BIO 205 (INTRODUCTORY DEVELOPMENTAL AND CELL BIOLOGY)

REPRODUCTION

Reproduction is the production of offspring. It is the ability of an organism to give rise to new
individual(s) that is biologically similar to the organism in order to ensure continuity of life. It is
the main feature of life on earth.

Types of Reproduction

There are two types of reproduction;

1. Asexual Reproduction
2. Sexual Reproduction

Asexual reproduction is the process whereby an organism produces an offspring by itself i.e.
one parent copies itself to form a genetically identical offspring. No gamete is involved thus
there is no fusion of nuclei, but the cells that give rise to the offspring usually divide by means of
mitosis. Offspring produced are identical to the parent in all respect and are called clones. The
organisms produced by asexual reproduction are less diverse in nature. This type of reproduction
is practised widely by unicellular organisms. The process involves rapid population growth and
no mate is required for the process. However, a lack of genetic diversity makes organisms more
susceptible to diseases and nutrition deficiencies.

Asexual reproduction is further divided into:

Binary Fission: This is the simplest form and involves the division of a single organism into two
complete organisms, each identical to the other and to the parent. The cell splits into two each
cell carrying a copy of DNA from the parent cell. Fission is common among unicellular
organisms such as amoeba, bacteria, many protists and some algae

Budding: The parent organism develops an outgrowth which subsequently forms the new
individual organism. These buds break off from the parent without causing any injury and live an
independent life e.g. hydra and yeast.

Fragmentation: In this, the parent organism splits into several parts and each part grows into a
new individual. This type of reproduction is also called regeneration. Fragmentation is common
in spirogyra and coelenterates.

Spore Formation: Spores are DNA-containing capsules capable of sprouting into new
organisms; unlike most seeds, spores are produced without sexual union of gametes, when
dispersed, each spore is capable of developing into a new organism. Spores are common in lower
organisms especially fungi such as rhizopus and penicillum.
Vegetative propagation: It occurs in higher plants. In this process, a new plant grows from any
portion of an old one other than the seeds. There are two methods of vegetative propagation, this
include natural and artificial vegetative propagations.

Natural vegetative propagation involves the use of vegetative parts such as stems, leaves, roots
or buds. The part involved must have a store of food and sometimes able to act as a perennating
organ i. e. enable the plant to survive from one growing season to the next.

Organs of Vegetative Propagation

1. Bulbil: Axillary buds growing from the veins of leaves e. g. Bryophyllum and Begonia.

2. Runners or stolons: Stems that creep horizontally on soil surface. Buds and adventitious roots
develop from the nodes of the parent plants e. g. sweet potato, grass.

3. Rhizomes: Underground horizontal stem. It has scaly leaves which cover lateral buds at the
nodes. Lateral buds grow into new aerial shoots e. g. ginger, canna lily.

4. Corms: Underground stems which grow vertically in the soil. Buds develop from the axils of
scale leaves, grow upward and form leaves and flowers e. g. cocoyam.

5. Stem tubers: Underground stems which have swollen tips. Axillary buds on tubers give rise to
new aerial shoots e. g. yam, sweet potato

6. Suckers: Short underground horizontal branches e. g. banana, pineapple

7. Bulb: Underground condensed shoots with compressed stems and scaly leaves e. g. onion,
garlic.

Artificial propagation is the use of parts of the parent plant to multiply the plants. These
methods are frequently employed to give rise to new, and sometimes novel, plants. Budding,
grafting, layering, cutting and micropropagation are types of artificial propagation.

i. Grafting: Grafting has long been used to produce novel varieties of roses, citrus
species, and other plants. It involves the union of stock and scion. The part of the
plant whose root is in the ground is called the stock while the shoot removed from
other plant is called scion. The scion is normally attached to the stock for grafting to
take place. The two plants must be of the same species or closely related species. The
plant should be of the same age and size for grafting to be possible. Both plants are
cut in a slant or v-shaped to provide good surfaces for contact. They are then tied
together with plastic tape or device to keep them in place. The junction is rubbed with
grafting wax to prevent the entrance of air, water and pathogens. It is advisable to
water until when the wrapping may be removed after two weeks. After a period of
time, the scion starts producing shoots, and eventually starts bearing flowers and
fruits. Grafting is widely used in viticulture (grape growing) and the citrus industry.
 Scions capable of producing a particular fruit variety are grated onto root stock with
specific resistance to disease.
ii. Cutting: This involves the use of mature stem or branch stem to propagate plants. It
is a very common method of asexual propagation in many crops such as cassava,
Ixora, croton and sugarcane. The plants produced have the same characteristics as the
original plant from which the cuttings were obtained. Cuttings are made from stems
that have started to harden and should be about 20 cm long or convenient lengths,
with two or three nodes or buds. It should be put into ground to enable it have contact
with the soil. This is watered after planting or raised in shade during dry periods or
planted during the rain.
iii. Layering: This involves bending a shoot or branch of a plant to the ground so that the
nodes can make contact with the soil. It is then pegged below the ground and covered
with rich soil to provide good medium for root development. When rots have
emerged the branch is cut from the parent plant. This can be transplanted after a time
as rooted cutting. Layering can be used in coffee, cocoa and kola production.
iv. Micropropagation: Micropropagation (also called plant tissue culture) is a method of
propagating a large number of plants from a single plant in a short time under
laboratory conditions. This method allows propagation of rare, endangered species
that may be difficult to grow under natural conditions, are economically important, or
are in demand as disease-free plants. To start plant tissue culture, a part of the plant
such as a stem, leaf, embryo, anther, or seed can be used. The plant material is
thoroughly sterilized using a combination of chemical treatments standardized for that
species. Under sterile conditions, the plant material is placed on a plant tissue culture
medium that contains all the minerals, vitamins, and hormones required by the plant.
The plant part often gives rise to an undifferentiated mass known as callus, from
which individual plantlets begin to grow after a period of time. These can be
separated and are first grown under greenhouse conditions before they are moved to
field conditions.

Sexual reproduction is a type of reproduction that involves two parents and the fusion of the
male and the female gamete to form a zygote. Offspring produced show new variation. The sex
cells (gametes) are produced by meiotic cell division and after fertilization the new individual
continues to grow and produce new cells by mitosis. This process is usually slow and complex
compared to asexual reproduction. The organisms so produced are genetically diverse. Thus,
they can evolve along with the changing climatic conditions. Humans and many multicellular
organisms exhibit a sexual mode of reproduction.

There are two types of sexual reproduction, this include conjugation and fusion of gametes.
Conjugation: the simplest form of sexual reproduction, as contrasted with asexual reproduction.
This is observed in some unicellular organisms e. g. paramecium, fungi e. g. rhizopus, algae e. g.
spirogyra. Two similar organisms (conjugants) join together and exchange genetic material
contained in their nuclei. After the exchange, the organisms separate. The zygote or zygosphere
form is capable of developing into a new organism.

Fusion of Gametes: This occurs in higher organisms where gametes (male and female sex cells)
are produced in special structures by a process known as gametogenesis which involves meiotic
cell divisions.

Fertilization, the process in which haploid male and female sex cells fuse together to produce a
single diploid cell (zygote) that develops into an adult organism occurs after gamatogenesis.

Sexual Reproduction in Plants

For sexual reproduction of plants, interaction between the male and female species is a
prerequisite. The offsprings’ genetic structure is not identical but derived from the
combination of parent plants.

The sexual reproduction in plants takes place in two phases:

i. Meiosis:

Through meiosis, the genes of the organism are rearranged and the number of chromosomes
is reduced to half i.e. haploid. The plant produces gametophytes through the process of
meiosis. The gametophyte then produces the male or female gametes by cell division or
mitosis.

ii. Fertilization

The fusion of a minute haploid male gamete with a haploid female gamete to form a diploid
zygote is called fertilization.

Parts of the Reproductive System in Plants

The Flower is the basic reproductive organ in plants. A flower is called unisexual if it has only
either the male or the female reproductive parts in it; example: flowers of Corn, Papaya,
Cucumber. A flower is called bisexual if it has both the male and the female reproductive parts in
it; example: flowers of Mustard, Rose, Petunia.

Structure of a Flower

Flowers are made up of the vegetative parts i.e. the calyx (sepals), the corolla (petals) and the
reproductive parts i.e. the androecium and the gynoecium which are arranged in layers or
‘whorls’. The male reproductive part or the androecium is made up of units called stamen. Each
stamen consists of two parts: A stalk called the filament which is topped by anther. Pollen grains
which contain the male gametes or sperms are produced in the anther. The female reproductive
part or the gynoecium is the innermost whorl of the flower. It is made up of units called carpel.
Multiple fused carpels form the ovary where ovules containing female gametes are produced.
Pistil is a structure comprising of fused carpels and has a sticky tip called the stigma which acts
as a receptor of pollen. The long stalk acts as a supporting structure and aids development of
pollen tubes from the stigma downwards.

Process of Sexual Reproduction in Plants

The sexual reproduction in plants is carried out majorly by the process of pollination. It is a
process through which the pollen grain from an anther (male gamete) lands on to the stigma and
gradually mates with the ovule (female gamete).

Pollination can be of two types: self pollination and cross pollination. Self pollination (e.g.
wheat, pea) involves the transfer of pollen grains to the stigma of the same flower while in cross
pollination (e. g. tomatoes, lady finger), pollen grains are carried to stigma of another flower of
the same plant species. For majority of plants, insects or animals act as pollinators or carriers of
pollen from one plant to another. Flowers have numerous mechanisms to attract the pollinators
such as color, scent, heat, nectar glands, edible pollen and flower shape.

Process of Fertilization

The process begins after the pollen grain sticks to the stigma and begins sending down the pollen
tube through which the male gametes pass and unite with the female gametes in the ovary.

Fertilization in flowering plants is unique among all known organisms, in that not one but two
cells are fertilized, it is a process called double fertilization. One sperm nucleus in the pollen tube
fuses with the egg cell in the embryo sac, and the other sperm nucleus fuses with the diploid
endosperm nucleus. The fertilized egg cell is a zygote that develops into the diploid embryo of
the sporophyte. The fertilized endosperm nucleus develops into the triploid endosperm, a
nutritive tissue that sustains the embryo and seedling.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANT