D

MBM-512
Research Methodology
Unit-3
Scaling
 ____ _ I1
Page No.
S.N O. Particular - --- --· -- ~~ - -·-
1. ,' Measurernent & Scaling - 1
2. : Scale Characteristics I 2-4 UN/T-J_ Scaling
3, / Primacy Scale of Measurement ,' 4
4- : Classification of Scaling Technique
5- Comparison of Scaling Technique
;5
'5
I Measurement and Scaling
6. Relative Advantage & Disadvantage of other S)mbols to characteristics of objects
, Comparative Scale 5-8
I Measurement means assigning numbers or
according to certain prespecified rules .
7- { Comparative Scaling Technique Paired
numbers and the characteristics being
, Comparison Scaling
8. Non-Comparative scaling Technique
, 8-13
I
I I • One-to-one correspondence between the
measured.
I I
• The rules for assigning numbers should
be standardized and applied uniformly.
--J
I • Rules must not change over objects or time.
,,,I Scaling invoh·es creating a continuum upon
which measured objects are located.
Each respondent is assigned a numb er
• Consider an attitude scale from 1 to 100.
vourable, and 100 = Extremely
from 1 to 100, with 1 = Extremely Unfa
Favourable.
t of a numb er from 1 to 100 to each
• Measurement is the actual assignmen
ng the respondents on a conti nuum
respondent. Scaling is the process of placi
nt stores.
with respect to their attitude toward depa rtme
Scale Characteristics
I 1. Desc ripti on
s or descriptors that are used to
By description, we mean the unique label
possess description.
designate each value of the scale. All scales
2. Order
ions of the descriptors. Orde r is
By order, we mean the relative sizes or posit
less than, and equal to.
0 denoted by descriptors such as great er than,
3. Dist ance
lute differences between the scale
The characteristic of distance mean s that abso
in units.
descriptors are known and may be expressed
4. Origin
has a unique or fixed beginning
The origin characteristic mean s that the scale
or true zero point.
(1]
 - - -- ---tf......,..,.J('~-.:=-.J.J .•,-.~- ' -· --.. J,1 ,c; • i~~ ~
,_J_
.. _. ....... 4
- Scale
Primary scales
. - =:-:--
of Measure:rn e~t
Fin ish
Nomina l Numbers
0 Primary Scales of Measurement Ordinal Scale
Assigned
to Runners 0 0
• A ranking scale in which numbers are assigned to objects to indicate the relative
First Fin ish
Third
Second place extent to which the objects possess some characteristic.
Ordina l Rank Order place
ofWinners
place • Can determine whether an object has more or less of a characteristic than some
other object, but not how much more or less.
9.6
Interval Performance 8.2
9.1 • Any series of numbers can be assigned that preserves the ordered relationships
Rating on a between the objects.
0 to 10 Scale
• In addition to the counting operation allowable for nominal scale data, ordinal
Ratio nme to JS.2
,... , 13.4 scales permit the use of statistics based on centiles, e.g., percentile, quartile,
Finish.In median.
I Seconds ----- • Examples: Questions measuring the rank or any order of the objects to be
- -- -=-. measured .... Rank the following in order of preference.
~
.. u.! ~eas~r~~
~ - ... 10.C!! ,,. ... WW.
mustration of_'!'_ri.'.f!lary_ _.:,"-:a;~_
Ratio
0
Nominal Interval Primarv Scales of Measurement Interval Scale
Ordinal Scale Scale
Scale Scale Preference Numerically equal distances on the scale represent equal values in the
,,..,.,_ 1•7
~t3monlhs
11-17
•
characteristic being measured.
No. Store Rankings
• It permits comparison of the differences between objects.
l . ~tore A · , ··· 79 - - -- 5--·- -,··· 0 • The location of the zero point is not fixed. Both the zero point and the units of
15
2. Stores 7 200 measurement are arbitrary.
25 7 17
3. Store C 2
4 14 0 • It is meaningful to take ratios of scale values.
4. Store D 8 82
_ 6 __ 1--1~- 100 I
5. StoreE
6. Stora F
~ -3-
1
- ~-
10 7 17 2 50 /
35 J

• Statistical techniques that may be used include all of those that can be applied
to nominal and ordinal data, and in addition the arithmetic mean, standard
7. StoreG s 53 5 15 deviation, and other statistics commonly used in marketing research.
8. Store H 9 95 4 14 0 • Examples: questions asking to rate the objects on a particular scale like "On a
,,
9. Store I 8 81 5 15 100 scale of 1 to s or 1 to 7 or 1 to 10 rate the following ......
10.StoreJ 4 45 8 16 0
-- ......
10 115 I 2 12 I 10 I
... ----···· .. ·---
Primary Scales of Measurement Ratio Scale
Primary Scales of Measurement Nominal Scale • Possesses all the properties of the nominal, ordinal, and interval scales.
• The numbers serve only as labels or tags for identifying and classifying objects. • It has an absolute zero point.
• When used for identification, there is a strict one-to-one correspondence • It is meaningful to compute ratios of scale values.
between the numbers and the objects. • Only proportionate transformations of the form y = bx, where b is a positive
• The numbers do not reflect the amount of the characteristic possessed by the constant, are allowed.
objects. • All statistical techniques can be applied to ratio data.
• The only permissible operation on the numbers in a nominal scale is counting. • Examples: Questions that have answers in terms of money, distance, time etc...
• Only a limited number of statistics, all of which are based on frequency counts, like how much is your earning in Rs or dollar, what is height in m, time taken to
are permissible, e.g., pereentages, and mode. finish the race etc....
• Examples: questions about gender, age, marital status, etc..... .fall under this
scale.
[2] [3]
 ~ , ,{,,:-r,_ I ~· - cz:1.u~
v ~ • --
Primary Scales of Measurement A Comparison of Scaling Techniques
• Comparati\·e scales involve the direct comparison of stimulus objects.
• Comparative scale data must be interpreted in relative terms and have only
:scale '. Basic Common Marketing E!:rmi~ble Statistics ordinal or rank order properties.
I :Characteristics Examples Examples Descriptive Inferential • In noncomparative scales, each object is scaled independently of the others in
Nominal N11nbers identify Social Security Brand nos., store Percentages, the stimulus set. The resulting data are generally assumed to be inter\'al or ratio
Chi-square,
& cllsst, objects nos., numbering types mode scaled.
binomial test '
I Iof botball players
Ordinal :Nos. indicate the ,Quality rankings, Preference Percentile, Rank-order
,11latr.e poslions Irankings of teams rankings, market median correlation, B,elative Advantages of Comparative Scales
,of objects tu not ,in a toumament position, social Friedman
the magnitude of class ANOVA • Small differences between stimulus objects can be detected.
1
ditra11nces • Same known reference points for all respondents.
'betwffn them • Easily understood and can be applied.
1lnteMI IOilertnces Temperature Altitudes, Range, mean, Product- • Involve fewer theoretical assumptions.
l ,between obiects {Fahrenheit) opinions, index standard moment
• Tend to reduce halo or carryover effects from one judgment to another.
Ratio :Zen, point is fixed, Length, weight Age, sales, Geometric Coefficient of
ratios ofscale
1
income, costs mean, harmonic wriation
1::canbe mean Relative Disadvantages of Comparative Scales
red
• Ordinal nature of the data
• Inability to generalize beyond the stimulus objects scaled.
A Classific ation of Comparative Scaling Techniques Paired Comparison Scaling
.. . .... ..... ··· ······ •·•·•·· ·· •····· · ··
Scal~n.g_~~~~11~qu.,e_
s • A respondent is presented with two objects and asked to select one according to
some criterion.
• The data obtained are ordinal in nature.
Scaling
• Paired comparison scaling is the most widely used comparative scaling
technique.
• With n brands, [n(n - 1) /2] paired comparisons are required
Non comparative • Under the assumption of transitivity, it is possible to convert paired comparison
Scales data to a rank order.
~ Constant
Continuous Itemized
~
Rating Scales Rating Scales
Sum
Ukert Stapel
[4] (5]
!"IS .... ~ .~-=-.a. - ill. ..-~"-~-"..... ==--~-. . ---- - · ~~ n~•r.., ..
6.->·
-:r:-~
I
Obtaining Shampoo Preferenc-;;-
Using Paired Comparisons
---- Form

Preference for Toothpaste Brands

Using Rank Order Scaling
lnstrucindoa~
ple:ue · to present you with ten pairs of shampoo br.nds. For each pair.
wh.ch Col"&
tJOns:W.are
Rl!COnlmg Fonn: one of the tw0 brands of shampoo you would prefer for personal use. acanst R;,nkQcd•c
I.A
2. B
3. C
Brand A Brand B I Brand CI Brand D I Bra,dE
◄. D
0 1 0 S. E
~A 0
0 1 0
Brand B 1 6. F
1 1 1 7. G
Brand C 1
Brand D 0 0 0 8. H
0
Brand E 1 1 0 1 9. I
Preferredb 2 0 4 10. J
3
"A I in a particular box means that the brand in that column was preferred over the • •J----
~nd in the corresponding row.A O means that the row brand was preferred over Comparative Scaling Techniques Constant Sum Scaling
the column brand. llT°he number of times a brand was preferred is obtained by
summing the Is in each column. • Respondents allocate a constant sum of units, such as 100 points to attributes
of a product to reflect their importance.
Comparative Scaling Techniques Rank Order Scaling • If an attribute is unimportant, the respondent assigns it zero points.
• If an attribute is twice as important as some other attribute, it receives twice as
• Respondents are presented with several objects simultaneously and asked to many points.
order or rank them according to some criterion. • The sum of all the points is 100. Hence, the name of the scale.
• It is possible that the respondent may dislike the brand ranked 1 in an absolute
sense.
• Furthermore, rank order scaling also results in ordinal data. Importance of Bathing Soap Attributes
• Only (n - 1) scaling decisions need be made in rank order scaling.
.......... . . . ... . . ...~.~~~~. ~ . <?..!>.~.~~~~.~. ~~~. ~.~.~-~~.
Preference for Toothpaste Brands
............ . . . .... . ......Y~~~~-.~~~.~. <>.!~~~ . ~~~l~~g
Instructions
Instructions: Rank the various brands of toothpaste in order of On the next slide, there are eight attributes of bathing
preference. Begin by picking out the one brand that you like most soaps. Please allocate I00 points among the attributes
and assign it a number I. Then find the second most preferred brand so that your allocation reflects the relative importance
and assign it a number l Continue this procedure until you have you attach to each attribute. The more points an
ranked all the brands of toothpaste in order of preference. The least attribute receives, the more important the attribute is. If
preferred brand should be assigned a rank of I0. an attribute is not at all important, assign it zero points.
No two bnnds should receive the same rank number, If an attribute is twice as important as some other
The criterion of preference Is entirely up to you.There is no right or attribute, it should receive twice as many points.
wrong answer. Just rry to be consistent
[6] (7)
f
~
 •~·-·.... ,r--r,-_,- , --::-.,;------=-----~-1-7""- ____.,. ---r-------r· ...- ,...---- ___,.,,_
~ ~
c" '
'. \,,~· • -- ~I. Ju.i'~-_j
~ - • ··· •- · Ai\ -
Importance of Bathing Soap Attribut;;·
ized Rati ng Scales
Using a Constant Sum Scale ll£!!!--
nd
The respo ents are prm;ded with a scale that has a number or brief description
• associated "';th each category.
Form
Aver::i(!e Responses of Three Segments • The categories are ordered in terms of scale position, and the respondents ~re
Sc_!!ment I Segment II :)egment required to select the specified category that best describes the object bemg
Attrihute rated.
I.Mildness 2 4
8 17 • The commonly used itemized rating scales are the Likert, semantic differential,
2. Lather 2 4 and Stapel scale.
3. Shrinkage 9 7
3 9
◄.Price 53 17 '
0 19 Likert Scale
S.Fragrance 9
5 9
6.Packaging 7
20
Ukert scale requires the respondents to indicate a degree of agreement or
7. Moisturizing 5 3 The eement with each of a series of statements about the stimulus objects.
disagr
13 60 15
8. Cleaning Power 100 Strengly
Sum 100 100 Disagree Neither
Aue• Strongly
I disagree ,veenor
'&'ff
disa:ree
I, Store A sells high quality merchandise. I 2X 3 4 S
Non comparative Scaling Techniques
2. Store A has poor in-store service. I 2X 3 4 5
• Respondents evaluate only one object at a time, and for this reason
~ 3. I like 10 shop at Store A. I 2 3X 4 5
noncomparative scales are often referred to as monadic scales.
• Noncomparative techniques consist of continuous and itemized rating scales. The analysis can be conducted on an item-by-item basis (profile analysis), or a total
O (summated) score can be calculated.
Continuous
---- ....
Rating
.. -·
Scale
·· ·- ··· ···-···· · -----···-- --· ·· ·· ··· ··· · ·· · •······ ··· ·
·• 0 When arriving at a total score, the categories assigned to the negative statements by the
respondents should be scored by reversing the scale.
Respondents rate the objects by placing a mark at the appropriate position
on a line that runs from one extreme of the criterion variable to the other.
The form of the continuous scale may vary considerably, Semantic Differential Scale
•· · · ·· ···•··
t 11
The semantic differential is a seven-point rating scale with end
How would JIOII me SmreA as a department store! points associated with bipolar labels that have semantic meaning.
Ylrslon I
Prabably die _ . •..•.. -I ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• - •••••• Probably rhe best
Store AIS:
Ylrslon 2 Powerful - :--:-:--:-X-:-:- :Weak
Prabably die wont •••••• ~ • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •••••••• - • Probably rhe best Unreliable --:-:-:--:-:-X-:--:Reliable
0 1020 30 40 SO 60 70 80 90 100 Modern -:-:--:--:--:--:-X-:Old-fashioned
Y1rs1on l
\wybad Nathl,pd \wypd
o The negative adjective or phrase sometimes appears at the left side of the scale and sometimes at the
--bad right.
Prabably lht wont •• •••• ~. • • • • • • • • • • • • •••••••• - ••••••••••••••• -l'robabl)' rhe best o This controls the tendency of some respondents. particularly those with very positive or very negative
0 IOlO -- 30 40 ·· 50 -60 - 70 · «). ,O . . ~ -·• •·· · · · ·••· ···· · ···· · ········ •··········· · attitudes, to mark the right- or left-hand sides without reading the labels.
a Individual items on asemantic differential sale may be scored on either a -3 to +3or a I to 7scale.
[SJ [9]
I
I
 - - - -- . .&... -~ ~ , •• e"\- c..__ .. ~ ii~ ..... • !IS ,
7
,,,,---
Measuri A se,naotlc Differential Seal ---- Basic Noncomparative Scales
ng Self- Concepts, Person Concepts, and Product Con cepts
e for Bas,,
Examples
ScJI• CharactE'"''it.cs
Place a rmrk on a A~vant.iges
convnuous D,sadv,nc.,grs
continuous line 11.eaa;,;;;to
1) Rugged :- :- :- :- :-:-:- : Delicate TV QS)' to C°"11111ct
2) Excitable :-:- :- :- :- :- :- : ca1m
iuong
50le C0nvnertQls
Seems an be
tUmbel'IOl'M
3) Unromfortable .-.-.- .- :- :- :- : comfortable 1ted Rating unless
4) Dominating :- :- :- :- :- :- :-: Submissive ~·'"
~
computeriud
5) Thrifty .-.-:- :- :- :- :- : Indulgent Degrees of
6) Pleasant :-:- :- :- :- :- :- : Unpleasant LJert Sc.le agreement on a I Mtuuretnent
(strongly disagrff) of attitudes Easy to conunia. Mort
7) Contemporary :- :- :- :-:-:- :- : Obsolete administtr,and
10 5 (strongly agree) Ufldtmand
time -consuminl
8) Organized :- :-:-:- :- :- :- : Unorganized sale
9) Rational :- :- :- :- :- :- :- : Emotional
Seven - point sale
10) Youthful :- :- :- :- :- :- :- : Mature 5e111antiC 8rold,
with bipolar labels "'-tile
Djffere11tial P">duet.ancl Controveny as
11) Fonnal :- :-:-:- :- :- :- : Informal
12) Orthodox
13) Complex
:- :- :- :- :- :- :-: Liberal
:- :-:-:-:- :- :- : Simple Unipolar ten · point
:::r to whether lhe
daQ are inteMI
S12pel sale, .5 to +S, 11easu,.._,t
14) Colorless :- :- :- :- :- :-:-: Colorful of atlitlldes Easy 10 conun.a. Confusinaand
saJe wltho ut a neutral adminiswover
15) Modest :- :- :- :- :- :- :- : Vain point (zero) and ffiaia telephone
diffiallt 10 apply
~mmary of Itemized Scale Decisions
Stapel Scale i) Number of categories - Although there is no single, optimal number,
The S ~ I ~ ~·,;~· ~~lp~ia;·~ti~g·~~l~·~~·t~~ ~~cegori~~ ···· ··. ··· ··· · ··········· traditional guidelines suggest that there should be between five and nine
categories.
numbered from -5 to +S, without a neutral point (zero). This scale
is usually presented vertically.
2) Balanced vs. unbalanced - In general, the scale should be balanced to obtain
ScoreA
objective data.
+S
+4
+3
...
+5
+3
3) Odd/even no. of categories - If a neutral or indifferent scale response is
possible from at least some of the respondents, an odd number of categories
+2 +lX should be used.
+I +I
HIGH QUALITY POOR SERVICE
-1 -1
4) Forced vs. non-forced - In situations where the respondents are expected to
-2 -2 have no opinion, the accuracy of the data may be improved by a non-forced
-3 -3 scale.
-4X -4
-5 • -S
5) Verbal description - An argument can be made for labeling all or many scale
The data obtained by using a Stapel scale can be analyzed in the categories. The category descriptions should be located as close to the response
same way as semantic differential data. .. ....... . categories as possible.
6) Physical form -A number of options should be tried and the best selected.
(10)
[11)
 -------«- Y.!..~ :.·.. - :::::a
Rating Scale Configurations potential Sources of Error on Measurement 1
1 -.,
A Variety of scale configurations may be employed to measure th e
3
1 ~
) Other relatively stable characteristics of the Individual that f
gentleness of ABC detergent. Some examples include: influence the test score such as Intelligence, social deslrablllty, :,
ABC de,terge,., =--
.......,._. IIJ; and education. ' g
1) Very harsh - - _ _ _ _ - Very gentle 2
) Short-term or transient personal factors such as health, emotions,
t
and fatigue. ' "§
2)VeryhafWI 1
3) . Very harsh
2 3 4 s 6 7 VerygenUe
3) Situational factors, such as the presence of other people, noise, ~
and distractions. !i
4) Sampling of Items Included In the scale: addition, deletion, or cI
. Neither harsh nor gentle changes in the scale items.
5) Lack of clarity of the scale Including the Instructions or the Items
themselves. '
!.
• Very gentle
4)_ - - - - 6) Mechanical factors, such as poor printing, overcrowding items In
Vwy Harsh Somewhat Neither harsh Somewhat Gentle Very the questionnaire, and poor design.
•
harsh Harsh nor genue genue gentle
7) Administration of the scale, such as differences among
5) m ITJ 0 m a @] BJ
Interviewers.
8) Analysis factors, such as differences In scoring and statistical
analysis.
Vwy Neither harsh Very
hal'llh nor gentle genUe
Some Unique Rating
Scale Configurations
-- -··· · ..................... ·········· ------------·-· ·· ··· .. ····· ······ -- ... -·· ···. ·--- -. ---
Thennometer Scale
Instructions: Please indicate how much you like McDonald's hamburgers by coloring in
the thermometer. Start at the bottom and color up to the temperature level that best
Indicates how strong your preference is.
Fonn:
1
Likevery ~
much 75
~
50
. 1·
DIS 1ke 25
O
very much
Smiling Face Scale
Instructions: Please point to the face that shows how much you like the Barbie Doll. If
you do not like the Barbie Doll at all, you would point to Face 1. If you liked it very much,
you would point to Face 5.
Fonn: @@@@©
·• .. ..... ····· ·1 .. 2 .. 3 --·4 .. 5
(12) (13)
~,
: ..,ff .·
Q ~
I ces in the
participanl~ to the groups helps to ensure that any differen
Give suitabl e
Q. E.,'Plain the classifi cation of experim ental design. post-tes t results can be attribute d to the treatme nt
a new
examples. • Examp le: A research er wants to test the effectiveness of
Ans. Experinwnt:11 de5 igns can be broadly classified into three
main categories: medication for treating depressi on. They random ly assign
1. Pre-exp eriment al Designs : 'Jbese are
the simplest form of e>q1eriments particip ants to either a group receiving the new drug or a control
studies are group receiving a placebo. Both groups are e\o-aluated
for
and often scn'e as preliminary investigations before more rigorous
their lack of
conductro. Thcv are not considered true experiments due to depressi on symptom s before and after the treatme nt period.
outcome but design that
control over ei..~eo us variables (factors that can influence the 0 Solomo n Four-G roup Design : This is a more elaborat e
are not the main focus of the study). Here are two common types
of pre- and a
combines the features of the pretest- posttest tontrol group design
posttcst
experimental designs: posttest -only control group design. -It indudes a pretcst-
of
0
One-Sh ot Case !?tudy: This invoh·es observing a single group treatme nt group, a posttest -only treatme nt group, a pretest-o
nly control
to the
participants and measuring the outcome after they are exposed group, and a posttest -only control group. This design helps
to address
for
treatment (independent variable). However. there is no control group potential issues like the Hawtho rne effect (particip ants changin
g their
t.
compari5on, making it difficult to isolate the effect of the treatmen behavior because they know they are being studied) .
in
• Exampl e: A teacher implements a new teaching method • E.umpl e: A teacher wants to test a new educatio nal software
their classroom and observes the students ' test scores aftenvards. program . They random ly assign student s to four groups:
one
al
However, they don't have a control group using the tradition group gets preteste d and then uses the software, another group
method for comparison. only uses the software and gets a posttest , a third group
gel~
o One-Gr oup Pretest -Postte st Design : This
design measure s the
nt is preteste d but doesn't use the software , and a fourth group serws
outcome variable for a single group before and after the treatme as a control with neither pretest nor software use.
of the
introduced. While it allows for some assessment of the impact experim ents in
have 3. Quasi-e xperim ental Design s: These designs resembl e true
treatment, it cannot account for external factors that might This makes
some ways but lack random assignm ent of particip ants to groups.
influenced the change between the pre-test and post-tes t. indepen dent and
its it more difficult to establish a causal relations hip between the
• Example: A company introduces a new fitness program for perimental
depende nt variables. Here are two common types of quasi-ex
employees. They measure employee health metrics (weight, blood
a designs:
pressure) before and after the program, but they don't have measuri ng the
" Time Series Design : This design involves repeated ly
control group of employees who didn't participate. tion of
experimental outcome variable over time, before, during. and after the introduc
True Experim ental Designs : These are the gold standard for can tty to
2.
validity (the the treatmen t. By anal)-zing trends in the data. research ers
research as they offer the highest level of control and internal isolate the effect of the treatmen t.
dent
degree to which the obsen·ed changes can be attribnte d to the indepen • E.umpl e: A city impleme nts a new recycling program
.
~d randoml y
variable). They in,·oh-e manipulating the indepen dent variable see
to minimize Researchers track the amount of waste collected over time to
assigning participants to different groups (control and treatmen t) if the program leads to a decrease in landfi.ll waste.
ei..'J)Crimental
the influence of e:rtraneous variables . Here are two common true : This design compares a
a Non-eq uivalen t Contro l Group Design
designs: assigned .
involves treatme nt group to a control group that was not random ly
Pretest- Posttes t ·Contro l Group Design: This design ristics
to However, research ers tty to match the groups on relevant chancte
measuring the ontcome varial>le for both a control group (not exposed
to increase the validity of the compari son.
the treatment) and a treabnen t group (exposed to the treabnen t) before
E.ump le: Researc hers want to study the effects of a new after-
•
and aftf2' the treatment is introduced. Random assignment of
school program on student academi c perform ance. They compare
.si
 ·-,_
r p
"'-",',
a :,.rnup nf students who participate in the program to a group of
students who are similar in age, grade level, and prior academic
achievement but do not participate.

While both research hypotheses and research questions guide your research, they
serve different purposes:
Research Question: This is a broad inquiry about a phenomenon you want to
\
Dy understanding these different classifications of experimental designs, researchers investigate. It asks "what," "why," or "how" about a specific topic. Research questions
can choose the most appropriate method to address their research questions and are o~en open-ended and can lead to the development of a hypothesis.
ensure the validity of their findings. Example: How does exercise affect cognitive function in older adults?
Research Hypothesis: This is a specific prediction based on your research question.
Q. Define Research hypothesis. Explain the types of hypothesis and how it It narrows down the focus and proposes a testable relationship between variables.
is different from research questions ?
Example: Regular exercise will lead lo improved cognitive function in older adults
. \.Jl:,, . Rescard1 Hypothesis and Research Design £.>.-plained compared to those who do not exercise regularly. (This hypothesis is based on the
research question above.)
lkscarcl1 Hypothesis:
A research hypothesis is a specific prediction about the relationship between two or
Here's an analogy:
more variables that you aim to test through your research. It's essentially an educated Imagine you're investigating the link between sleep duration and academic
guess about the outcome of your study, phrased in a clear and testable way. A good performance.
hypothesis often starts with a research question and narrows it down to a specific Research Question: "Does sleep duration affect student grades?" (This is broad and
prediction. doesn't specify a direction)
Here's the breakdown:
Research Hypothesis: "Students who get more sleep will have higher average
Variables: These are the characteristics or factors that change 'll'ithin your grades compared to students who get less sleep.• (This is a specific prediction about
stud)'. The independent variable is the one you manipulate or introduce, while the relationship) ·
the dependent variable is the one you measure and expect to be affected b~• the
By formulating a research hypothesis, you move from a general question to a specific
independent variable prediction that can be tested through research methods like data collection and
• Testable: A good research hypothesis should be stated in a way that allows analysis.
you to design a study to test its validity.
Types of Research Hypotheses: Q2. What is research design? Explain the types of research design with
suitable examples.
There are two main types of research hypotheses:
Ans. A research design is the overall plan or blueprint for conducting your research.
Null Hypothesis (Ho): This hypothesis proposes that there is no significant
relationship between the independent and dependent variables. It acts as a baseline
It outlines the methods you'll use to collect nnd analyze data to answer your research
f. for comparison and is often the hypothesis you aim to disprove through your research. question or test your hypothesis. lt's like a roadmap that guides your entire research
~ Alternative Hypothesis (H 1): This hypothesis proposes that there is a significant
journey.
l
relationship between the independent and dependent variables. It specifies the Here are some key aspects of a research design:
direction of the predicted relationship (e.g., positive, negative) or the nature of the
difference between groups. • Choosing the research method: This involves selecting the most
appropriate metbod(s) for collecting data,_ such as surveys, experiments,
interviews, or observations, The method you choose depends on your research
How Research Hypothesis Differs from Research Questions:
question and the type of data you need.
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• Dc(ining the sample: You'll need lo determine who or what will be different groups (control and treatment) to minimize the influence of extraneous
indudl'li in your study (the sample) to represent the larger population of variables.
interest. This might involve random sampling techniques to ensure
generalizability of your findings.
• Data collection procedure.,;: This outlines how you'll gather the data, • Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design: You measure the outcome for
both a control group (not exposed) and a treatment group (exposed)
including specific tools, instruments, or techniques you'll use (e.g.,
before and after the treatment. Random assignment helps ensure any
qucstionuaires, interview protocols, observation checklisl~). post-test differences are due to the treatment. (Example: Testing a new
.- • Data anulysis plan: This describes the statistical techniques or qualitative
analysis methods you'll use to analyze the collected data to extract meaningful
medication for depression by randomly assigning participants to receive
the drug or a placebo, then measuring their symptoms before and after
insights and answer your research question. the treatment period.)
Types of Research Design:
• Solomon Four-Group Design: This is a more complex design that
Research design refers to the overall plan or structure for conducting your research. It combines features of the above and adds posttest-only control and
outlines the methods you will use to collect and analyze data to test your hypothesis. pretest-only control groups. It helps address potential issues like the
Here are the main categories of research designs, along with examples: Hawthorne effect (participants changing behavior because they're being
studied). (Example: A teacher tests educational software by assigning
~
1. Pre-Experim ental Designs:
students to groups that receive pretests and use the software, use the
'i: software only with a posttest, receive a pretest but no software, or serve
2
:,, These designs are relatively simple but lack strong control over extraneous variables.
as a control with neither.)
u They can be helpful for initial exploration but may not be sufficient for establishing
cause-and-effect relationships.
3. Quasi-Expe rimental Designs:
• One-Shot Case Study: You observe a single group and measure the
These designs resemble true experiments but lack random assignment of participants.
outcome after a treatment is introduced. (Example: A teacher
This makes it more difficult to establish a causal relationship between variables.
implements a new teaching method and observes student test scores
~ afterward, but there's no control group.)
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.:::, One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design: You measure the outcome variable
for a single group before and after the treatment. (Example: A company

• Time Series Design: You repeatedly measure the outcome variable over
time, before, during, and after the treatment is introduced. By analyzing
trends in the data, researchers can try to isolate the effect of the
treatment. (Example: Tracking the amount of waste collected over time
I,. measures employ~ health metrics before and after a new fitness
to see if a new recycling program leads to a decrease in landfill waste.)
,..~ program, but there's no control group.)
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Non-equivalent Control Group Design: You compare a treatment group
2. True Experiment al Designs:
to a control group that wasn't randomly assigned. HOWll\'el', resaJchers
try to match the groups on relevant characteristics to ~ the
~ validity of the comparison. (Example: Researchera compare student
These designs offer the highest level of control and internal validity. They involve
academic performance after an after-school program to a group of
manipulating the independent variable and randomly assigning participants to
a;> similar students who didn't participate in the program.)
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l'hoosins the right research design depends on your specific research question, the **2. Identify the Sampling Frame:..
a\'.iil.ibilit:y of resources, and the ethical considerations of your study.
* This is a list or representation of the target population from which you will draw your
Choo..,.ing the Right Design: sample.
The best research design depends on your specific research question, the resources * It should ideally include all members of the target population.
a\'ru)ablc, 1md the ethical considerations of your study. Consider these factors when
~dt'cting your de.sign:
• **Example:** You might use a directory of universities in the US or an online
• The 11.'vd of contTol you need: Do you need to establish cause-and-effect, database of student enrollment to create a sampling frame.
or are yo u exploring relationships?
• The feasibility of manipulat ing variables: Can you eti1ically and **3. Choose a Sampling Technique:**
practically manipulate the independent variable?
• The availabilit y of participan ts: Can you randomly assign participants to
groups? • This refers to the method used to select participants from the sampling frame.
There are two main categories:
By carefully designing your research, you increase the likelihood of collecting reliable
and ,'lllid data that can effectively answer your research question.
* **Probability Sampling:** Every member of the target population has a known
chance of being selected. This ensures a representative sample and allows for
Q2. Explain the steps involved in a sample designing process. Explain with statistical generalization.
suitable examples * **Simple Random Sampling:** Each member bas an equal chance of being
Ans. ## Steps Involved in Sample Design Process selected. You can use random number generators or lottery methods to achieve this.
A well-designed sample is crucial for conducting good research. Here's a breakdown * **Example:** Assign a unique ID to each student in the sampling frame. Use
of the steps involved in the sample design process, along with examples: a random number generator to select a specific number of Ids to represent your
sample.
. .1. Define the Target Populatio n:..
* **Stratified Sampling:** The population is divided into subgroups (strata) based
on relevant characteristics. A random sample is then drawn from each stratum
• This is the entire group of individuals or elements to which you want your findings proportionally to its size in the population.
to generalize. * **Example:** Stratify the student population by university year (freshman,
• Be clear about the characteristics of the target population you're interested in sophomore, etc.) and randomly select participants from each stratum to ensure
representation of all year groups.
studying.
* **Cluster Sampling:** The population is divided into clusters (groups), and
some clusters are randomly selected. All members within the chosen clusters are then
• ..Example:.. You want to research the sleep habits of university students in the included in the sample.
United States.
* **Example:** Randomly select a few universities from the sampling frame.
• -Target Population:.. All university students currently enrolled in accredited All students enrolled in those universities become part of your sample.
universities across the US.
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**7. Generalize the Findings (if using probability sampling):**

selected. These methods are used when random sampling is not feasible but can lead • If you used a probability sampling technique, you can cautiously generalize your
to biased samples. findings back to the target population within a certain confidence interval.
• ••Convenience Sampling:.. Selecting the most readily available participants.
• ..Example:.. Surveying students who happen to be in the library at a By following these steps and choosing an appropriate sampling technique, you can
particular time. This might not represent the sleep habits of the entire student increase the likelihood of obtaining a representative sample that allows you to draw
population. valid conclusions about your target population.
• ..Quota Sampling:.. Setting quotas for specific subgroups and selecting
participants to fill those quotas until they are met.
Q3. Explain the case study method of data collection. What are the
• ..Example:.. Deciding to survey 100 freshmen, 100 sophomores, etc., and characteristics of case study method ? Explain its advantages with real life
stopping data collection once those quotas are filled within those subgroups. This examples.
might not capture the overall distribution of students across year groups.
.\n<,. Tlw C.1sc Shiel~ ~h•thml of Data Collection
••4. Determine the Sample Size:•• The case study method is a research strategy that involves an in-depth examination oi
a single entity, such as a person, group, event, organization, or process. It aims to
understand the comple.x nuances and contei..-tual factors that shape the case being
• This refers to the number of participants you will include in your study. studied.
• There are statistical formulas to calculate an appropriate sample size based on factors Here's a breakdown of the key aspects:
like the desired level of confidence and margin of error. , Focus: Intensive exploration of a single case to gain a holistic understanding
of its complexities.
, Data Collection: Employs multiplt' data ('\Jllcction methods lik<· intl·rvicws.
..Example:** A common online sample size calculator might suggest needing
observations, document analy~is, ancl ar~hival r,·•1•a rd 1.
around 385 participants for a 95% confidence level and a 5% margin of error.
• Analysis: Qualit.. tive analysis is often ust-<l to interpret the rolleckJ tl.1la anJ
draw, meaningful insii;lits about the case.
••5. Collect Data from the Sample:"* Chnrul."teristics of the Case Study Method:
Qualitative Data: Primarily gathers rich, descriptive data that provides
conte)o.1 and details beyond just numbers.
• Once you have selected your sample, you can proceed with data collection • Exploratory Approach: Useful for uncovering new insights and generating
methods like surveys, interviews, or observations. hypotheses to be tested in further research.
• Contex"tuul Focus: Emphasizes understanding the case within its specific
environment and considcrini: relevant factors that might influenr1• it.
••6. Analyz.e the Data:*"
Aclvantnges of the Case Study Method:
, Depth und Dctnil: Allows for n Jeep Jive into a particular ca•e, r.,vcaling
• Use statistical techniques 'or qualitative analysis methods to analyze the data intlicatc details and complexities that might be missed in broader studies.
collected from your sample. Real-World Applicntion: Provides insights into real-world phenomena and
can be used to inform practical decisions or interventions.
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• Flexibility: Clln l>f' ndapted to study n wide range of cases across various
Ji~iplinrs.
Real-Life 1-:xumples of Case Stnd_v Method:

o IQ scores: The difference between an IQ of 100 and 110 is the same as

the difference between 120 and 130. However, an IQ of o doesn't indicate
a complete lack of intelligence.
'
• Rusines.~: A m,,rl-<'lin.i; t<';11u mi;;ht conclucl a case study oa a customer who o Calendar years: The difference between 2023 and 2024 is one year,just
has m·h1en~d l"X,-eptional brand loyalty to understand their motivations and like the difference between 1990 and 1991. But year o doesn't represent
bu~ing belmior. the absence of time.
• Education: A teacher might use a case study to analyze a strugg)igg student's
! 1..-aming process, identifying chaDenges and potential solutions to improve
Ratio Scale:
• Definition: A ratio scale has both equal intervals and a true zero point. This
th~ir academic performance.
I • .Medicine: A doctor might use a case study to document the medical histoiy
zero point signifies a complete absence of the variable being measured. Ratios
can be calculated between any two points on the scale.
and tm:llment of n patient with a rare disease, contributing to the • E.xamples:
undel'!'tanding of the condition. a Weight (grams or kilograms): A weight of o kg rep1'esents the absence
• Psychology: A therapist might use a case study to e).'J)fore the life of any mass. You can say that someone who weighs 60 kg is twice as
cxp..•ricnccs and thought patterns of a client with a specific phobia, leading to a heavy as someone who weighs 30 kg. .,
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morr pel'!'Onalized treatment approach. a Height (centimeters or meters): A height of o cm represents no height.
Important to Note: You can say that someone who is 180 cm tall is three times taller than
Case studies are not generalizable to a larger population. The findings are someone who is 60 cm tall. I •
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specific to the case being studied. a Age (in years): A person's age of o years indicates they haven't lived for
• Confinnation bias can be a risk. where the researcher might focus on evidence any time. You can say that someone who is 40 years old is twice as old as
tbat confirms their initial assumptions. Triangulation, using multiple data someone who is 20 years old.
collection methods, can help mitigate this. Insummury:
Ry understanding the case study method and its characteristics, researchers can Interval scales allow you to compare differences between measurements, but
le\'erag..- it to µin rich insights into complex phenomena and inform \'arious real- you can't say something is "twice as" hot or intelligent based on the scale.
world applications. • Ratio scales allow you to compare differences and calculate ratios between
measurements because they have a true zero point
Q3. What is the basic difference between interval and ratio scales of
measurement? Give suitable examples Q4. Explain the following with real life examples of each:
Ans. The key difference between interval and ratio scales of measurement lies in the a. ANOVAonewayandtwoway
presence of a true rero point b. Simple and multiple regression
lnlenral Scale: Ans. Understanding ANOVA and Regression wilh Examples:
• Definition: An interval scale bas equal intervals between units, but it lacks a
lrue zero point. This means the zero \'alue on the scale is arbitrary and doesn't Here's a breakdown ofANOVA (Analysis of Variance) and Regression, along with real-
r,•prcsenl a romplt'tf, absence of the variable being measured. life examples to illustrate their differences:
• Example.,;: a. ANOVA (Analysis of Variance):
~ Temperature (Celsius or Fahrenheit): While there are differences ANOVA is a statistical technique used to compare the menns of two or more groups. It
between the scales, a to-degree increase in Celsius represents tbe same helps determine if observed differences between groups are likely due to random
change as a to-degree increase in Fnhrenheit However, o•c or o•F chance or if there's a statistically significant difference bet.ween them.
doesn't represent the absence of beat; it's just a reference point. Types ofANOVA:
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1. One-way ANOVA: This compares the means of three or more groups on a 2. Multiple Regress ion: This analyzes the rd:itionship lwt "f'<'ll o ne•
single dependent variable. lt tests the null hypothesis that all group means are dependent variable and two or more independent variables. It cons1ders the
equal. combined effect of all the independent \'ariables on the dependent variable.
• Real-life E.umple: A researcher wants to compare the effectiveness of three Real-life Rxample: A real estate agent wants to predict house prices
different fertilirers (A, B, and C) on com yield. They plant com seeds in separate (dependent variable) based on factors like square footage (independent variable
plots, apply each fertilizer type to a designated group of plots, and measure the 1), number of bedrooms (independent variable 2), and location (independent
average yield (kg of corn) at harvest. One-way ANOVA would be used to analyze variable 3). They collect data on these variables for various houses that have
if there's a significant difference in average yield between the plots fertilized recently sold. Multiple regression would be used to develop a model that can
with A, B, and C. estimate the selling p1ice of a house based on these factors.
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2. Two-way AN OVA: This compares the means of multiple groups on a singk By understa nd ing the differences between ,\NOVA and rrgrc-ssion, :vou can choose the
depende?t variable, considering the effect of two independent variables appropriate statistic:11 tool to analy1.c your data and answ<'I' your n•scarch q11<'~lio11~
simultaneously. It analyzes the interaction between these variables. effectively.
• Real-life Example: A marketing manager wants to see how the effectiveness
of a new advertising campaign (TV vs. Social Media) varies across different age
groups (20-30, 31-40, 41-50). They track website traffic generated by each Qs. What is a synopsis? Also explain the format of synopsis
campaign within each age group. Two-way ANOVA would be used to assess the
main effects of advertising campaign type and age group on website traffic, Ans. A synopsis is a brief summary of a larger work, such as a book, research paper,
along with any potential interaction effect. Ts the difference in website traffic mo\sie, or even a proposed project. It condenses the key points of the work into a
between TV and social media campaigns the same for all age groups? concise and informative overview.
b. Regression Analysis: Herc•'s a breakdown of the format of a synopsis:
Regression analysis explores the relationship b e twce □ a dependent varia bl e (tht Structure:
outcome you're interested in) and one or more independent variables (factors you Whi le th<•specifa: format migh t var~ J cpcndin;; llll the contp,-J (e.g., anukmic ~ynups1s
think might influence the outcome). It aims to develop a model that can predict the vs. movie synopsis), a good synopsis typically includes the following elements:
1. Title: Btiefly reflects the main topic or subject of the work.
value of the dependent variable based on the values of the independent variables.
2. Introduction: Provides basic background information about the work, such
Types of Regression:
1. Simple Regression: This analyzes the relationship between one
as the author, genre, or main purpose.
independent variable and one dependent variable. It finds the best-fitting line 3. Plot/Problem/Objective: Briefly outlines the central plot of a creative work
to describe bo)Y changes in the independent variable are associated with (e.g., a book or movie) or the research question or project objective for a more
changes in the dependent variable. academic context.
• Real-life Example: An education researcher wants to see how study hours 4. Main Characters/Mcthod<;/Key Points: Brit'lly dl?S('libt-s tht' main
(independent variable) affect exam scores (dependent variable) for a group of charact'crs in a crealiVl! work or the ke\· 111,•thods or th<•oret ica l fram<•1r,irk for a
students. They collect data on the number of hours each ~iudent studied mid research project.
their corresponding exam scores. Simple regression would be used to 5. Conflict/Challeng es/Hypothesis: In creative works, this miiht invoke
determine the strength and direction of the relationship between study hours the main conflict or challenges faced by the characters. In research projects, il
and exam scores. Do students who study more tend to score higher on exams could be the research hypothesis you aim to test.
on average? 6. Resolution/Results/Conclmiion: Briefly touches upon the resolution or
outcome of the work. For research projects, this might be the expected or
anticipated results.
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ulation who h ave alrea dy a~op ted
7. SlgnU k.-{lm pac:tf l'arge t Audien ce (Optio nal): Adopt ers P: This represe nts the sub-po p infecte d individ uals ID an
You might mentio n
the intfflded audie ~ or the broader significance or impact the innova tion (e.g., exis - ting custom ers,
o,f the work
(eJpl'(i.tlly for m1eareb projet"ts). epidemiological model) .
1An11,th: Flows:
~ 1,..n~1h nf a ,,nur~• - ,·:m ,·,uy si~1ifi<·antly dt!pend ing on Adopt ion Rate (AR) : Tl115
rate at wh ich po te ntial adopte rs
· represen ts t 11e '
the purpose and · . d - f n
"-'4"'"''0\'111> . It's depicte as an arr ow flowin g r 01
are transiti oning to becom e adopte rs.
• Acade mk Synops es: These arc typically concise, Potenti al Adopte rs (A) to Adopte rs (P) .
ranging from a short ·
paragraph (100--20 0 words) to a few pages (1-2 pages) depend
ing on the field Auxili aryVa rinble s:
and \eo\-el of detail required . ti oition of the total
.
• Mo,ie Synops es: These are usually a few sentences • Marke t Satura tion (B): n,,·is represe nts 1e prop
to a short paragraph d ado ted the innova tion
popula tion (Potent ial Adopte rs A) that has alrea Y
~200 words) designed to capture the viewer's P/ ( P)
interest without revealing too (Adopt ers P). It can be mathem aticall edasB -P A+ ·
much o( the plot. y express - . otentia l adopte rs
Aware ness Rate (R): This represe nts the rate at
• Book Synops es: These can be a bit longer than movie synopses, ranging
which p d u· Rate
. -
from a paragraph to a ½ page (100-25 0 words) depend
are being made aware of the mno\'a tion. It can influen ce the A op on (R)
ing on the intende d (AR). The diagram doesn't show a
a11di.-nc.e (read<'r< '"· puhlishprs).
direct arrow b ehveen Aware ness Rate
and Adoptio n Rate (AR), but it suggest s tha t a high er awaren
Writin g Tip!o: ess rate con Id lead
• Focus on clarity and concis eness: Aim to con\'ey to a higher adoptio n rate.
the essence of the work _
Adopt ion from Adver tising: This represe nts the flow
in a clear and concise manner. of potenti al adopt~ rs
• Highlig ht key elemen ts: Emphasize the most who transiti on due to adverti sing efforts. It contrib utes
importa nt aspects of the to the overall Adopt ion
work "';thout going into unnecessary detail. Rate (AR).
• Mainta in a neutra • Adopt ion from Word of Mouth : This represe
l tone: Avoid persona l opinion s or biases in the synopsis. nts-the flow of potent ial
• Use strong verbs and active voice: Engage the adopter s who transiti on due to recomm endatio ns or influen
reader and effectively ce from others who
communicate the plot or research focus. have already adopted the innova tion (Word of Mouth
). It contrib utes to the
By following this format and ·writing tips, you overall Adoption Rate (AR).
can create a well-structured and
infam1nth~ 5'--nop,;L• that t'ffecti\'ely summari1.es the key points • Conta ct Rate (c): This represe nts the rate at which
of a larger work. potenti al adopte rs are
encoun terin!', the innovat ion, which could influen ce their awaren ess and
potentially the Adoption Rate (AR). The diagran 1 doesn't show a direct arrow
Q4- Stock flow model explain ation betwee n Contact Rate (c) and Adopti on Rate (AR), but
it sugges ts that a higher
contact rate could lead to a higher adoptio n rate.
Sure, the cliap-am you sent depicts a stock-flow model This stock-flow model provide s a simplif
classifying stocks, flows, and ied framew ork for unders tandin g how an
alllliliary variables. Here's a breakdown of the model's compon innovat ion or idea spreads within a popula tion. By conside
ents: ring f~ctors like adopti on
Stoc:u: rate, market saturati on, and awaren ess, the model can
help predit.-t how many people
• Potent ial Adopte rs A.: This ~resen ts the total might adopt the innovat ion over time.
populat ion who could
potentially adopt the innovation or idea being modele Here are some additio nal points to conside r:
d (e.g., potential
ru•lnmt'TII for a nt'W product, indi~idu als susct'pt
iblc lo a discast' in an The model assume s a closed popula tion, meanin g no
(11idt'miulr.,,,-'8) 011'1<1~1). new potenti al adopte rs
are enterin g or leaving the system.
The model doesn't accoun t for factors that might cause
people to abando n the
innovat ion after adoptin g it.
 A I'.
• The specific relationships between variables (e.g., how Awareness Rnte and • •• Advertising Effectiveness:.. Represents the effectiveness of
Contact Rate influence Adoption Rate) might need to he further defined or advertising campaigns in driving adoption.
modeled mathematically for more precise predictions. • .. Con tact Rate:•• Represents the proportion of the population ex1>osed
Overall, this stock-flow model serves as a useful foundation for analyt.ing the diffusion to ndvertising campaigns.
of innovations and can he adapted to various conte:1.1s depending on the spt'cific • .. Diffusion Pnrameter: .. Represents the rate at which information
innovation or idea being studied. nhout the product, service, or idea spreads through word-of-mouth
chnnncls.
## Logic of the Stock-Flow Model ••1.oi;ic oftlw Model:"
t
The provided image depicts a Stock-Flow Model classifying stock, flow. The model proposes that adoption is driven by three main factors: word-
and auxiliary variables. Let's break down the logic of this modcl: of-mouth, advertising, and other sources. The effectiveness of word-of-
mouth and advertising is influenced by auxiliary variables such as
advertising effectiveness, contact rate, and diffusion parameter.
..Stocks: ..
The model can be used to simulate the adoption process over time,
• ..Adoption: .. Represents the total number of indh-iduals or entities that providing insights into the impact of different marketing strategies and
have adopted a particular product, service, or idea. market dynamics. Here's how the logic translates into equations:
• ..Population: .. Represents the total number of potential adopters in the
market.
• ••Adoption = Adoption from ,vord of Mouth + Adoption from
Advertising + Adoption from Other Sources..
.. Flows: .. • ..Adoption from Word of Mouth= Diffusion Parameter• Adoption• (I -
Adoption/Population)..
• ..Adoption from Word of Mouth:.. Represents the number of • ..Adoption from Advertising = Advertising Effectiveness • Contact Rate
• (1 - Adoption/Population)**
individuals adopting due to positive word-of-mouth recommendations.
• ..Adoption from Advertising: .. Represents the number of individuals
adopting due to exposure to advertising campaigns. These equations represent the core logic of the model, demonstrating how
• ..Adoption from Other Sources: .. Represents the number of individuals stocks and flows interact over time. The model can be further extended to
adopting due to other factors not explicitly modeled, such as social media incorporate additional factors and complexities, depending on the
or organic discovery. specific application•
..Auxiliary Variables: .. ..Additional Notes: ..
• The model assumes that the population is static and does not account 6,r
population growth or decline.
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facto rs such as prod uct featu res,
" The mode l does not e'\.l)licitly cons ider
price, or comp etitio n.
need to be estim ated base d on
" The value s of auxil iary varia bles may
histo rical data or e~1> ertjud gmen t.
able
By unde rstan ding the logic of this
Stock -Flow Mode l, we can gain valu
and deve lop effec tive mark eting
insig hts into the adop tion proce ss
.
strate gies to maxi mize adop tion rates