either the POP or IMAP protocol. POP allows the client to download
the email to the local device, while IMAP keeps the email on the server and allows the client
to access it remotely.
5. Email Storage: The recipient's email server stores the email in the recipient's mailbox until it
is retrieved by the email client. The server manages the storage and organization of email
messages, including folders, search capabilities, and other features.
6. Email Clients: Email clients, such as Microsoft Outlook, Apple Mail, or web-based services
like Gmail, provide interfaces for users to manage their email accounts. They connect to the
user's email server using protocols like POP or IMAP to retrieve, display, send, and organize
email messages.
7. Email Protocols: In addition to SMTP, POP, and IMAP, there are other protocols involved in
email communication, such as MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions), which allows
for the inclusion of attachments, HTML formatting, and multimedia content within email
messages.
8. Security Considerations: Email communication can be secured using protocols like Secure
Sockets Layer (SSL) or Transport Layer Security (TLS) to encrypt the transmission of email
data between servers and clients. Encryption ensures that the content of the email is
protected from unauthorized access or interception.

This technical process outlines the basic steps involved in sending and receiving emails. However, it's
important to note that there are variations and additional complexities depending on the specific
email systems, configurations, and security measures implemented by different organizations and
service providers.

FILE SHARING SERVICES

File sharing services refer to online platforms that allow users to share files with others over the
internet. These services have become increasingly popular as people seek to share large files or
collaborate on projects with others across different locations. Here are some key aspects to consider
regarding file sharing services:

• Functionality: File sharing services typically provide users with a variety of tools and features
for uploading, downloading, and managing files. These may include drag-and-drop
interfaces, file compression and encryption, collaboration tools such as version control and
commenting many more.

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• Security: Because file sharing involves transferring sensitive or confidential information over
the internet where security is a critical concern. File sharing services should provide
adequate measures to protect the privacy and integrity of the data being shared, including
encryption, firewalls, access controls, and user authentication.
• Storage and Bandwidth: File sharing services typically provide users with storage space to
store their files, as well as bandwidth to transfer these files to others. The amount of storage
and bandwidth available may depend on the pricing plan chosen, and users should carefully
consider their needs and usage patterns before selecting a file sharing service.
• Compatibility: File sharing services may have different requirements and limitations
regarding the types of files that can be uploaded and shared. Users should ensure that their
files are compatible with the service they choose and that they understand any restrictions
or file size limits.
• Legal Considerations: File sharing services may also have legal implications regarding
copyright infringement and intellectual property rights. Users should ensure that they have
the appropriate permissions or licenses to share files, and that they comply with any
applicable laws and regulations.

Overall, file sharing services can be a useful tool for individuals and organizations looking to
collaborate or share files over the internet. However, it's important to carefully evaluate the security,
storage, and legal implications of any service before using it to share sensitive or confidential
information.

REAL-TIME USER COMMUNICATION

Real-time user communications refer to the ability for users to engage in immediate, interactive
communication with each other over the internet. This can include various forms of communication
such as instant messaging, voice calls, video calls, and live chat. Here is a technical explanation of
how real-time user communications work:

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1. Signaling: When users initiate a real-time communication session, the first step is
establishing a signaling connection. Signaling protocols like Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) or
Web Real-Time Communication (WebRTC) are used to exchange information between the
participating users and the communication infrastructure. This signaling information includes
details like user identities, session initiation requests, and capabilities.
2. Media Negotiation: Once the signaling connection is established, the participating users
exchange information about the media streams that they want to use, such as voice or
video(V/V). This negotiation process determines the media codecs, bitrates, and other
parameters that will be used for the communication session.
3. NAT Traversal: In many real-time communication scenarios, users may be located behind
Network Address Translation (NAT) devices, which can cause communication issues due to
private IP addresses not being directly reachable from the public internet. Techniques like
NAT traversal, using protocols like STUN (Session Traversal Utilities for NAT) or TURN
(Traversal Using Relays around NAT), help overcome these obstacles by allowing the devices
to determine their public IP addresses and establish direct communication paths.
4. Media Transport: Once the negotiation and NAT traversal are completed, the media streams
are transmitted between the users. Real-time communication relies on efficient and low-
latency transport protocols such as the Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP) or the Secure
Real-time Transport Protocol (SRTP). These protocols divide the media streams into small
packets and transmit them over the network using User Datagram Protocol (UDP) or, in some
cases, Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).
5. Quality of Service (QoS): To ensure a smooth real-time communication experience, Quality
of Service mechanisms are often employed. QoS techniques prioritize real-time media traffic
over other types of data on the network, ensuring that voice and video packets are delivered
with minimal delay, jitter, and packet loss.
6. Encryption: To protect the privacy and security of real-time communications, encryption is
applied to the media streams and signaling messages. Secure protocols like Transport Layer
Security (TLS) or Secure Real-time Transport Protocol (SRTP) are used to encrypt the
communication channels and prevent unauthorized access or eavesdropping.
7. Network Infrastructure: Real-time user communications rely on robust and scalable network
infrastructure to ensure efficient transmission of media streams. This includes routers,
switches, and servers with sufficient bandwidth and processing power to handle the real-
time communication traffic.
8. Client Applications: Users access real-time communication services through dedicated client
applications or web-based interfaces. These applications provide the user interface for
initiating and managing communication sessions, displaying video and audio streams, and
facilitating interactive engagement between users.

Overall, real-time user communications involve a combination of signaling, media negotiation, media
transport, security measures, and network infrastructure to enable seamless and immediate
interaction between users over the internet. The technical components work together to ensure
efficient and secure transmission of voice, video, or chat data, facilitating real-time collaboration and
communication.

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REMOTE LOGIN

1. When the user types something on local computer, then local operating system accepts
character.
2. Local computer does not interpret the characters, it will send them to TELNET client.
3. TELNET client transforms these characters to a universal character set called Network Virtual
Terminal (NVT) characters and it will pass them to the local TCP/IP protocol Stack.
4. Commands or text which is in the form of NVT, travel through Internet and it will arrive at the
TCP/IP stack at remote computer.
5. Characters are then delivered to operating system and which later on passed to TELNET
server.
6. Then TELNET server changes that characters to characters which can be understandable by
remote computer.
7. Remote operating system receives character from a pseudo-terminal driver, which is a piece
of software that pretends that characters are coming from a terminal.
8. Operating system then passes character to the appropriate application program.

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NEWS GROUP
Each topic collection of posted notes is known as a Newsgroup. There are thousands of newsgroups
and it is also possible to form a new one. Many newsgroups are hosted on Internet-connected
servers but they can also be hosted from servers without the Internet.

Usenet’s original protocol was Unix-to-Unix Copy Protocol (UUCP), but today the Network News
Transfer Protocol (NNTP) is used. Most browsers such as those from Netscape Navigator and
Microsoft, provide Usenet support and access to any newsgroups that you select. On the world wide
web, Google and other similar sites provide a topic-oriented directory as well as a search approach to
newsgroups and help users register to participate in them. In addition to this, there are other
newsgroup readers, such as Knews, that run as separate programs.

Advantages of Newsgroups

1. Newsgroups are similar in some ways to mailing lists, but they tend to have a structure better
than mailing lists, which makes it more likely that they will be around for much longer than a
mailing list.
2. It is easy to find a newsgroup, and they sometimes have a moderator. A moderator is one
who makes sure that things stay on track and do not disintegrate into something that is
unpleasant socially.
3. Most often than not, you will be able to find the FAQs (Frequently Asked Questions) section
on a newsgroup, which is always helpful for those who are not sure about anything. These
questions tend to be the ones that are asked repeatedly and so negate the need for
constantly answering the same questions.

Disadvantages of Newsgroups

1. A newsgroup is not as fast as an email or even a mailing list. Often there might be a latency
of at least a day, often longer, before a response is given.
2. The information on the newsgroup is submitted by users who lack actual knowledge about
the domain on which they are posting the article, so you need to be aware of this flaw, keep
some alternatives ready for this and do a bit of research first then only rely on it.
3. A serious disadvantage to a newsgroup is that they can sometimes attract people who you
would not give the time of day to if you were to meet them in person. This is especially
worrying if children have access to newsgroups.

NEWS GROUP CLASSIFICATION

The articles that users post to Usenet are organized into topical categories called newsgroups, which
are logically organized into hierarchies of subjects. For instance, sci.math and sci.physics are within
the sci.* hierarchy, for science. There exist numerous newsgroups distributed all around the world.
These are identified using a hierarchical naming system in which each newsgroup is assigned a
unique name that consists of alphabetic strings separated by periods.The far-left portion of the name
represents the top-level category of the newsgroup followed by the subtopic (as in the earlier
example, sci.* classifies the newsgroup as one that contains discussion of science related topics. The
major set of worldwide newsgroups is contained within nine hierarchies, eight of which are operated
under consensual guidelines that govern their administration and naming. The current Big Eight are:

1. comp.*: Computer-related discussions (comp.software, comp.sys.amiga)

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2. humanities.*: Fine-arts, literature, and philosophy (humanities.classics,

humanities.design.misc)
3. misc.*: Miscellaneous topics (misc.education, misc.forsale, misc.kids)
4. news.*: Discussions and announcements about news (Usenet, not current events)
(news.groups, news.admin)
5. rec.*: Recreation and entertainment (rec.music, rec.arts.movies)
6. sci.*: Science related discussions (sci.psychology, sci.research)
7. soc.*: Social discussions (soc.college.org, soc.culture.african)
8. talk.*: Talk about various controversial topics (talk.religion, talk.politics, talk.origins)

USENET

THE WEB
The World Wide Web is abbreviated as WWW and is commonly known as the web. The WWW was
initiated by CERN (European library for Nuclear Research) in 1989.

WWW can be defined as the collection of different websites around the world, containing different
information shared via local servers(or computers).

History:

It is a project created, by Timothy Berner Lee in 1989, for researchers to work together effectively at
CERN. is an organization, named the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), which was developed for
further development of the web. This organization is directed by Tim Berner’s Lee, aka the father of
the web.

System Architecture:

From the user’s point of view, the web consists of a vast, worldwide connection of documents or web
pages. Each page may contain links to other pages anywhere in the world. The pages can be retrieved
and viewed by using browsers of which internet explorer, Netscape Navigator, Google Chrome, etc

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are the popular ones. The browser fetches the page requested interprets the text and formatting
commands on it, and displays the page, properly formatted, on the screen.

The basic model of how the web works are shown in the figure in PPT. Here the browser is displaying
a web page on the client machine. When the user clicks on a line of text that is linked to a page on
the abd.com server, the browser follows the hyperlink by sending a message to the abd.com server
asking it for the page.

Here the browser displays a web page on the client machine when the user clicks on a line of text
that is linked to a page on abd.com, the browser follows the hyperlink by sending a message to the
abd.com server asking for the page.

Working of WWW:

The World Wide Web is based on several different technologies: Web browsers, Hypertext Markup
Language (HTML) and Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).

A Web browser is used to access web pages. Web browsers can be defined as programs which
display text, data, pictures, animation and video on the Internet. Hyperlinked resources on the World
Wide Web can be accessed using software interfaces provided by Web browsers. Initially, Web
browsers were used only for surfing the Web but now they have become more universal. Web
browsers can be used for several tasks including conducting searches, mailing, transferring files, and
much more. Some of the commonly used browsers are Internet Explorer, Opera Mini, and Google
Chrome.

Features of WWW:

a. HyperText Information System

b. Cross-Platform

c. Distributed

d. Open Standards and Open Source

e. Uses Web Browsers to provide a single interface for many services

f. Dynamic, Interactive and Evolving.

g. “Web 2.0”

COMPONENTS OF THE WEB

There are 3 components of the web:

a. Uniform Resource Locator (URL): serves as a system for resources on the web.

b. HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP): specifies communication of browser and server.

c. Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML): defines the structure, organisation and content of a
webpage.

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How the Web Works

a. When you enter something like Google.com the request goes to one of many special computers on
the Internet known as Domain Name Servers (DNS). All these requests are routed through various
routers and switches. The domain name servers keep tables of machine names and their IP
addresses, so when you type in Google.com it gets translated into a number, which identifies the
computers that serve the Google Website to you.

b. When you want to view any page on the Web, you must initiate the activity by requesting a page
using your browser. The browser asks a domain name server to translate the domain name you
requested into an IP address. The browser then sends a request to that server for the page you want,
using a standard called Hypertext Transfer Protocol or HTTP.

c. The server should constantly be connected to the Internet, ready to serve pages to visitors. When
it receives a request, it looks for the requested document and returns it to the Web browser. When a
request is made, the server usually logs the client's IP address, the document requested, and the
date and time it was requested. This information varies server to server.

d. An average Web page actually requires the Web browser to request more than one file from the
Web server and not just the HTML / XHTML page, but also any images, style sheets, and other
resources used in the web page. Each of these files including the main page needs a URL to identify
each item. Then each item is sent by the Web server to the Web browser and Web browser collects
all this information and displays them in the form of Web page.

In Short

We have seen how a Web client - server interaction happens. We can summarize these steps as
follows −

1. A user enters a URL into a browser (for example, Google.com. This request is passed to a domain
name server.

2. The domain name server returns an IP address for the server that hosts the Website (for example,
68.178.157.132).

3. The browser requests the page from the Web server using the IP address specified by the domain
name server.

4. The Web server returns the page to the IP address specified by the browser requesting the page.
The page may also contain links to other files on the same server, such as images, which the browser
will also request.

5. The browser collects all the information and displays to your computer in the form of Web page.

INTERNET
The internet is a global network of interconnected computers and devices that allows for the
exchange of information and communication between users. It functions through a combination of
hardware infrastructure, such as routers, servers, and data centers, and software protocols that
enable data transmission.

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At its core, the internet is based on the concept of packet switching, where data is broken down into
smaller packets and sent across various networks. These packets are then reassembled at their
destination. This method allows for efficient and reliable data transmission.

The internet facilitates a wide range of services and applications, including email, web browsing,
social media, online streaming, and file sharing. It also enables communication through various
means, such as instant messaging, voice over IP (VoIP), and video conferencing.

To access the internet, users typically connect their devices, such as computers, smartphones, or
tablets, to an Internet Service Provider (ISP). ISPs provide the necessary infrastructure and
connectivity, allowing users to access the internet through wired or wireless connections.

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The internet has revolutionized many aspects of society, enabling rapid access to information, global
communication, e-commerce, online education, and entertainment. It has become an essential tool
for individuals, businesses, and governments around the world.

WORLD WIDE WEB

The World Wide Web (WWW), often referred to as the web, is a system of interconnected
documents and resources that are accessed through the internet. It is a subset of the broader
internet and is one of the most popular and widely used services available.

The web was developed in the late 1980s and early 1990s by Sir Tim Berners-Lee and his team at
CERN. It is based on the use of hypertext, which allows for the linking of different web pages through
hyperlinks. This linking structure forms a vast network of information that can be navigated by users.

Web pages are created using languages such as HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) and are hosted
on web servers. These pages can contain various types of content, including text, images, videos, and
interactive elements.

To access web pages, users employ web browsers, such as Chrome, Firefox, or Safari, which interpret
the HTML code and present the content in a visually appealing and interactive format. Users can
navigate the web by clicking on hyperlinks within pages or by entering specific URLs (Uniform
Resource Locators) into the browser's address bar.

The web has become a crucial tool for information retrieval, communication, and collaboration. It
provides access to a vast array of resources, including websites, online databases, educational
materials, news articles, and multimedia content. Additionally, the web has given rise to various web-
based applications and services, such as search engines, social media platforms, online shopping, and
cloud computing.

Overall, the World Wide Web has profoundly impacted how we access and share information,
conduct business, and connect with others on a global scale. It has transformed numerous industries
and has become an integral part of our daily lives.

Explain the working of Web

The web operates through a client-server model, where clients (typically web browsers) request
information from servers and receive responses in the form of web pages or resources. Here's a
simplified explanation of how the web works:

1. Request: When a user enters a URL or clicks on a link, their web browser sends a request to the
server hosting the desired web page. The request includes information such as the type of request
(e.g., GET, POST), the specific URL, and any additional data.

2. Server Processing: Upon receiving the request, the server processes it. This may involve accessing
databases, executing scripts, or interacting with other systems. The server then generates a response
based on the request.

3. Response: The server sends the response back to the user's web browser. The response typically
includes an HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) status code indicating the success or failure of the
request, along with the requested web page or resource.

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4. Client Rendering: The web browser receives the response and begins rendering the web page. It
interprets the HTML code, applies any associated stylesheets (CSS), and executes any embedded
scripts (JavaScript). This process creates the visual representation of the web page that the user sees.

5. Retrieving Additional Resources: As the web page is being rendered, the browser may encounter
additional resources referenced within the HTML code, such as images, stylesheets, or scripts. The
browser sends separate requests to the server for each of these resources, and the server responds
with the requested files.

6. User Interaction: Once the web page is fully rendered, the user can interact with it. They can click
on links to navigate to other pages, submit forms, interact with media elements, or trigger other
actions defined within the web page.

7. Repeat Steps: The process repeats as the user continues to navigate the web. Each time the user
requests a new web page or interacts with a web application, the browser sends a new request, and
the cycle of request, processing, response, and rendering continues.

This simplified explanation omits several technical details and variations, but it outlines the basic
steps involved in how the web works. The web's infrastructure, protocols, and technologies enable
the seamless exchange of information and resources between clients and servers, facilitating the
widespread accessibility and interconnectivity that we experience on the web.

WEB TERMINOLOGIES
web-related terminologies:

1. Website: A collection of web pages and resources that are interconnected and accessible through
a specific domain or URL. Websites can serve various purposes, such as providing information,
offering services, or hosting online communities.

2. Web Page: A single document or resource within a website. It is typically written in HTML and
contains text, images, links, and other elements that are rendered by web browsers.

3. URL (Uniform Resource Locator): A web address that specifies the location of a web resource,
such as a web page, image, or file, on the internet. It consists of several components, including the
protocol (e.g., http, https), the domain name, and the path to the specific resource.

4. Hyperlink: Also known as a link, it is a clickable element within a web page that redirects users to
another web page or a different section of the same page. Hyperlinks are typically represented as
underlined text or clickable images.

5. Web Browser: A software application that allows users to access and navigate the web. Examples
of web browsers include Chrome, Firefox, Safari, and Edge. They interpret HTML code, render web
pages, execute scripts, and provide user interface elements for interaction.

6. HTML (Hypertext Markup Language): The standard markup language used for creating web pages.
HTML uses tags to define the structure, content, and formatting of the page's elements, such as
headings, paragraphs, images, and links.

7. CSS (Cascading Style Sheets): A style sheet language that describes how HTML elements should be
displayed on a web page. CSS controls the visual appearance, layout, and formatting aspects,
including fonts, colors, spacing, and positioning.

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8. JavaScript: A programming language used for creating interactive and dynamic web pages.
JavaScript enables client-side scripting, allowing web pages to respond to user actions, manipulate
content, and interact with web services.

9. Server: A computer or system that stores and delivers web resources in response to client
requests. Servers host websites and web applications, process requests, and send responses to
clients over the internet.

10. CMS (Content Management System): A software platform that enables the creation,
management, and modification of digital content for websites. CMSs provide tools and interfaces for
non-technical users to update and publish content without extensive coding knowledge.

WEB ARCHITECTURE:
Web architecture refers to the structural design and organization of the World Wide Web, including
the technologies, protocols, and standards that enable its functioning. It encompasses the principles
and components that allow web systems to communicate, exchange data, and deliver content to
users. Here are key aspects of web architecture:

1. Client-Server Model: The web follows a client-server model, where clients (web browsers) make
requests to servers (web servers) for web resources, such as web pages. Clients initiate requests, and
servers respond by providing the requested resources.

2. HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): HTTP is the foundation of web communication. It defines the
rules and format for requests and responses between clients and servers. It specifies how data is
transmitted, how errors are handled, and how various operations, such as GET, POST, and PUT, are
performed.

3. URLs (Uniform Resource Locators): URLs are addresses that uniquely identify resources on the
web. They specify the protocol (e.g., HTTP, HTTPS), domain name, and path to the resource. URLs are
used by clients to request specific web pages or resources from servers.

4. HTML (Hypertext Markup Language): HTML is the standard markup language for creating web
pages. It defines the structure and content of a web page using tags. Web browsers interpret HTML
code and render it as a visual representation of the page.

5. CSS (Cascading Style Sheets): CSS is a style sheet language that defines the presentation and
appearance of web pages. It allows web developers to specify colors, fonts, layouts, and other visual
aspects of the page. CSS can be embedded within HTML or stored in separate files.

6. JavaScript: JavaScript is a programming language that runs on the client-side of web applications.
It enables interactivity, dynamic content, and manipulation of web page elements. JavaScript is used
for tasks such as form validation, event handling, and making asynchronous requests to servers.

7. Web Servers: Web servers are software applications that host websites and serve web pages and
resources to clients. They receive requests from clients, process them, and respond with the
appropriate resources. Popular web server software includes Apache HTTP Server, Nginx, and
Microsoft IIS.

8. Web Services: Web services allow different applications to communicate and exchange data over
the web. They enable interoperability between diverse systems by using standards such as XML

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(eXtensible Markup Language), JSON (JavaScript Object Notation), and SOAP (Simple Object Access
Protocol).

9. APIs (Application Programming Interfaces): APIs provide a set of rules and protocols that allow
different software applications to interact with each other. Web APIs, specifically, enable developers
to access the functionality and data of web services, making it possible to integrate third-party
services into applications.

10. REST (Representational State Transfer): REST is an architectural style for designing networked
applications. It emphasizes using standard HTTP methods (GET, POST, PUT, DELETE) to manipulate
resources, with URLs representing the resources and HTTP status codes indicating the outcome of
operations.

Web architecture encompasses these and other components that work together to enable the
delivery of web content, interactivity, and seamless communication between clients and servers. It
has evolved over time, and new technologies and standards continue to shape and enhance the web
experience.

WORLD WIDE WEB CHALLENGES

The World Wide Web (WWW) has faced and continues to face various challenges throughout its
development and widespread adoption. Here are some significant challenges associated with the
web:

1. Information Overload: With an enormous amount of information available on the web, it can be
challenging for users to filter and find relevant and trustworthy information. The abundance of
content, including misinformation and fake news, poses challenges in distinguishing accurate and
reliable sources.

2. Privacy and Security: Maintaining privacy and security on the web is a significant concern. Issues
include data breaches, unauthorized access to personal information, online tracking, and the
potential misuse of personal data. Protecting user privacy and securing online transactions and
communications are ongoing challenges.

3. Digital Divide: The digital divide refers to the gap between those who have access to the internet
and digital technologies and those who do not. Factors contributing to this divide include lack of
infrastructure, affordability, digital literacy, and socio-economic disparities. Bridging this gap and
ensuring equitable access to the web is an ongoing challenge.

4. Accessibility: Web accessibility involves making web content and services usable by people with
disabilities. However, many websites and web applications still lack proper accessibility features,
making it difficult for individuals with visual, hearing, cognitive, or motor impairments to access and
navigate the web effectively.

5. Content Quality and Credibility: The web is filled with a wide range of content, varying in quality
and credibility. Ensuring accurate and reliable information, combating misinformation and
disinformation, and promoting content credibility are ongoing challenges for users and content
creators.

6. Copyright and Intellectual Property: The ease of sharing and reproducing digital content has
posed challenges to copyright protection and intellectual property rights on the web. Issues such as

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digital piracy, unauthorized sharing of copyrighted material, and the fair use of content continue to
be debated and addressed.

7. Web Standards and Compatibility: With a multitude of web browsers, devices, and operating
systems, ensuring compatibility and adherence to web standards can be challenging. Web developers
face the task of designing and developing websites that function consistently across different
platforms and devices.

8. Scalability and Performance: As the web continues to grow in terms of users and content,
ensuring scalability and optimal performance of web applications and services becomes increasingly
important. Handling high traffic, delivering content efficiently, and maintaining responsiveness are
constant challenges for web developers and service providers.

9. Net Neutrality: Net neutrality is the principle that all internet traffic should be treated equally,
without discrimination or preferential treatment by internet service providers (ISPs). Ensuring net
neutrality and preventing practices that prioritize certain content or restrict access to specific
services is an ongoing challenge to maintain a free and open web.

10. Global Governance and Regulation: The global nature of the web poses challenges in terms of
governance and regulation. Balancing the need for security, privacy, and content control while
upholding principles of free expression, innovation, and open access remains an ongoing challenge
for governments, organizations, and international bodies.

These challenges require ongoing efforts from various stakeholders, including governments,
organizations, technology developers, and individual users, to address and mitigate the associated
risks and ensure the web's continued development and positive impact.

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