Engineering Graphics

Giesecke Mitchell Spencer

Hill Dygdon Novak Loving
Eighth Edition
Pearson Education Limited
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Harlow
Essex CM20 2JE
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ISBN 10: 1-292-02617-0

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 P E A R S O N C U S T O M L I B R A R Y

Table of Contents

1. The Graphic Language and Design

Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 1
2. Introduction to CAD
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 13
3. Instrumental Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 41
4. Geometric Constructions
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 87
5. Sketching and Shape Description
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 125
6. Multiview Projection
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 155
7. Sectional Views
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 205
8. Auxiliary Views
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 235
9. Revolutions
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 261

I
 10. Manufacturing Design and Processes
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 277
11. Dimensioning
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 301
12. Tolerancing
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 339
13. Threads, Fasteners, and Springs
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 371
14. Design and Working Drawings
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 409
15. Drawing Reproduction, Control, and the Internet
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 493
16. Axonometric Projection
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 507
17. Oblique Projection
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 543
18. Perspective
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 563
19. Points, Lines, and Planes
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 589
20. Parallelism and Perpendicularity
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 623
21. Intersections
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 641
22. Developments
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 667

II
23. Line and Plane Tangencies
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 683
24. Cartography, Geology, and Spherical Geometry
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 697
25. Graphical Vector Analysis
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 715
Sheet Layouts
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 737
Decimal and Millimeter Equivalents; Symbols for Instructors Corrections
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 741
Color Plates
Frederick E. Giesecke/Alva Mitchell/Henry C. Spencer/Ivan L. Hill/John Thomas Dygdon/James E.
Novak/Robert Olin Loving 743
Index 751

III
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The Graphic Language and Design

OBJECTIVES OVERVIEW
After studying the material in this chapter, you A new machine, structure, or system must exist in the mind of the
should be able to: engineer or designer before it can become a reality. This original
1. Describe the role of the engineer on a concept or idea is usually placed on paper or as an image on a com-
design team. puter screen and communicated to others by way of the graphic lan-
2. List two types of drawings. guage in the form of freehand sketches. These first sketches are
3. Explain why standards are important. followed by other, more exact, sketches as the idea is developed
4. Draw examples of parallel and perspec- more fully.
tive projection. The engineer and drafter for the twenty-first century must
understand how to read and write in the graphic language. Every-
5. Define plane of projection and
projectors. one on the engineering and design team must be able to communi-
cate quickly and accurately in order to compete in the world
6. Identify uses of the graphic language.
market. Like carpenters learning to use the tools of their trade, engi-
7. Describe the differences between
neers, designers, and drafters must learn the tools of technical draw-
mechanical drawing and sketching.
ing. While CAD has replaced traditional drafting tools for many
design teams, the basic concepts of the graphic language remain the
same. Those students who can become proficient in graphic com-
munication will succeed and add value to the employer who hires
them.

From Chapter 1 of Engineering Graphics, Eighth Edition, Frederick E. Giesecke,

Alva Mitchell, Henry Cecil Spencer, Ivan Leroy Hill, Robert Olin Loving, John
Thomas Dygdon, James E. Novak. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Published by Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.
 The Graphic Language and Design

■ INTRODUCTION oped more fully, these original sketches are followed

by other sketches, such as computation sketches.
The old saying that “necessity is the mother of inven- Engineers and designers must be able to create idea
tion” is still true, and a new machine, structure, system, sketches, calculate stresses, analyze motions, size parts,
or device is the result of that need. If the new object is specify materials and production methods, make design
really needed or desired, people will buy it or use it as layouts, and supervise the preparation of drawings and
long as they can afford it. specifications that will control the numerous details of
Before a new object of any kind goes into produc- product manufacture, assembly, and maintenance.To per-
tion, certain questions must be answered: What is the form or supervise these many tasks, engineers make liber-
potential market for this object? Can the object al use of freehand sketches. They must be able to record
(device or system) be sold at a price that people are and communicate ideas quickly to associate and support
willing to pay? If the potential market is large enough personnel. Both facility in freehand sketching and the
and the estimated selling price seems reasonable, then ability to work with computer-controlled drawing tech-
the inventor, designer, or company officials may niques require a thorough knowledge of the graphic lan-
choose to proceed with development, production, and guage. Engineers and designers who use a computer for
marketing plans for the new project. drawing and design work must be proficient in drafting,
A new machine, structure, or system, or even an designing, and conceptualizing.
improvement of an existing system, must exist in the Typical engineering and design departments are
mind of the inventor, engineer, or designer before it shown in Figs. 2 and 3. Such staffs include people
can become a reality. This original concept is usually who have considerable training and experience as well
placed on paper or as an image of a computer screen. It as recent graduates who are gaining experience. There
is then communicated to others by way of the graphic is much to be learned on the job, and inexperienced
language in the form of freehand idea sketches, or people must start at a low level and then advance to
design sketches (Fig. 1). As the idea is devel- more responsible positions as they gain experience.

■ FIGURE 1 ■ An Initial Idea Sketch. Courtesy of Ratio Design Lab, Inc.

2
 The Graphic Language and Design

■ FIGURE 4 ■ Egyptian Hieroglyphics.

From the beginning of time, artists have used draw-

ings to express aesthetic, philosophic, or other abstract
ideas. People learned by conversing with their elders
and by looking at sculptures, pictures, or drawings in
public places. Everybody could understand pictures,
and they were a principal source of information.
The other line along which drawing has developed
has been the technical. From the beginning of recorded
history, people have used drawings to represent the design
of objects to be built or constructed. No trace remains of
■ FIGURE 2 ■ Engineers Work to Have an In-Depth Understanding
these earliest drawings, but we know that drawings were
of a Product’s Design. Courtesy of AC Engineering, Inc.
used, for people could not have designed and built as they
1 ■ THE GRAPHIC LANGUAGE did without using fairly accurate drawings.

Although people around the world speak different lan-

guages, a universal graphic language has existed since 3 ■ EARLY TECHNICAL DRAWING
the earliest of times. The earliest forms of writing were Perhaps the earliest known technical drawing in exis-
through picture forms, such as the Egyptian hieroglyph- tence is the plan view for a design of a fortress drawn by
ics (Fig. 4). Later these forms were simplified and the Chaldean engineer Gudea and engraved on a stone
became the abstract symbols used in our writing today. tablet (Fig. 5). It is remarkable how similar this plan is
A drawing is a graphic representation of a real thing, to those made by modern architects, although it was
an idea, or a proposed design for later manufacture or “drawn” thousands of years before paper was invented.
construction. Drawings may take many forms, but the In museums we can see actual specimens of early
graphic method of representation is a basic natural form drawing instruments. Compasses were made of bronze
of communication of ideas that is universal and timeless. and were about the same size as those in current use.
As shown in Fig. 6, the old compass resembled the
2 ■ ARTISTIC AND TECHNICAL DRAWINGS dividers of today. Pens were cut from reeds.
Graphic representation has been developed along two The scriber-type compass gave way to the compass
distinct lines, according to purpose: (1) artistic and (2) with a graphite lead shortly after graphic pencils were
technical. developed. At Mount Vernon we can see the drawing
instruments used by the great civil engineer George
■ FIGURE 3 ■ Part of a Typical Engineering Design Department.
Courtesy of Hewlett-Packard Company.
Washington, bearing the date 1749. This set is very
similar to the conventional drawing instruments used

■ FIGURE 5 ■ Plan of a Fortress. This stone tablet is part of a

statue now in the Louvre, in Paris, and is classified in the earliest
period of Chaldean art, about 4000 B.C. From Transactions ASCE, May 1891.

3
 The Graphic Language and Design

■ FIGURE 6 ■ Roman Stylus, Pen, and Compass. From Historical

Note on Drawing Instruments, published by V & E Manufacturing Co.

today. It consists of a divider and compass with pencil science of cutting solid bodies, especially stone, into
and pen attachments plus a ruling pen with parallel desired shapes), architecture, and perspective, in which
blades similar to the modern pens (Fig. 7). many of the principles were used. It was while he was a
The theory of projections of objects on imaginary professor at the Polytechnic School in France near the
planes of projection apparently was not developed until close of the eighteenth century that Monge developed
the early part of the fifteenth century by the Italian the principles of projection that are now the basis of our
architects Alberti, Brunelleschi, and others. It is well technical drawing. [A view of a part for a design is tech-
known that Leonardo da Vinci used drawings to record nically known as a projection]. These principles of
and transmit to others his ideas and designs for descriptive geometry were soon recognized to be of such
mechanical constructions, and many of these drawings military importance that Monge was compelled to keep
are still in existence (Fig. 8). It is not clear whether his principles secret until 1795, after which they became
Leonardo ever made mechanical drawings showing an important part of technical education in France and
orthographic views as we now know them, but it is Germany and later in the United States. His book, La
probable that he did. Leonardo’s treatise on painting, Géométrie Descriptive, is still regarded as the first text to
published in 1651, is regarded as the first book ever expound the basic principles of projection drawing.
printed on the theory of projection drawing; however, Monge’s principles were brought to the United
its subject was perspective and not orthographic projec- States from France in 1816 by Claude Crozet, an alum-
tion. nus of the Polytechnic School and a professor at the
United States Military Academy at West Point. He
published the first text on the subject of descriptive
4 ■ EARLY DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY geometry in the English language in 1821. In the years
Descriptive geometry is the science of graphic represen- immediately following, these principles became a regu-
tation and solution of spatial problems. The beginnings lar part of early engineering curricula at Rensselaer
of descriptive geometry are associated with the prob- Polytechnic Institute, Harvard University,Yale Univer-
lems encountered in designs for building construction sity, and others. During the same period, the idea of
and military fortifications of France in the eighteenth manufacturing interchangeable parts in the early arms
century. Gaspard Monge (1746–1818) is considered the industries was being developed, and the principles of
“inventor” of descriptive geometry, although his efforts projection drawing were applied to these problems.
were preceded by publications on stereotomy (the art or

■ FIGURE 7 ■ George Washington’s Drawing

Instruments. From Historical Note on Drawing Instruments, published by
V & E Manufacturing Co.

4
 The Graphic Language and Design

■ FIGURE 8 ■ An Arsenal, by Leonardo da Vinci.

Courtesy of the Bettmann Archive.

5 ■ MODERN TECHNICAL DRAWING Up to about 1900, drawings everywhere were gener-

ally made in what is called first-angle projection, in which
Perhaps the first text on technical drawing in this coun- the top view was placed under the front view, the left-
try was Geometrical Drawing, published in 1849 by side view was placed at the right of the front view, and so
William Minifie, a high school teacher in Baltimore. In on.At this time in the United States, after a considerable
1850 the Alteneder family organized the first drawing period of argument pro and con, practice gradually set-
instrument manufacturing company in the United States tled on the present third-angle projection, in which the
(Theo. Alteneder & Sons, Philadelphia). In 1876 the views are situated in what we regard as their more logi-
blueprint process was introduced at the Philadelphia cal or natural positions. Today, third-angle projection is
Centennial Exposition. Up to this time the graphic lan- standard in the United States, but first-angle projection
guage was more or less an art, characterized by fine-line is still used throughout much of the world.
drawings made to resemble copper-plate engraving, by During the early part of the twentieth century, many
the use of shade lines, and by the use of watercolor books were published in which the graphic language was
“washes.” These techniques became unnecessary after analyzed and explained in connection with its rapidly
the introduction of blueprinting, and drawings gradually changing engineering design and industrial applications.
were made less ornate to obtain the best results from Many of these writers were not satisfied with the term
this method of reproduction. This was the beginning of because they recognized that technical drawing was real-
modern technical drawing. The graphic language now ly a graphic language. Anthony’s An Introduction to the
became a relatively exact method of representation, and Graphic Language, French’s Engineering Drawing, and
the building of a working model as a regular preliminary Giesecke et al., Technical Drawing, were all written with
to construction became unnecessary. this point of view.

5
 The Graphic Language and Design

6 ■ DESIGN PROCESS grammar and the penmanship (see §1.9 for a definition
Design is the ability to combine ideas, scientific princi- of penmanship as it applies to technical drawing).
ples, resources, and often existing products into a solu-
tion for a problem. This ability to solve problems in 8 ■ DEFINITIONS
design is the result of an organized and orderly After this brief survey of the historical development of
approach to the problem known as the design process. the graphic language, and before we begin a serious study
The design process is not the haphazard operation of of theory and applications, a few terms need to be defined.
an inventor working in a garage or basement, although
it might well begin in that manner. Nearly all successful DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY This is the three-dimensional
companies support a well-organized design effort, and geometry forming the background for the practical
the vitality of the company depends to a large extent applications of the graphic language and through
on the planned output of its designers. which many of its problems may be solved graphically.
The design process leads to manufacturing, assem- INSTRUMENTAL DRAWING OR MECHANICAL DRAWING These
bly, marketing, service, and the many activities neces- terms properly apply only to a drawing made with
sary for a successful product, and it is composed of drawing instruments. The use of “mechanical drawing”
several phases. Although many industrial groups may to denote all industrial drawings is unfortunate not only
identify them in their own particular way, one proce- because such drawings are not always mechanically
dure for the design of a new or improved product fol- drawn, but also because that usage tends to belittle the
lows these five stages: broad scope of the graphic language by naming it
superficially for its principal mode of execution.
1. Problem identification;
2. Concepts and ideas; COMPUTER GRAPHICS This is the application of conven-
3. Compromise solutions; tional computer techniques (with the aid of one of many
4. Models and/or prototypes; graphic data processing systems available) to the analy-
sis, modification, and finalizing of a graphical solution.
5. Production and/or working drawings.
The use of computers to produce technical drawings is
Ideally, the design moves through these stages, but as called computer-aided design or computer-aided drafting
new information becomes available, it may be necessary (CAD) and also computer-aided design and drafting
to return to a previous stage and repeat a procedure. (CADD). (See Fig. 9.)
You can use CAD to create a useful database that
accurately describes the three-dimensional geometry of
7 ■ DRAFTING STANDARDS the machine part, structure, or system you are designing.
Modern technical drawing books tended to standardize This database can be used to perform analysis, directly
the characters of the graphic language, to eliminate its machine parts, or create illustrations for catalogs and
provincialisms and dialects, and to give industry, engi- service manuals.
neering, and science a uniform, effective graphic lan-
■ FIGURE 9 ■ A CAD Workstation. Courtesy of Digital Equipment
guage. Of prime importance in this movement in the
Corporation.
United States has been the work of the American
National Standards Institute (ANSI) with the American
Society for Engineering Education, the Society of Auto-
motive Engineers, and the American Society of Mechan-
ical Engineers. As sponsors, they have prepared the
American National Standard Drafting Manual—Y14,
which is composed of a number of separate sections that
were published as approved standards as they were com-
pleted over a period of years.
These sections outline the most important idioms
and usages in a form that is acceptable to the majority.
They are considered the most authoritative guide to
uniform drafting practices in this country today. The
Y14 Standard gives the characters of the graphic lan-
guage, and it remains for the textbooks to explain the

6
 The Graphic Language and Design

Graphics
Spotlight From Art to Part
S INGLE DATABASE
You can use a single CAD database to design, document,
analyze, create prototypes, and directly manufacture fin-
ished parts for your design. The term art to part is some-
times used to describe a CAD database being utilized for
many or all of these purposes.

S KETCHING F REEDOM
Initial ideas for the design are frequently sketched freehand,
as shown in Fig. A. While generating ideas for the design, it
is important to be able to quickly generate creative ideas
without the confines of using the computer. Sketching is still
generally the best tool to help in this process.

I NTELLIGENT M ODELS
After generating the initial ideas, the best alternatives for (B)
the design are developed further. At this point, the engineer
may create rough 3D drawing geometry like you see in Fig.
B, perhaps using a parametric modeling software. O PTIMIZING THE D ESIGN
Parametric modeling uses variables to constrain the shape You can export the refined model directly into a Finite Ele-
of the geometry. Using parametric modeling the designer ment Analysis (FEA) program to perform structural, thermal,
roughly sketches initial shapes and applies drawing dimen- and modal analysis as shown in Fig. C. The parametric
sions and constraints to create models that have “intelli- model can easily be changed if the analysis shows that the
gence.” Later the designer can change the dimensions and initial design will not meet requirements. Simulation pro-
constraints as the design is refined so that new models do grams may even animate the performance and function of
not have to be created for each design change. Realistic the system before a prototype is ever constructed. The tol-
renderings of the model help you visualize the design. erances and fits between mating parts can be checked

(A) (C)

(continues on next page)

7
 The Graphic Language and Design

(D) (E)

within the parametric modeling and design software. Fig. D trolled machines which get their tool paths directly from
shows a shaded 3D model that closely resembles the final the 3D models.
part.
G ET N EW P RODUCTS TO M ARKET Q UICKLY
R APID P ROTOTYPING The necessary documentation for the design, manuals,
While refining the design ideas, engineers often work con- brochures, and other literature can be created directly from
currently with manufacturing to determine the best ways to the same geometr‘y used for design and manufacturing.
make and assemble the necessary parts. After several Shortened design cycle time, improved communication,
cycles of refining, analyzing, and synthesizing the best better opportunity to analyze and make design changes,
ideas, the final design is ready to go into production. Rapid are all advantages for companies using integrated CAD
prototyping systems allow parts to quickly be generated software for the design, documentation, and manufacture
directly from the 3D models for mockup and testing. Fig. E of their products.
shows the prototyped part. When the design is approved Photographic material reprinted with the permission from and under the
the finished parts can be created using numerical con- copyright of Autodesk, Inc.

ENGINEERING DRAWING AND ENGINEERING DRAFTING These TECHNICAL SKETCHING This is the freehand expression
are broad terms widely used to denote the graphic of the graphic language. Technical sketching is a valu-
language. However, since the graphic language is also able tool for engineers and others engaged in technical
used by a much larger group of people in diverse fields work because through it most technical ideas can be
who are concerned with technical work or industrial expressed quickly and effectively without the use of
production, these terms are not broad enough. special equipment.

TECHNICAL DRAWING This is a broad term that BLUEPRINT READING This is the term applied to the
adequately suggests the scope of the graphic language. “reading” of the language from drawings made by others.
It is rightly applied to any drawing used to express Actually, the blueprint process has now been replaced by
technical ideas. This term has been used by various other more efficient processes, but the term “blueprint
writers since Monge’s time at least and is still widely reading” has been accepted through usage to mean the
used, mostly in Europe. interpretation of all ideas expressed on technical
drawings, whether or not the drawings are blueprints.
ENGINEERING GRAPHICS OR ENGINEERING DESIGN GRAPHICS
These terms are generally applied to drawings for tech- 9 ■ WHAT ENGINEERING, SCIENCE, AND
nical use and have come to mean that part of technical TECHNOLOGY STUDENTS SHOULD KNOW
drawing that is concerned with the graphical representa- From the dawn of history, the development of technical
tion of designs and specifications for physical objects and knowledge has been accompanied, and to a large extent
data relationships as used in engineering and science. made possible, by a corresponding graphic language.

8
 The Graphic Language and Design

Today the intimate connection between engineering the principal values to be obtained from a study of the
and science and the universal graphic language is more graphic language. Persons of extraordinary creative
vital than ever before. Thus, training in the application ability possess the ability to visualize to an outstanding
of technical drawing is required in virtually every engi- degree. It is difficult to think of Edison, De Forest, or
neering school in the world. Einstein as being deficient in constructive imagination.
The old days of fine-line drawings and of shading
and “washes” are gone forever; artistic talent is no
10 ■ PROJECTIONS
longer a prerequisite to learning the fundamentals of
the graphic language. Instead, today’s graphics student Behind every drawing of an object is a space relation-
needs the same aptitudes, abilities, and computer skills ship involving four imaginary things:
that are needed in science and engineering courses.
1. The observer’s eye, or the station point;
The well-trained engineer, scientist, or technician
must be able to make and read correct graphical repre- 2. The object;
sentations of engineering structures, designs, and data 3. The plane of projection;
relationships. This means that the individual must 4. The projectors,also called visual rays or lines of sight.
understand the fundamental principles, or the
grammar, of the language and be able to execute the For example, in Fig. 10a the drawing efgh is the
work with reasonable skill (which is penmanship). projection, on the plane of projection A, of the square
Graphics students often try to excuse themselves for ABCD as viewed by an observer whose eye is at the
inferior results (usually caused by lack of application) by point O. The projection or drawing on the plane is pro-
arguing that after graduation they do not expect to do duced by the points at which the projectors pierce the
any drafting at all. Such students presumptuously expect, plane of projection (piercing points). In this case,where
immediately after graduation, to be accomplished engi- the observer is relatively close to the object and the
neers concerned with bigger things. They forget that first projectors form a “cone” of projectors, the resulting
assignments may involve working with drawings and pos- projection is known as a perspective.
sibly revising drawings, either on a board or on a comput- If the observer’s eye is imagined as infinitely distant
er, under the direction of an experienced engineer. from the object and the plane of projection, the projec-
Entering the engineering profession via graphics pro- tors will be parallel, as shown in Fig. 10b; hence, this
vides an excellent opportunity to learn about the product, type of projection is known as a parallel projection. If the
the company operations, and the supervision of others. projectors, in addition to being parallel to each other, are
Even a young engineer who has not been success- perpendicular (normal) to the plane of projection, the
ful in developing a skillful penmanship in the graphic
language will have use for its grammar, since the ability ■ FIGURE 10 ■ Projections.
to read a drawing will be of utmost importance. Fur-
thermore, the engineering student is apt to overlook
that, in practically all the subsequent courses taken in
college, technical drawings will be encountered in most
textbooks. The student is often called on by instructors h
g
to supplement calculations with mechanical drawings
e
or sketches. Thus, a mastery of a course in technical f
drawing utilizing both traditional methods and com-
puter systems (CAD) will aid materially, not only in
professional practice after graduation but more imme-
diately in other technical courses.
Besides the direct advantages of a serious study of
the graphic language, many students learn the meaning
of neatness, speed, and accuracy for the first time in a h
drawing course. These are basic and necessary habits g
for every successful engineer, scientist, and technician.
The ability to think in three dimensions is one of e
f
the most important requisites of successful scientists,
designers, and engineers. Learning to visualize objects
in space, to use the constructive imagination, is one of

9
 The Graphic Language and Design

■ FIGURE 11 ■ Classification of Projections.

result is an orthographic, or right-angle, projection. If tion—are further broken down into many subtypes, as
they are parallel to each other but oblique to the plane of shown in Fig. 11, and will be treated at length in the
projection, the result is an oblique projection. various chapters that follow.
These two main types of projection—perspective A classification of the main types of projection
or central projection, and parallel, or central, projec- according to their projectors is shown in Table 1.

TABLE 1 Classification by Projectors.

Distance from Observer

Classes of Projection to Plane of Projection Direction of Projectors
Perspective Finite Radiating from station point
Parallel Infinite Parallel to each other
Oblique Infinite Parallel to each other and oblique to plane of projection
Orthographic Infinite Perpendicular to plane of projection
Axonometric Infinite Perpendicular to plane of projection
Multiview Infinite Perpendicular to planes of projection

10
 The Graphic Language and Design

KEY WORDS
GRAPHIC LANGUAGE COMPUTER GRAPHICS DESIGN TEAM PROJECTION
TECHNICAL DRAWING PERSPECTIVE DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY PLANE OF PROJECTION
DRAWING INSTRUMENTS DESIGN PROCESS STANDARDS

CHAPTER SUMMARY
■ The members of the engineering design project team ■ Every technical drawing is based on standards that pre-
must be able to communicate among themselves and with scribe what each symbol, line, and arc means.
the rest of the project team in order to contribute to the ■ Computers running CAD software are the current tools
team’s success. used by drafters. However, the basic drawing principles
■ The graphic language is the universal language used by are the same ones used for hundreds of years.
every engineering team designing and developing prod- ■ Drawings are based on the projection of an image onto a
ucts throughout the world. plane of projection. There are two types of projection:
■ There are two basic types of drawings: artistic and technical. parallel and perspective.
■ Technical drawing is based on the universal principles of ■ Successful companies hire skilled people who can add
descriptive geometry, developed in the late eighteenth value to their design team. The proper use of equipment
century in France. and a thorough understanding of the graphic language
■ The design process is the ability to combine ideas, scien- are two essential skills employers require.
tific principles, resources, and existing products into a
solution for a problem. It consists of five specific stages.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is the role of the engineer on the design team? 6. What is the most important new tool used by drafters?
2. What is the difference between mechanical drawing and 7. What is a plane of projection?
sketching? 8. What are projectors and how are they drawn?
3. Describe the main difference between parallel projec- 9. What is the design process?
tion and perspective projection.
10. What are the five phases of the design process?
4. When is sketching an appropriate form of graphic com-
munication?
5. Why are standards so important for members of the
engineering design team?

11
This page intentionally left blank
Introduction to CAD

From Chapter 2 of Engineering Graphics, Eighth Edition, Frederick E. Giesecke,

Alva Mitchell, Henry Cecil Spencer, Ivan Leroy Hill, Robert Olin Loving, John
Thomas Dygdon, James E. Novak. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Published by Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.
 Introduction to CAD

OVERVIEW OBJECTIVES
The use of electronic computers today in nearly every phase of engi- After studying the material in this chapter, you
neering, science, business, and industry is well known. The comput- should be able to:
er has altered accounting and manufacturing procedures, as well as 1. List the basic components of a comput-
engineering concepts. The integration of computers into the manu- er-aided drawing workstation.
facturing process from design to prototyping, manufacture, and 2. Describe the relationship between com-
marketing, is changing the methods used in the education and train- puter-aided drawing (CAD) and comput-
ing of technicians, drafters, designers, and engineers. er-aided manufacturing (CAM).
Engineering, in particular, is a constantly changing field. As new 3. List the major parts of a computer and
theories and practices evolve, more powerful tools are developed describe their function.
and perfected to allow the engineer and designer to keep pace with 4. Describe the purpose of a computer
the expanding body of technical knowledge. The computer has operating system.
become an indispensable and effective tool for design and practical 5. List several input and output devices.
problem solving. New methods for analysis and design, the creation 6. Describe ways in which a computer
of technical drawings, and the solving of engineering problems, as stores information.
well as the development of new concepts in automation and robot-
7. Explain the differences between a bit
ics, are the result of the influence of the computer on current engi- and a byte.
neering and industrial practice.
8. Provide hints for selecting and using
CAD systems.
9. Understand issues that affect the choice
and the use of a CAD system.
10. Explain features common to most CAD
software.

14
 Introduction to CAD

1 ■ COMPUTER SYSTEMS AND COMPONENTS comparable terms are used synonymously, and since
Computers are not new. Charles Babbage, an English industry and software creators are beginning to stan-
mathematician, developed the idea of a mechanical dardize, they will be referred to in this text simply as
digital computer in the 1830s, and many of the princi- CAD.
ples used in Babbage’s design (Fig. 1) are the basis of Other terms, such as computer-aided manufacturing
today’s computers. The computer has appeared in liter- (CAM), computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM), and
ature and science fiction to be a mysterious, uncompro- computer-assisted engineering (CAE), are often used in
mising, often sinister, machine, but it is nothing more conjunction with the term “CAD.” The term “CAD/
than a tool. It is capable of data storage, basic logical CAM” refers to the integration of computers into the
functions, and mathematical calculations. Computer design and production process (see Fig. 2). The term
applications have expanded human capabilities to such “CAD/CAE/CAM/CIM” describes the use of comput-
an extent that virtually every type of business and ers in the total design and manufacturing process, from
industry utilizes a computer directly or indirectly. design to production, publishing of technical material,
Engineers and drafters have used computers for marketing, and cost accounting. The single concept that
many years to perform the mathematical calculations these terms refer to is the use of a computer and soft-
required in their work. Only recently, however, has the ware to aid the designer or drafter in the preparation
computer been accepted as a valuable tool in the prepa- and completion of a task.
ration of technical drawings. Traditionally, drawings Computer graphics is a very broad field. It covers
were made by using drafting instruments and applying the creation and manipulation of computer-generated
ink, or graphite, to paper or film. Revisions and repro- images and may include areas in photography, busi-
ductions of these drawings were time consuming and ness, cartography, animation, publication, as well as
often costly. Now the computer is used to produce, drafting and design.
revise, store, and transmit original drawings.This method A complete computer system consists of hardware
of producing drawings is called computer-aided design and software. The various pieces of physical equipment
or computer-aided drafting (CAD) and computer-aided that comprise a computer system are known as hard-
design and drafting (CADD). Since these and other ware. The programs and instructions that permit the
computer system to operate are classified as software.
Computer programs are categorized as either appli-
■ FIGURE 1 ■ A Working Model of Charles Babbage’s “Difference cation programs or operating systems. Operating sys-
Engine” Originally Designed in 1833. From the New York Public Library Picture tems, such as DOS, Windows, and UNIX, are sets of
Collection. instructions that control the operation of the computer
and peripheral devices as well as the execution of spe-
cific programs. This type of program may also provide

■ FIGURE 2 ■ CAD/CAM-Driven Machine Tool Cutting. Courtesy of

David Sailors.

15
 Introduction to CAD

■ FIGURE 3 ■ AutoCAD is a Widely Used Drafting Application

Program. This material has been reprinted with the permission from and under the ■ FIGURE 4 ■ Advanced CAM Technology Used in High-

copyright of Autodesk, Inc. Resolution Color Picture Tube Production. Courtesy of Zenith Electronics
Corporation and Charlie Westerman.

support for activities and programs (such as input/output puter technology has been the development of the
[I/O] control, editing, storage assignment, data manage- integrated circuit (IC). The IC chip has replaced thou-
ment, and diagnostics), assign drives for I/O devices, and sands of components on the printed circuit (PC) board
provide support for standard system commands and net- and made possible the development of microprocessors.
working.Application programs are the link between spe- The microprocessor is the processing unit of a computer.
cific system use and its related tasks—design, drafting, The difference in size between a PC board with individ-
desktop publishing, etc.—and the general operating sys- ual components and an IC chip is shown in Fig. 5. The
tem program (Fig. 3). term “microminiaturization” is applied to advanced
integrated circuit chip technology. The evolution of IC
chip technology has led to the increased production of
2 ■ COMPUTER TYPES low-cost microcomputers. Microcomputers are largely
Computers may be classified as one of two distinct types: responsible for the increase in use of computer-aided
analog or digital.An analog computer measures continu- drafting systems in industry. Low-cost microcomputer
ously without steps, whereas the digital computer counts CAD systems can now be cost justified by industrial
by digits, going from one to two, three, and so on, in dis- users (Figs. 6a–b). With the recent release of the Intel®
tinct steps. An electric wall clock with minute and hour Pentium® 4 processor, CAD applications can run faster
hands and the radial speedometer on a car are examples and more efficiently than ever before. Laptop comput-
of analog devices. An abacus and a digital watch are ers make mobile reference to CAD files not only possi-
examples of digital devices. Digital computers are more ble, but commonplace (see Fig. 6b).
widely used than analog computers because they are Since CAD systems utilize digital computers, we
more flexible and can do a greater variety of jobs. will restrict our discussion of computer types to digital
Analog computers are generally used for mathe- computers.
matical problem solving. This type of computer, which
measures continuous physical properties, is often used to ■ FIGURE 5 ■ Size Comparison of a PC Board and an IC Chip.
monitor and control electronic, hydraulic, or mechanical HandmadePictures - Shutterstock.
equipment. Digital computers have extensive applica-
tions in business and finance, engineering, numerical con-
trol, and computer graphics (Fig. 4).
Both types of computers have undergone great
changes in appearance and in operation. Equipment
that once filled the greater part of a large room has now
been replaced by machines that occupy small desktop
areas. The single most important advancement in com-

16
 Introduction to CAD

(a) (b)

■ FIGURE 6 ■ (a) Computer with Intel® Pentium® Processor. Courtesy of Ryan McVay/PhotoDisc/Getty Images. (b) Laptop. Courtesy of EyeWire/Getty Images.

3 ■ COMPUTER-AIDED DRAFTING a 3D computer model (Fig. 7) could assist not only in

the manufacture of the part but also, along with its
The first demonstration of the computer as a design and three-dimensional database, in testing the design with
drafting tool was given at the Massachusetts Institute of finite element analysis programs (Fig. 8), in develop-
Technology in 1963 by Dr. Ivan Sutherland. His system, ing technical manuals and other documentation that
called “Sketchpad,” used a cathode ray tube and a light combine illustrations of the design with text from word
pen for graphic input to a computer. An earlier system, processing programs, and in marketing (for which the
called SAGE, was developed in the 1950s for the Air 3D solid models can be used with a rendering and ani-
Defense Command and used the light pen for data mation program). Increases in productivity and cost
input. The first commercial computer-aided drafting sys- effectiveness are two advantages constantly stressed by
tem was introduced in 1964 by International Business CAD advocates. In addition, CAD stations can be
Machines (IBM). linked either directly or through a local area network
Many changes have taken place since the introduc- (LAN) to the manufacturing or production equipment,
tion of the first CAD system.The changes are due to the or they can be linked with numerical control (NC)
advent of the microprocessor, more sophisticated soft- equipment to program NC machines automatically in
ware (programs), and new industrial applications. In manufacturing operations or in robotics (Fig. 9).
most cases, the drafter/engineer can create, revise, The primary users of CAD are in mechanical engi-
obtain prints (hard copy), and store drawings with rela- neering and electronic design, civil engineering, and
tive ease, utilizing less space. CAD was originally used cartography. The design and layout of printed circuits
to aid in creating production drawings. The advent of are a principal application of CAD in the electronics
three-dimensional CAD software made it apparent that industry, which, prior to 1976, was the largest CAD

■ FIGURE 7 ■ A CAD Solid Model of the Ball Bracket from a ■ FIGURE 8 ■ An FEM Mesh Applied to the Solid Model of the
Trailor Hitch Assembly. From Machine Design: An Integrated Approach by Robert Ball Bracket. From Machine Design: An Integrated Approach by Robert Norton,
Norton, © 1996. Reprinted by permission of Prentice-Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. © 1996. Reprinted by permission of Prentice-Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.

17
 Introduction to CAD

■ FIGURE 9 ■ Computers Work with NC Machines in Modern

Industry. This is an Example of a Computer Numerical Control (CNC)
Four-Axis Turning Center. David J. Green - industry - Alamy.
■ FIGURE 11 ■ A Powerful Computer Workstation. Courtesy of Sun
user. Mechanical engineering has since overtaken elec- Microsystems.
tronics and continues to expand its CAD applications
and use. Continued expansion in mechanical design ap- devices. For input devices, the system will have one or
plications is expected because the design, analysis, and more of the following: a keyboard, mouse, trackball, digi-
numerical control capabilities of CAD can be applied tizer/graphics tablet, and light pen. For output, the CAD
to a varied range of products and processes. Cartography, system will include devices such as plotters, printers, and
seismic data display, demographic analysis, urban plan- some type of monitor. The system must also have a data
ning, piping layouts, and especially architectural design storage device, such as a tape drive, a hard (fixed) or soft
also show growth in CAD use. A relatively new area (floppy) disk drive, or an optical disk drive. Finally, a
in computer graphics is image processing, which includes computer or central processing unit (CPU) is needed to
animation, 35-mm slide preparation, photocolor enhance- do all the numerical manipulations and to control all the
ment, and font and character generation (used in televi- other devices connected to the system.
sion broadcasting and the graphic arts industry). Frequently, some devices are combined. For example,
a terminal or workstation can contain the keyboard, mon-
4 ■ CAD SYSTEM CONFIGURATIONS itor, disk drives, and a CPU all in the same cabinet. Such a
combined device is often called a workstation (Fig. 11).
All computer-aided drafting systems consist of similar
hardware components (Fig. 10), such as input devices, a 5 ■ CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT
central processing unit, data storage devices, and output
The CPU (Fig. 12), or computer, receives all data and
manages, manipulates, and controls all functions of the
■ FIGURE 10 ■ Complete CAD Systems Need Input Devices,
CAD system. CAD systems use digital computers. All
Output Devices, Storage Devices, and a Central Processing Unit.
data must be converted into a binary form or code for
Courtesy of Hewlett-Packard Company.
the computer to understand and accept. This code is
called binary coded decimal instructions (BCDI). This
binary code uses a two-digit system, 1 and 0, to transmit
all data through the circuits. The number 1 is the “on”
signal; the 0 is the “off” signal. A bit is a binary digit. Bits
are grouped, or organized, into larger instructions. Word
length, which is expressed as bits, differs with various
computers. Often, computers are categorized by their
word length, such as 16-bit or 32-bit computers. The
number of bits in the word length indicates the process-
ing power of the computer (the larger the word length,
the greater the processing power).A sequential group of
adjacent bits in a computer is called a byte. The current
industry standard is that 8 bits equal 1 byte. A byte rep-

18
 Introduction to CAD

■ FIGURE 12 ■ Inside a CPU Box. Courtesy of Apple Computer.

resents a character that is operated on as a unit by the

CPU. The length of a word on a majority of computer
system is currently 4 bytes. This means that each word in
any of these storage systems occupies a 32-bit storage
location. The memory capacity of a computer is there- ■ FIGURE 13 ■ A Mother Board with 10 Bus Slots for Adding
fore expressed as a number of bytes rather than bits. Capabilities Such as Video Display Cards. Courtesy of International Business
Inside the CPU is the brain of the computer—the Machines.
microprocessor chip (Fig. 12). IBM-compatible com-
puters have used the 386, 486, Pentium (P5), P6, II, III, the computer is turned off, the ROM chips do not forget
and 4 chips. MacIntosh computers use the Motorola what is stored in them. The ROM chips contain basic
chips or PowerPC chip. Intel’s Pentium 4 processor operating system programs, like simple diagnostic pro-
along with Apple’s PowerPC G4 processor have kept grams that check the computer system to make sure all
pace with industries’ every expanding need for speed circuits and devices are operational when the computer
and memory. Silicon Graphics and Sun computers use is turned on. One type of ROM is called flash ROM,
their own chips. The job of the microprocessor is to and it can be reprogrammed. Normal ROM cannot be
execute the instructions of the software programs. reprogrammed.
The microprocessor chip’s speed is rated in mega- The motherboard contains slots for peripheral
hertz (MHz), and its power is rated in millions of instruc- devices. (See Fig. 13.) Internal modems, video display
tions per second (MIPS). It is the largest chip in the CPU cards, and network interface cards are typical cards
and is mounted on the main circuit board, called the that can be plugged into the motherboard. These cards
motherboard. Attached to the motherboard are all the talk to the microprocessor via an electrical pathway
devices inside the CPU: the memory chips, power supply, called the bus.The bus is like an expressway that allows
connection ports (where the external cables are attached), electrical information to be shared between all the
internal modems, video cards, network interface cards, devices connected to the motherboard. Just like an
sound cards, and special hard drive controller cards. expressway, computer busses have speed limits. They
Computer memory is stored on small circuit are rated in megahertz like the CPU.The faster the bus,
boards called single inline memory modules (SIMMs). the more quickly information can be transported into
Most of the SIMMs are for the main memory, called the computer.
the random access memory (RAM). This memory is
temporary. When you turn off the computer, the infor-
mation in the memory is erased. The software pro-
6 ■ DISPLAY DEVICES
grams and user files are stored in RAM when the Another major reason for the rapid growth in CAD sys-
program is actively running. The more RAM in a com- tems is improvements in display devices. These display
puter, the more programs you can run at one time. If devices, commonly referred to as monitors (Fig. 14),
you do not have enough memory, you may have a hard utilize a wide variety of imaging principles. Each device
time running even one large program. has definite characteristics with regard to brightness,
There is also permanent memory on the mother- clarity, resolution, response time, and color. The purpose
board, which is called read only memory (ROM). When of any graphics display is to project an image on a screen.

19
 Introduction to CAD

Most CAD computers use a 17-inch or 21-inch dis-

play. These sizes are measured diagonally across the
front of the screen. The image on the monitor is gener-
ated by the video display card. These cards determine
the resolution of the display and the number of colors.
Standard video graphics array (VGA) resolution is
640 * 480 pixels. The more pixels per inch, the greater
the resolution and the easier it is to read details on the
monitor. Large-screen monitors can support up to 1920
pixels horizontally and 1440 pixels vertically.
Recently, many hardware manufacturers have
issued LCD (liquid crystal display) and flat plasma
displays. The clarity of the screen image on these flat
screen monitors and video display boards far exceeds
those of curved screen monitors and can be obtained in
larger sizes (starting from 15– and ranging up to 42– for
■ FIGURE 14 ■ 21– Monitor for CAD Hi-Res Images. Courtesy of NEC
Technologies, Inc.
some plasma monitors). LCD and plasma monitors
deliver unprecedented image performance to give
The image that is displayed may be alphanumeric (text CAD and graphic professionals not only comfort while
symbols, letters, and/or numerals) or graphical (pictorial working, but a much needed edge for their graphic pre-
symbols and/or lines). Users of interactive CAD systems sentations. (See Figure 15a and b.)
communicate directly or indirectly through graphics ter- In addition to resolution, video display cards can
minals. The information requested by the user may be generate a range of colors. Normal color density is 256
displayed as animated figures, graphs, color-coded dia- colors. Photographic quality requires a color density of
grams, or simply a series of lines. 16.7 million colors. When a monitor has a lot of pixels
Most interactive CAD systems use a raster scan and many colors on the screen, it takes a lot of pro-
monitor. Raster scan devices are similar to conventional cessing power and video memory to draw the image
television screens. These devices produce an image with on the monitor. The microprocessor chip of the CPU
a matrix of picture-element dots, called pixels, within a cannot handle this load so the video display card often
grid. Each pixel is either a light or dark image that provides its own processor, called a video accelerator,
appears on the screen as a dot. As in conventional tele- and its own memory. Professional CAD computers
vision, an electron beam is swept across the entire usually have a very fast video accelerator that pro-
screen, line by line, top to bottom. This process is called vides high resolution and a large number of colors.
raster scanning. A signal turns on or illuminates a pixel With a fast video accelerator, even the largest, high-
according to a pattern stored in memory. The screen is resolution monitor can redraw in the blink of an eye.
scanned around 60 times a second to update the image Slower video display cards can take up to a minute to
before the phosphor dims. redraw the screen. Most video display cards use a stan-

■ FIGURE 15 ■ (a) LCD Monitor. Courtesy of Siede Preis/PhotoDisc/Getty Images. (b) Flat Plasma Monitor. Courtesy of Ryan McVay/PhotoDisc/Getty Images.

(a) (b)

20
 Introduction to CAD

dard 15-pin VGA connector. However, larger monitors board consists of alphanumeric character keys for key-
may require four separate cables. ing in letters, numbers, and common symbols, such as #,
Video monitors are rated by the speed with which &, and %; cursor control keys with words or arrows,
they can refresh the screen. There are two ratings: hor- printed on them, indicating directional movement of
izontal refresh rate and vertical refresh rate. The faster the screen cursor; and special function keys, which are
the refresh rate, the easier the monitor is on the eyes. used by some software programs for entering com-
For example, if you are using a monitor with only a 60- mands with a single keystroke. Many large mainframe-
Hz vertical refresh rate, you will begin to see a flicker based CAD systems have used a special function
on the screen after using it for several hours. Higher keypad, or menu pad, that allows access to a command
refresh rates reduce this annoying flicker. Quality with a single keystroke (Fig. 16). Single-stroke com-
large-screen monitors can cost as much as the CPU, but mand selection was considered so essential for cost
they are part of the user interface and can affect the effectiveness and ease of use that developers of mini-
long-term productivity of the operator. and microcomputer-based CAD systems included this
feature of single and double keystroke command
7 ■ INPUT DEVICES access into their programs utilizing the CTRL, ALT,
A CAD system may use one or a combination of input SHIFT, and function keys. Typically, a CAD system will
devices to create images on the display screen. Graphic use a keyboard for inputting commands and text, and
input devices may be grouped into three categories: another input device for cursor control.
(1) keyboard and touch sensitive, (2) time-dependent A popular input device in use with both large and
devices, and (3) coordinate-dependent devices. small CAD systems is a mouse (Fig. 17a–c). A mouse
The keyboard is the universal input device by may be of the mechanical type or the optical type. A
which data and commands are entered. A typical key- mechanical mouse uses a roller, or ball, on the underside

■ FIGURE 16 ■ An AutoCAD Menu Pad.

This material has been reprinted with the permission
from and under the copyright of Autodesk, Inc.

21
 Introduction to CAD

(a) Standard Mouse (b) Cordless Mouse (c) Microsoft IntelliEye

Optical Mouse

■ FIGURE 17 ■ Mice (a–c). Courtesy of Logitech, Inc. and Microsoft, Inc.

of the device to detect movement. An optical mouse

senses movement and position by bouncing a light off a
special reflective surface. These optical mice track most
reliably on a mousepad, but also can function on other
surfaces, with the exception of glass. Most mice will have
from one to three buttons on top of them to select posi-
tions or commands. Microsoft’s new IntelliEye optical
mouse comes with two extra buttons.The advantages of a
mouse include ease of use, small required working area,
and relatively low cost. A mouse cannot, however, be ■ FIGURE 18 ■ Tablets with Picking Devices—Puck and
used to digitize existing drawings into a CAD format. Stylus—Wired and Wireless. Courtesy of CalComp Digitizer Division.
Digitizing tablets (Fig. 18) are another commonly
used input device. They can be used to create an original
Existing paper drawings can also be converted to
CAD drawing or to convert an existing pen or pencil and
CAD drawings using a scanner (Fig. 19) to read the
paper drawing into a CAD drawing. Digitizing tables
existing drawing. Scanners create raster or bitmapped
range in size from 80 * 110 to 360 * 480. Tablets larger
files, so the scanned images need to be converted to vec-
than 360 * 480, called digitizing tables, are used primar-
tor (line drawing) formats before they are useful for
ily for converting existing drawings to a CAD system for-
CAD.There are a number of raster-to-vector conversion
mat. The resolution of digitizing tablets is important. This
programs on the market that help automate this process.
determines how small a movement the input device can
One of the oldest input devices used on CAD sys-
detect (usually expressed in thousandths of an inch) and
tems is the trackball (Fig. 20a). Trackballs were used on
depends on the number of wires per inch in the tablet’s
many large mainframe-based CAD systems and were
grid system. The working area on a tablet can have areas
that are used as menus to pick commands from the CAD
system.Attached to the tablet will be either a puck or sty- ■ FIGURE 19 ■ Large Format Scanners for Capturing Documents
lus.A puck is a small, hand-held device with a clear plastic Electronically. Courtesy of CalComp Digitizer Division.
extension (or window containing crosshairs) that trans-
fers the location of the puck on the tablet-grid to the rela-
tive location on the screen. Single or multiple buttons on
top of the puck are used to select points and/or com-
mands. A stylus appears to be a ballpoint pen with an
electronic cable attached to it.The tip of the stylus senses
the position on the tablet grid and relays these coordi-
nates to the computer. When the stylus is moved across
the tablet, the screen cursor moves correspondingly
across the screen. The stylus also contains a pressure-
sensitive tip that enables the user to select points or com-
mands by pressing down on the stylus.

22
 Introduction to CAD

(a) (b)

■ FIGURE 20 ■ (a) A Trackball. Photo Courtesy of Logitech, Inc. (b) This Magellan 3-D Controller Allows the User to Manipulate Graphic Objects with
x, y, z, Pitch, Roll, and Yaw Movement. Courtesy of Logitech, Inc.

often incorporated into the keyboard. Now they are a identify displayed elements of a design or to specify a
popular input device on portable computer systems. A location on the screen where an action is to take place.
trackball consists of a ball nested in a holder or cup, The pen senses light created by the electron beam as it
much like the underside of a mechanical mouse, and scans the surface of the CRT. When the pen is held close
from one to three buttons for entering coordinate data to or touches the CRT screen, the computer can deter-
into the system. Within the holder are sensors that pick mine its location and position the cursor under the pen.
up the movement of the ball. The ball is moved in any Because this input device more closely emulates the tra-
direction with the fingers or hand to control cursor ditional drafter’s pencil or pen than other devices, it
movement on the CRT screen. Cursor speed and button quickly gained popularity in the technical drawing field.
functions can be set by the user. Figure 20b shows a It is popular for uses in which the user selects buttons or
thumb mouse, similar to a trackball, which is actually a areas from the screen, because it is quick and easy to use.
3D controller.These controllers allow the user to manip- Bar code readers, although not often used with CAD
ulate objects on x,y, and z axes, as well as control pitch, programs, can offer users a way of labeling, tracking, and
roll, and yaw movements.These 3D controllers allow the storing data and diagrams for future use. (See Fig. 22.)
user complete control of graphic objects in six degrees of Voice recognition technology utilizes a combina-
freedom and are readily used in CAD applications. tion of specialized integrated circuits and software to
The light pen is the oldest type of CAD input device recognize spoken words. The system itself must first be
currently in use (Fig. 21). It looks much like a ballpoint “trained” by repeating commands into a microphone.
pen or the stylus on a digitized tablet. A light pen is a The computer converts the operator’s oral commands
hand-held photosensitive device that works only with to digital form and then stores the characteristics of
raster scan or vector refresh monitors and is used to the operator’s voice. When the operator gives an oral

■ FIGURE 21 ■ Light Pen. Courtesy of HEI, Inc. ■ FIGURE 22 ■ Bar Code Reader. Courtesy of Worthington Data Solutions.

23
 Introduction to CAD

command, the system will check the sound against the

words stored in its memory and then execute the com-
mand. A disadvantage of voice recognition systems is
that the vocabulary supported by the system is limited.
In addition, the memory required for storing complex
sound or voice patterns can be extremely large. Access
time, or time between the spoken word and command
activation, may be several seconds. Finally, if the opera-
tor’s voice changes in some manner or words have sim-
ilar voice patterns, the system may not recognize the
oral input.
■ FIGURE 23 ■ Flatbed Plotter. Courtesy of Houston Instruments, a division
of CalComp Canada, Inc., Downsview, Canada.
8 ■ OUTPUT DEVICES
In most instances, the user of a CAD system will need a
record of images that are stored on database files or the medium and move it back and forth under the pen
displayed on the CRT. When an image is placed on carriage. These plotters range from A to E size, with
paper, film, or other media, it is then referred to as hard single or multiple pen carriages, and may accept cut
copy. This hard copy can be produced by one of several sheets or rolls.
types of output devices. All pen plotters are rated according to specified
A commonly used device for the reproduction of standards for accuracy, acceleration, repeatability, and
computerized drawings is the pen plotter. Pen plotters speed. Accuracy is the amount of deviation in the
may be classified as drum, flatbed, or microgrip. The geometry the pen plotter is supposed to draw (usually
drum plotter utilizes a long, narrow cylinder in combi- ranging from .0010 to .0050 in.). Acceleration is the rate
nation with a movable pen carriage. The medium to be at which the pen attains plotting speed and is expressed
drawn on (paper, vellum, or film) is mounted curved in Gs (for gravitational force). Pen speed is important
rather than flat and conforms to the shape of the cylin- because slower speeds usually produce darker lines.The
der drum. The drum rotates, moving the drawing sur- faster the pen attains a constant speed, the more consis-
face, and provides one axis of movement, while the pen tent the line work will be. The ability of a plotter to
carriage moves the pen parallel to the axis of the cylin- retrace the same drawing over and over again is called
der and provides the other axis of movement. The com- repeatability. The deviation of the pen in redrawing the
bined movement of drum and pen allows circles, same line is the measure of repeatability and usually
curves, and inclined lines to be drawn. The pen carriage varies from .0010 to .0050. Plotter pen speed determines
on a drum plotter typically holds more than one pen, so how fast the pen moves across the drawing medium.
varied line weights or multicolor plots can be drawn. Most CAD software also allows the operator to adjust
These plotters accept up to E size paper in single sheets the pen speed to achieve maximum line quality and
or in a roll, which is cut after the drawing is plotted. consistency. Slow pen speeds normally produce better
Flatbed plotters (Fig. 23) differ from drum plot- quality plots than high pen speeds.
ters in that the medium to be drawn on is mounted flat
and held stationary by electrostatic or vacuum attrac- ■ FIGURE 24 ■ Microgrip Plotter. Courtesy of Houston Instruments, a
tion while the pen carriage controls movement in box division of CalComp, Canada Inc., Downsview, Canada.
axes. The area of these plotters may be as small as A
size 180 * 1102 or larger than E size 1340 * 4402, and
from one to eight pens may be used for varied line
weights and multicolor plots.
Microgrip plotters (Fig. 24) have become one of
the most widely used types of output devices. Their
popularity is due to their adaptability to all types of
computers, their size ranges, their low maintenance
requirements, and their relatively inexpensive pricing.
Microgrip plotters are similar to drum plotters in that
the medium to be drawn on is moved in one axis while
the pen moves along the other axis. These plotters get
their name from the small rollers that grip the edges of

24
 Introduction to CAD

Other factors help determine the quality of a pen-

plotted drawing. The variety of pens, inks, and drawing
media available allows the operator to coordinate pen,
ink, and paper to produce the most desirable hard copy.
Dot matrix or raster plotting is another method by
which hard copy can be produced. These devices use a
process called rasterization to convert images to a series
of dots. The image is transferred optically (or some-
times by a laser) to the surface of the medium on a sele-
nium drum that is electrostatically charged. Sometimes
the image may be created by an array of nibs that elec-
trically charge small dots on the medium. A high-quality
raster scan plotter can produce an image so fine and of
such quality that it is not obvious how the image was
produced unless examined under a magnifying glass.
Electrostatic plotters (Fig. 25) produce hard copy ■ FIGURE 26 ■ Inkjet Printer. Photo courtesy of CalComp, Downsview, Ontario.
by placing an electrostatic charge on specially coated
paper and having a toner, or ink, adhere to the charged
area. Drawing geometry is converted through rasteri-
zation into a series of dots. These dots represent the
charged area. Resolution of these plotters is deter-
mined by the number of dots per inch (dpi), usually
ranging from 300 to 600 dpi. This type of plotter pro-
duces hard-copy drawings in single color or multicolors
much faster than pen plotters, but the cost, power, and
environmental requirements are also much greater.
An ink jet printer/plotter (Fig. 26) produces
images by depositing droplets of ink on paper. These
droplets correspond to the dots created by the rasteri-
zation process. This device places a charge on the ink ■ FIGURE 27 ■ Laserjet Printer. Courtesy of Hewlett-Packard Company.
rather than the paper, as in the electrostatic process. Ink
jet plotters can produce good quality color-rendered
images in addition to standard technical drawings. Laser technology represents the newest evolution in
plotter technology. A laser printer/plotter (Fig. 27 and
28) uses a beam of light to create images. This device
■ FIGURE 25 ■ Electrostatic Printer. Courtesy of Houston Instruments, a utilizes electrostatic charging and raster scanning to pro-
division of CalComp, Canada Inc., Downsview, Canada. duce a plotted image that is of very high quality.

9 ■ DATA STORAGE DEVICES

Since all data kept in RAM will be lost when the com-
puter is turned off, they must be saved, or stored, before
the power is off. Data storage devices provide a place to
save information permanently for later use. CAD pro-
grams, for example, are stored on a disk; when loaded
(or activated), portions of the program go into RAM,
which is temporary memory. While a drawing is being
worked on, all data associated with that drawing are
kept in the same temporary memory. Periodically the
operator must save that drawing and all the associated
data to a storage device before the program is exited or
the power is shut off. Otherwise, all accumulated data
from that work session will be lost. These storage
devices can be considered electronic file cabinets.

25
 Introduction to CAD

■ FIGURE 30 ■ 3.5 Inch Floppy Disk and Drive. Photo from

Computers, 4/E by Long/Long. © 1996. Reprinted by permission of Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
Upper Saddle River, NJ.

liseconds (ms) and will range from 6 to 80 ms.The lower

■ FIGURE 28 ■ Full Size Laserjet Printer. Photo courtesy of CalComp. the number in milliseconds, the faster the access time.
Floppy disk drives (Fig. 30) derive their name from
Disk drives, optical drives, and magnetic tape are dis- the removable flexible plastic disks used in this device.
tinct categories of storage devices. Disk storage devices The disks used in this drive are typically 3 12 – in diameter.
are the most commonly used method of data storage. The density of a disk refers to the amount of data the disk
Disk drives may be of the fixed (hard disk) variety, flexi- will hold. Typically, a 3 12 – disk, called microdiskette, will
ble (floppy) variety, or optical type. Disk drives file and hold 1.44 MB of data in double-sided, high-density for-
read data in random order. This means that the device mat.The floppy disk is inexpensive and convenient to use
writes data to any portion of the disk that is empty, and it but holds less data and is slower than fixed disk drives.
is able to locate data almost instantly because it has access Zip drives (Fig. 31) are high-capacity magnetic disk
to the whole disk at once. Disk drives are rated according drives, similar to floppy drives, that can store up to 100 MB
to their type, access time, capacity, and transfer rate. on a 3 12 – disk. The disks used in zip drives are a special
The fixed disk drive, or hard disk (Fig. 29) is the high-capacity medium and are not the same as a standard
most common method of data storage. This type of floppy disk. Zip drives are popular because there are
drive uses an aluminum disk as the medium for storage. external parallel and SCSI transfer models available which
These drives may be internal, attached inside the com- can be used to transport large amounts of data from one
puter case, or external, in a separate case of cabinet. A machine to another. They can also be used for effective
disk controller or controller card must be installed in short-term backup (disks have a shelf life of 10 years).
the computer to allow the computer and drive to com- Jaz drives are similar to Zip drives but their disks
municate or interface with each other. The storage can hold up to 2 GB of data (Fig. 32).
capacity of these drives will range from 200 MB to sev-
eral hundred gigabytes. Access time is expressed in mil- ■ FIGURE 31 ■ Zip Disk and Drive. Courtesy of Iomega, Inc.

■ FIGURE 29 ■ Fixed or Hard Disk Drive Interior. Courtesy of Western

Digital Corporation.

26
 Introduction to CAD

■ FIGURE 32 ■ Jaz Drive and Disk. Courtesy of Iomega Corporation. ■ FIGURE 34 ■ Optical Disk Cartridge and Optical Disk Drive.
Courtesy of SyQuest Technology.

Similarly, superdisks can hold up to 120 MB of “burned” into the disk surface by a laser so the informa-
data while 14 – data cartridges can hold up to 20 GB of tion becomes permanent (unlike magnetic storage) and
information. the disk is removable. Recordable CD-ROM systems
The ever-increasing need for larger storage capaci- can store about 650 MB of information on a single disk.
ty has spurred the development of new technologies. Optical disk drives (Fig. 34) allow data to be
The newest technology in data storage uses lasers to erased and written over. These drives use a laser to
read and write data and is generally termed optical change the state of optical magnetic media. These opti-
storage. Optical storage media are capable of holding cal magnetic media can be changed again and again
many gigabytes of data. (write many read many). Because optical magnetic
CD-ROM drives are a type of optical drive. Previ- media are not sensitive to dust, like hard drives, optical
ously, CD-ROM disks were usually created from a mas- disks can be removed from the drive and replaced with
ter, so when you purchased a CD it already had the a new disk when additional storage capacity is needed.
digital information written to it. Now you can store infor- Magnetic tape storage (Fig. 35) uses plastic tape
mation on recordable CD-ROM systems, which produce coated with magnetic particles. A read/write head in
a write once read many (WORM) disk. WORM devices the tape drive charges magnetic particles to store infor-
allow data to be written to them, but the data become mation on the tape. The data being sent are recorded as
permanent on the disk and cannot be erased. This stor- a series of charges along the tape. Once these particles
age device is especially suited for archival purposes. CD- are charged, they will remain charged until the head
ROM drives use a laser to read and write data to a writes over them or they are demagnetized.Tape drives
chemically coated aluminum disk (Fig. 33). The data is file and read data in sequential order. This means they
■ FIGURE 33 ■ CD-ROM and Disk. Courtesy of NEC Technologies, Inc.
■ FIGURE 35 ■ Tape Back-up System. Courtesy of Iomega, Inc.

27
 Introduction to CAD

■ FIGURE 36 ■ MP3 players use flash memory technology.

Courtesy of Spike Mafford/PhotoDisc/Getty Images.

■ FIGURE 37 ■ A Palmtop Computer/organizer. Courtesy of Janis

Christie/PhotoDisc/Getty Images.

processes, like creating many different models or views

of the same object automatically (Fig. 38). Software
must look through data in the order that the tape is helps organize data; it will find previously stored draw-
wound or unwound. (This is similar to forwarding or ing symbols, and it will help create and archive new
rewinding a videotape to look for a specific scene, or an ones. Software can be used to count, measure, and
audiotape to play a particular song.) Gigabytes of data direct devices to print or plot drawings, create a bill of
may be stored on some tape systems. These cassettes materials, or exchange files with other programs. CAD
resemble audiocassettes in both size and appearance. software is extremely powerful and has been designed
Tape storage is essentially used for backing up data to serve all major branches of engineering. It will be an
from a hard drive, or for archival purposes (since the important tool in most engineering careers.
tapes can be removed and stored for later use).
Flash memory has quickly become one of today’s 11 ■ COMMON CORE
hottest portable storage technologies. More flexible CAD SOFTWARE All CAD software generates familiar
than floppies, flash memory cards can store up to 1 GB geometric terminology for creating drawings. But even
of data. Flash memory is more rugged and much faster though the geometry is common and the procedures
than a hard drive, and unlike RAM, flash memory cards for construction are similar, every CAD software
can retain data even when the power is turned off. They program will vary in operational procedures typically
can be used with digital cameras, laptops, handhelds, involving the basic hierarchy of command structure.
digital music players, MP3s, or cell phones through the Three features are found in all CAD software. You
use of a flash card reader and a USB port. (See Figure can access these features interactively through basic
36.) They are a reliable and easy way to store and commands and menu options.
transport vital information. Flash memory is also highly
1. Commands for geometry generators (basic geo-
secure; simply remove the flash card from a system to
metric construction).
prevent unauthorized use. Such flash or multimedia
cards are the smallest removable memory solution to 2. Functions to control viewing of drawing geometry.
date. Some are only about the size of a postage stamp 3. Modifiers for changing the drawing or editing varia-
and weigh less than two ounces. Such storage cards tions in the drawing (rotate, mirror, delete, group, etc.).
can transform handheld devices such as palmtop The commands and menu options may often be
computers/organizers (Figure 37) into a mobile office. selected in two basic ways: by typing or by picking
using a tablet (digitizer) or mouse. The Cartesian coor-
10 ■ CAD SOFTWARE dinates may be accessed with the keyboard or the
CAD software tells the computer how to interact with mouse. You may switch between these two input meth-
the flow of data entered by the user through an input ods at any time to issue commands and select options.
device. For example, it lets the computer “use” formulas The sequence of selection is called the hierarchy of
to solve complicated questions requiring detailed analy- command structure and provides an ease of operation
sis of large amounts of data, such as finding the center that is the basis for selecting one software program
of gravity for a truncated cone. It also handles drawing over another.

28
 Introduction to CAD

■ FIGURE 38 ■ CAD Software Easily Creates

Different Outputs of the Same Object. Courtesy of
SDRC, Milford, OH.

12 ■ CAD CAPABILITY CHECKLIST 6. Calculate or list pertinent data of graphic con-

CAD software can offer the following characteristics struction, such as actual distances or angles.
required for creating technical documents (Fig. 39): 7. Create a group of geometric figures for editing or
copying.
1. Draw construction lines at any convenient spacing
8. Relocate drawing elements to any new position.
through any points, at any angles, and create tan-
Correct or change additions in stored documents.
gent lines to one or more arcs.
9. Edit all or erase (delete) any part of a line, arc, or
2. Draw any type of line, such as visible, center, hid-
any geometric form on a drawing. Correct dimen-
den, or section.
sions.
3. Draw circles and arcs of any size with given data.
10. Make a mirrored image or create symmetrical
4. Perform cross-hatching within specified bound- forms.
aries.
11. Perform associative or datum unit dimensioning.
5. Establish a scale or set a new scale within a draw-
12. Label drawings with notes and create title blocks
ing for various drawings within a document.
and bills of material.
13. Save the entire drawing or any part for use on
■ FIGURE 39 ■ CAD Assembly Drawing. Courtesy of Spudnik Equipment
other documents and in other formats.
Corporation, Inc.
14. Create pictorials from three-view drawings.
15. Create orthographic views from a 3D model.
16. Retrieve and use stored drawings.
However, software programmers are constantly
adding new capabilities and options to CAD software.
For instance, many new programs offer very sophisti-
cated 3D capabilities, often in a Windows environment
(Fig. 40).

13 ■ DRAWING WITH CAD SOFTWARE

The geometry that is created, drawn, or generated with
CAD programs is generally referred to as objects, enti-
ties, or elements. These geometric entities are individu-
ally constructed figures or groups of elements that

29
 Introduction to CAD

■ FIGURE 40 ■ Desktop PCs Running the Windows Operating System Provide Capabilities to Create Parametric Solid Models. Courtesy of
SolidWorks Corporation.

consist of points, lines, arcs, circles, rectangles, poly- chased a system only to discover that it did not perform
gons, splines, solids, surfaces, symbols or blocks, cross- as well as expected.
hatching, dimensions, and notes. These basic building Before purchasing a CAD system, a careful, well-
units are selected from the menu and constructed at spe- thought-out plan for selecting a system should be
cific graphic locations of the monitor screen by the CAD developed and followed. This plan can be divided into
user. Many CAD systems can store standard drawing five phases:
symbols (called blocks) and use overlays on the digitizer
for retrieval. 1. Establish the need for a CAD system.
2. Survey and select system features.
14 ■ SELECTING AND USING A CAD SYSTEM 3. Request CAD system demonstrations.
As the number of manufacturers of computer system 4. Review selected systems.
equipment has increased, there has been a corresponding 5. Select, purchase, and install a CAD system.
decrease in the cost of these systems. Some CAD systems
may contain only those features necessary to produce Let us now discuss each of these phases in greater
simple two-dimensional entities, while others have the detail.
capability to create true three-dimensional drawing
objects. ESTABLISH THE NEED FOR A CAD SYSTEM The first
Since the newer CAD systems are generally easier consideration in the selection process is to determine
to operate, the words “user friendly” are frequently whether a CAD system is needed. All potential users of
used by manufacturers to promote their systems. How- the CAD system should be consulted regarding how,
ever, there has been a tendency to exaggerate what when, and where a system would be used and whether it
particular systems can do. A prospective user should, would be cost effective in their particular operations.
therefore, view all claims with some skepticism until Never purchase a system simply because it may be
proved, for they can be misleading and often lead to considered a first step into the future and your firm
disappointment. Unfortunately, many firms have pur- wants to project a progressive image. It is important to

30
 Introduction to CAD

investigate and evaluate the time- and cost-saving claims able in a CAD system. From this survey, develop a
of manufacturers by contacting firms that have CAD checklist of hardware and software features that your
systems in operation. Contact as many firms as possible, future system should have.
especially those with a wide range of experience. Prepare
a brief questionnaire to survey these firms, asking ques- REQUEST CAD SYSTEM DEMONSTRATIONS After the
tions regarding costs, training periods, system operation, checklist has been created and approved by all parties
and so on. Also ask at what point after installation the concerned, make arrangements to see the various
system became cost effective. Evaluate the responses to CAD systems in operation. A list of vendors can be
these questions and compare them with your specific compiled from advertisements in trade journals,
requirements.This information will assist you in deciding magazines, the Internet, and so on, or from the various
if a CAD system can be beneficial to your firm at directories of computer graphics manufacturers that
present. are published. Contact the vendors to arrange
It is difficult to place a direct monetary value on demonstrations. Explain to them exactly what you
many benefits of using CAD. These benefits include expect the system to do. If the vendors are completely
things like shorter design cycle time, improved abili- aware of your requirements, they will be able to give a
ty to visualize complex fits between parts, links to more realistic presentation. Most of all, be prepared to
direct manufacturing, better ability to reuse existing ask questions. With each succeeding demonstration,
drawing and designs, and improved analysis early in your questions will be more effective. Moreover, the
the design phase. The process of determining the answers that you receive will be more meaningful. It is
need for a CAD system can be time consuming and a good idea to select your own project which you
frustrating. Nevertheless, speed should be sacrificed would like to have demonstrated. Some CAD systems
to careful deliberation in this phase. run their own canned example well but may not be
flexible enough to meet your needs. Having your own
SURVEY AND SELECT SYSTEM FEATURES It is generally project also helps you to contrast the systems fairly.
agreed that software should be selected before Some systems may have a fancy demonstration, while
hardware. However, some CAD systems are turnkey others will not look as good initially. You want to select
system—that is, a total system with software and a system that will perform well for your needs, not look
hardware combined and inseparable. Therefore, you good running a canned demonstration.
should examine all the features of any given system You should ask about the brand names of the
very carefully before being attracted by spectacular equipment used, the availability of service contracts,
hardware. For example, some systems use dual the warranty period and what parts are covered by
monitors. The chance of being impressed by this which vendors, the types of CAD software provided
feature may overshadow the question of whether one and what operations they can perform, training for
really needs the two displays. user staff, the availability and cost of software updates,
Consider whether the system will be multipurpose or and technical support.
used strictly for CAD.Will other office operations,such as A CAD system analysis worksheet can be helpful
word processing or accounting, be done on this machine? when demonstrations are presented. (See Figure 41.)
Will this machine be used to access the Internet? The
answer to these questions may add or eliminate CAD REVIEW SELECTED SYSTEMS It is important at this stage
programs based on their operating system software. that all of the collected information be organized and
Investigate how well a system will exchange infor- carefully reviewed. A list should be made of only those
mation or interface with other CAD or CAM systems systems that merit further serious consideration. You
and its Internet capabilities. Many systems do not have may wish to request another demonstration of the
these capabilities. One important consideration is the particular systems that are on your revised list and to
CAD system’s ability to exchange information with request additional information from current users
other CAD systems and other engineering applica- regarding equipment performance, staff training, vendor
tions. One standard for such exchange is the initial support, and so on.
graphics exchange specification (IGES). There are also
a number of other common formats. Make sure that the FINAL SELECTION, PURCHASE, AND INSTALLATION OF A CAD
system you select can export common file formats, par- SYSTEM This last phase occurs when the final decision
ticularly to other applications you are planning to use. will be made regarding whether or not to purchase a
It is suggested that you survey the people who will CAD system. The decision invariably will depend on
use the system to determine what they think is desir- how you plan to use the system and how much you can

31
 Introduction to CAD

Item Y/N Size/Type Comments Cost

Central Processor
memory (MB)
word size (16/32 bit)
cache
speed (MHz/Mips)
bus type (eisa, vesa, pci)
expansion/upgrade
Operating System
32 bit
multitasking
software availability
Data Input Devices
mouse
trackball
digitizer
light pen
thumb wheel
Display
monochrome
color
screen size
resolution
Video Card
memory
software support
dual display support
Storage, Hard Drive
type
access time
capacity
expansion
removable
Storage, Floppy
type
access time
capacity
removable
CD-ROM
type
speed
capacity
read/write

■ FIGURE 41 ■ Worksheet for Evaluating CAD System Hardware.

32
 Introduction to CAD

Item Y/N Size/Type Comments Cost

Backup System
type
capacity
speed
automation
Output Devices
type
provided with system?
medium
cost per sheet
speed
resolution/accuracy
color
Maintenance

■ FIGURE 41 ■ (cont.)

afford to pay for it. You may want to consider a leasing used symbols, such as electrical relays, switches,
arrangement, or lease-purchase arrangement. This can transformers, resistors, bolts, nuts, keys, piping, and
be effective for keeping the technology up to date. New architectural symbols. These symbols may be in a
technology is available constantly, and the lifetime of symbol library, or the symbol may be located on one
computer equipment is generally considered to be of the templates in the library of templates. Most
about three years. If your system cannot pay for itself CAD systems allow users to customize their symbol
in three years, perhaps it is not a good investment. You libraries. The desired symbols must first be drawn by
should plan to upgrade or purchase new equipment the user on the CAD system the same as they would
and software on a regular cycle. If the decision is made appear on a drawing board. This process may initially
to acquire a system, determine costs, choose a delivery take as much time as it would manually, but once the
date, and arrange for installation and training. image has been entered in the computer database, it
After a CAD system has been installed, the begin- need never be drawn again. The symbol can easily be
ning user must become thoroughly familiar with it and retrieved from the symbol library whenever
learn how to use it effectively. This will require learning required.
some new skills as well as a different vocabulary. The
CAD operator will need to learn to create accurate ■ FIGURE 42 ■ CAD Training Helps the User Learn the Software
drawings and construct them to various scales. In addi- Quickly. Courtesy of Jeff Kaufman and FPG International.
tion, the operator will need to learn to interact effec-
tively with the operating system to store and copy
drawings and to routinely perform backups so that no
data are lost. Most CAD manufacturers offer training
programs and tutorials that will make the learning
process much easier (Fig. 42). They will provide
instruction and training manuals that give information
and details about the operation of the system. These
manuals can be used not only during the initial training
period but also for reference purposes during later
operation of the system.
Most experienced drafters have developed short-
er or simpler methods for creating a drawing, such as
using overlays or templates. CAD systems also have
simplified methods for drawing. Some systems have
symbol libraries that contain many of the frequently

33
 Introduction to CAD

15 ■ SUMMARY The skills learned “on the board” are related and
complementary to those needed by the CAD user.
The information presented in this chapter is intended Learning the performance skills needed for creating
to familiarize the student with the basic concepts, drawings with CAD tools is time consuming and
hardware, peripherals, and systems in CAD. It is not requires practice and manual dexterity. Both methods
possible (nor was it intended) to present a compari- of drafting use simple and familiar geometric terminol-
son of CAD programs or all the commands used on ogy for structuring the graphic production of technical
CAD systems. documents, and both have the same goal—drawings
When possible, the instructor should arrange for that will meet industry standards.
students to visit nearby engineering and drafting depart- The basic principles of drafting are common to
ments that have CAD systems in operation. Those stu- traditional drafting and computer-aided drafting. The
dents who wish to obtain additional information on this American National Standards Institute (ANSI) has
subject should consult their school or local library. well-established standards for shaping engineering
The CAD system on the personal computer is drawings. Knowledge of drafting principles, from the
replacing many drafting instruments, drafting tables, alphabet of lines to dimensioning and sectioning pro-
and drafting files. However, like no other drafting cedures, continues to be essential in shaping CAD
tool before, it raises engineering productivity without documents. CAD can help you produce consistent let-
replacing the basic functions of the designer, engi- tering and regulate line work to improve the produc-
neer, and drafting technician. CAD developers, in tion of working drawings better than any other tool.
their quest to harness computer technologies, have The CAD user is responsible for preparing engi-
had a profound impact on the high-tech teams as neering documents that are an integral part of the total
they resolve problems in research, development, manufacturing process (Fig. 43). The ability to inter-
design, production, and operation (the five basic act with all forms of technical information increases
engineering functions). the significant role of the drafting technician.

■ FIGURE 43 ■ CAD Documents Supply a Multitude of Information that Engineers and Technicians Must Understand and Use. Courtesy of
SolidWorks Corporation.

34
 Introduction to CAD

Graphics
Spotlight Unlocking the Power of Solid Modeling
Successful use of solid modeling should increase the where a design is re-created or its related data is retyped
size of a company’s market, increase its market share, and into another computer is a sign that solid modeling may be
increase its profit margin. Early CAD systems basically underutilized.
only automated the drafting process, but solid modeling Although downstream use is an important considera-
has the potential to affect the entire production process, tion, there is nothing to be gained by insisting that all
from preliminary design through engineering and manufac- design be done with solid modeling when various opera-
turing. Ancillary functions, such as purchasing and market- tions are just as well served by 2D processes. Another
ing, can also be affected. consideration in introducing a new technology is whether it
Solid modeling can create all the critical information affects existing bottlenecks in the production process.
for a product, and a company needs to take advantage of Unless the use of solid modeling (or any other technologi-
all the information contained in these models. Good imple- cal innovation) helps to eliminate or decrease the bottle-
mentation of solid modeling is marked by the wide-ranging necks, or constraints, in the overall process, it will not
use of the solid models in downstream applications. This improve productivity or profits.
maximizes return because it permits many operations to Introduction of solid modeling into company opera-
work from the original solid model rather than re-creating tions requires careful planning. First, there are many solid
the design for each operation. Solid models should be the modeling systems on the market, and choice of the correct
basis for virtual prototypes, engineering analyses, machine one is of paramount importance. Second, it will probably
tool paths, purchase orders, marketing images, etc. Any- be necessary to undertake an expensive hardware
upgrade because solid modeling requires larger worksta-
tions, better graphics, more memory, etc. than simpler pro-
grams. Third, everyone who will use the solid model
should be given extensive training. Introducing solid mod-
eling in a pilot project is also widely recommended. The
gradual implementation of solid modeling on a project-by-
project basis has been found to be more successful than a
one-step installation throughout the company.
Small and medium-sized companies have an advan-
tage over large companies in using solid modeling for max-
imum return. Large companies may have the resources and
dedication to make it work, but the smaller companies have
the most flexibility in terms of organizational structure.

Adapted from “Unlocking the Power of Solid Modeling” by Caren D. Potter,

Computer Graphics World, Nov. 1995, Vol. 18, No. 11, p. S3(4). © PennWell
Multiview CAD Solid Model. Courtesy of SolidWorks Corporation. Publishing Company 1995.

35
 Introduction to CAD

KEY WORDS
CAD MOTHERBOARD PRINTER JAZ DISK
CAM SIMM PLOTTER SUPERDISKS
SOFTWARE RAM FLOPPY DISK DATA CARTRIDGES
OPERATING SYSTEMS WORM DISK HARD DISK DRIVE FLASH MEMORY
HARDWARE PORT MODEM LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY
CPU VIDEO DISPLAY MONITOR MENU (LCD)
MICROPROCESSOR MOUSE WIRE FRAME FLAT PLASMA DISPLAY

MIPS DIGITIZING TABLET CD-ROM

MEGAHERTZ (MHZ) ZIP DISK

CHAPTER SUMMARY
■ Computers have revolutionized the drawing process. ■ CAD software can draw in three dimensions (width,
New technologies are constantly invented which make height, and depth), unlike paper drawing which only con-
this process quicker, more versatile, and more powerful. sists of two dimensions in a single view.
■ CAD is the tool of choice for engineering design compa- ■ Different CAD packages have different operational pro-
nies. The effective user of this tool requires an under- cedures, and different strengths and weaknesses. Three
standing of technical drawing fundamentals as well as features found in all CAD software are commands for
training on the CAD software program. geometry generators, functions to control the viewing of
■ The microprocessor, RAM, and hard disk drive of the drawing geometry, and modifiers for changing the draw-
computer are essential components of a computer sys- ing or editing variations.
tem. The keyboard and mouse are typical input ■ Operating a CAD system typically has required extensive
devices. Printers and plotters output the drawing to training. Newer CAD systems are becoming more user
paper for review and approval. The display monitor friendly, but one should not overestimate the claims
shows the drafter what is being drawn and offers com- CAD packages make. It is important to evaluate each
mand choices. package thoroughly and make an informed decision.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 What are the basic components of a computer-aided with a 100 MB hard disk? Which will store more infor-
drawing (CAD) system? mation?
2 Discuss the relationship between CAD and CAM in 6 What is the difference between RAM storage and hard
modern design and manufacturing facilities? disk storage? What computer parts are typically found
3 List the similarities and differences between a mouse on the motherboard?
and a digitizing pad with puck? 7 What is the difference between plotting and printing?
4 What are the main advantages of CAD over traditional 8 What are the hardware and software specifications of
drawing methods? your school’s CAD system?
5 What is faster, a computer with a 100 Mhz microproces- 9 What are questions you should ask about any CAD sys-
sor and a 500 MB hard disk, or a 500 Mhz computer tem you consider buying?

CAD PROBLEMS
When necessary, refer to the appropriate sections of the that illustrates the sequence of operations for each of the
chapter to check your answers. systems.
Prob. 1 Define the following terms: computer system, Prob. 3 Prepare a list of CAD system hardware compo-
hardware, software, analog, digital, computer graphics, CAD, nents and give examples of each.
CADD, and CAM. Prob. 4 Call a hardware company and compare the prices
Prob. 2 What are the principal components of a com- for three graphics monitors of different resolutions and sizes.
puter system? A CAD system? Draw a systems flowchart Which purchase do you recommend? Give your reasoning.

36
 Introduction to CAD

Prob. 5 Prepare a list of possible data storage devices Prob. 11 The unknown distance KA in Fig. 44 has been
and determine total storage capabilities for each. determined and the angle measured using CAD. Re-create
Prob. 6 Determine what would be your best storage this problem with your CAD system, changing the 908 angle
device, in terms of value, if your average CAD drawing file at H to 758; then determine the angles at K and A and the
size is 1500k and you store 10–20 drawings per week. length of line KA.
Prob. 7 Arrange a visit to the computer center at your Prob. 12 Prepare a revised version of the CAD drawing
school, or to a local engineering design office, and prepare a (Fig. 45) by increasing the radius 0.40 to 0.4375 and chang-
written report on the use of computers in design and draft- ing the slot dimension 1.60 to 1.70.
ing at these facilities. Prob. 13 Prepare a detailed CAD drawing of the Safety
Problems 8 through 14 ask you to use CAD software to Key (Fig. 46) with the following changes: Correct the
solve some typical geometric construction that is similar right-side view and add the missing dimension 0.40. Exam-
from one software program to another. All the problems have ine the placement of dimensions and relocate where neces-
been prepared on a CAD system. Prepare the required CAD sary. Change 1.12 to 1.25 and add the difference to
drawing problems, as shown with your CAD system, and dimension 4.70.
produce a hard copy with a printer or plotter for approval. Prob. 14 Using a CAD system, determine the true
length of lines AD and CD (Fig. 47) when the horizontal
Prob. 8 Using Fig. 41 as reference, evaluate the hard-
projection of point A is relocated to a new coordinate read-
ware on your existing CAD system.
ing of (0, 3.125) and the horizontal projection of point D is
Prob. 9 Using Fig. 41 as reference, design your relocated to a Cartesian coordinate of (1.75, 1.625). Revise
“dream” CAD system. the drawing using the “F” notation for the frontal projec-
Prob. 10 Prepare a list of modifying (or editing) com- tions instead of the V notation, as shown. What is the new
mands available on the CAD system you will be using. slope of line CD?

■ FIGURE 44 ■

37
 Introduction to CAD

■ FIGURE 45 ■

■ FIGURE 46 ■

38
Introduction to CAD

■ FIGURE 47 ■

39
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Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and
Lettering Techniques

From Chapter 3 of Engineering Graphics, Eighth Edition, Frederick E. Giesecke,

Alva Mitchell, Henry Cecil Spencer, Ivan Leroy Hill, Robert Olin Loving, John
Thomas Dygdon, James E. Novak. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Published by Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and
Lettering Techniques
OVERVIEW OBJECTIVES
The traditional method of creating technical drawings is with draw- After studying the material in this chapter, you
ing instruments. Since the eighteenth century, precision instruments should be able to:
have been the tools of drafters. Today, CAD software is another tool 1. Identify the basic tools used by the
used by many drafters. The basic concepts of drawing and measur- drafter.
ing lines and circles is the same for traditional and CAD drawing. 2. List the four objectives of drafting.
The alphabet of lines and the meaning of line types is the same for 3. Describe the difference between the T-
traditional and CAD drawings. By understanding the basic princi- square, parallel rule, and drawing
ples of drawing, the properly trained drafter can create and modify machine.
any type of drawing. While some students may think that CAD soft- 4. Identify various types of lines and how
ware can replace the knowledge required to construct a drawing, they are used.
this is not so. While CAD makes drawing easier, it does not replace 5. Draw lines, arcs, and circles of specific
the basic knowledge that enables a skilled drafter to manipulate size using drawing instruments.
either a pencil or CAD software. 6. Draw lines at specific angles.
Sketching technique is one of the most important skills for engi-
7. Read and measure with the architects
neering visualization. Sketching is a quick way to communicate
scale, engineers scale, and metric scale.
ideas with other members of the design team. A picture is often
8. Draw irregular curves.
worth a thousand words (or 1K words, as it were). Sketching is a
time-efficient way to plan out the drawing processes needed to cre- 9. Identify several drawing media and
ate a complex object. Sketches act like a road map for the comple- standard sheet sizes.
tion of a final paper or CAD drawing. When you sketch basic ideas 10. Create freehand sketches using the cor-
ahead of time, you can often complete a drawing sooner and with rect sketching techniques.
fewer errors. Legible hand lettering is used on the sketch to specify 11. Sketch parallel, perpendicular, and
important information. evenly spaced lines.
12. Sketch a circle and an arc of a given
diameter.
13. Use techniques to keep your sketch pro-
portionate.
14. Enlarge an object using grid paper.
15. Sketch various line types.
16. Add lettering to a sketch.

42
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

INSTRUMENT DRAWING 2. T-square (24–,transparent edge), drafting machine,

or parallel-ruling edge (§§3.4, 3.49, and 3.50)
1 ■ TYPICAL DRAWING EQUIPMENT
3. Set of instruments (§§3.28 and 3.29)
For many years the essential equipment for students in
technical schools and for engineers and designers in 4. 45° triangle (8– sides) (§3.11)
professional practice remained unchanged. This equip- 5. 30¡ * 60¡ triangle (10– long side) (§3.11)
ment included a drawing board, T-square, triangles, an 6. Ames Lettering Guide or lettering triangle
architects’ or engineers’ scale, and a professional quali- 7. Architects’ triangular scale (§3.24)
ty set of drawing instruments. Now, however, other
8. Engineers’ triangular scale (§3.22)
equipment has come into general use, including the
drafting machine, parallel-ruling straightedge, technical 9. Metric triangular scale (§3.20)
fountain pen, and, of course, the computer. 10. Irregular curve (§3.46)
The basic items of drawing equipment are shown in 11. Protractor (§3.13)
Fig. 1. For best results, the drawing equipment you use 12. Mechanical pencils and/or thin-lead mechanical
should be of high grade.When you are ready to buy draw- pencils and HB, F, 2H, and 4H to 6H leads, or
ing instruments (item 3), you should talk to an experi- drawing pencils (§3.7)
enced drafter or designer, or reliable dealer, about your
13. Lead pointer and sandpaper pad
purchase because it is difficult for beginners to distinguish
high-grade instruments from inferior instruments. 14. Pencil eraser
15. Plastic drafting eraser or Artgum cleaning eraser
1. Drawing board (approximately 20– * 24– ), draft- 16. Erasing shield
ing table, or desk.
17. Dusting brush

This asset is intentionally omitted from this text.

43
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

18. Drawing paper, tracing paper, tracing cloth, or

films as required; backing sheet (drawing paper—
white, cream, or light green) to be used under
drawings and tracings
19. Drafting tape
20. Technical fountain pens
21. Drawing ink
22. Templates
23. Calculator

2 ■ OBJECTIVES IN DRAWING
The following pages explain the correct methods for
instrumental drawing. Students who practice and learn
correct manipulation of their drawing instruments will
eventually be able to draw correctly by habit and will be
able to give their full attention to the problems at hand. ■ FIGURE 2 ■ The T-square.
The following are the important objectives stu-
dents should strive to attain:

1. Accuracy. No drawing is of maximum usefulness

if it is not accurate. The engineer or designer can-
not achieve success in professional employment if
the habit of accuracy is not acquired.
2. Speed. Time is money in industry, and there is no
demand for a slow drafter, technician, or engineer.
However, speed is not attained by hurrying; it is an
unsought byproduct of intelligent and continuous ■ FIGURE 3 ■ Testing the Working Edge of the Drawing Board.
work. It comes with study and practice.
3. Legibility. Drafters, technicians, and engineers
must remember that a drawing is a means of com-
munication to others, and that it must be clear and Drafters use drafting tape to hold paper in place,
legible to serve its purpose well. Care should be which in turn permits surfaces such as hardwood or
given to details, especially to lettering (discussed other materials to be used for drawing boards.
further at the end of this chapter). For right-handed people, the left-hand edge of the
4. Neatness. If a drawing is to be accurate and legi- board is the working edge because the T-square head
ble, it must also be clean. Untidy drawings are the slides against it (Fig. 2). (Left-handers: Place the head
result of sloppy and careless methods and will be of the T-square on the right.) This edge must be straight,
unacceptable to an instructor or employer. and you should test the edge with a T-square blade that
has been tested and found straight (Fig. 3). If the edge
of the board is not true, it should be replaced.
3 ■ DRAWING BOARDS
If the left edge of the drawing table top has a true
straightedge and if the surface is hard and smooth (such 4 ■ T-SQUARES
as Masonite™), a drawing board is unnecessary, provid- The T-square is made of a long strip, called the blade,
ed that drafting tape is used to fasten the drawings. It is fastened rigidly at right angles to a shorter piece called
recommended that a backing sheet of heavy drawing the head (Fig. 2). The upper edge of the blade and the
paper be placed between the drawing and the table top. inner edge of the head are working edges and must be
In most cases a drawing board will be needed. straight. The working edge of the head must not be con-
Boards vary from 9– * 12– (for sketching and field vex, or the T-square will rock when the head is placed
work) up to 48– * 72– or larger. The recommended against the board. The blade should have transparent
size for students is 20– * 24–, which will accommodate plastic edges and should be free of nicks along the
the largest sheet likely to be used. working edge. Transparent edges are recommended,

44
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 4 ■ Testing the T-square. ■ FIGURE 5 ■ Placing Paper on Drawing Board.

because they allow the drafter to see the drawing in the

vicinity of the lines being drawn.
Do not use the T-square for any rough purpose.
Never cut paper along its working edge, as the plastic is
easily cut and even a slight nick will ruin the T-square.

5 ■ TESTING AND CORRECTING T-SQUARES ■ FIGURE 6 ■ Positions of Drafting Tape.

To test the working edge of the head, see if the T-square
rocks when the head is placed against a straightedge,
such as a drawing board working edge that has already with the right hand until the top edge coincides with the
been tested and found true. If the working edge of the upper edge of the T-square. Then move the T-square to
head is not straight, the T-square should be replaced. the position shown and fasten the upper left corner,
To test the working edge of the blade, draw a sharp then the lower right corner, and finally the remaining
line very carefully with a hard pencil along the entire corners (Fig. 6). Large sheets may require additional
length of the working edge; then turn the T-square over fastening, whereas small sheets may require fastening
and draw the line again along the same edge (Fig. 4). only at the two upper corners.
If the edge is straight, the two lines will coincide; other- Tracing paper should not be fastened directly to the
wise, the space between the lines will be twice the error board because small imperfections in the surface of the
of the blade. board will interfere with the line work. Always fasten a
It is difficult to correct a crooked T-square blade, larger backing sheet of heavy drawing paper on the
and if the error is considerable, it may be necessary to board first; then fasten the tracing paper over this sheet.
discard the T-square and obtain another.
7 ■ DRAWING PENCILS
6 ■ FASTENING PAPER TO THE BOARD High-quality drawing pencils should be used in techni-
The drawing paper should be placed close enough to cal drawing, never ordinary writing pencils (Fig. 7a).
the working edge of the board to reduce to a minimum Many makes of mechanical pencils are also avail-
any error resulting from a slight “give,” or bending, of able, together with refill leads of conventional size in
the blade of the T-square. The paper should also be all grades (Fig. 7b). Choose a holder that feels com-
close enough to the upper edge of the board to permit fortable in your hand and that grips the lead firmly
space at the bottom of the sheet for using the T-square without slipping. Mechanical pencils have the advan-
and supporting the arm while drawing (Fig. 5). tages of maintaining a constant length of lead while
Drafting tape is preferred for fastening the draw- permitting the use of a lead practically to the end, of
ing to the board because it does not damage the board being easily refilled with new leads, of affording a
and it will not damage the paper if it is removed by ready source for compass leads, of having no wood to
pulling it off slowly toward the edge of the paper. be sharpened, and of easy sharpening of the lead by
To fasten the paper in place, press the T-square various mechanical pencil pointers.
head firmly against the working edge of the drawing Thin-lead mechanical pencils are available with 0.3-,
board with the left hand, while the paper is adjusted 0.5-, 0.7-, or 0.9-mm-diameter drafting leads in several

45
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 7 ■ Drawing Pencils.

grades (Fig. 7c). These thin leads produce uniform In the selection of a grade of lead, the first consid-
width lines without sharpening, providing both a time eration is the type of line work required. For light
savings and a cost benefit. Mechanical pencils are rec- construction lines, guide lines for lettering, and accu-
ommended as they are less expensive in the long run. rate geometrical constructions or work in which accu-
Drawing pencils are made of graphite with the addi- racy is of prime importance, use a hard lead, such as
tion of either a polymer binder or kaolin (clay) in vary- 4H to 6H.
ing amounts to make 18 grades from 9H, the hardest, to For mechanical drawings on drawing paper or trac-
7B, the softest. The uses of these different grades are ing paper, the lines should be black, particularly for
described in Fig. 8. Note that small-diameter leads are drawings to be reproduced. The lead chosen must be
used for the harder grades, whereas large-diameter leads soft enough to produce jet black lines, but hard enough
are used to give more strength to the softer grades. not to smudge too easily or permit the point to crumble
Therefore, the degree of hardness in a wood pencil can under normal pressure. The same comparatively soft
be roughly judged by a comparison of diameters. lead is preferred for lettering and arrowheads.
Specifically formulated leads of carbon black par- This lead will vary from F to 2H, depending on
ticles in a polymer binder are also available in several the paper and weather conditions. If the paper is
grades for use on the polyester films now used quite hard, it will generally be necessary to use harder
extensively in industry (see §3.54). leads. For softer surfaces, softer leads can be used.

■ FIGURE 8 ■ Lead Grade Chart.

Hard Medium Soft

The hard leads in this group (left) These grades are for general These leads are too soft to be useful
are used where extreme accuracy purpose work in technical drawing. in mechanical drafting. Their use for
is required, as on graphical com- The softer grades (right) are used such work results in smudged, rough
putations and charts and diagrams. for technical sketching, for letter- lines that are hard to erase, and the
The softer leads in this group ing, arrowheads, and other free- lead must be sharpened continually.
(right) are sometimes used for line hand work on mechanical These grades are used for art work
work on engineering drawings, but drawings. The harder leads (left) of various kinds, and for full-size
their use is restricted because the are used for line work on machine details in architectural drawing.
lines are apt to be too light. drawings and architectural draw-
ings. The H and 2H leads are wide-
ly used on pencil tracings for
reproduction.

46
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

On humid days, paper absorbs moisture from the 8 ■ ALPHABET OF LINES

atmosphere and becomes soft. This can be recog-
nized because the paper expands and becomes wrin- Each line on a technical drawing has a definite mean-
kled. It is necessary to select softer leads to offset the ing and is drawn in a certain way. The line conventions
softening of the paper. If you have been using a 2H endorsed by the American National Standards Insti-
lead, for example, change to an F until the weather tute, ANSI Y14.2M–1992, are presented in Fig. 9,
becomes drier. together with illustrations of various applications.

■ FIGURE 9 ■ Alphabet of Lines (Full Size).

47
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 10 ■ Line Gage. Courtesy of Koh-I-Noor Rapidograph, Inc.

Two widths of lines are recommended for use on lines, extension lines, dimension lines, leaders, section
drawings. The ratio of line widths should be approxi- lines, phantom lines, and long-break lines).
mately two-to-one. It is recommended the thin line For the “thick lines”, visible, cutting plane, and
width be 0.3 mm minimum, and the thick line width be short break use a relatively soft lead, such as F or H.All
0.6 mm minimum. All required lines should be clean- thin lines should be made with a sharp medium-grade
cut, dark, uniform throughout the drawing, and proper- lead, such as H or 2H. All lines (except construction
ly spaced for legible reproduction by all commonly lines) must be sharp and dark. Make construction lines
used methods. Spacing between parallel lines may be with a sharp 4H or 6H lead so thin that they can barely
exaggerated to a maximum of 3 mm .120 so there is no be seen at arm’s length and need not be erased.
fill-in when the drawing is reproduced. The size and In Fig. 9, the ideal lengths of all dashes are indi-
style of the drawing and the smallest size to which it is cated. You would do well to measure the first few hid-
to be reduced govern the actual width of each line. The den dashes and center-line dashes you make and
contrast between the two widths of lines should be dis- thereafter to estimate the lengths carefully by eye. The
tinct. Pencil leads should be hard enough to prevent line gage (Fig. 10) is a convenient reference for lines
smudging, but soft enough to produce the dense black of various widths.
lines necessary for quality reproduction.
When photoreduction and blowback are not nec-
essary, as is the case for most drafting laboratory 9 ■ DRAWING HORIZONTAL LINES
assignments, three weights of lines may improve the To draw a horizontal line, press the head of the T-
appearance and legibility of the drawing. The “thin square firmly against the working edge of the board
lines” may be made in two widths: regular thin lines for with your left hand; then slide your hand to the posi-
hidden lines and stitch lines, and a somewhat thinner tion shown in Fig. 11a so that the blade is pressed
version for the other secondary lines (such as center tightly against the paper. Lean the pencil in the direc-

■ FIGURE 11 ■ Drawing a Horizontal Line.

48
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

tion of the line at an angle of approximately 60° with

the paper, and draw the line from left to right (Fig.
11b). Keep the pencil in a vertical plane; otherwise,
the line may not be straight (Fig. 11c). While drawing
the line, let the little finger of the hand holding the pen-
cil glide lightly on the blade of the T-square, and rotate
the pencil slowly, except for the thin-lead pencils,
between your thumb and forefinger to distribute the
wear uniformly on the lead and maintain a symmetrical
point. Thin-lead pencils should be held nearly vertical
to the paper and not rotated. Also, pushing the thin-
lead pencil from left to right, rather than pulling it,
tends to minimize lead breakage.
When great accuracy is required, the pencil may be
“toed in” to produce a perfectly straight line (Fig.
11d). (Left-handers: In general, reverse the proce-
dure just outlined. Place the T-square head against the
right edge of the board, and with the pencil in the left
hand, draw the line from right to left.)

10 ■ DRAWING VERTICAL LINES

Use either the 45° triangle or the 30° * 60° triangle to
draw vertical lines. Place the triangle on the T-square
with the vertical edge on the left, as shown in Fig. 12a.
With the left hand, press the head of the T-square against
the board; then slide the hand to the position shown
where it holds both the T-square and the triangle firmly
in position. Draw the line upward, rotating the pencil
slowly between the thumb and forefinger. (The only
time it is advisable for right-handers to turn the triangle
so that the vertical edge is on the right is when drawing a
vertical line near the right end of the T-square. In this
case, the line would be drawn downward.)
Lean the pencil in the direction of the line at an
angle of approximately 60° with the paper and in a ■ FIGURE 12 ■ Drawing a Vertical Line.
vertical plane (Fig. 12b). Meanwhile, the upper
part of the body should be twisted to the right (Fig.
12c). (Left-handers: In general, reverse the fore-
going procedure. Place the T-square head on the
right and the vertical edge of the triangle on the
right; then, with the right hand, hold the T-square
and triangle firmly together, and with the left hand
draw the line upward.)

11 ■ TRIANGLES
Most inclined lines in mechanical drawing are drawn
at standard angles with the 45° triangle and the
30° * 60° triangle (Fig. 13). The triangles are made
of transparent plastic so that lines of the drawing can be ■ FIGURE 13 ■ Triangles.

49
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

seen through them. A good combination of triangles is by the arrows, and that all lines in the left half are
the 30° * 60° triangle with a long side of 10– and a 45° drawn toward the center, while those in the right half
triangle with each side 8– long. are drawn away from the center.

12 ■ DRAWING INCLINED LINES 13 ■ PROTRACTORS

The positions of the triangles for drawing lines at all For measuring or setting off angles other than those
of the possible angles are shown in Fig. 14. In the obtainable with the triangles, the protractor is used. The
figure it is understood that the triangles in each case best protractors, which produce the most accurate mea-
are resting on the blade of the T-square. Thus, it is pos- surements, are made of nickel silver (Fig. 15a). For
sible to divide 360° into twenty-four 15° sectors with ordinary work, a plastic protractor is satisfactory and
the triangles used singly or in combination. Note care- much cheaper (Fig. 15b).
fully the directions for drawing the lines, as indicated

■ FIGURE 14 ■ The Triangle Wheel.

50
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 15 ■ Protractors.

14 ■ DRAFTING ANGLES lines up with the other point; then draw the line along
There are a variety of devices that combine the pro- the edge.
tractor with triangles to produce great versatility of
use. One such device is shown in Fig. 16. 16 ■ DRAWING PARALLEL LINES
To draw a line parallel to a given line, move the triangle
15 ■ DRAWING A LINE THROUGH and T-square as a unit until the hypotenuse of the tri-
TWO POINTS angle lines up with the given line (Fig. 18a); then,
To draw a line through two points, place the pencil verti- holding the T-square firmly in position, slide the trian-
cally at one of the points (Fig. 17), and move the gle away from the line, and draw the required line
straightedge about the pencil point as a pivot until it along the hypotenuse (Figs. 18b and 18c).

■ FIGURE 16 ■ Adjustable Triangle. ■ FIGURE 17 ■ To Draw a Pencil Line Through Two Points.

■ FIGURE 18 ■ To Draw a Line Parallel to a Given Line.

51
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 19 ■ To Draw a Line Perpendicular to a Given Line.

Obviously, any straightedge, such as one of the tri- 19 ■ SCALES

angles, may be substituted for the T-square in this oper- A drawing of an object may be the same size as the
ation, as shown in Fig. 18a. object (full size), or it may be larger or smaller than the
object. The ratio of reduction or enlargement depends
17 ■ DRAWING PERPENDICULAR LINES on the relative sizes of the object and of the sheet of
To draw a line perpendicular to a given line, move the paper on which the drawing is to be made. For exam-
T-square and triangle as a unit until one edge of the tri- ple, a machine part may be half size; a building may be
1 1
angle lines up with the given line (Fig. 19a); then slide drawn 48 size; a map may be drawn 1200 size; or a print-
the triangle across the line and draw the required line ed circuit board may be drawn four times its size.
(Figs. 19b and 19c). Scales are instruments used in making technical
To draw perpendicular lines when one of the lines drawings full size at a given enlargement or reduction.
makes 15° with horizontal, arrange the triangles as Figure 22 shows various types of scales, including (a)
shown in Fig. 20. the metric scale, (b) the engineers’ scale, (c) the decimal
scale, (d) the mechanical engineers’ scale, and (e) the
18 ■ DRAWING LINES AT 30°, 60°, OR 45° architects’ scale. A full-divided scale is one in which the
WITH A GIVEN LINE basic units are subdivided throughout the length of the
To draw a line making 30° with a given line, arrange the scale. The architects’ scale is an open divided scale, one
triangle as shown in Fig. 21. Angles of 60° and 45° in which only the end unit is subdivided.
may be drawn in a similar manner. Scales are usually made of plastic or boxwood. The
better wood scales have white plastic edges. Scales are
■ FIGURE 20 ■ Perpendicular Lines. either triangular or flat. The triangular scales have the
advantage of combining many scales on one stick, but
the user will waste much time looking for the required
scale if a scale guard (Fig. 23) is not used. The scale
guard marks the scale that is being used. Flat scales are
almost universally used by professional drafters
because of their convenience, but several flat scales are
necessary to replace one triangular scale, and the total
cost is greater.

20 ■ METRIC SYSTEM AND METRIC SCALES

■ FIGURE 21 ■ Line at 30° with Given Line. The metric system is an international standard of mea-
surement that, despite modifications over the past 200
years, has been the foundation of science and industry
and is clearly defined. The modern form of the metric
system is the International System of Units, commonly
referred to as SI (from the French name, Le Systeⱊ me
International d’Unités). The SI system was established
in 1960 by international agreement and is now the
international standard of measurement.

52
Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 22 ■ Types of Scales.

■ FIGURE 23 ■ Scale Guard.

53
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

The metric scale is used when the meter is the stan-

dard for linear measurement. The meter was established
by the French in 1791 with a length of one ten-millionth
of the distance from the Earth’s equator to the pole. The
meter is equal to 39.37 inches or approximately 1.1 yards.
The metric system for linear measurement is a dec-
imal system similar to our system of counting money.
For example,

1 mm = 1 millimeter A 1000
1
of a meter B

1 cm = 1 centimeter A 100
1
of a meter B
= 10 mm
1 dm = 1 decimeter A 10
1
of a meter B
= 10 cm = 100 mm
1m = 1 meter
= 100 cm = 1000 mm
1 km = 1 kilometer = 1000 m
= 100,000 cm = 1,000,000 mm
■ FIGURE 24 ■ Decimal Dimensions.
The primary unit of measurement for engineering
drawings and design in the mechanical industries is the
millimeter (mm). Secondary units of measure are the ing at 20-unit intervals. This scale is also convenient for
meter (m) and the kilometer (km). The centimeter ratios of 1 : 20, 1 : 200, 1 : 2000, and so on.
(cm) and the decimeter (dm) are rarely used. The remaining four scales on this triangular metric
In recent years, automotive and other industries scale include the typical scale ratios of 1 : 5, 1 : 25, 1 : 33 13,
have used a dual dimensioning system of millimeters and 1 : 75 (Figs. 24a and 3.24b). These ratios may also
and inches. Manufacturers of large agricultural machin- be enlarged or reduced as desired by multiplying or
ery use all metric dimensions with the inch equivalents dividing by a factor of 10. Metric scales are also available
given in a table on the drawing. with other scale ratios for specific drawing purposes.
Many of the dimensions in the illustrations and the The metric scale is used in map drawing and in draw-
problems in this text are given in metric units. Dimen- ing force diagrams or other graphical constructions that
sions that are given in the customary units (inches and involve such scales as 1 mm = 1 kg and 1 mm = 500 kg.
feet, either decimal or fractional) may be converted
easily to metric values. In accordance with standard
practice, the ratio 1 in. = 25.4 mm is used. 21 ■ INCH-FOOT SCALES
Metric scales are available in flat and triangular Several scales that are based on the inch-foot system of
styles with a variety of scale graduations.The triangular measurement continue in domestic use today along with
scale illustrated in Fig. 34 has one full-size scale and the metric system of measurement, which is accepted
five reduced-size scales, all full divided. By means of worldwide for science, technology, and international
these scales a drawing can be made full size, enlarged trade.
sized, or reduced sized. To specify the scale on a draw-
ing see section 26.
22 ■ ENGINEERS’ SCALES
FULL SIZE The 1 : 1 scale (Fig. 24a) is full size, and each
The engineers’ scale is graduated in the decimal system.
division is actually 1 mm in width with the numbering of
It is also frequently called the civil engineers’ scale
the calibrations at 10-mm intervals.The same scale is also
because it was originally used mainly in civil engineer-
convenient for ratios of 1 : 10, 1 : 100, 1 : 1000, and so on.
ing. The name chain scale also persists because it was
HALF SIZE The 1 : 2 scale (Fig. 24a) is one-half size, and derived from the surveyors’ chain composed of 100
each division equals 2 mm with the calibration number- links, used for land measurements.
The engineers’ scale is graduated in units of 1 in.
divided into 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, and 60 parts. Thus, the

54
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 25 ■ Metric Scales.

engineers’ scale is convenient in machine drawing to set use. On the full-size scale, each inch is divided into fifti-
off dimensions expressed in decimals. For example, to eths of an inch, or .02– (Fig. 25c), and on the half- and
set off 1.650– full size, use the 10-scale and simply set off quarter-size scales, the inches are compressed to half
one main division plus 6 12 subdivisions (Fig. 25a). To size or quarter size and then are divided into 10 parts,
set off the same dimension half size, use the 20-scale, so that each subdivision stands for .1–.
since the 20-scale is exactly half the size of the 10-scale
(Fig. 25b). Similarly, to set off a dimension quarter
size, use the 40-scale.
The engineers’ scale is also used in drawing maps to 24 ■ ARCHITECTS’ SCALES
scales of 1– = 50¿, 1– = 500¿, 1– = 5 miles, and so on The architects’ scale is intended primarily for drawings
and in drawing stress diagrams or other graphical con- of buildings, piping systems, and other large structures
structions to such scales as 1– = 20 lb and 1– = 4000 lb. that must be drawn to a reduced scale to fit on a sheet
of paper.The full-size scale is also useful in drawing rel-
23 ■ DECIMAL SCALES atively small objects, and for that reason the architects’
The increasing use of decimal dimensions has brought scale has rather general usage.
about the development of a scale specifically for that

55
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

The architects’ scale has one full-size scale and ten diminishing in length with each subdivision. To set off
1 1 1
overlapping reduced-sized scales. By means of these 32 –, estimate visually one half of 16 –; to set off 64 –, esti-
scales a drawing may be made to various sizes from full 1
mate one fourth of 16 –.
1
size to 128 size. Note that in all the reduced scales the
major divisions represent feet, and their subdivisions HALF SIZE Use the full-size scale, and divide every
represent inches and fractions thereof. Thus, the scale dimension mentally by two. (Do not use the 12 – scale,
marked 34 means 34 inch = 1 foot, not 43 inch = 1 inch; which is intended for drawing to a scale of 12 – = 1¿, or
that is, one-sixteenth size, not three-fourths size.And the one-twenty-fourth size.) To set off 1–, measure 14 –; to
scale marked 12 means 12 inch + 1 foot, not 21 inch = 1 set off 2–, measure 1–; to set off 6.5 1
16 –, measure 1 2 – (half
inch, (that is, one twenty-fourth-size, not half size). of 30– ), then 8 – A half of 4 – B ; to set off 2-16 – (see Fig.
1 1 13

32 – A 16 – or half of 16 – B .
1
All the scales, from full size to 128 size, are shown 26), measure 1– then 13 6.5 13

in Fig. 26. Some are upside down, just as they may

QUARTER SIZE Use the 3– scale in which 3– = 1¿ (Fig.
occur in use. These scales are described as follows.
26b). The subdivided portion to the left of zero, which
1
FULL SIZE Each division in the full-size scale is 16 – (Fig. represents 1 foot, is divided into inches, half inches,
26a). Each inch is divided first into halves, then quar- quarter inches, and eighth inches. The entire portion
ters, eighths, and finally sixteenths, the dividing lines representing 1 foot actually measures 3 inches; there-

■ FIGURE 26 ■ Architects’ Scales.

56
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

fore, 3– = 1¿. To set off anything less than 12–, start at graduated so that every 12 – represents 1–. Thus, the half-
zero and measure to the left. size scale is simply a full-size scale compressed to one-half
To set off 10 18 –, read off 9– from zero to the left and size.
add 1 18 – and set off the total 10 18 –, as shown. To set off These scales are also very useful in dividing dimen-
more than 12– —for example, 1¿ – 38 9
– (see your scale)— sions. For example, to draw a 3 11 16 – diameter circle full size,
find the 1¿ mark to the right of zero and the 9 38 – mark to we need half of 3 11 16 – to use as radius. Instead of using
the left of zero; the required distance is the distance arithmetic to find half of 3 11
16 –, it is easier to set off 3 11
16 – on
between these marks and represents 1¿ –9 38 –. the half-size scale.
Triangular combination scales are available that
EIGHT SIZE Use the 1 12 – scale in which 1 12 – = 1¿ (Fig.
include the full- and half-size mechanical engineers’
26b). The subdivided portion of the right of zero repre-
scales, several architects’ scales, and an engineers scale.
sents 1¿ and is divided into inches, then half inches, and fi-
nally quarter inches. The entire portion, representing 1¿, 26 ■ SPECIFYING THE SCALE ON A DRAWING
actually is 1 12 –; therefore, 1 12 – = 1¿. To set off anything less
For machine drawings, the scale indicates the ratio of
than 12–, start at zero and measure to the right.
the size of the drawn object to its actual size, irrespec-
DOUBLE SIZE Use the full-size scale, and multiply every tive of the unit of measurement used. The recommend-
dimension mentally by 2. To set off 1–, measure 2–; to ed practice is to letter FULL SIZE or 1 : 1; HALF SIZE or
set off 3 14 –, measure 6 12 –; and so on. The double-size 1 : 2; and similarly for other reductions. Expansion or
scale is occasionally used to represent small objects. In enlargement scales are given as 2 : 1 or 2 : 3; 3 : 1 or 3 : 3;
such cases, a small actual-size outline view may be 5 : 1 or 5 : 3; 10 : 1 or 10 3; and so on.
shown near the bottom of the sheet to help the shop The various scale calibrations available on the met-
worker visualize the actual size of the object. ric scale and the engineers’ scale provide almost unlimit-
ed scale ratios. The preferred metric scale ratios appear
OTHER SIZE The scales besides those just described are to be 1 : 1; 1 : 2; 1 : 5, 1 : 10, 1 : 20, 1 : 50, 1 : 100, and 1 : 200.
used chiefly by architects. Machine drawings are cus- Map scales are indicated in terms of frac-
tomarily made only double size, full size, half size, one- tions, such as Scale 62500 1
, or graphically, such as
fourth size, or one-eighth size.

25 ■ MECHANICAL ENGINEERS’ SCALES 27 ■ ACCURATE MEASUREMENTS

The objects represented in machine drawing vary in size Accurate drafting depends considerably on the correct
from small parts, an inch or smaller in size, to equipment or use of the scale in setting off distances. Do not take
parts of large dimensions. By drawing these objects full measurements directly off the scale with the dividers or
size, half size, quarter size, or eighth size, the drawings will compass, as damage will result to the scale. Place the
readily come within the limits of the standard-size sheets. scale on the drawing with the edge parallel to the line on
For this reason the mechanical engineers’ scales are divid- which the measurement is to be made and, with a sharp
ed into units representing inches to full size, half size, quar- pencil having a conical point, make a short dash at right
ter size, or eighth size (Fig. 26c). To make a drawing of an angles to the scale and opposite the correct graduation
object to a scale of one-half size, for example, use the mark, as shown in Fig. 27a. If extreme accuracy is
mechanical engineer’s scale marked half size, which is required, a tiny prick mark may be made at the required

■ FIGURE 27 ■ Accurate Measurements.

57
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

point with the needle point or stylus, (Fig. 27b), or with

one leg of the dividers.
Avoid cumulative errors in the use of the scale. If a
number of distances are to be set off end-to-end, all
should be set off at one setting of the scale by adding
each successive measurement to the preceding one, if
possible. Avoid setting off the distances individually by
moving the scale to a new position each time, since
slight errors in the measurements may accumulate and
give rise to a large error.
■ FIGURE 28 ■ Giant Bow Set. Courtesy of Frank Oppenheimer.

28 ■ DRAWING INSTRUMENTS
In technical drawing, accuracy, neatness, and speed are 30 ■ COMPASSES
essential. These objectives are not likely to be obtained The compass, with pencil and inking attachments, is
with cheap or inferior drawing instruments. For the stu- used for drawing circles of approximately 25 mm (10)
dent or the professional drafter, it is advisable, and in radius or larger.
the end more economical, to purchase the best instru- The giant bow compass (Figs. 28–30) has a socket
ments that can be afforded. Good instruments will sat- joint in one leg that permits the insertion of either pencil
isfy the most rigid requirements, and the satisfaction, or pen attachments. A lengthening bar or a beam attach-
saving in time, and improved quality of work that good ment is often provided to increase the radius. Most of the
instruments can produce will more than justify the large bows are of the center-wheel type (Fig. 29a). Sev-
higher price. eral manufacturers now offer different varieties of quick-
Unfortunately, the qualities of high-grade instru- acting bows. The large bow compass shown in Fig. 29b
ments are not likely to be recognized by the beginner, can be adjusted to the approximate setting by simply
who is not familiar with the performance characteristics opening or closing the legs in the same manner as for the
required and who is apt to be attracted by elaborate sets other bow-style compass. For production drafting, in
containing a large number of shiny, low-quality instru- which it is necessary to make dense black lines to secure
ments. Therefore, the student should obtain the advice clear legible reproductions, the giant bow or an appropri-
of the drafting instructor, an experienced drafter, or a ate template is preferred. The large bow instrument is
reliable dealer. much sturdier than the traditional compass and is capa-
ble of taking the heavy pressure necessary to produce
dense black lines without losing the setting.
29 ■ GIANT BOW SETS
Giant bow sets contain various combinations of
instruments, but all feature a large bow compass in 31 ■ USING COMPASSES
place of the traditional large compass (Fig. 28). The following instructions apply generally both to old
Most of the large bows are of the center-wheel type style and giant bow compasses.
(Fig. 29a). Several manufacturers now offer differ- Most compass needle points have a plain end for use
ent varieties of quick-acting bows. The large bow when the compass is converted into dividers and a shoul-
compass shown at (b) can be adjusted to the approx- der end for use as a compass.Adjust the needle point with
imate setting by simply opening or closing the legs in the shoulder end out and so that the small point extends
the same manner as for the other bow-style compass. slightly farther than the pencil lead or pen nib (Fig. 32d).

■ FIGURE 29 ■ Giant Bow Compass.

(a) CENTER-WHEEL (b) QUICK ACTING

58
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

paper or on the backing sheet and then check the

diameter with the scale.
On drawings that have circular arcs and tangent
straight lines, draw the arcs first, whether in pencil or in
ink, as it is much easier to connect a straight line to an
arc than the reverse.
For very large circles, a beam compass (discussed
later in this section) is preferred, or use the lengthening
bar to increase the compass radius. Use both hands, as
shown in Fig. 31, but be careful not to jar the instru-
ment and thus change the adjustment.
When using the compass to draw construction
lines, use a 4H to 6H lead so that the lines will be very
dim. For required lines, the arcs and circles must be
black, and softer leads must be used. However, since
heavy pressure cannot be exerted on the compass as it
can on a pencil, it is usually necessary to use a compass
lead that is one or two grades softer than the pencil
■ FIGURE 30 ■ Using the Giant Bow Compass. used for the corresponding line work. For example, if an
H lead is used for visible lines drawn with a pencil, then
an F lead might be found suitable for the compass
work. The hard leads supplied with the compass are
To draw a penciled circle, (1) set off the required usually unsatisfactory for most line work except con-
radius on one of the center lines, (2) place the needle struction lines. In summary, use leads in the compass
point at the exact intersection of the center lines, (3) that will produce arcs and circles that match the straight
adjust the compass to the required radius (25 mm or pencil lines.
more), and (4) lean the compass forward and draw the It is necessary to exert pressure on the compass to
circle clockwise while rotating the handle between the produce heavy “reproducible” circles, and this tends to
thumb and forefinger.To obtain sufficient weight of line, enlarge the compass center hole in the paper, especial-
it may be necessary to repeat the movement several ly if there are a number of concentric circles. In such
times. cases, use a horn center, or center tack, in the hole, and
Any error in radius will result in a doubled error in place the needle point of the compass in the center of
diameter; so it is best to draw a trial circle first on scrap the tack.

■ FIGURE 31 ■ Drawing a Circle of Large Radius with the Beam Compass.

59
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 32 ■ Compass Lead Points.

32 ■ SHARPENING THE COMPASS LEAD cuts have been made to produce a point similar to that
Various forms of compass lead points are illustrated in on a screwdriver. In Fig. 32d, the cone point is pre-
Fig. 32. In Fig. 32a, a single elliptical face has been pared by chucking the lead in a mechanical pencil and
formed by rubbing on the sandpaper pad, as shown in shaping it in a pencil pointer. Avoid using leads that are
Fig. 33. In Fig. 32b, the point is narrowed by small too short to be exposed as shown.
side cuts. In Fig. 32c, two long cuts and two small side In using the compass, never use the plain end of the
needle point. Instead, use the shoulder end, as shown in
Fig. 32d, adjusted so that the tiny needlepoint extends
■ FIGURE 33 ■ Sharpening Compass Lead. about halfway into the paper when the compass lead
just touches the paper.

33 ■ BEAM COMPASSES
The beam compass, or trammel (Fig. 34), is used for
drawing arcs or circles larger than can be drawn with the
regular compass and for transferring distances too great
for the regular dividers. Besides steel points, pencil and
pen attachments are provided. The beams may be made

(a)

■ FIGURE 34 ■ Beam Compass Sets.

(a) Courtesy of Frank Oppenheimer; (b) Courtesy of
Tacro, Div. of A&T Importers, Inc. (b)

60
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 35 ■ Adjusting the Dividers.

of nickel silver, steel, aluminum, or wood and are procur-

able in various lengths. A square nickel silver beam com- ■ FIGURE 36 ■ Using the Dividers.
pass set is shown in Fig. 34a, and a set with the beam
graduated in millimeters and inches is shown in Fig. 34b. dividers counterclockwise through 180°, and so on, until
the desired number of units has been stepped off. If the
34 ■ DIVIDERS last prick of the dividers falls short of the end of the line
Dividers, as the name implies, are used for dividing dis- to be divided, increase the distance between the divider
tances into a number of equal parts. They are also used points proportionately. For example, to divide the line
for transferring distances or for setting off a series of equal AB into three equal parts, the dividers are set by eye to
distances. Dividers are similar to compasses in construc- approximately one-third the length AB. When it is found
tion and are made in square, flat, and round forms. that the trial radius is too small, the distance between the
The friction adjustment for the pivot joint should be divider points is increased by one-third the remaining
loose enough to permit easy manipulation with one distance. If the last prick of the dividers is beyond the end
hand, as shown in Fig. 35. If the pivot joint is too tight, of the line, a similar decreasing adjustment is made.
the legs of the divider tend to spring back instead of stop- Cumulative errors may result when dividers are
ping at the desired point when the pressure of the fingers used to set off a series of distances end to end.To set off
is released. To adjust tension, use a small screwdriver. a large number of equal divisions, say 15 first set off
Many dividers are made with a spring and thumb- three equal large divisions and then divide each of
screw in one leg so that minute adjustments in the setting these into five equal parts. Wherever possible in such
can be made by turning the small thumbscrew (Fig. 36). cases, use the scale instead of the dividers (see section
27), or set off the total and then divide into the parts by
35 ■ USING DIVIDERS means of the parallel-line method.

Dividers are used for spaces of approximately 25 mm

(10) or more. For spaces less than 25 mm, use the bow 36 ■ PROPORTIONAL DIVIDERS
dividers (Fig. 39a). Never use the large dividers for For enlarging or reducing a drawing, proportional
small spaces when the bow dividers can be used; the lat- dividers are convenient (Fig. 37). They may also be
ter are more accurate. used for dividing distances into a number of equal parts,
Dividing a given distance into a number of equal parts or for obtaining a percentage reduction of a distance.
is a matter of trial and error (Fig. 35). Adjust the dividers For this purpose, points of division are marked on the
with the fingers of the hand that holds them, to the approx- instrument to secure the required subdivisions readily.
imate unit of division, estimated by eye. Rotate the Some instruments are calibrated to obtain special

■ FIGURE 37 ■ Proportional Dividers.

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 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 38 ■ Combination Pen and Pencil Bow. Courtesy of Frank

Oppenheimer. ■ FIGURE 40 ■ Using the Bow Instruments.

ratios, such as 1 : square root of 2, the diameter of a cir- 25 mm or less) spaces and more accurate work.
cle to the side of an equal square, and feet to meters. Whether a center-wheel or side-wheel instrument
is used, the adjustment should be made with the thumb
37 ■ BOW INSTRUMENTS and finger of the hand that holds the instrument (Fig.
The bow instruments are classified as the bow dividers, 40a). The instrument is manipulated by twirling the
bow pen, and bow pencil. A combination pen and pencil head between the thumb and fingers (Fig. 40b).
bow, usually with center-wheel adjustment, and separate The lead is sharpened in the same manner as for
instruments, with either side-wheel or center-wheel the large compass except that for small radii, the
adjustment, are available (Figs. 38 and 39). The inclined cut may be turned inside if preferred (Fig.
choice is a matter of personal preference. 41a). For general use, the lead should be turned on to
the outside, as shown in Fig. 41b. In either case, always
keep the compass lead sharpened. Avoid stubby com-
38 ■ USING BOW INSTRUMENTS pass leads, which cannot be properly sharpened. At
Bow pencils and bow pens are used for drawing circles least 6 mm (0) of lead should extend from the compass
of approximately 25 mm (10) radius or smaller. Bow at all times.
dividers are used for the same purpose as the large In adjusting the needle point of the bow pencil or
dividers, but they are used for smaller (approximately bow pen, be sure to have the needle extending slightly

■ FIGURE 39 ■ Bow Instruments with Side Wheel. ■ FIGURE 41 ■ Compass-Lead Points.

62
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

longer than the pen or the lead (Fig. 41b), the same as
for the large compass.
In drawing small circles, greater care is necessary
in sharpening and adjusting the lead and the needle
point, and especially in accurately setting the desired
radius. If a 6.35 mm (0) diameter circle is to be drawn,
and if the radius is “off” only 0.8 mm (0), the total error
on diameter is approximately 25, which is far too much.
Appropriate templates may also be used for draw- I
ing small circles.

39 ■ DROP SPRING BOW PENCILS AND PENS

Drop spring bow pencils and pens (Fig. 42) are
designed for drawing multiple identical small circles,
such as drill holes or rivet heads. A central pin is made
to move easily up and down through a tube to which
the pen or pencil unit is attached. To use the instru- II
ment, hold the knurled head of the tube between your
thumb and second finger, placing your first finger on
top of the knurled head of the pin. Place the point of
the pin at the desired center, lower the pen or pencil
until it touches the paper, and twirl the instrument
clockwise with your thumb and second finger. Then lift
the tube independently of the pin, and finally lift the
entire instrument. III

40 ■ TO LAY OUT A SHEET

After the sheet has been attached to the board, as
explained in §3.6, proceed as shown in Fig. 43 (see
also Layout A-2).
1. Using the T-square, draw a horizontal trim line near
the lower edge of the paper and then, using the tri-
angle, draw a vertical trim line near the left edge of IV
the paper. Both should be light construction lines.

■ FIGURE 42 ■ Drop Spring Bow Instruments.

VI
■ FIGURE 43 ■ To Lay Out a Sheet. Layout A-2.

63
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 44 ■ Technique of Lines (Enlarged).

2. Place the scale along the lower trim line with the DARK ACCENTED LINES The pencil lines of a finished
full-size scale up. Draw short and light dashes pencil drawing or tracing should be very dark (Fig.
perpendicular to the scale at the required dis- 44). Dark crisp lines are necessary to give punch or
tances (see Fig. 27a). snap to the drawing. (a) The ends of lines should be
3. Place the scale along the left trim line with the accented by a little extra pressure on the pencil. (b)
full-size scale to the left, and mark the required Curves should be as dark as other lines. (c) and (d)
distances with short and light dashes perpendicu- Hidden-line dashes and center-line dashes should be
lar to the scale. carefully estimated as to length and spacing and should
4. Draw horizontal construction lines with the aid of be of uniform width throughout their length.
the T-square through the marks at the left of the Dimension lines, extension lines, section lines, and
sheet. center lines also should be dark. The difference
between these lines and visible lines is mostly in width;
5. Draw vertical construction lines from the bottom
there is very little difference, if any, in blackness.
upward along the edge of the triangle through the
A simple way to determine whether your lines on
marks at the bottom of the sheet.
tracing paper or cloth are dense black is to hold the
6. Retrace the border and the title strip to make them tracing up to the light. Lines that are not opaque black
heavier. Notice that the layout is made indepen- will not print clearly by most reproduction processes.
dently of the edges of the paper.* Construction lines should be made with a sharp,
hard lead and should be so light that they need not be
41 ■ TECHNIQUE OF PENCIL DRAWING erased when drawing is completed.
Most commercial drafting is executed in pencil. Most CONTRAST IN LINES Contrast in pencil lines, like that in
prints or photocopies are made from pencil tracings, ink lines, should be mostly in widths of the lines, with lit-
and all ink tracings must be preceded by pencil draw- tle if any difference in the degree of darkness (Fig.
ings. It should therefore be evident that skill in drafting 45). The visible lines should contrast strongly with the
chiefly implies skill in pencil drawing. thin lines of the drawing. If necessary, draw over a visi-
Technique is a style or quality of drawing imparted ble line several times to get the desired thickness and
by the individual drafter to the work. It is characterized darkness. A short retracing stroke backward (to the
by crisp black line work and lettering. Technique in let- left), producing a jabbing action, results in a darker line.
tering is discussed later in this chapter.
42 ■ PENCIL TRACING
*In industrial drafting rooms the sheets are available, cut to standard
sizes, with border and title strips already printed. Drafting supply
While some pencil tracings are made of a drawing
houses can supply such papers, printed to order, to schools for little placed underneath the tracing paper (usually when a
extra cost. great deal of erasing and changing is necessary on the

64
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 45 ■ Contrast of Lines (Enlarged).

■ FIGURE 46 ■ Technical Fountain Pen and Pen Set. Courtesy of Koh-I-Nor Rapidograph, Inc.

original drawing), most drawings today are made All lines must be dark and cleanly drawn when
directly in pencil on tracing paper, pencil tracing cloth, drawings are to be reproduced.
films, or vellum. These are not tracings but pencil draw-
ings, and the methods and technique are the same as
previously described for pencil drawing. 43 ■ TECHNICAL FOUNTAIN PENS
In making a drawing directly on a tracing medium, Technical fountain pens (Fig. 46), with tube and nee-
a smooth sheet of heavy white drawing paper, a back- dle point are available in several line widths. Many peo-
ing sheet, should be placed underneath. The whiteness ple prefer this type of pen because the line widths are
of the backing sheet improves the visibility of the lines, fixed and it is suitable for freehand or mechanical let-
and the hardness of the surface makes it possible to tering and line work. The pen requires an occasional
exert pressure on the pencil and produce dense black filling and a minimum of skill to use. For uniform line
lines without excessive grooving of the paper. work, the pen should be used perpendicular to the

65
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 47 ■ Using the Technical Fountain Pen. FERNANDO BLANCO

CALZADA - Shutterstock.

paper (Fig. 47). For best results, follow the manufac-

turer’s recommendations for operation and cleaning.

44 ■ DRAWING INK
■ FIGURE 48 ■ Alphabet of Ink Lines (Full Size).
Drawing ink is composed chiefly of carbon in colloidal
suspension, alcohol, water, and a binder. The fine parti-
cles of carbon give the deep, black luster to the ink, and
the binder makes it waterproof and quick to dry. The 2. In (a) through (c), ink horizontal lines first, verti-
ink bottle should not be left uncovered, as evaporation cal lines second, and inclined lines last:
will cause the ink to thicken. (a) Ink invisible straight lines.
Special drawing ink is available for use on acetate (b) Ink hidden straight lines.
and polyester films. Such inks should not be used in (c) Ink center lines, extension lines, dimension
technical fountain pens unless the pens are specifically lines, leader lines, and section lines (if any).
made for acetate-based inks.
3. (a) Ink arrowheads and dimension figures.
For removing dried waterproof drawing ink from
(b) Ink notes, titles, etc. (Pencil guide lines directly
pens or instruments, pen-cleaning fluids are available
on the drawing or tracing.)
at dealers.
Some drafters prefer to ink center lines before
indenting the compass centers because ink can go
45 ■ TECHNIQUE OF INKING
through the holes and cause blots on the back of
The various widths of lines used for inked drawings or the sheet.
tracings are shown in Fig. 48. In inking a drawing or When an ink blot is made, the excess ink should be
tracing (Fig. 49), proceed in the following order: taken up with a blotter, paper towel or tissue, and not
allowed to soak into the paper. When the spot is thor-
1. (a) Mark all tangent points in pencil directly on oughly dry, the remaining ink can be erased easily.
the drawing or tracing. For cleaning untidy drawings or for removing the
(b) Indent all compass centers (with pricker or original pencil lines from an inked drawing, a Pink Pearl
divider point). or the Mars-Plastic eraser is suitable if used lightly.
(c) Ink visible circles and arcs. When a gap in a thick ink line is made by erasing,
(d) Ink hidden circles and arcs. the gap should be filled in with a series of fine lines
(e) Ink irregular curves, if any. that are allowed to run together. A single heavy line

66
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

is difficult to match and is more likely to run and

cause a blot.

46 ■ IRREGULAR CURVES
Drawing mechanical curves other than circles or circu-
lar arcs generally requires the use of an irregular or
French curve. An irregular curve is a device for the
mechanical drawing of curved lines and should not be
applied directly to the points or used for purposes of
producing an initial curve. Many different forms and
sizes of curves are manufactured (Fig. 50).
The curves are composed largely of successive seg-
ments of the geometric curves, such as the ellipse,
parabola, hyperbola, and involute. The best curves are
made of transparent plastic. Among the many special
types of curves available are hyperbolas, parabolas,
ellipses, logarithmic spirals, ship curves, and railroad
curves.
Adjustable curves are also available. Figure 51a
consists of a core of lead, enclosed by a coil spring
attached to a flexible strip. Figure 51b consists of a
spline to which “ducks” (weights) are attached. The
spline can be bent to form any desired curve, limited
only by the elasticity of the material. An ordinary piece
of solder wire can be used very successfully by bending
the wire to the desired curve.

47 ■ USING IRREGULAR CURVES

The proper use of the irregular curve requires skill,
especially when the lines are to be drawn in ink (Fig.
52). After points have been plotted through which
the curve is to pass, a light pencil line should be
sketched freehand smoothly through the points.
To draw a mechanical line over the freehand line
with an irregular curve, you match the various seg-
ments of the irregular curve with successive portions of
the freehand curve and draw the line with pencil or rul-
ing pen along the edge of the curve (Fig. 53). The
irregular curve must match the sketched curve for
some distance at each end beyond the segment to be
drawn for any one setting of the curve so that successive
sections of the curve will be tangent to each other, with-
out any abrupt change in the curvature of the line (Fig.
53). In placing the irregular curve, the short-radius
end of the curve should be turned toward the short-
radius part of the curve to be drawn; that is, the portion
■ FIGURE 49 ■ Order of Inking. of the irregular curve used should have the same curvi-
linear tendency as the portion of the curve to be drawn.
This will prevent abrupt changes in direction.

67
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 50 ■ Irregular or French Curves.

■ FIGURE 51 ■ Adjustable Curves. ■ FIGURE 52 ■ Using the Irregular Curves.

■ FIGURE 53 ■ Settings of Irregular Curve.

68
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 54 ■ Symmetrical Figures.

The drafter should change the position of the irregular curve is turned over and matched so that the
drawing when necessary to avoid working on the lower line may be drawn from 2 to 1. In similar manner, the
side of the curve. same segment is used again in Figs. 54c and 54d. The
When plotting points to establish the path of a ellipse is completed by filling in the gaps at the ends by
curve, it is desirable to plot more points, and closer using the irregular curve, or if desired, a compass.
together, where sharp turns in the curve occur.
Free curves may also be drawn with the compass.
For symmetrical curves, such as an ellipse, use the 48 ■ TEMPLATES
same segment of the irregular curve in two or more Templates are available for a great variety of special-
opposite places (Fig. 54). For example, in Fig. 54a ized needs (Fig. 55). A template may be found for
the irregular curve is matched to the curve and the line drawing almost any ordinary drafting symbols or
drawn from 1 to 2. Light pencil dashes are then drawn repetitive features. The engineers’ triangle is useful for
directly on the irregular curve at these points. (The drawing hexagons or for bolt heads and nuts; the draft-
curve will take pencil marks well if it is lightly “frosted” square is convenient for drawing the curves on bolt
by rubbing with a hard pencil eraser.) In Fig. 54b the heads and nuts, for drawing circles, thread forms, and
so forth; and the chemistry stencil is useful for drawing

■ FIGURE 55 ■ Templates. V.Kuntsman - Shutterstock.

69
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

chemical apparatus in schematic form.

Ellipse templates, are perhaps more widely used
than any other type. Circle templates are useful for
drawing small circles quickly and for drawing fillets
and rounds: such templates are used extensively in tool
and die drawings.

49 ■ DRAFTING MACHINES
The drafting machine is an ingenious device that
replaces the T-square, triangles, scales, and protractor
(Figs. 56 and 57). The links, or bands, are arranged
so that the controlling head is always in any desired
fixed position regardless of where it is placed on the
board; thus, the horizontal straightedge will remain
horizontal if so set.The controlling head is graduated in
degrees (including a vernier on certain machines),
which allows the straightedges, or scales, to be set and
locked at any angle. There are automatic stops at the
more frequently used angles, such as 15°, 30°, 45°, 60°,
75°, and 90°.
The chief advantage of the drafting machine is that
it speeds up drafting. Since its parts are made of metal,
their accurate relationships are not subject to change, ■ FIGURE 57 ■ Adjustable Drafting Table with Track Drafting
whereas T-squares, triangles, and working edges of Machine. Courtesy of Keuffel & Esser Co.
drawing boards must be checked and corrected fre-
quently. Drafting machines for left-handers are avail- straightedge is recommended (Fig. 58). The ends of the
able from the manufacturers. straightedge are controlled by a system of cords and pul-
leys that permit the straightedge to be moved up or down
on the board while maintaining a horizontal position.
50 ■ PARALLEL-RULING STRAIGHTEDGE
For large drawings, the long T-square becomes unwieldy, 51 ■ DRAWING PAPERS
and considerable inaccuracy may result from the “give” or Drawing paper, or detail paper, is used whenever a draw-
swing of the blade. In such a case the parallel-ruling ing is to be made in pencil but not for reproduction. From

■ FIGURE 56 ■ Drafting Machine. Courtesy of VEMCO Corporation.

■ FIGURE 58 ■ Parallel-Ruling Straightedge. David R. Frazier
Photolibrary, Inc. - Alamy.

70
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

working drawings and for general use, the preferred great deal of time. These cloths generally have a sur-
paper is light cream or buff in color, and it is available in face that will produce dense black lines when hard pen-
rolls of widths 24– and 36– and in cut sheets of standard cils are used. Hence, these drawings do not easily
sizes, such as 8.5– * 11–, 11– * 17–, 17– * 22–, and so smudge and will stand up well to handling.
on. Most industrial drafting rooms use standard sheets
with printed borders and title strips (§3.55). Since the 54 ■ POLYESTER FILMS AND COATED SHEETS
cost for printing adds so little to the price per sheet, Polyester film is a superior drafting material available in
many schools have also adopted printed sheets. rolls and sheets of standard size. It is made by bonding a
The best drawing papers have up to 100 pure rag matte surface to one or both sides of a clear polyester
stock; they have strong fibers that afford superior eras- sheet. The transparency and printing qualities are very
ing qualities, folding strength, and toughness; and they good, the matte drawing surface is excellent for pencil or
will not discolor or grow brittle with age. The paper ink, erasures leave no ghost marks, and the film has high
should have a fine grain or tooth that will pick up the dimensional stability. Its resistance to cracking, bending,
graphite and produce clean, dense black lines. Howev- and tearing makes it virtually indestructible, if given rea-
er, if the paper is too rough, it will wear down the pencil sonable care. The film has rapidly replaced cloth and is
excessively and will produce ragged, grainy lines. The competing with vellum in some applications. Some com-
paper should have a hard surface so that it will not panies have found it more economical to make their
groove too easily when pressure is applied to the pencil. drawings directly in ink on the film.
For ink work, as for catalog and book illustrations, Large coated sheets of aluminum (which provides a
white papers are used. The better papers, such as Bris- good dimensional stability) are often used in the aircraft
tol Board and Strathmore, come in several thicknesses, and auto industry for full-scale layouts that are scribed
such as 2-ply, 3-ply, and 4-ply. into the coating with a steel point rather than a pencil.The
layouts are reproduced from the sheets photographically.
52 ■ TRACING PAPERS
Tracing paper is a thin transparent paper on which 55 ■ STANDARD SHEETS
drawings are made for the purpose of reproducing by Two systems of sheet sizes, together with length, width,
blueprinting or by other similar processes. Tracings are and letter designations, are listed by ANSI, as shown in
usually made in pencil but may also be made in ink. the accompanying table.
Most tracing papers will take pencil or ink, but some The use of the basic sheet size, 8.5– * 11.0– or
are especially suited to one or to the other. 210 mm * 297 mm, and multiples thereof permits fil-
Tracing papers called vellums have been treated with ing of small tracings and of folded prints in standard
oils, waxes, or similar substances to render them more files with or without correspondence. These sizes can
transparent; other tracing papers are not so treated, but be cut without waste from the standard rolls of paper,
may be quite transparent due to the high quality of the cloth, or film.
raw materials and the methods of manufacture. Some
treated papers deteriorate rapidly with age, becoming
brittle within a few months, but some excellent vellums
are available. Untreated papers made entirely of good
rag stock will last indefinitely and will remain tough.
Nearest Standard
53 ■ TRACING CLOTH International Sizea U.S. Sizea
Tracing cloth is a thin transparent muslin fabric (cotton, (millimeter) (inch)
not linen as commonly supposed) sized with a starch com-
pound or plastic to provide a good working surface for A4 210 * 297 A 8.5 * 11.0
pencil or ink. It is much more expensive than tracing A3 297 * 420 B 11.0 * 17.0
paper.Tracing cloth is available in rolls of standard widths,
such as 30–, 36–, and 42–, and also in sheets of standard A2 420 * 594 C 17.0 * 22.0
sizes, with or without printed borders and title forms. A1 594 * 841 D 22.0 * 34.0
For pencil tracings, special pencil tracing cloths are
available. Many concerns make their drawings in pencil A0 841 * 1189 E 34.0 * 44.0
directly on this cloth, dispensing entirely with the pre- a
ANSI Y14.1m-1992.
liminary pencil drawing on detail paper, thus saving a

71
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 59 ■ A Drawing Created Using CAD. Courtesy of Zura Sports, Inc.

56 ■ THE COMPUTER AS A DRAFTING TOOL nized and following conventions for naming the draw-
Many of you will be using a CAD system as your ings so that you can find them on the CAD system is
drafting tool. Drawings created using a computer are also an important consideration. Even when using a
basically the same as drawings created by hand. Accu- CAD system, skill in freehand sketching is still neces-
racy, speed, and the ability to understand spatial and sary to quickly get your ideas down on paper.
visual information, are equally important in instru-
mental drawing and in using a CAD system. Drawings
created using a CAD system should follow the proper FREEHAND SKETCHING
drafting standards so that they can be easily interpret-
57 ■ TECHNICAL SKETCHING
ed. Most CAD drawings are plotted on standard sheet
sizes and to similar scales as hand-prepared instru- Freehand sketches are a helpful way to organize your
mental drawings. You still need to master the concepts thoughts and record ideas.They provide a quick, low-cost
and standards for orthographic and pictorial projec- way to explore various solutions to a problem so that the
tions in order to use a CAD system effectively to cre- best choice can be made. Investing too much time in
ate models and drawings. doing a scaled layout before exploring your options
An advantage of using CAD is that the system through sketches can be a costly mistake. Sketches are
contains commands for easily drawing perfectly also used to clarify information about changes in design
straight uniform lines and other geometric elements. or provide information on repairing existing equipment.
Also the various styles of lines can be quickly repre- The degree of precision needed in a given sketch
sented by the CAD system (Fig. 59). Though it will depends on its use. Quick sketches to supplement verbal
take you some time to learn the command structure of descriptions may be rough and incomplete. Sketches
your CAD system, you would take as long to learn
instrumental drawing techniques for preparing neat
accurate drawings. Keeping your drawing files orga-

72
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

Find a style of pencil that suits your use. Figure 7

shows three styles which are all good for preparing
sketches.Automatic mechanical pencils (shown as (c) in
the illustration) come in .3-mm, .5-mm, .7-mm, and .9-
mm leads that advance automatically and are easy to
use. The .5-mm lead is a good general size, or you can
use a .7-mm lead for thick lines and .3-mm for thin lines.
The lead holder shown as part (b) requires a special
sharpener, so it is not usually suitable for work in the
field. Plain wooden pencils work great. They are inex-
pensive and make it easy to produce thick or thin lines
by the amount you sharpen them.
A sketch pad of plain paper with a master grid
sheet showing through underneath works well as a sub-
stitute for grid paper. You can create your own master
grid sheets for different sketching purposes using
CAD. Specially ruled isometric paper is available for
isometric sketching.
Figure 8 shows the grades of lead and their uses.
■ FIGURE 60 ■ Great Ideas Often Start as Freehand Sketches Use soft pencils, such as HB or F, for freehand sketch-
Made on Scratch Paper. Courtesy of ANATech, Inc.
ing. Soft vinyl erasers are recommended.
that are supposed to convey important and precise
59 ■ TYPES OF SKETCHES
information should be drawn as carefully and accurately
as possible. Technical sketches of 3-D objects are usually one of
The term freehand sketch does not mean a sloppy four standard types of projection, shown in Figure 62:
drawing. As shown in Figure 60, a freehand sketch shows
• Multiview projection
attention to proportion, clarity, and correct line widths.
• Axonometric (isometric) projection
58 ■ SKETCHING MATERIALS • Oblique projection
One advantage of freehand sketching is that it requires • Perspective sketches
only pencil, paper, and eraser. Small notebooks or Multiview projection shows one or more necessary
sketch pads are useful in the field (when working at a views. Axonometric, oblique, and perspective sketches are
site) or when an accurate record is needed. Graph
paper can be helpful in making neat sketches like the
one in Figure 61. Paper with 4, 5, 8, or 10 squares per ■ FIGURE 62 ■ Types of Projection.
inch is convenient for maintaining correct proportions.

■ FIGURE 61 ■ Sketch on Graph Paper.

73
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 63 ■ Technique of Lines (Enlarged).

methods of showing the object pictorially in a single 62 ■ STYLES OF LINES

view. Each line on a technical drawing has a definite meaning.
Drawings use two different line widths—thick and thin,
60 ■ SCALE and different line styles indicate the meaning of the line.A
Sketches are not usually made to a specific scale. person reading a drawing depends on line styles to com-
Sketch objects in their correct proportions as accurate- municate whether a line is visible or hidden, if it repre-
ly as possible by eye. Grid paper helps you sketch the sents a center axis, or if its purpose is to convey
correct proportions by providing a ready-made scale dimension information. Without making these distinc-
(by counting squares). The size of the sketch is up to tions, drawings would become a confusing jumble of
you, depending on the complexity of the object and the lines. To make your drawings clear and easy to read,
size of the paper available. Sketch small objects over- make the contrast between the two widths of lines dis-
size to show the details clearly. tinct. Thick lines such as visible lines and cutting-plane
lines should be twice as thick as thin lines. Thin lines are
used for construction lines, hidden lines, dimension lines,
61 ■ TECHNIQUE OF LINES extension lines, center lines, and phantom lines. Figure 9
The main difference between an instrument drawing shows the different styles of lines that you will be using.
and a freehand sketch is in the style or technique of the All lines except for construction lines should be sharp
lines. A good freehand line is not expected to be pre- and dark. Construction lines should be very light so that
cisely straight or exactly uniform, as is a CAD or instru- they are not visible (or are barely visible) in the complet-
ment-drawn line. Freehand lines show freedom and ed drawing. Figures 63 and 64 show examples of tech-
variety. Freehand construction lines are very light, nique for sketching using different line patterns.
rough lines. All other lines should be dark and clean.

■ FIGURE 64 ■ Contrast of Lines (Enlarged).

74
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

Compare each new estimated distance with already-

established distances. One way to estimate distances is to
mark an arbitrary unit on the edge of a card or strip of
paper. Then see how many units wide and how many
units high the object is.
To sketch an object with many curves to a different
scale, use the squares method. On the original picture,
■ FIGURE 65 ■ Circle Viewed as an Ellipse.
rule accurate grid lines to form squares of any convenient
size. It is best to use a scale and some convenient spacing,
such as 12 inch or 10 mm. On the new sheet, rule a similar
63 ■ SKETCHING CIRCLES, ARCS, grid, marking the spacing of the lines proportional to the
AND ELLIPSES original, but reduced or enlarged as needed. Draw the
Small circles and arcs can be sketched in one or two object’s contours in and across the new grid lines to
strokes without any preliminary blocking in. Sketching match the original as closely as you can by eye.
arcs is similar to sketching circles. In general, it is easier
to sketch arcs by holding your pencil on the inside of
the curve. In sketching arcs, look closely at the actual LETTERING
geometric constructions and carefully approximate all Lettered text is often necessary to completely
points of tangency so that the arc touches a line or describe an object or to provide detailed specifica-
other entity at the right point. Circle templates also tions. Lettering should be legible, be easy to create,
make it easy to sketch accurate circles of various sizes. and use styles acceptable for traditional drawing and
If a circle is tipped away from your view, it appears CAD drawing.
as an ellipse. Figure 65 shows a coin viewed so that it
appears as an ellipse. You can learn to sketch small
ellipses with a free arm movement similar to the way 65 ■ FREEHAND LETTERING
you sketch circles, or you can use ellipse templates to
Most engineering lettering is single-stroke Gothic font.
help you easily sketch ellipses. These templates are
A font is the name for a particular shape of letters.
usually grouped according to the amount a circular
Figure 66 shows some common fonts. Most hand-
shape would be rotated to form the ellipse. They pro-
drawn notes are lettered 18 – high and are drawn within
vide a number of sizes of ellipses on each template, but
light horizontal guidelines. CAD notes are typed from
usually only one or a couple typical rotations.
the keyboard and sized according to the plotted size of
the drawing.
64 ■ MAINTAINING PROPORTIONS
The most important rule in freehand sketching is to
keep the sketch in proportion. No matter how bril- 66 ■ LETTERING STANDARDS
liant the technique or how well-drawn the small The modern styles of letters were derived from the design
details, if the proportions are bad, the sketch will be of Roman capital letters, whose origins date all the way
of little use. To keep your sketch in proportion, first back to Egyptian hieroglyphics. The term Roman refers
determine the relative proportions of the height to to any letter that has wide downward strokes, thin con-
the width and lightly block them in. Then lightly necting strokes, and ends terminating in spurs called ser-
block in the medium-size areas and the small details. ifs. In the late 19th century, the development of technical

■ FIGURE 66 ■ Serif and Sans-Serif Lettering.

75
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

drawing created a need for a simplified, legible alphabet strokes. The widths of the letters can be easily
that could be drawn quickly with an ordinary pen. Single- remembered: The letter l and the numeral 1 are only
stroke Gothic sans-serif (meaning without serifs or spurs) a pencil width. The W is eight grid units wide A 1 13
letters are used today because they are very legible. times its height B and is the widest letter in the alpha-
bet. All the other letters or numerals are either five
or six grid units wide, and it is easy to remember the
67 ■ COMPUTER LETTERING six-unit letters because when assembled they spell
Lettering is a standard feature available in computer TOM Q. VAXY. This means that most letters are as
graphics programs. Using CAD software, you can add wide as they are tall, which is probably wider than
titles, notes, and dimensioning information to a drawing. your usual writing. All numerals except the 1 are five
Several fonts and a variety of sizes may be selected.When units wide.
modifications are required, it is easy to make appropriate Lowercase letters are rarely used in engineering
lettering changes on the drawing by editing existing text. sketches except for lettering large volumes of notes.
CAD drawings typically use a Gothic style of let- Vertical lowercase letters are used on map drawings,
tering, but often use a Roman style of lettering for but very seldom on machine drawings. Lowercase let-
titles. When adding lettering to a CAD drawing, a ters are shown in Figure 68. The lower part of the let-
good rule of thumb is not to use more than two fonts ter is usually two-thirds the height of the capital letter.
within the same drawing. You may want to use one
font for the titles and a different one for notes and
other text. However, you may have a couple different 70 ■ INCLINED LETTERS AND NUMERALS
sizes of lettering in the drawing and perhaps some Inclined capital letters and numerals, shown in Figure
slanted lettering all using the same font. It is some- 69, are similar to vertical characters, except for the
times tempting to use many different fonts in a draw- slope. The slope of the letters is about 68° from the hor-
ing because of the wide variety available on CAD izontal. While you may practice drawing slanted hand-
systems, but drawings that use too many different lettering at approximately this angle, it is important in
fonts have been jokingly referred to as having a ran- CAD drawings to always set the amount of incline for
som note style of lettering. the letters at the same value within a drawing so that the
lettering is consistent. Inclined lowercase letters, shown
68 ■ LETTERING TECHNIQUE in Figure 70, are similar to vertical lowercase letters.
Lettering is more similar to freehand drawing than
it is to writing, so the six fundamental drawing
strokes and their directions are basic to lettering.
71 ■ GUIDELINES
Horizontal strokes are drawn left to right. Vertical, Use extremely light horizontal guidelines to keep letter
inclined, and curved strokes are drawn downward. If height uniform, as is shown in Figure 71. Capital letters
you are left-handed, you can use a system of strokes are commonly made 18 – (3.2 mm) high, with the space
similar to the sketching strokes that work for you. between lines of lettering being from three-fifths to full
Lettering ability has little relationship to writing height of the letters. Lettering size may vary depending
ability. You can learn to letter neatly even if you have on the size of the sheet. Do not use vertical guidelines to
terrible handwriting. There are three necessary aspects space the letters; this should be done by eye while letter-
of learning to letter: ing. Use a vertical guideline at the beginning of a row of
text to help you line up the left edges of the following
• Proportions and forms of the letters (to make rows, or use randomly spaced vertical guidelines to help
good letters, you need to have a clear mental you maintain the correct slant.
image of their correct shape) A simple method of spacing horizontal guidelines
• Composition the spacing of letters and words is to use a scale and set off a series of 18 – spaces, making
• Practice both the letters and the spaces between lines of letters
1
8 – high. Another quick method of creating guidelines is
to use a guideline template like the Berol Rapidesign
69 ■ VERTICAL LETTERS AND NUMERALS 925 shown in Figure 72.
The proportions of vertical capital letters and numer- When large and small capitals are used in combi-
als are shown in Figure 67 in a grid six units high. nation, the small capitals should be three-fifths to two-
Numbered arrows indicate the order and direction of thirds as high as the large capitals.

76
Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 67 ■ Vertical Capital Letters and Numerals.

■ FIGURE 68 ■ Vertical Lowercase Letters.

77
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 69 ■ Inclined Capital Letters and Numerals.

■ FIGURE 70 ■ Inclined Lowercase Letters.

78
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 71 ■ Pencil Lettering (Full Size).

3 REVERSE WITH INKING PEN

—
36 1
—
4

5
—
32 3
—
16
1
—
8 5
—
32

3
—
32 1
—
8 ■ FIGURE 72 ■ The Berol Rapidesign 925
Berol.RapiDesign.
R-925 Template is Used to Quickly Create Guidelines for
LETTERING AID
Lettering.

72 ■ GUIDELINES FOR WHOLE NUMBERS numbers. Make the numerator and the denominator
AND FRACTIONS each about three-fourths as high as the whole number
Beginners should use guidelines for whole numbers and to allow enough space between them and the fraction
fractions. Draw five equally spaced guidelines for whole bar. For dimensioning, the most commonly used height
numbers and fractions, as shown in Figure 73. Frac- for whole numbers is 18 – (3.2 mm), and for fractions 14 –
tions are twice the height of the corresponding whole (6.4 mm), as shown in the figure.
Some of the most common errors in lettering frac-
tions are shown in Figure 74. To make fractions
appear correctly:
■ FIGURE 73 ■ Guide Lines for Dimension Figures.
• Never let numerals touch the fraction bar.
• Center the denominator under the numerator.
• Never use an inclined fraction bar, except when
lettering in a narrow space, as in a parts list.
• Make the fraction bar slightly longer than the
widest part of the fraction.

■ FIGURE 74 ■ Common Errors.

79
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

73 ■ SPACING OF LETTERS AND WORDS

Uniform spacing of letters is a matter of equalizing
spaces by eye. The background areas between letters,
not the distances between them, should be approxi-
mately equal. Equal distances from letter to letter caus-
es the letters to appear unequally spaced. Equal
background areas between letters results in an even
and pleasing spacing.
Some combinations, such as LT and VA, may even
have to be slightly overlapped to secure good spacing.
In some cases the width of a letter may be decreased. ■ FIGURE 75 ■ Centering Title in Title Box.
For example, the lower stroke of the L may be short-
ened when followed by A. These pairs of letters that
need to be spaced extra closely to appear correctly are
called kerned pairs in typesetting.
Space words well apart, but space letters closely
within words. Make each word a compact unit well sep-
arated from adjacent words. For either uppercase or
lowercase lettering, make the spaces between words
approximately equal to a capital O. Be sure to have
■ FIGURE 76 ■ Balanced Machine-Drawing Title.
space between rows of letters, usually equal to the let-
ter height. Rows spaced too closely are hard to read.
Rows that are too far apart do not appear related.
75 ■ WEB SITES FOR FURTHER INFORMATION
Check the sites below for engineering graphics supplies
74 ■ TITLES and equipment:
In most cases, the title and related information are let-
• http://www.reprint-draphix.com/
tered in title boxes or title strips, which may be printed
directly on the drawing paper or polyester film, as shown • http://www.eclipse.net/~essco/draft/draft.htm
in Figure 75. The main drawing title is usually centered • http://www.seventen.com/art_eng/index.html
in a rectangular space, which is easy to do in CAD.When These sites feature typography information:
lettering by hand, arrange the title symmetrically about • http://www.graphic-design.com/type/
an imaginary centerline, as shown in Figure 76. In any • http://www.webcom.com/cadware/letease2.html
kind of title, the most important words are given most
prominence by making the lettering larger, heavier, or To find other sites like these, use keywords like
both. Other data, such as scale and date, can be smaller. reprographic supplies or engineering type fonts.

KEY WORDS
CAD IRREGULAR CURVE OBLIQUE SERIF
SCALE LINE TYPE GRID PAPER INCLINED
ALPHABET OF LINES HORIZONTAL HIDDEN LINES STABILITY
PARALLEL DIAMETER CENTER LINES SPACING
VERTICAL TEMPLATE SHADING GUIDELINES
RADIUS COMPASS SKETCH TITLE BLOCK
DRAWING MEDIA DIVIDERS PROPORTIONS KERNED PAIRS
PROTRACTOR PERPENDICULAR LETTERING
TRIANGLE FREEHAND SKETCH GOTHIC
T-SQUARE CONSTRUCTION LINES ROMAN

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 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

CHAPTER SUMMARY
■ An understanding of the basic principles of drawing is ■ Sketching is a quick way of visualizing and solving a
required to draw either with a pencil or with CAD software. drawing problem. It is an effective way of communicating
■ The line weight (thickness) and type (dashed or solid) has with all members of the design team.
specific meaning in all technical drawings. This is called ■ There are special techniques for sketching lines, circles,
the alphabet of lines and is essential knowledge for every and arcs. These techniques should be practiced so they
drafter. become second nature.
■ Both CAD and traditional drawing have specific meth- ■ Moving your thumb up or down the length of a pencil at
ods for drawing lines, arcs, and circles. Proper under- arms length is an easy method for estimating proportion-
standing of the elements of this basic geometry is al size.
essential for both mechanical and CAD drawing. ■ Using a grid makes sketching in proportion an easy task.
■ Every drawing tool, including every CAD software pro- Grid paper comes in a variety of types, including square
gram, requires careful study of the tools and procedures grid and isometric grid.
for using the tools. Proper use of each tool facilitates the ■ You can sketch circles by constructing a square and locat-
creation of neat, accurate drawings. Improper use of a ing the four tangent points where the circle touches the
tool creates sloppy, inaccurate drawings. square.
■ The proper sizing of a drawing requires complete under- ■ A sketched line does not need to look like a mechanical
standing of the use of scales. Paper drawings are scaled line. The main distinction between instrumental drawing
before they are drawn. CAD drawings are scaled when and freehand sketching is the character or technique of
they are printed. the line work.
■ Complex circles and arcs are difficult to draw using either ■ Freehand sketches are made to proportion, but not nec-
CAD software or a mechanical compass. The prescribed essarily to a particular scale.
techniques for either tool require understanding of the ■ Notes and dimensions are added to sketches using upper-
proper technique and practice with the appropriate tool. case letters drawn by hand.
■ There are many drawing and printing media used in the ■ The standard shapes of letters used in engineering
creation of traditional drawings and the printing of CAD drawing have been developed to be legible and quick to
drawings. Each media type has specific advantages. Draw- produce.
ing and printing media are chosen based on the cost,
durability, image quality, and reproduction capability.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What tools are used to draw straight lines? 10. What are the main advantages of polyester film as a
2. What tools are used to draw arcs and circles? drawing media?

3. Draw the alphabet of lines and label each line. 11. What are the four standard types of projections?
12. What are the advantages of using grid paper for sketching?
4. Describe the proper technique for erasing a line using
an erasing shield. 13. What is the correct technique for sketching a circle or an arc?
5. Why is the pencil pulled and never pushed when draw- 14. Sketch the alphabet of lines. Which lines are thick?
ing lines? Which are thin? Which are very light and should not
reproduce when copied?
6. Which architects’ scale represents a size ratio of 1:24?
Which metric scale represents a half size? Which engi- 15. What is the advantage of sketching an object first
neering scale would be used for full size? before drawing it using CAD?
16. What is the difference between proportion and scale?
7. Which scale type is the only one to use fractions of an
inch? 17. What font provides the shape of standard engineering
lettering?
8. Is the bevel of a compass lead sharpened on the inside
or outside surface? 18. Describe the characteristics of good freehand lettering.
9. What are the minimum number of points that you 19. Why must guidelines always be used for lettering?
should connect when using an irregular curve? 20. How are sketches used in the design process?

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 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

DRAWING PROBLEMS
The constructions in Figs. 77 to 87 are to be drawn in Prob. 3 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw
pencil on Layout A–2. The steps in drawing this layout are views in pencil, as shown in Fig. 79. Omit all dimensions.
shown in Fig. 43. Draw all construction lines lightly, using Prob. 4 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw
a hard lead (4H to 6H), and all required lines dense black figures in pencil, as shown in Fig. 80. Use bow pencil for
with a softer lead (F to H). If construction lines are drawn all arcs and circles within it radius range. Omit all dimen-
properly—that is, lightly—they need not be erased in the sions.
final drawing.
Prob. 5 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw
If the layout is to be made on the A4 size sheet, width
views in pencil, as shown in Fig. 81. Use bow pencil for
dimensions for title-strip forms will need to be adjusted to
all arcs and circles within its radius range. Omit all dimen-
fit the available space.
sions.
The pencil drawings of Figs. 82 to 87 should be
done on tracing paper or vellum; then prints should be Prob. 6 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw in
made to show the effectiveness of the student’s technique. pencil the friction plate in Fig. 82. Omit dimensions and
If ink tracings are required, the originals may be drawn on notes.
film or on detail paper and then traced on vellum or tracing Prob. 7 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw
cloth. For any assigned problem, the instructor may require views in pencil of the seal cover in Fig. 83. Omit dimen-
that all dimensions and notes be lettered to afford further sions and notes.
lettering practice. Prob. 8 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw in
Since many of the problems in this chapter are of a gen- pencil the Geneva cam in Fig. 84. Omit dimensions and notes.
eral nature, they can also be solved on most computer graph-
ic systems. If a system is available, the instructor may choose Prob. 9 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw
to assign specific problems to be completed by this method. accurately in pencil the shear plate in Fig. 85. Give length
of KA. Omit other dimensions and notes.
Prob. 1 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), divide Prob. 10 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw in
working space into six equal rectangles and draw visible lines, pencil the ratchet wheel in Fig. 86. Omit dimensions and
as shown in Fig. 77. Draw construction lines AB through notes.
centers C at right angles to required lines; then along each
Prob. 11 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw in
construction line, set off 0.50– spaces and draw required visi-
pencil the latch plate in Fig. 87. Omit dimensions and notes.
ble lines. Omit dimensions and instructional notes.
Prob. 2 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), divide
Problems in convenient form for solution may be found in Technical
working space into six equal rectangles and draw lines as Drawing Problems, Series 1, by Giesecke, Mitchell, Spencer, Hill,
shown in Fig. 78. In the first two spaces, draw conventional Dygdon, and Novak; Technical Drawing Problems, Series 2, by
lines to match those in Fig. 9. In remaining spaces, locate Spencer, Hill, Dygdon, and Novak; and Technical Drawing Prob-
centers C by diagonals, and then work constructions out from lems, Series 3, by Spencer, Hill, Dygdon, and Novak; all designed to
them. Omit the metric dimensions and instructional notes. accompany this text and published by Prentice Hall.

■ FIGURE 77 ■ Using Layout A-2 or A4-2 (adjusted),

divide working space into six equal rectangles and draw
visible lines as shown. Draw construction lines AB
through centers C at right angles to required lines; then
along each construction line, set off 0.50– spaces and
draw required visible lines. Omit dimensions and
instructional notes.

82
Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 78 ■ Using Layout A–2 or A4–3 (adjusted), divide

working space into six equal rectangles, and draw lines as
shown. In first two spaces, draw conventional lines to match
those in Fig. 9. In remaining spaces, locate centers C by
diagonals, and then work constructions out from them. Omit the
metric dimensions and instructional notes.

■ FIGURE 79 ■ Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw

views in pencil as shown. Omit all dimensions.

■ FIGURE 80 ■ Using Layout A–2 or A4–3 (adjusted), draw

figures in pencil as shown. Use bow pencil for all arcs and circles
within its radius range. Omit all dimensions.

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 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 81 ■ Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw views in pencil as shown. Use bow pencil for all arcs and circles within its radius
range. Omit all dimensions.

■ FIGURE 82 ■ Friction Plate. Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 ■ FIGURE 83 ■ Seal Cover. Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted),
(adjusted), draw in pencil. Omit dimensions and notes. draw in pencil. Omit dimensions and notes.

84
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 84 ■ Geneva Cam. Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 ■ FIGURE 85 ■ Ratchet Wheel. Using Layout A–2 or A4–2
(adjusted), draw in pencil. Omit dimensions and notes. (adjusted), draw in pencil. Omit dimensions and notes.

■ FIGURE 86 ■ Shear Plate. Using Layout A–2 or A4–2

(adjusted), draw accurately in pencil. Give length of KA. Omit other ■ FIGURE 87 ■ Latch Plate. Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted),
dimensions and notes. draw in pencil. Omit dimensions and notes.

LETTERING PROBLEMS
Layouts for lettering problems are given in Figs. 88 Prob. 14 As shown in Fig. 90, lay out sheet, add vertical
through 91. Draw complete horizontal and vertical or or inclined guide lines, and fill in vertical or inclined capital
inclined guide lines very lightly. Draw the vertical or letters as assigned.
inclined guide lines through the full height of the lettered Prob. 15 As shown in Fig. 91, lay out sheet, add vertical
area of the sheet. For practice in ink lettering, the last two or inclined guide lines, and fill in vertical or inclined capital
lines and the title strip on each sheet may be lettered in letters as assigned.
ink, if assigned by the instructor. Omit all dimensions.
Prob. 12 As shown in Fig. 88, lay out sheet, add vertical
or inclined guide lines, and fill in vertical or inclined capital Lettering sheets in convenient form for lettering practice may be
found in Engineering Drawing Problems, Series 1, by Giesecke,
letters as assigned.
Mitchell, Spencer, Hill, Dygdon, and Novak; Engineering Drawing
Prob. 13 As shown in Fig. 89, lay out sheet, add vertical Problems, Series 2, by Spencer, Hill, Dygdon, and Novak; and Engi-
or inclined guide lines, and fill in vertical or inclined capital neering Drawing Problems, Series 3 by Davis and Juneau; all
letters as assigned. designed to accompany this text and published by Prentice Hall.

85
 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 88 ■ Prob. 12. ■ FIGURE 89 ■ Prob. 13.

■ FIGURE 90 ■ Prob. 14. ■ FIGURE 91 ■ Prob. 15.

86
Geometric Constructions

OBJECTIVES OVERVIEW
After studying the material in this chapter, you All traditional drawing and CAD drawing techniques are based on
should be able to: the construction of basic geometric elements. A point, line, arc, and
1. Identify and draw four different types of circle are the basic elements used to create the most complex draw-
lines. ings. The geometry of drawing is the same for traditional drawing
2. Identify and draw any size angle. and CAD drawing. The drafting student must understand basic geo-
3. Identify and draw four different types metric construction techniques in order to draw on paper or with
of triangles and five types of CAD, or to apply these geometric techniques to solving problems.
parallelograms. Pure geometry problems may be solved with only the compass
4. Identify and draw a regular triangle, and a straightedge, and in some cases these methods may be used to
square, hexagon, and octagon. advantage in technical drawing. However, drafters and designers
5. Divide a space into equal parts; divide have available the T-square, triangles, dividers, and other equip-
an angle in half; divide a line into equal ment, that can often yield accurate results more quickly by what we
parts. may term “preferred methods.” Therefore, many of the solutions in
6. Draw lines and arcs tangent to each this chapter are practical adaptations of the principles of pure
other. geometry.
7. Identify and draw several conic sec- This chapter is designed to present definitions of terms and geo-
tions. metric constructions of importance in technical drawing, suggest sim-
plified methods of construction, point out practical applications, and
8. Define the meaning of a tangent point
and construct its location on any tan- afford opportunity for practice in accurate instrumental drawing.
gent construction.

From Chapter 4 of Engineering Graphics, Eighth Edition, Frederick E. Giesecke,

Alva Mitchell, Henry Cecil Spencer, Ivan Leroy Hill, Robert Olin Loving, John
Thomas Dygdon, James E. Novak. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Published by Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.
 Geometric Constructions

■ FIGURE 1 ■ Points and Lines.

1 ■ POINTS AND LINES

A point represents a location in space or on a drawing
and has no width, height, or depth (Fig. 1). A point is
represented by the intersection of two lines (Fig. 1a),
by a short crossbar on a line (Fig. 1b), or by a small
cross (Fig. 1c). Never represent a point by a simple
dot on the paper.
A line is defined by Euclid as “that which has
length without breadth.” A straight line is the shortest
distance between two points and is commonly referred
to simply as a “line.” If the line is indefinite in extent,
the length is a matter of convenience, and the end-
points are not fixed (Fig. 1d). If the endpoints of the
line are significant, they must be marked by means of
small mechanically drawn crossbars (Fig. 1e). Other ■ FIGURE 2 ■ Angles.
common terms are illustrated in Figs. 1f to 1h.
Either straight lines or curved lines are parallel if the
shortest distance between them remains constant. The
common symbol for parallel lines is ƒ ƒ , and for perpen- The different kinds of angles are illustrated in Fig.
dicular lines it is ⬜ (singular) or ⬜ s (plural). Two per- 2b to 2e. Two angles are complementary (Fig. 2f) if
pendicular lines may be marked with a “box” to they total 90°, and are supplementary (Fig. 2g) if they
indicate perpendicularity, as shown in Fig. 1k. Such total 180°. Most angles used in technical drawing can
symbols may be used on sketches, but not on produc- be drawn easily with the T-square or straightedge and
tion drawings. triangles. To draw odd angles, use a protractor. For con-
siderable accuracy, use a vernier protractor, or the tan-
2 ■ ANGLES gent, sine, or chord methods (§19).
An angle is formed by two intersecting lines. A com-
mon symbol for angle is / (singular) or / s (plural) 3 ■ TRIANGLES
(Fig. 2). A triangle is a plane figure bounded by three straight
There are 360 degrees (360°) in a full circle, as sides, and the sum of the interior angles is always 180°
shown in Fig. 2a. A degree is divided into 60 minutes (Fig. 3). A right triangle (Fig. 3d) has one 90° angle,
160¿2, and a minute is divided into 60 seconds 160–2. and the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of
Thus, 37° 26¿ 10– is read 37 degrees, 26 minutes, and 10 the squares of the two sides (Fig. 3c). As shown in Fig.
seconds. When minutes alone are indicated, the num- 3f, any triangle inscribed in a semicircle is a right tri-
ber of minutes should be preceded by 0°, as in 0° 20¿. angle if the hypotenuse coincides with the diameter.

88
 Geometric Constructions

4 ■ QUADRILATERALS
A quadrilateral is a plane figure bounded by four
straight sides (Fig. 4). If the opposite sides are paral-
lel, the quadrilateral is also a parallelogram.

5 ■ POLYGONS
A polygon is any plane figure bounded by straight lines
(Fig. 5). If the polygon has equal angles and equal
sides, it can be inscribed in or circumscribed around a
circle and is called a regular polygon.

6 ■ CIRCLES AND ARCS

A circle is a closed curve, all points of which are the
same distance from a point called the center (Fig. 6a).
Circumference refers to the circle or to the distance
around the circle. This distance equals the diameter
multiplied by p (called pi) or 3.1416. Other definitions
■ FIGURE 3 ■ Triangles. are illustrated in Figs. 6b through 6e.

■ FIGURE 4 ■ Quadrilaterals.

■ FIGURE 5 ■ Regular Polygons.

■ FIGURE 6 ■ The Circle.

89
 Geometric Constructions

7 ■ SOLIDS a square base; and so on. If a portion near the vertex

has been cut off, the pyramid is truncated, or it is
Solids bounded by plane surfaces are called polyhedra referred to as a frustum.
(Fig. 7). The surfaces are called faces, and if the faces A cylinder is generated by a straight line, called the
are equal regular polygons, the solids are called regular generatrix, moving in contact with a curved line and
polyhedra. always remaining parallel to its previous position or to
A prism has two bases, which are parallel equal the axis. Each position of the generatrix is called an ele-
polygons, and three or more lateral faces, which are ment of the cylinder.
parallelograms. A triangular prism has a triangular A cone is generated by a straight line moving in
base; a rectangular prism has rectangular bases; and so contact with a curved line and passing through a fixed
on. If the bases are parallelograms, the prism is a paral- point, the vertex of the cone. Each position of the gen-
lelepiped. A right prism has faces and lateral edges per- eratrix is an element of the cone.
pendicular to the bases; an oblique prism has faces and A sphere is generated by a circle revolving about
laterals edge oblique to the bases. If one end is cut off one of its diameters. This diameter becomes the axis
to form an end and not parallel to the bases, the prism of the sphere, and the ends of the axis are poles of
is said to be truncated. the sphere.
A pyramid has a polygon for a base and triangu- A torus, which is shaped like a doughnut, is gener-
lar lateral faces intersecting at a common point ated by a circle (or other curve) revolving about an axis
called the vertex. The center line from the center of that is eccentric to the curve.
the base to the vertex is the axis. If the axis is per- An oblate or prolate ellipsoid is generated by revolv-
pendicular to the base, the pyramid is a right pyra- ing an ellipse about its minor or major axis, respectively.
mid; otherwise it is an oblique pyramid. A triangular
pyramid has a triangular base; a square pyramid has

■ FIGURE 7 ■ Solids.

90
 Geometric Constructions

Examples of Solids Created with CAD. Courtesy of SolidWorks Corporation.

8 ■ BISECTING A LINE OR CIRCULAR ARC 9 ■ BISECTING A LINE

Figure 8a shows the given line or arc AB to be bisected. WITH TRIANGLE AND T-SQUARE
As shown in Fig. 9, from endpoints A and B, draw con-
I. I. From A and B draw equal arcs with radius struction lines at 30°, 45°, or 60° with the given line; then
greater than half AB. through their intersection, C, draw a line perpendicular
II. and III. Join intersections D and E with a straight to the given line to locate the center D, as shown.
line to locate center C.
10 ■ BISECTING AN ANGLE
Figure 10a shows the given angle BAC to be bisected.
■ FIGURE 8 ■ Bisecting a Line or a Circular Arc (§8).
I. Strike large arc R.
II. Strike equal arcs r with radius slightly larger than
half BC, to intersect at D.
III. Draw line AD, which bisects the angle.

11 ■ TRANSFERRING AN ANGLE
Figure 11a shows the given angle BAC to be trans-
ferred to the new position at A¿B¿.

I. Use any convenient radius R, and strike arcs from

centers A and A¿.
II. Strike equal arcs r, and draw side A¿C¿.

12 ■ DRAWING A LINE THROUGH

A POINT AND PARALLEL TO A LINE
With given point P as center, and any convenient radius
R, strike arc CD to intersect the given line AB at E (Fig.
12a). With E as center and the same radius, strike arc

91
 Geometric Constructions

■ FIGURE 9 ■ Bisecting a Line with Triangle and T-square (§9).

■ FIGURE 10 ■ Bisecting an Angle (§10).

■ FIGURE 11 ■ Transferring an Angle (§11).

■ FIGURE 12 ■ Drawing a Line Through a Point Parallel to a Line (§12).

R¿ to intersect the given line at G. With PG as radius 13 ■ DRAWING A LINE PARALLEL TO A LINE
and E as center, strike arc r to locate point H. The line AND AT A GIVEN DISTANCE
PH is the required line. Let AB be the line and CD the given distance. As
shown in Fig. 13a, draw two arcs with points E and F
PREFERRED METHOD As shown in Fig. 12b, move the near A and B, respectively, as centers, and CD as radius.
triangle and T-square as a unit until the triangle lines The line GH, tangent to the arcs, is the required line.
up with given line AB; then slide the triangle until its
edge passes through the given point P. Draw CD, the PREFERRED METHOD With any point E of the line as
required parallel line. center and CD as radius, strike an arc JK (Fig. 13b).

92
 Geometric Constructions

■ FIGURE 13 ■ Drawing a Line Parallel to a Line at a Given Distance (§13).

■ FIGURE 14 ■ Dividing a Line into Equal Parts (§14).

Move the triangle and T-square as a unit until the III. Swing scale up until third unit falls on vertical line,
triangle lines up with the given line AB; then slide the and make tiny dots at each point, or prick points
triangle until its edge is tangent to the arc JK, and draw with dividers.
the required line GH. IV. Draw vertical construction lines through each
As shown in Fig. 13c, with centers selected at ran- point.
dom on the curved line AB and with CD as radius, draw
a series of arcs; then draw the required line tangent to Some practical applications of this method are
these arcs. shown in Fig. 16.

14 ■ DIVIDING A LINE INTO EQUAL PARTS

There are two methods for dividing a line into equal
parts. The first method is shown in Fig. 14:

I. Draw a light construction line at any convenient ■ FIGURE 15 ■ Dividing a Line into Equal Parts (§14).
angle from one end of line.
II. With dividers or scale, set off from intersection of
lines as many equal divisions as needed (in this
case, three).
III. Connect last division point to the other end of
line, using triangle and T-square, as shown.
IV. Slide triangle along T-square and draw parallel lines
through other division points, as shown.

The second method for dividing a line into equal

parts is shown in Fig. 15:

I. Draw vertical construction line at one end of

given line.
II. Set zero of scale at other end of line.

93
 Geometric Constructions

■ FIGURE 16 ■ Practical Applications of Dividing a Line into Equal Parts (§14).

15 ■ DIVIDING A LINE INTO PROPORTIONAL through O and the points 2 and 5 to divide AB into the
PARTS required proportional parts.
Let it be required to divide the line AB into three parts Given AB, divide into proportional parts, in this case
proportional to 2, 3, and 4. proportional to the square of x, where x = 1, 2, 3, Á
(Fig. 17c). Set zero of scale at end of line and set off
PREFERRED METHOD Draw a vertical line from point B divisions 4, 9, 16, Á . Join the last division to the other
(Fig. 17a). Select a scale of convenient size for a total end of the line, and draw parallel lines as shown. This
of nine units and set the zero of the scale at A. Swing method may be used for any power of x.
the scale up until the ninth unit falls on the vertical line.
Along the scale, set off points for 2, 3, and 4 units, as 16 ■ DRAWING A LINE THROUGH A POINT AND
shown. Draw vertical lines through these points. PERPENDICULAR TO A LINE
Draw a line CD parallel to AB and at any conve- The line AB and a point P (Fig. 18) are given.
nient distance (Fig. 17b). On this line, set off 2, 3, and
4 units, as shown. Draw lines through the ends of the WHEN THE POINT IS NOT ON THE LINE From P, draw any
two lines to intersect at the point O. Draw lines convenient inclined line, as PD (Fig. 18a). Find center

■ FIGURE 17 ■ Dividing a Line into Proportional Parts (§15).

■ FIGURE 18 ■ Drawing a Line Through a Point and Perpendicular to a Line (§16).

94
 Geometric Constructions

■ FIGURE 19 ■ Drawing a Triangle with Sides Given (§17).

C of line PD, and draw arc with radius CP. The line EP
is the required perpendicular.
With P as center, strike an arc to intersect AB at C
and D (Fig. 18b). With C and D as centers and radius
slightly greater than half CD, strike arcs to intersect at
E. The line PE is the required perpendicular.

WHEN THE POINT IS ON THE LINE With P as center and any

radius, strike arcs to intersect AB at D and G (Fig.
18c). With D and G as centers and radius slightly
greater than half DG, strike equal arcs to intersect at F. ■ FIGURE 20 ■ Drawing a Right Triangle (§18).
The line PF is the required perpendicular.
As shown in Fig. 18d, select any convenient unit
of length A for example, 6 mm or 14 – B . With P as center
and 3 units as radius, strike an arc to intersect the given 18 ■ DRAWING A RIGHT TRIANGLE WITH
line at C. With P as center and 4 units as radius, strike HYPOTENUSE AND ONE SIDE GIVEN
arc DE. With C as center and 5 units as radius, strike an Given sides S and R (Fig. 20), with AB as a diameter
arc to intersect DE at F. The line PF is the required per- equal to S, draw a semicircle. With A as center and R as
pendicular. radius, draw an arc intersecting the semicircle at C.
This method makes use of the 3–4–5 right triangle Draw AC and CB to complete the right triangle.
and is frequently used in laying off rectangular founda-
tions of large machines, buildings, or other structures.
For this purpose a steel tape may be used and distances
of 30¿, 40¿, and 50¿ measured as the three sides of the 19 ■ LAYING OUT AN ANGLE
right triangle. Many angles can be laid out directly with the triangle,
or they may be laid out with the protractor. Other
PREFERRED METHOD Move the triangle and T-square as methods, for which considerable accuracy is required,
a unit until the triangle lines up with AB (Fig. 18e); are discussed next (Fig. 21).
then slide the triangle until its edge passes through the
point P (whether P is on or off the line), and draw the TANGENT METHOD The tangent of angle u is y>x and
required perpendicular. y = x tan u. To construct the angle, assume a con-
venient value for x, preferably 10 units of convenient
length (Fig. 21a). (The larger the unit, the more
17 ■ DRAWING A TRIANGLE WITH SIDES GIVEN accurate will be the construction.) Find the tangent of
Given the sides A , B, and C, as shown in Fig. 19a: angle u in a table of natural tangents, multiply by 10,
and set off y = 10 tan u.
I. Draw one side, as C, in desired position, and strike
arc with radius equal to side A. EXAMPLE To set off 3112°, find the natural tangent
II. Strike arc with radius equal to side B. of 3112°, which is 0.6128. Then
III. Draw sides A and B from intersection of arcs, as
shown. y = 10 units * 0.6128 = 6.128 units.

95
 Geometric Constructions

■ FIGURE 21 ■ Laying Out Angles (§19).

SINE METHOD Draw line x to any convenient length,

preferably 10 units (Fig. 21b). Find the sine of angle u
in a table of natural sines, multiply by 10, and strike arc
R = 10 sin u. Draw the other side of the angle tangent
to the arc, as shown.

EXAMPLE To set off 25 12°, find the natural sine of

25 12°, which is 0.4304. Then

R = 10 units * 0.4305 = 4.305 units.

CHORD METHOD Draw line x to any convenient length,

and draw arc with any convenient radius R—say 10
units (Fig. 21c). Find the chordal length C in a table of
chords (see a machinists’ handbook), and multiply the
value by 10 since the table is made for a radius of 1 unit.

EXAMPLE To set off 43° 20¿, the chordal length C

■ FIGURE 22 ■ Drawing an Equilateral Triangle (§20).
for 1 unit radius, as given in a table of chords, equals
0.7384; and if R = 10 units, then C = 7.384 units.

If a table is not available, the chord C may be cal-

culated by the formula C = 2 sin u>2.
perpendicular at C. With B and C as centers and AB
as radius, strike arcs to intersect at D. Draw lines CD
EXAMPLE Half of 43° 20¿ = 21°40¿. The sine of
and BD.
21° 40¿ = 0.3692. C = 2 * 0.3692 = 0.7384 for a 1
unit radius. For a 10 unit radius, C = 7.384 units.
PREFERRED METHOD One side AB (Fig. 23b) is given.
Using the T-square or parallel straightedge and 45°
20 ■ DRAWING AN EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE triangle, draw lines AC and BD perpendicular to AB
Side AB is given. With A and B as centers and AB as and the lines AD and BC at 45° with AB. Draw line CD.
radius, strike arcs to intersect at C (Fig. 22a). Draw
lines AC and BC to complete the triangle. PREFERRED METHOD Given the circumscribed circle
(distance “across corners”), draw two diameters at right
PREFERRED METHOD Draw lines through points A and angles to each other (Fig. 23c). The intersections of
B, making angles of 60° with the given line and these diameters with the circle are vertexes of an
intersecting C (Fig. 22b). inscribed square.

PREFERRED METHOD Given the inscribed circle (Fig.

21 ■ DRAWING A SQUARE 23d) (distance “across flats,” as in drawing bolt
One side AB (Fig. 23a) is given. Through point A, heads), use the T-square (or parallel straightedge)
draw a perpendicular (see Fig. 18c). With A as cen- and 45° triangle and draw the four sides tangent to
ter and AB as radius, draw the arc to intersect the the circle.

96
 Geometric Constructions

■ FIGURE 23 ■ Drawing a Square (§21).

22 ■ DRAWING A REGULAR PENTAGON 23 ■ DRAWING A HEXAGON

Given the circumscribed circle, do the following: The circumscribed circle (Fig. 25) as given. Each side
of a hexagon is equal to the radius of the circumscribed
PREFERRED METHOD Divide the circumference of the circle (Fig. 25a). Therefore, using the compass or
circle into five equal parts with the dividers, and join dividers and the radius of the circle, set off the six sides
the points with straight lines (Fig. 24a). of the hexagon around the circle, and connect the
points with straight lines. As a check on the accuracy of
GEOMETRICAL METHOD As shown in Fig. 24b: the construction, make sure that opposite sides of the
I. Bisect radius OD at C. hexagon are parallel.
II. With C as center and CA as radius, strike arc AE. PREFERRED METHOD This construction (Fig. 25b) is a
With A as center and AE as radius, strike arc EB. variation of the one shown in Fig. 25a. Draw vertical and
III. Draw line AB; then set off distances AB around the horizontal center lines.With A and B as centers and radius
circumference of the circle, and draw the sides equal to that of the circle, draw arcs to intersect the circle
through these points. at C, D, E, and F, and complete the hexagon as shown.

■ FIGURE 24 ■ Drawing a Pentagon (§22).

■ FIGURE 25 ■ Drawing a Hexagon (§23).

97
 Geometric Constructions

■ FIGURE 26 ■ Drawing a Hexagon (§23).

Given the circumscribed circle (distance “across 24 ■ DRAWING AN OCTAGON

corners”) (Figs. 26a and 26b), draw vertical and hori- Given an inscribed circle, or distance “across flats” (Fig.
zontal center lines, and then diagonals AB and CD at 30° 28a), use a T-square or straightedge and a 45° triangle
or 60° with horizontal; finally, with the 30° * 60° trian- to draw the eight sides tangent to the circle, as shown.
gle and the T-square, draw the six sides as shown. Given a circumscribed square, or distance “across
Given the inscribed circle (distance “across flats”) flats” (Fig. 28b), draw diagonals of square; then with
(Figs. 26c and 26d), draw vertical and horizontal the corners of the given square as centers and with half
center lines; then with the 30° * 60° triangle and the the diagonal as radius, draw arcs cutting the sides as
T-square or straightedge, draw the six sides tangent to shown in I. Using a T-square and 45° triangle, draw the
the circle. This method is used in drawing bolt heads eight sides, as shown in II.
and nuts. For maximum accuracy, diagonals may be
added, as in Figs. 26a and 26b.
As shown in Fig. 27, use the 30° * 60° triangle
and the T-square or straightedge; draw lines in the 25 ■ TRANSFERRING PLANE FIGURES BY
order shown in Fig. 27a, where the distance AB GEOMETRIC METHODS
(“across corners”) is given or, as shown in Fig. 27b, TRANSFERRING A TRIANGLE TO A NEW LOCATION Set off any
where a side CD is given. side of the given triangle (Fig. 29a), such as AB, in the
new location (Fig. 29b). With the ends of the line as
centers and the lengths of the other sides of the given
■ FIGURE 27 ■ Drawing a Hexagon (§23). triangle as radii, strike two arcs to intersect at C. Join C
to A and B to complete the triangle.

TRANSFERRING A POLYGON BY THE TRIANGLE METHOD Divide

the polygon into triangles as shown, and transfer each
triangle as explained previously (Fig. 29c).

TRANSFERRING A POLYGON BY THE RECTANGLE METHOD

Circumscribe a rectangle abut the given polygon (Fig.
29d). Draw a congruent rectangle in the new location
and locate the vertexes of the polygon by transferring
location measurements a, b, c, and so on along the
sides of the rectangle to the new rectangle. Join the
points thus found to complete the figure.

TRANSFERRING IRREGULAR FIGURES Figures composed of

rectangular and circular forms are readily transferred
by enclosing the elementary features in rectangles and
determining centers of arcs and circles (Fig. 29e).
These may then be transferred to the new location.

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 Geometric Constructions

■ FIGURE 28 ■ Drawing an Octagon (§24). Photo by Laima Druskis.

TRANSFERRING FIGURES BY OFFSET MEASUREMENTS Offset small dot directly over each important point of the
location measurements are frequently useful in drawing. Encircle each dot so it is not lost. Remove the
transferring figures composed of free curves (Fig. 29f). tracing paper, place it over the paper to receive the
When the figure has been enclosed by a rectangle, the transferred drawing, and maneuver the tracing paper
sides of the rectangle are used as reference lines for the into the desired position. With a needle point (such as a
location of points along the curve. point of the dividers), prick through each dot. Remove
the tracing paper and connect the pricked points to
TRANSFERRING FIGURES BY A SYSTEM OF SQUARES Figures reproduce the lines of the original drawing.
involving free curves are easily copied, enlarged, or To reproduce arcs or circles, it is only necessary to
reduced by the use of a system of squares (Fig. 29g). transfer the center and one point on the circumference.
For example, to enlarge a figure to double size, draw To duplicate a free curve, transfer as many pricked
the containing rectangle and all small squares double points on the curve as desired.
their original size. Then draw the lines through the
corresponding points in the new set of squares. TRACING METHOD Lay tracing paper over the drawing
to be transferred, and make a pencil tracing of it. Turn
the tracing paper over and mark over the lines with
26 ■ TRANSFERRING DRAWINGS BY short strokes of a soft pencil to provide a coating of
TRACING-PAPER METHODS graphite over every line. Turn tracing face up and
To transfer a drawing to an opaque sheet, the following fasten in position where drawing is to be transferred.
procedures may be used. Trace over all lines of the tracing, using a hard pencil.
The graphite on the back acts as a carbon paper and
PRICKED-POINT METHOD Lay tracing paper over the will produce dim but definite lines. Heavy in the dim
drawing to be transferred. With a sharp pencil, make a lines to complete the transfer.

■ FIGURE 29 ■ Transferring a Plane Figure (§25).

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 Geometric Constructions

■ FIGURE 30 ■ Transferring a Symmetrical Half (§26).

If one half of a symmetrical object has been drawn to the same ratio. Thus, if full-size dimensions are laid
(Fig. 30), such as the ink bottle in I, the other half off along the vertical line, the enlarged dimensions will
may be drawn with the aid of tracing paper, as follows: appear along the horizontal line, as shown.
To enlarge or reduce a rectangle (say, a photo-
I. Trace the half already drawn. graph), a simple method is to use the diagonal, as
II. Turn tracing paper over and maneuver to the position shown in Fig. 31b. A simple method of enlarging or
for the right half.Then trace over the lines freehand or reducing a drawing is to make use of radial lines (Fig.
mark over the lines with short strokes, as shown. 31c). The original drawing is placed underneath a
III. Remove the tracing paper, revealing the dim im- sheet of tracing paper, and the enlarged or reduced
printed lines for the right half. Heavy in these lines drawing is made directly on the tracing paper.
to complete the drawing.
28 ■ DRAWING A CIRCLE THROUGH THREE
27 ■ ENLARGING OR REDUCING A DRAWING POINTS
The construction shown in Fig. 31a is an adaptation I. Let A, B, and C be the three given points not in a
of the parallel-line method (Figs. 12 and 13); it may straight line (Fig. 32a). Draw lines AB and BC,
be used to enlarge or reduce any group of dimensions which will be chords of the circle. Draw perpen-

■ FIGURE 31 ■ Enlarging or Reducing (§27).

■ FIGURE 32 ■ Finding Center of Circle (§§28 and 29).

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 Geometric Constructions

■ FIGURE 33 ■ Drawing a Circle Tangent to a Line (§30).

dicular bisectors EO and DO intersecting at O 31 ■ DRAWING A TANGENT TO A CIRCLE

(see Fig. 8). THROUGH A POINT
II. With center at O, draw required circle through the PREFERRED METHOD Given point P on the circle (Fig.
points. 34a), move the T-square and triangle as a unit until
one side of the triangle passes through the point P and
the center of the circle; then slide the triangle until the
29 ■ FINDING THE CENTER OF A CIRCLE
other side passes through point P, and draw the re-
Draw any chord AB, preferably horizontal as shown quired tangent.
(Fig. 32b). Draw perpendiculars from A and B, cutting Given point P outside the circle (Fig. 34b), move
the circle at D and E. Draw diagonals DB and EA whose the T-square and triangle as a unit until one side of the
intersection C will be the center of the circle. This triangle passes through point P and, by inspection, is
method uses the principle that any right triangle tangent to the circle; then slide the triangle until the
inscribed in a circle cuts off a semicircle (see Fig. 3f). other side passes through the center of the circle, and
Another method, slightly longer, is to reverse the lightly mark the point of tangency T. Finally, move the
procedure of Fig. 32a. Draw any two nonparallel triangle back to its starting position, and draw the
chords and draw perpendicular bisectors. The intersec- required tangent.
tion of the bisectors will be the center of the circle. In both constructions either triangle may be used.
Also, a second triangle may be used in place of the
30 ■ DRAWING A CIRCLE TANGENT TO A LINE T-square.
AT A GIVEN POINT
Given a line AB and a point P on the line (Fig. 33a): 32 ■ DRAWING TANGENTS TO TWO CIRCLES
Move the triangle and T-square as a unit until one side
I. At P, erect a perpendicular to the line. of the triangle is tangent, by inspection, to the two cir-
II. Set off the radius of the required circle on the per- cles (Figs. 35a and 35b); then slide the triangle until
pendicular. the other side passes through the center of one circle,
III. Draw a circle with radius CP. and lightly mark the point of tangency. Then slide the

■ FIGURE 34 ■ Drawing a Tangent to a Circle Through a Point (§31).

101
 Geometric Constructions

■ FIGURE 35 ■ Drawing Tangents to Two Circles (§32).

triangle until the slide passes through the center of the arc with radius equal to that of the given arc plus R. The
other circle, and mark the point of tangency. Finally, intersection C of the arcs is the center of the required
slide the triangle back to the tangent position, and draw tangent arc.
the tangent lines between the two points of tangency.
Draw the second tangent line in a similar manner.
34 ■ DRAWING AN ARC TANGENT TO TWO
LINES AT RIGHT ANGLES
33 ■ DRAWING AN ARC TANGENT TO A LINE I. Two lines are given at right angles to each other
OR ARC AND THROUGH A POINT (Fig. 37a).
Given line AB, point P, and radius R (Fig. 36a), draw II. With given radius R, strike arc intersecting given
line DE parallel to the given line and distance R from it. lines at tangent points T.
From P draw arc with radius R, cutting line DE at C, the III. With given radius R again, and with points T as
center of the required tangent arc. centers, strike arcs intersecting at C.
Given line AB, with tangent point Q on the line
IV. With C as center and given radius R, draw the re-
and point P (Fig. 36b), draw PQ, which will be a chord
quired tangent arc.
of the required arc. Draw perpendicular bisector DE,
and at Q erect a perpendicular to the line to intersect For small radii, such as 18 R for fillets and rounds, it is
DE at C, the center of the required tangent arc. not practicable to draw complete tangency construc-
Given arc with center Q, point P, and radius R (Fig. tions. Instead, draw a 45° bisector of the angle and locate
36c), from P, strike arc with radius R. From Q, strike the center of the arc by trial along this line (Fig. 37b).

■ FIGURE 36 ■ Tangents (§33).

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 Geometric Constructions

■ FIGURE 37 ■ Drawing a Tangent Arc in a Right Angle (§34).

Note that the center C can be located by inter- 36 ■ DRAWING AN ARC TANGENT TO AN ARC
secting lines parallel to the given lines, as shown in AND A STRAIGHT LINE
Fig. 13b. The circle template can also be used to I. An arc with radius G and a straight line AB (Figs.
draw the arcs R for the parallel line method of Fig. 39a and 39b) are given.
13b. While the circle template is convenient to use for
II. Draw a straight line and an arc parallel, respec-
small radii up to about 58 – or 16 mm, the diameter of
tively, to the given straight line and arc at the
the template circle is precisely equal to twice the
required radius distance R from them, to intersect
required radius.
at C, the required center.
III. From C, drop a perpendicular to the given straight
35 ■ DRAWING AN ARC TANGENT TO TWO line to obtain one point of tangency T. Join the
LINES AT ACUTE OR OBTUSE ANGLES centers C and O with a straight line to locate the
I. Two lines intersecting not making 90° with each other point of tangency T.
other (Fig. 38a and 38b) are given. IV. With center C and given radius R, draw the re-
II. Draw lines parallel to given lines, at distance R quired tangent arc between the points of tan-
from them, to intersect at C, the required center. gency.
III. From C, drop perpendiculars to the given lines,
respectively, to locate tangent points T. 37 ■ DRAWING AN ARC TANGENT
IV. With C as center and with given radius R, draw TO TWO ARCS
the required tangent arc between the points of I. Arcs with centers A and B and required radius R
tangency. (Figs. 40a and 40b) are given.

■ FIGURE 38 ■ Drawing Tangent Arcs (§35).

103
 Geometric Constructions

■ FIGURE 39 ■ Drawing an Arc Tangent to an Arc and a Straight Line (§36).

■ FIGURE 40 ■ Drawing an Arc Tangent to Two Arcs (§37).

II. With A and B as centers, draw arcs parallel to the radius of small circle) and HK - R (given radius
given arcs and at a distance R from them; their inter- minus radius of large circle) intersecting at G, the
section C is the center of the required tangent arc. center of the required tangent arc. Lines of centers
III. Draw lines of centers AC and AC to locate points GA and GB (extended) determine points of tangency
of tangency T, and draw the required tangent arc T (Fig. 41a).
between the points of tangency, as shown.
REQUIRED ARC ENCLOSES ONE GIVEN ARC With C and D as
centers, strike arcs HK + r (given radius plus radius of
38 ■ DRAWING AN ARC TANGENT TO TWO small circle) and HK - R (given radius minus radius of
ARCS AND ENCLOSING ONE OR BOTH large circle) intersecting at G, the center of the required
REQUIRED ARC ENCLOSES BOTH GIVEN ARCS With A and B tangent arc. Lines of centers GC and GD (extended)
as centers, strike arcs HK + r (given radius minus determine points of tangency T (Fig. 41b).

104
 Geometric Constructions

■ FIGURE 41 ■ Drawing an Arc Tangent to Two Arcs and Enclosing One or Both (§38).

43a). At A and B, erect perpendiculars AF and BC.

Draw perpendicular bisectors of AT and BT. The
intersections F and C of these bisectors and the
perpendiculars, respectively, are the centers of the
required tangent arcs.
Let MAB and CD be the two parallel lines, with
point B as one end of the curve and R the given radii (Fig.
43b). At B, erect perpendicular to AB, make BG = R,
■ FIGURE 42 ■ Drawing a Series of Tangent Arcs Conforming to
a Curve (§39). and draw the arc as shown. Draw line SP parallel to CD
at distance R from CD. With center G, draw the arc of
radius 2R, intersecting line SP at O. Draw perpendicular
39 ■ DRAWING A SERIES OF TANGENT ARCS OJ to locate tangent point J, and join centers G and O to
CONFORMING TO A CURVE locate point of tangency T. Using centers G and O and
radius R, draws the two tangent arcs as shown.
First sketch lightly a smooth curve as desired (Fig. 42).
By trial, find a radius R and a center C, producing an arc CONNECTING TWO NONPARALLEL LINES Let AB and CD be
AB that closely follows that portion of the curve. The the two nonparallel lines (Fig. 43c). Erect
successive centers D, E, and so on will be on lines joining perpendicular to AB at B. Select point G on the
the centers with the points of tangency, as shown. perpendicular so that BG equals any desired radius,
and draw the arc as shown. Erect perpendicular to CD
at C and make CE = BG. Join G to E and bisect it. The
40 ■ DRAWING AN OGEE CURVE intersection F of the bisector and the perpendicular
CONNECTING TWO PARALLEL LINES Let NA and BM be the CE, extended, is the center of the second arc. Join
two parallel lines. Draw AB, and assume inflection centers of the two arcs to locate tangent point T, the
point T (at midpoint if two equal arcs are desired) (Fig. inflection point of the curve.

■ FIGURE 43 ■ Drawing an Ogee Curve (§40).

105
 Geometric Constructions

shorter than the given arc AB. If the angle subtended by

each division is 10°, the error is approximately 1 in 830.*

43 ■ SETTING OFF A GIVEN LENGTH ALONG

A GIVEN ARC
To transfer distances from the tangent line to the arc,
reverse the preceding method (Fig. 45c).
To set off the length BC along the arc BA, draw BC
■ FIGURE 44 ■ Drawing Two Curves Tangent to Three
tangent to the arc at B (Fig. 45d). Divide BC into four
Intersecting Lines (§41).
equal parts. With center at 1, the first division point, and
radius 1–C, draw the arc CA. The arc BA is practically
equal to BC for angles less than 30°. For 45° the difference
41 ■ DRAWING A CURVE TANGENT TO THREE is approximately 1 in 3232, and for 60° it is about 1 in 835.
INTERSECTING LINES
Let AB, BC, and CD be the given lines (Fig. 44a and 44 ■ THE CONIC SECTIONS
44b). Select point of tangency P at any point on line
The conic sections are curves produced by planes inter-
BC. Make BT equal to BP, and CS equal to CP, and
secting a right circular cone (Fig. 46). Four types of
erect perpendiculars at the points P, T, and S. Their
curves are produced: the circle, ellipse, parabola, and
intersections O and Q are the centers of the required
hyperbola, according to the position of the planes, as
tangent arcs.
shown. These curves were studied in detail by the
ancient Greeks and are of great interest in mathemat-
42 ■ RECTIFYING A CIRCULAR ARC ics, as well as in technical drawing. For equations, see
To rectify an arc is to lay out its true length along a any text on analytic geometry.
straight line.The constructions are approximate, but well
within the range of accuracy of drawing instruments. 45 ■ ELLIPSE CONSTRUCTION
TO RECTIFY A QUADRANT OF A CIRCLE, AB Draw AC The long axis of an ellipse is the major axis and the short
tangent to the circle BC at 60° to AC, as shown (Fig. axis is the minor axis (Fig. 47a). The foci E and F are
45a). The line AC is almost equal to the arc AB; the found by striking arcs with radius equal to half the major
difference in length is about 1 in 240. axis and with center at the end of the minor axis. Anoth-
er method is to draw a semicircle with the major axis as
TO RECTIFY ARC, AB Draw tangent at B (Fig. 45b). diameter, and then to draw GH parallel to the major axis
Draw chord AB and extend it to C, making BC equal to and GE and HF parallel to the minor axis as shown.
half AB. With C as center and radius CA, strike the arc An ellipse is generated by a point moving so that
AD. The tangent BD is slightly shorter than the given the sum of its distances from two points (the foci) is con-
arc AB. For an angle of 45° the difference in length is stant and equal to the major axis. As shown in Fig. 47b,
about 1 in 2866. an ellipse may be constructed by placing a looped string
Use the bow dividers and, beginning at A, set off
equal distances until the division point nearest B is *If the angle u subtending an arc of radius R is known, the length of
reached (Fig. 45c). At this point, reverse the direction the arc is
and set off an equal number of distances along the tan- u
2pR = 0.01745Ru.
gent to determine point C. The tangent BC is slightly 360°

■ FIGURE 45 ■ Rectifying Circular Arcs

(§§42 and 43).

106
 Geometric Constructions

■ FIGURE 46 ■ Conic Sections (§44).

■ FIGURE 47 ■ Ellipse Constructions (§45).

around the foci E and F and around C, one end of the left more closely), equal to the number of points
minor axis, and moving the pencil point P along its max- desired in each quadrant of the ellipse. In this
imum orbit while the string is kept taut. figure, five points were deemed sufficient. For
large ellipses, more points should be used—
46 ■ DRAWING A FOCI ELLIPSE enough to ensure a smooth, accurate curve.
Begin construction with any one of these points,
Let AB be the major axis and CD the minor axis (Fig.
such as 3. With E and F as centers and radii A–3
48). This method is the geometrical counterpart of
and B–3, respectively (from the ends of the
the pin-and-string method. Keep the construction very
major axis to point 3), strike arcs to intersect at
light, as follows:
four points 3¿, as shown. Using the remaining
I. To find foci E and F, strike arcs R with radius equal points 1, 2, 4, and 5, for each find four addition-
to half the major axis and with centers at the ends al points on the ellipse in the same manner.
of the minor axis. III. Sketch the ellipse lightly through the points; then
II. Between E and O on the major axis, mark at ran- heavy in the final ellipse with the aid of an irregu-
dom a number of points (spacing those on the lar curve.

■ FIGURE 48 ■ Drawing a Foci Ellipse (§46).

107
 Geometric Constructions

Graphics
Spotlight Virtual Reality on the PC
At DaimlerChrysler, an investment of somewhere in the now able to run on inexpensive PCs using the standard
region of 20 million eurodollars was required to produce systems Windows NT and Linux.
DB View—a visualization program developed by Daimler- Various business units at DaimlerChrysler are already
Chrysler scientists at the Virtual Reality Competence Cen- successfully using the virtual reality tool in a range of appli-
ter. The center is located at the company’s research center cations, including equipment texts and vehicle ergonomics.
in the German city of Ulm. One of the main benefits so far has been shorter develop-
In the end, all of the cost and effort was more than ment times.
worth it, however, since use of the program by 140 Daim-
lerChrysler employees is now leading to a reduction in
product development times.
What’s more, the program is now being marketed by
Debis IT Systems under the name Virtual Product Explorer
(VPE). In addition, Debis IT Systems is responsible for pro-
viding training and product support. The company also
handles errors and deals with individual requirements.
External users can therefore also profit from the 3D dis-
play program. VPE not only visually depicts design data,
but it can also be used to display airflow or temperature
distribution, thereby enabling the testing of vehicle comfort
to be simulated on a computer. A major advantage of the
system is that while the program originally required expen-
sive high-performance computers, most applications are Courtesy of DaimlerChrysler AG.

47 ■ DRAWING A TRAMMEL ELLIPSE trammel distances equal to the semimajor (AC or BC)
and semiminor (DC or EC) axes. With the short tram-
A “long trammel” or a “short trammel” may be pre-
mel, these distances overlap; with the long trammel they
pared from a small strip of stiff paper or thin cardboard
are end to end. To use either method, place the trammel
(Fig. 49). In both cases, set off on the edge of the
so that two of the points are on the respective axes, as
shown; the third point will then be on the curve and can
■ FIGURE 49 ■ Drawing a Trammel Ellipse (§47). be marked with a small dot. Find additional points by
moving the trammel to other positions, always keeping
the two points exactly on the respective axes. Extend
the axes to use the long trammel. Find enough points to
ensure a smooth and symmetrical ellipse. Sketch the
ellipse lightly through the points; then heavy in the
ellipse with the aid of an irregular curve.

48 ■ DRAWING A CONCENTRIC-CIRCLE
ELLIPSE
If a circle is viewed so that the line of sight is perpendicu-
lar to the plane of the circle, as shown for the silver dollar
in Fig. 50a, the circle will appear as a circle, in true size

108
 Geometric Constructions

■ FIGURE 50 ■ Drawing a Concentric-Circle Ellipse (§48).

and shape. If the circle is viewed at an angle, as shown in

Fig. 50b, it will appear as an ellipse. If the circle is viewed
edgewise, it appears as a straight line, as shown in Fig.
50c. The case shown in Fig. 50b is the basis for the con-
struction of an ellipse by the concentric-circle method,
which follows. (Keep the construction very light.)

I. Draw circles on the major and minor axes, using

them as diameters; draw any diagonal XX through
center O. From the points X, where the diagonal ■ FIGURE 51 ■ Oblique-Circle Ellipse (§49).
intersects the large circle, draw lines XE parallel to
the minor axis, and from the points H, where the
diagonal intersects the small circle, draw lines HE ter at C and radius CA, draw a circle; draw the diame-
parallel to the major axis. The intersections E are ter GF perpendicular to AB, and draw lines joining
points on the ellipse. Two additional points, S and points D and F and points G and E.
R, can be found by extending lines XE and HE, giv- Assume that the required ellipse is an oblique pro-
ing a total of four points from the one diagonal jection of the circle just drawn; the points D and E of
XX. the ellipse are the oblique projections of the points F
and G of the circle, respectively; similarly, the points P
II. Draw as many additional diagonals as needed to
and Q are the oblique projections of the points R and S,
provide a sufficient number of points for a smooth
respectively. The points P and Q are determined by
and symmetrical ellipse, each diagonal accounting
assuming point X at any point on AB and drawing the
for four points on the ellipse. Notice that where
lines RS and PQ and RP and SQ, parallel, respectively,
the curve is sharpest (near the ends of the ellipse),
to GF and DE and FD and GE.
the points are constructed closer together to
Determine at least five points in each quadrant
determine the curve better.
(more for larger ellipses) by assuming additional points
III. Sketch the ellipse lightly through the points, and on the major axis and proceeding as explained for
then heavy in the final ellipse with the aid of an ir- point X. Sketch the ellipse lightly through the points;
regular curve.† then heavy in the final ellipse with the aid of an irregu-
lar curve.
49 ■ DRAWING AN ELLIPSE ON CONJUGATE
DIAMETERS: THE OBLIQUE-CIRCLE METHOD 50 ■ DRAWING A PARALLELOGRAM ELLIPSE
Let AB and DE be the given conjugate diameters (Fig. Given the major and minor axes, or the conjugate
51). Two diameters are conjugate when each is parallel diameters AB and CD, draw a rectangle or parallel-
to the tangents at the extremities of the other. With cen- ogram with sides parallel to the axes, respectively (Fig.
52a and 52b). Divide AO and AJ into the same
†In Fig. 50, part I, the ordinate EZ of the ellipse is to the corre- number of equal parts, and draw light lines through
sponding ordinate XZ of the circle as b is to a, where b represents the
semi-minor axis and a the semimajor axis. Thus, the area of the ellipse
these points from the ends of the minor axis, as shown.
is equal to the area of the circumscribed circle multiplied by b/a; The intersection of like-numbered lines will be points
hence, it is equal to pab. on the ellipse. Locate points in the remaining three

109
 Geometric Constructions

intersect at center O as shown. The axes are then found

as shown in Fig. 53a.
Conjugate diameters AB and CD only are given
(Fig. 53c). With O as center and CD as diameter,
draw a circle. Through center O and perpendicular to
CD, draw line EF. From points E and F, where this per-
pendicular intersects the circle, draw lines FA and EA to
form angle FAE. Draw the bisector AG of this angle.
The major axis JK will be parallel to this bisector, and
the minor axis LM will be perpendicular to it. The
length AH will be one half the major axis, and HF one
half the minor axis. The resulting major and minor axes
are JK and LM, respectively.

52 ■ DRAWING A TANGENT TO AN ELLIPSE

CONCENTRIC-CIRCLE CONSTRUCTION To draw a tangent at
any point on an ellipse, such as E, draw the ordinate at
E to intersect the circle at V (Fig. 54a). Draw a
tangent to the circumscribed circle at V (§31), and
■ FIGURE 52 ■ Parallelogram Ellipse (§50). extend it to intersect the major axis extended at G. The
line GE is the required tangent.
To draw a tangent from a point outside the ellipse,
quadrants in a similar manner. Sketch the ellipse light- such as P, draw the ordinate PY and extend it. Draw
ly through the points; then heavy in the final ellipse DP, intersecting the major axis at X. Draw FX and
with the aid of an irregular curve. extend it to intersect the ordinate through P at Q.
Then, from similar triangles QY:PY = OF:OD. Draw a
51 ■ FINDING THE AXES OF AN ELLIPSE WITH tangent to the circle from Q, (§31), find the point of
CONJUGATE DIAMETERS GIVEN tangency R, and draw the ordinate at R to intersect the
ellipse at Z. The line ZP is the required tangent. As a
Conjugate diameters AB and CD and the ellipse are check on the drawing, the tangents RQ and ZP should
given (Fig. 53a). With intersection O of the conjugate intersect at a point on the major axis extended. Two
diameters (center of ellipse) as center, and any conve- tangents to the ellipse can be drawn from point P.
nient radius, draw a circle to intersect the ellipse in four
points. Join these points with straight lines, as shown; FOCI CONSTRUCTION To draw a tangent at any point on
the resulting quadrilateral will be a rectangle whose the ellipse, such as point 3, draw the focal radii E–3 and
sides are parallel, respectively, to the required major F–3, extend one, and bisect the exterior angle, as shown
and minor axes. Draw the axes EF and GH parallel to in Fig. 54b. The bisector is the required tangent.
the sides of the rectangle. To draw a tangent from any point outside the
An ellipse only is given (Fig. 53b). To find the ellipse, such as point P, with center at P and radius PF,
center of the ellipse, draw a circumscribing rectangle or strike an arc as shown. With center at E and radius AB,
parallelogram about the ellipse; then draw diagonals to strike an arc to intersect the first arc at points U. Draw

■ FIGURE 53 ■ Finding the Axes of an

Ellipse (§51).

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 Geometric Constructions

found to be about 49°; hence the 50° ellipse template is

indicated. Ellipse templates are generally available in
ellipse angles at 5° intervals, such as 15°, 20°, and 25°.
The 50° template provides a variety of sizes of 50°
ellipses, and it is only necessary to select the one that
fits. If the ellipse angle is not easily determined, you can
always look for the ellipse that is approximately as long
and as “fat” as the ellipse to be drawn.
A simple construction for finding the ellipse angle
when the views are not available is shown in Fig. 55c.
Using center O, strike arc BF; then draw CE parallel to
the major axis. Draw diagonal OE, and measure angle
EOB with a protractor. Use the ellipse template nearest
to this angle; in this case a 35° template is selected.
Since it is not feasible to have ellipse openings for
every exact size that may be required, it is often neces-
sary to use the template somewhat in the manner of an
irregular curve. For example, if the opening is too long
and too “fat” for the required ellipse, one end may be
drawn and then the template may be shifted slightly to
draw the other end. Similarly, one long side may be
■ FIGURE 54 ■ Tangents to an Ellipse (§52). drawn and then the template may be shifted slightly to
draw the opposite side. In such cases, leave gaps between
the lines EU to intersect the ellipse at the points Z. The the four segments, to be filled in freehand or with the aid
lines PZ are the required tangents. of an irregular curve. When the differences between the
ellipse openings and the required ellipse are small, it is
only necessary to lean the pencil slightly outward or
53 ■ ELLIPSE TEMPLATES inward from the guiding edge to offset the differences.
To save time in drawing ellipses and to ensure uniform For inking the ellipses, a technical fountain pen with a
results, ellipse templates are often used (Fig. 55a). “0” or “00” size designation is recommended (Fig. 55d).
These are plastic sheets with elliptical openings in a
wide variety of sizes, and they usually come in sets of
six or more sheets. 54 ■ DRAWING AN APPROXIMATE ELLIPSE
Ellipse guides are usually designated by the ellipse For many purposes, particularly where a small ellipse is
angle, the angle at which a circle is viewed to appear as required, the approximate circular-arc method is per-
an ellipse. In Fig. 55b, the angle between the line of fectly satisfactory (Fig. 56). Such an ellipse is sure to
sight and the edge view of the plane of the circle is be symmetrical and may be quickly drawn.

■ FIGURE 55 ■ Using the Ellipse Template (§53).

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 Geometric Constructions

■ FIGURE 56 ■ Drawing an Approximate Ellipse (§54).

Given axes AB and CD, A tangent to the parabola at any point G bisects
the angle formed by the focal line FG and the line SG
I. Draw line AC. With O as center and OA as radius,
perpendicular to the directrix.
strike the arc AE. With C as center and CE as
Given the rise and span of the parabola (Fig. 57c),
radius, strike the arc EF.
divide AO into any number of equal parts, and divide AD
II. Draw perpendicular bisector GH of the line AF; into a number of equal parts amounting to the square of
the points K and J, where it intersects the axes, are that number. From line AB, each point on the parabola is
centers of the required arcs. offset by a number of units equal to the square of the
III. Find centers M and L by setting off OL = OK and number of units from point O. For example, point 3 pro-
OM = OJ. Using centers K, L, M, and J, draw cir- jects 9 units (the square of 3). This method is generally
cular arcs as shown. The points of tangency T are at used for drawing parabolic arches.
the junctures of the arcs on the lines joining the
centers.
■ FIGURE 57 ■ Drawing a Parabola (§55).
55 ■ DRAWING A PARABOLA
The curve of intersection between a right circular cone
and a plane parallel to one of its elements, is a parabola
(see Fig. 46d). The parabola is used to reflect surfaces
for light and sound, for vertical curves in highways, for
forms of arches, and approximately for forms of the
curves of cables for suspension bridges. It is also used to
show the bending moment at any point on a uniformly
loaded beam or girder.
A parabola is generated by a point moving so that
its distances from a fixed point, the focus, and from a
fixed line, the directrix, remain equal.
Focus F and directrix AB are given. A parabola may
be generated by a pencil guided by a string (Fig. 57a).
Fasten the string at F and C; its length is GC. The point
C is selected at random; its distance from G depends on
the desired extent of the curve. Keep the string taut and
the pencil against the T-square, as shown.
Given focus F and directrix AB, draw a line DE par-
allel to the directrix and at any distance CZ from it (Fig.
57b). With center at F and radius CZ, strike arcs to
intersect the line DE in the points Q and R, which are
points on the parabola. Determine as many additional
points as are necessary to draw the parabola accurate-
ly, by drawing additional lines parallel to line AB and
proceeding in the same manner.

112
 Geometric Constructions

56 ■ JOINING TWO POINTS

BY A PARABOLIC CURVE
Let X and Y be the given points (Fig. 59). Assume any
point O, and draw tangents XO and YO. Divide XO and
YO into the same number of equal parts, number the divi-
sion points as shown, and connect corresponding points.
These lines are tangents of the required parabola and
form its envelope. Sketch a light smooth curve, and then
heavy in the curve with the aid of an irregular curve.
These parabolic curves are more pleasing in appear-
ance than circular arcs and are useful in machine design.
■ FIGURE 58 ■ Drawing a Parabola (§55). If the tangents OX and OY are equal, the axis of the
parabola will bisect the angle between them.

To find the focus, F, given points P, R, and V of a 57 ■ DRAWING A HYPERBOLA

parabola (Fig. 57d), draw a tangent at P, making The curve of intersection between a right circular cone
a = b. Draw perpendicular bisector of AP, which inter- and a plane making an angle with the axis smaller than
sects the axis at F, the focus of the parabola. that made by the elements is a hyperbola (see Fig.
Draw a parabola given rectangle or parallelogram 46e). A hyperbola is generated by a point moving so
ABCD (Figs. 58a and 58b). Divide BC into any even that the difference of its distances from two fixed
number of equal parts, divide the sides AB and DC points, the foci is constant and equal to the transverse
each into half as many parts, and draw lines as shown. axis of the hyperbola.
The intersections of like-numbered lines are points on Let F and F¿ be the foci and AB the transverse axis
the parabola. (Fig. 60a). The curve may be generated by a pencil

■ FIGURE 59 ■ Parabolic Curves (§56).

■ FIGURE 60 ■ Drawing a Hyperbola (§57).

113
 Geometric Constructions

guided by a string, as shown. Fasten a string at F¿ and hyperbola is extended to intersect the axes, the inter-
C; its length is FC minus AB. The point C is chosen at cepts between the curve and the axes are equal (Fig.
random; its distance from F depends on the desired 61a). For example, a chord through given point P
extent of the curve. intersects the axes at points 1 and 2, intercepts P–1 and
Fasten the straightedge at F. If it is revolved about 2–3 are equal, and point 3 is a point on the hyperbola.
F, with the pencil point moving against it and with the Likewise, another chord through P provides equal
string taut, the hyperbola may be drawn as shown. intercepts P–1¿ and 3¿ –2¿, and point 3¿ is a point on
To construct the curve geometrically, select any the curve. Not all chords need be drawn through given
point X on the transverse axis produced (Fig. 60b). point P, but as new points are established on the curve,
With centers at F and F¿ and BX as radius, strike the chords may be drawn through them to obtain more
arcs DE. With the same centers, F and F¿, and AX as points. After enough points are found to ensure an
radius, strike arcs to intersect the arcs first drawn in the accurate curve, the hyperbola is drawn with the aid of
points Q, R, S, and T, which are points of the required an irregular curve.
hyperbola. Find as many additional points as are neces- In an equilateral hyperbola, the coordinates are
sary to draw the curves accurately by selecting other related so their products remain constant. Through
points similar to point X along the transverse axis and given point P, draw lines 1–P–Y and 2–P–Z parallel,
proceeding as described for point X. respectively, to the axes (Fig. 61b). From the origin of
To draw the tangent to a hyperbola at a given point coordinates O, draw any diagonal intersecting these
P, bisect the angle between the focal radii FP and F¿P. two lines at points 3 and X. At these points draw lines
The bisector is the required tangent. parallel to the axes, intersecting at point 4, a point on
To draw the asymptotes HCH of the hyperbola, the curve. Likewise, another diagonal from O inter-
draw a circle with the diameter FF¿ and erect perpen- sects the two lines through P at points 8 and Y, and
diculars to the transverse axis at the points A and B to lines through these points parallel to the axes intersect
intersect the circle in the points H. The lines HCH are at point 9, another point on the curve. A third diagonal
the required asymptotes. similarly produces point 10 on the curve, and so on.
Find as many points as necessary for a smooth curve,
and draw the parabola with the aid of an irregular
58 ■ DRAWING AN EQUILATERAL HYPERBOLA curve. It is evident from the similar triangles O–X–5
Let the asymptotes OB and OA, at right angles to each and O–3–2 that lines P–1 * P–2 = 4–5 * 4–6.
other, and the point P on the curve be given (Fig. 61). The equilateral hyperbola can be used to represent
In an equilateral hyperbola, the asymptotes, which varying pressure of a gas as the volume varies, since the
are at right angles to each other, may be used as the pressure varies inversely with the volume; that is,
axes to which the curve is referred. If a chord of the pressure * volume is constant.

■ FIGURE 61 ■ Equilateral Hyperbola (§58).

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 Geometric Constructions

to the circumference of the cylinder. Such a helix,

therefore, can be defined as the shortest line that can
be drawn on the surface of a cylinder connecting two
points not on the same element.
To draw the helix, draw two views of the cylinder
on which the helix is generated (Fig. 63b). Divide the
circle of the base into any number of equal parts. On
the rectangular view of the cylinder, set off the lead and
divide it into the same number of equal parts as the
base. Number the divisions as shown (in this case 16).
When the generating point has moved one sixteenth of
■ FIGURE 62 ■ Spiral of Archimedes (§59).
the distance around the cylinder, it will have risen one
sixteenth of the lead; when it has moved halfway
around the cylinder, it will have risen half the lead; and
59 ■ DRAWING A SPIRAL OF ARCHIMEDES
so on. Points on the helix are found by projecting up
To find points on the curve, draw lines through the pole from point 1 in the circular view to line 1 in the rectan-
C, making equal angles with each other, such as 30° gular view, from point 2 in the circular view to line 2 in
angles (Fig. 62). Beginning with any one line, set off the rectangular view, and so on.
1
any distance, such as 2 mm or 16 – ; set off twice that dis- Figure 63b is a right-hand helix. In a left-hand helix
tance on the next line, three times on the third, and so (Fig. 63c), the visible portions of the curve are inclined
on. Through the points thus determined, draw a in the opposite direction—that is, downward to the right.
smooth curve, using irregular curve. The helix shown in Fig. 63b can be converted into a left-
hand helix by interchanging the visible and hidden lines.
60 ■ DRAWING A HELIX The helix finds many applications in industry, as in
A helix is generated by a point moving around and screw threads, worm gears, conveyors, spiral stairways,
along the surface of a cylinder or cone with a uniform and so on.The stripes of a barber pole are helical in form.
angular velocity about the axis, and with a uniform lin- The construction for a right-hand conical helix is
ear velocity about the axis, and with a uniform velocity shown in Fig. 63d.
in the direction of the axis (Fig. 63). A cylindrical
helix is generally known simply as a helix. The distance 61 ■ DRAWING AN INVOLUTE
measure parallel to the axis traversed by the point in An involute is the path of a point on a string as the
one revolution is called the lead. string unwinds from a line, polygon, or circle.
If the cylindrical surface on which a helix is gener-
ated is rolled out onto a plane, the helix becomes a TO DRAW AN INVOLUTE OF A LINE Let AB be the given
straight line (Fig. 63a). The portion below the helix line. With AB as radius and B as center, draw the
becomes a right triangle, the altitude of which is equal semicircle AC (Fig. 64a). With AC as radius and A as
to the lead of the helix; the length of the base is equal center, draw the semicircle CD. With BD as radius and

■ FIGURE 63 ■ Helix (§60).

115
 Geometric Constructions

■ FIGURE 64 ■ Involutes (§61).

B as center, draw the semicircle DE. Continue similarly, to the semicircumference of the circle (see Fig. 45e).
alternating centers between A and B, until a figure of Divide these distances and the semicircumference into
the required size is completed. the same number of equal parts (six, for instance) and
number them consecutively, as shown. Suppose the cir-
TO DRAW AN INVOLUTE OF A TRIANGLE Let ABC be the cle rolls to the left; when point 1 of the circle reaches
given triangle. With CA as radius and C as center, point 1¿ of the line, the center of the circle will be at D,
strike the arc AD (Fig. 64b). With BD as radius and B point 7 will be the highest point of the circle, and the
as center, strike the arc DE. With AE as radius and A as generating point 6 will be at the same distance from the
center, strike the arc EF. Continue similarly until a line AB as point 5 is when the circle is in its central posi-
figure of the required size is completed. tion. Hence, to find the point P¿, draw a line through
TO DRAW AN INVOLUTE OF A SQUARE Let ABCD be the point 5 parallel to AB and intersect it with an arc drawn
given square. With DA as radius and D as center, draw from the center D with a radius equal to that of the cir-
the 90° arc AE (Fig. 64c). Proceed as for the involute of cle. To find point P–, draw a line through point 4 paral-
a triangle until a figure of the required size is completed. lel to AB, and intersect it with an arc drawn from the
center E, with a radius equal to that of the circle. Points
TO DRAW AN INVOLUTE OF A CIRCLE A circle may be J, K, and L are found in a similar manner.
regarded as a polygon with an infinite number of sides Another method that may be employed is shown
(Fig. 64d). The involute is constructed by dividing the in the right half of Fig. 64. With center at 11¿ and the
circumference into a number of equal parts, drawing a chord 11–6 as radius, strike an arc. With 10¿ as center
tangent at each division point, setting off along each and the chord 10–6 as radius, strike an arc. Continue
tangent the length of the corresponding circular arc similarly with centers 9¿, 8¿, and 7¿. Draw the required
(see Fig. 45c), and drawing the required curve cycloid tangent to these arcs.
through the points set off on the several tangents. Either method may be used; however, the second
An involute can be generated by a point on a is the shorter one and is preferred. It is evident, from
straight line that is rolled on a fixed circle (Fig. 64e). the tangent arcs drawn in the manner just described,
Points on the required curve may be determined by set- that the line joining the generating point and the point
ting off equal distances 0–1, 1–2, 2–3, and so on, along of contact for the generating circle is a normal of the
the circumference, drawing a tangent at each division cycloid. The lines 1¿ –P– and 2¿P¿, for instance, are nor-
point, and proceeding as explained for Fig. 64d. mals; this property makes the cycloid suitable for the
The involute of a circle is used in the construction outlines of gear teeth.
of involute gear teeth. In this system, the involute
forms the face and a part of the flank of the teeth of
gear wheels; the outlines of the teeth of racks are ■ FIGURE 65 ■ Cycloid (§62).
straight lines.

62 ■ DRAWING A CYCLOID
A cycloid is generated by a point P in the circumference
of a circle that rolls along a straight line (Fig. 65).
Given the generating circle and the straight line AB
tangent to it, make the distances CA and CB each equal

116
 Geometric Constructions

■ FIGURE 66 ■ Epicycloid and Hypocycloid (§63).

63 ■ DRAWING AN EPICYCLOID OR A 64 ■ COMPUTER GRAPHICS

HYPOCYCLOID Through the use of various application programs and
If the generating point P is on the circumference of a routines available in computer graphics, it is possible to
circle that rolls along the convex side of a larger circle, establish accurately the various geometric construc-
the curve generated is an epicycloid (Fig. 66a). If the tions shown in this chapter. CAD programs are particu-
circle rolls along the concave side of a larger circle, the larly well suited for repetitive operations, such as
curve generated is a hypocycloid (Fig. 66b). These dividing a line into a number of equal parts, and for
curves are drawn in a manner similar to the cycloid generating lines representing mathematical curves,
(Fig. 65). Like the cycloid, these curves are used to such as the hyperbola and parabola. Examples of
form the outlines of certain gear teeth and are, there- CAD-produced geometric shapes and surfaces are
fore, of practical importance in machine design. shown in Fig. 67.

■ FIGURE 67 ■ Geometric Shapes and Surfaces Produced with TRI-CAD System. Courtesy of Lodgrafix, Inc. (§64).

117
 Geometric Constructions

KEY WORDS
POINT BISECT CIRCLE
CENTER
ARC CONSTRUCTION LINES TANGENT POINT
DIAMETER
TANGENT RADIUS PERPENDICULAR
RIGHT ANGLE
PARALLEL CONCENTRIC REGULAR POLYGON
POLYGON LINE CONIC SECTION

CHAPTER SUMMARY
■ Understanding basic geometric construction techniques point, line, arc, or circle needs to be drawn, and more
is fundamental to the success of both traditional drawing importantly, how to draw it. A poor paper drafter will
and CAD drawing. most likely be a poor CAD drafter.
■ All drawings are made up of points, lines, arcs, and circles ■ One of the more difficult types of geometric construction
drawn at various sizes and constructed in specific location is tangencies. There are many different types of tangen-
to each other. Geometric construction cannot be approx- cies and each requires a special drawing technique.
imated. ■ Knowing when to draw a line parallel or perpendicular
■ Every point, line, arc and circle must be precisely located. to another line is an important part of geometric con-
CAD cannot draw correctly if you cannot tell the pro- struction.
gram where you want an element drawn. ■ Unless the drafter knows the basics of geometric con-
■ The advantage that CAD provides in geometric construc- struction, it will be difficult to create a drawing using
tion is drawing precision. Only the drafter knows where a either instruments or CAD.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What are the four basic conic sections and how are they 6. Draw a regular square, hexagon, and octagon so that the
cut from a cone? distance from flat to flat is 2 inches.
2. How can you divide a line into equal parts? A space 7. List the different methods for drawing an approxima-
into equal parts? tion of an ellipse. Pick one and draw an ellipse with a
3. How many ways can an arc be tangent to one line? To major diameter of 6 inches and a minor diameter of 3
two lines? To a line and an arc? To two arcs? Draw an inches.
example of each. 8. Demonstrate the technique for drawing a line parallel
4. Draw an equilateral triangle, a right triangle, and an to a given line using only a pencil, triangle, and straight
isosceles triangle. edge.
5. Given a line, draw another line (1) parallel to the first, 9. Demonstrate the technique for drawing a line perpen-
(2) perpendicular to the first. Then draw a horizontal dicular to a given line using only a pencil, triangle, and
line through the intersection of the lines. Finally, draw a straight edge.
vertical line through the intersection.

GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTION PROBLEMS

Geometric constructions should be done very accurately, problems to metric measure. (See decimal and millimeter
using a hard pencil (2H to 4H) with a long, sharp, conical equivalents.)
point. Draw given and required lines dark and medium in Set up each problem so as to make the best use of
thickness, and draw construction lines very light. Do not the space available, to present the problem to best advan-
erase construction lines. Indicate points and lines as tage, and to produce a pleasing appearance. Letter the
described in §1. principal points of all constructions in a manner similar to
In your assignments from the following problems, use the various illustrations in this chapter.
Layout A–2 divided into four parts, as shown in Fig. 68, or Since many of the problems in this chapter are of a gen-
Layout A4–2 (adjusted). Additional sheets with other prob- eral nature, they can also be solved on most computer graph-
lems selected from Figs. 69–80 and drawn on the same ics systems. If a system is available, your instructor may
sheet layout may be assigned. choose to assign specific problems to be completed by this
Many problems are dimensioned in the metric system. method.
Your instructor may ask you to convert these remaining
The first four problems are shown in Fig. 68.

118
 Geometric Constructions

■ FIGURE 68 ■ (Probs. 1–4) Geometric

Constructions. Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted).

Prob. 1 Draw an inclined line AB 65 mm long and bisect Prob. 12 Draw an equilateral triangle having 63.5-mm
it (see Fig. 8). sides (see Fig. 22a). Bisect the interior angles (see Fig.
Prob. 2 Draw any angle with vertex at C. Bisect it (see Fig. 10). Draw the inscribed circle using the intersection of the
10), and transfer one half to a new position at D (see Fig. 11). bisectors as center.
Prob. 13 Draw inclined line TU 55 mm long, and then
Prob. 3 Draw inclined line EF and assume distance
draw a square on TU as a given side (see Fig. 23a).
GH = 42 mm. Draw a line parallel to EF and at the distance
GH from it (see Fig. 13a). Prob. 14 Draw a 54-mm diameter-circle (lightly);
inscribe a square in the circle and circumscribe a square on
Prob. 4 Draw the line JK 95 mm long and divide it into the circle (see Figs. 23c and 23d).
five equal parts using dividers. Draw a line LM 58 mm long
and divide it into three equal parts by the parallel-line Prob. 15 Draw a 65-mm-diameter circle (lightly). Find
method (see Fig. 15). the vertexes of a regular inscribed pentagon (see Fig.
24a), and join the vertexes to form a five-pointed star.
Prob. 5 Draw a line OP 92 mm long and divide it into three
proportional parts to in the ratio of 3 : 5 : 9 (see Fig. 17a). Prob. 16 Draw a 65-mm-diameter circle (lightly).
Inscribe a hexagon (see Fig. 25b), and circumscribe a hexa-
Prob. 6 Draw a line 87 mm long and divide it into parts gon (see Fig. 26d).
proportional to the square of x, where x = 1, 2, 3, and 4 (see
Prob. 17 Draw a square (lightly) with 63.5-mm sides (see
Fig. 17c).
Fig. 23b), and inscribe an octagon (see Fig. 28b).
Prob. 7 Draw a triangle with sides of 76 mm, 85 mm, and Prob. 18 Draw a triangle similar to that in Fig. 29a,
65 mm (see Fig. 19). Bisect the three interior angles (see with sides 50 mm, 38 mm, and 73 mm long. Transfer the tri-
Fig. 10). The bisectors should meet at a point. Draw the angle to a new location and turned 180° similar to that in Fig.
inscribed circle with the point as center. 29b. Check by the pricked-point method (§29).
Prob. 8 Draw a right triangle having a hypotenuse 65 Prob. 19 In the center of your space, draw a rectangle 88
mm and one leg 40 mm (see Figs. 3 and 20), and draw a mm wide and 61 mm high. Show construction for reducing
circle through the three vertexes (see Fig. 32). this rectangle first to 70 mm wide and then to 58 mm wide
Prob. 9 Draw an inclined line QR 84 mm long. Select a (see Fig. 31b).
point P on the line 32 mm from Q, and erect a perpendicular Prob. 20 Draw three points arranged approximately as
(see Fig. 18c). Assume a point S 45.5 mm from the line, and those in Fig. 32a), and draw a circle through the three points.
erect a perpendicular from S to the line (see Fig. 18b).
Prob. 21 Draw a 58-mm-diameter circle. Assume a point
Prob. 10 Draw two lines making an angle of 3512° with S on the left side of the circle and draw a tangent at that
each other using the tangent method (see Fig. 21a). Check point (see Fig. 34a). Assume a point T to the right of the
with a protractor. circle 50 mm from its center. Draw two tangents to the circle
Prob. 11 Draw two lines making an angle of 33° 16¿ with through the point (see Fig. 34b).
each other using the sine method (see Fig. 21b). Check Prob. 22 Draw a horizontal center line through your
with a protractor. space. Then draw two circles with 50-mm-diameter and

119
 Geometric Constructions

38-mm-diameter, respectively, with centers 54 mm apart. Prob. 35 Draw a major axis 102 mm long (horizontally)
Locate the circles so that the construction will be centered and a minor axis 64 mm long, with their intersection at the
in the space. Draw “open-belt” tangents to the circles (see enter of the space. Draw an ellipse by the foci method with
Fig. 35a). at least five points in each quadrant (see Fig. 48).
Prob. 23 Do the same as for Prob. 21 except draw Prob. 36 Draw axes as in Prob. 35, and draw an ellipse
“crossed-belt” tangents to the circle (see Fig. 35b). by the trammel method (see Fig. 49).
Prob. 24 Draw a vertical line VW 33 mm from the left Prob. 37 Draw axes as in Prob. 35, and draw an ellipse
side of your space. Assume point P 44 mm farther to the by the concentric-circle method (see Fig. 50).
right and 25 mm down from top of space. Draw a 56-mm-
Prob. 38 Draw axes as in Prob. 35, and draw an ellipse
diameter circle through P, tangent to VW (see Fig. 36a).
by the parallelogram method (see Fig. 52a).
Prob. 25 Draw a vertical line XY 35 mm from the left
Prob. 39 Draw conjugate diameters intersecting at the
side of your space. Assume point P 44 mm farther to the
center of your space. Draw 88-mm-diameter horizontally,
right and 25 mm down from the top of the space. Assume
and 70-mm-diameter at 60° with horizontal. Draw an oblique-
point Q on line XY and 50 mm from P. Draw a circle through
circle ellipse (see Fig. 51). Find at least five points in each
P and tangent to XY at Q (see Fig. 36b).
quadrant.
Prob. 26 Draw a 64-mm-diameter circle with center C 16
Prob. 40 Draw conjugate diameters as in Prob. 39, and
mm directly to left of center of space. Assume point P at the
draw the ellipse by the parallelogram method (see Fig. 52b).
lower right and 60 mm from C. Draw an arc with 25-mm-
radius through P and tangent to the circle (see Fig. 36c). Prob. 41 Draw axes as in Prob. 35, and draw an approx-
Prob. 27 Draw a vertical line and a horizontal line, each imate ellipse (see Fig. 56).
65 mm long (see Fig. 37, part I). Draw an arc with a 38-mm Prob. 42 Draw a parabola with a vertical axis and the
radius, tangent to the lines. focus 12 mm from the directrix (see Fig. 57b). Find at least
Prob. 28 Draw a horizontal line 20 mm up from the bot- nine points on the curve.
tom of your space. Select a point on the line 50 mm from the Prob. 43 Draw a hyperbola with a horizontal transverse
left side of space, and through it draw a line upward to the axis 25 mm long and the foci 38 mm apart (see Fig. 60b).
right at 60° to horizontal. Draw arcs with a 35-mm radius Draw the asymptotes.
within an obtuse angle and acute angle, respectively, tangent Prob. 44 Draw a horizontal line near the bottom of the
to the two lines (see Fig. 38). space, and a vertical line near the left side of the space.
Prob. 29 Draw two intersecting lines making an angle of Assume point P 16 mm to the right of the vertical line and 38
60° with each other similar to Fig. 38a. Assume a point P on mm above the horizontal line. Draw an equilateral hyperbo-
one line at a distance of 45 mm from the intersection. Draw la through P and with reference to the two lines as asymp-
an arc tangent to both lines with one point of tangency at P totes. Use either method shown in Fig. 61.
(see Fig. 33). Prob. 45 Using the center of the space as the pole, draw
Prob. 30 Draw vertical line AB 32 mm from the left side a spiral of Archimedes with the generating point moving in a
of your space. Draw an arc of 42 mm radius with its center 75 counterclockwise direction and away from the pole at the
mm to the right of the line and in the lower right portion of rate of 25 mm in each convolution (see Fig. 62).
your space. Draw an arc of 25 mm radius tangent to AB and
Prob. 46 Through center of your space, draw a horizon-
to the first arc (see Fig. 39).
tal center line, and on it construct a right-hand helix 50 mm
Prob. 31 With centers 20 mm up from the bottom of diameter, 64 mm long, and with a lead of 25 mm (see Fig.
your space and 86 mm apart, draw arcs of radii 44 mm and 24 63). Draw only a half-circular end view.
mm, respectively. Draw an arc of 32 mm radius tangent to
Prob. 47 Draw the involute of an equilateral triangle
the two arcs (see Fig. 40).
with 15-mm sides (see Fig. 64b).
Prob. 32 Draw two circles as in Prob. 22. Draw an arc of
Prob. 48 Draw the involute of a 20-mm-diameter circle
70-mm radius tangent to the upper sides of, and enclosing, the
(see Fig. 64d).
circles (see Fig. 41a). Draw an arc of 50-mm radius tangent to
the circles but enclosing only the smaller circle (see Fig. 41b). Prob. 49 Draw a cycloid generated by a 30-mm-
diameter circle rolling along a horizontal straight line (see
Prob. 33 Draw two parallel inclined lines 45 mm apart.
Fig. 65).
Choose a point on each line and connect them with an ogee
curve tangent to the two parallel lines (see Fig. 43a). Prob. 50 Draw an epicycloid generated by a 38-mm-
Prob. 34 Draw an arc of 54 mm radius that subtends an diameter circle rolling along a circular arc with a radius of 64
angle of 90°. Find the length of the arc by two methods (see mm (see Fig. 66a).
Figs. 45a and 45c). Calculate the length of the arc and Prob. 51 Draw a hypocycloid generated by a 38-mm-
compare with the lengths determined graphically. (See first- diameter circle rolling along a circular arc with a radius of 64
note in §42). mm (see Fig. 66b).

120
 Geometric Constructions

Prob. 52 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw the Prob. 58 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw the
spanner in Fig. 69. Omit dimensions and notes unless shift lever in Fig. 75. Omit dimensions and notes unless
assigned. assigned.
Prob. 53 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw the Prob. 59 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw the
rocker arm in Fig. 70. Omit dimensions and notes unless gear arm in Fig. 76. Omit dimensions and notes unless
assigned. assigned.
Prob. 54 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw the Prob. 60 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw the
outside caliper in Fig. 71. Omit dimensions and notes form roll lever in Fig. 77. Omit dimensions and notes
unless assigned. unless assigned.
Prob. 55 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw the Prob. 61 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw the
special cam in Fig. 72. Omit dimensions and notes unless press base in Fig. 78. Omit dimensions and notes unless
assigned. assigned.
Prob. 56 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw the Prob. 62 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw the
boiler stay in Fig. 73. Omit dimensions and notes unless special S-wrench in Fig. 79. Omit dimensions and notes
assigned. unless assigned.
Prob. 57 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw the Prob. 63 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw the
shaft hanger casting in Fig. 74. Omit dimensions and notes photo floodlight reflector in Fig. 80. Omit dimensions and
unless assigned. notes unless assigned.

■ FIGURE 69 ■ (Prob. 52) Spanner. ■ FIGURE 71 ■ (Prob. 54) Outside Caliper.

■ FIGURE 72 ■ (Prob. 55) Special Cam.

■ FIGURE 70 ■ (Prob. 53) Rocker Arm.

121
 Geometric Constructions

■ FIGURE 76 ■ (Prob. 59) Gear Arm.

■ FIGURE 73 ■ (Prob. 56) Boiler Stay.

■ FIGURE 77 ■ (Prob. 60) Form Roll Lever.

■ FIGURE 74 ■ (Prob. 57) Shaft Hanger Casting.

■ FIGURE 75 ■ (Prob. 58) Shift Lever.

■ FIGURE 78 ■ (Prob. 61) Press Base.

122
 Geometric Constructions

■ FIGURE 79 ■ (Prob. 62) Special S-Wrench.

■ FIGURE 80 ■ (Prob. 63) Photo Floodlight Reflector.

123
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Technical Sketching and Shape Description

From Chapter 5 of Engineering Graphics, Eighth Edition, Frederick E. Giesecke,

Alva Mitchell, Henry Cecil Spencer, Ivan Leroy Hill, Robert Olin Loving, John
Thomas Dygdon, James E. Novak. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Published by Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.
 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

OVERVIEW OBJECTIVES
Proper sketching technique is one of the most important skills that a After studying the material in this chapter, you
traditional or CAD drafter must master. Sketching is a formal should be able to:
process of visualizing three-dimensional objects in preparation for 1. Read any type of sketch and understand
drawing on paper or with CAD. Sketching is a quick way to com- the object depicted in the sketch.
municate ideas with other members of the design team. (The old 2. Create sketches of both two- and three-
Chinese saying that “one picture is worth a thousand words” is not dimensional objects using the correct
without foundation.) Sketching is an excellent way of planning out sketching methods.
the drawing process necessary to effectively create a complex object. 3. Demonstrate how to sketch parallel,
A properly drawn sketch will act like a road map for the completion perpendicular, and evenly spaced lines.
of the final paper or CAD drawing. Drafters who sketch solutions 4. Demonstrate how to sketch a circle and
before placing lines on paper or the CAD screen can often complete arc of a given diameter.
a drawing sooner and with fewer errors than those who cannot 5. Demonstrate how to estimate and com-
sketch effectively. Sketching is an excellent way of learning how to pare dimensions of an object using a
represent three-dimensional objects on a two-dimensional surface. pencil at arms length.
6. Sketch an object to scale using grid
drawing media.
7. Prepare a sketch of an object to be
drawn using CAD showing all tangents,
centers, and sizes.
8. Sketch an object on isometric grid
paper.
9. Sketch the primary views of an ortho-
graphic drawing in proper orientation
and alignment.
10. Show examples of the correct use of the
alphabet of sketch lines.
11. Describe the difference between a
sketch and a drawing.

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 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

n FIGURE 1 n Great Ideas Often Start as

Freehand Sketches Made on Scratch Paper.
Courtesy of ANATech, Inc.

1 n TECHNICAL SKETCHING to someone who cannot sketch reasonably well with-

out guide lines. Paper with 4, 5, 8, or 10 squares per
Freehand sketches are of great value to designers in
inch is recommended. Such paper is convenient for
organizing their thoughts and recording their ideas.
maintaining correct proportions (Fig. 2).
Sketching is an effective and economical means of
Sketching pads of plain tracing paper may be
formulating various solutions to a given problem so that
accompanied by a master cross-section sheet, which
a choice can be made between them. Time can be lost if
shows clearly through a transparent sheet placed on top
the designer starts to do a scaled layout before adequate
of it. (A master cross-section sheet can also be drawn
preliminary study with the aid of sketches. Information
with instruments.) A specially ruled isometric paper is
about changes in design or covering replacement of
available for isometric sketching (see Fig. 26).
broken parts or lost drawings is usually conveyed
Soft pencils, such as HB or F, should be used for
through sketches.
freehand sketching. Use a mechanical pencil, and sharp-
The degree of perfection required in a given sketch
en it to a conical point. Use this sharp point for center
depends on its intended use. Quick sketches done to
lines, dimension lines, and extension lines. For visible
supplement oral descriptions may be rough and incom-
lines, hidden lines, and cutting-plane lines, round off the
plete. On the other hand, sketches that are supposed to
convey important and precise information to engineers,
n FIGURE 2 n Sketch on Graph Paper.
technicians, or skilled workers should be executed as
carefully and exactly as possible.
The term “freehand sketch” does not mean a crude
or sloppy freehand drawing in which no particular effort
has been made. On the contrary, as shown in Fig. 1, a
freehand sketch should be made with care and with
attention to proportion, clarity, and correct line widths.

2 n SKETCHING MATERIALS
One advantage of freehand sketching is that it
requires only pencil, paper, and eraser. When sketch-
es are made in the field and an accurate record is
required, small notebooks or sketching pads are fre-
quently used. Graph paper can be helpful, especially

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 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

4 n SCALE
Sketches usually are not made to any scale. Objects
should be sketched in their correct proportions as
accurately as possible, by eye. However, cross-section
paper provides a ready scale (by counting squares) that
may be used to assist in sketching to correct propor-
tions. The size of the sketch is purely optional, depend-
ing on the complexity of the object and the size of
paper available. Small objects are often sketched over-
size to show the necessary details clearly.

5 n TECHNIQUE OF LINES
The chief difference between an instrument drawing
and a freehand sketch lies in the character or technique
of the lines. A good freehand line is not expected to be
as rigidly straight or exactly uniform as an instrument
line. While the effectiveness of an instrument line lies
n FIGURE 3 n Pencil Points. in exacting uniformity, the quality of a freehand line
lies in its freedom and variety (Figs. 5 and 7).
Conventional lines drawn instrumentally and free-
point slightly to produce the desired thickness of line
hand are shown in Fig. 6. The freehand construction
(Fig. 3). For carefully made sketches, two soft erasers
line is a very light, rough line in which some strokes
are recommended—a Pink Pearl and a Mars-Plastic.

3 n TYPES OF SKETCHES
Since technical sketches are made of three-dimensional n FIGURE 5 n Comparison of Lines.
objects, the form of the sketch conforms approximately
to one of the four standard types of projection. In multi-
view projection (Fig. 4a), the object is described by its
necessary views (§§14–16). As shown in Figs. 4b
through 4d, the object may also be shown pictorially
in a single view, by axonometric (isometric), oblique, or
perspective sketches, respectively (see §§9–13). n FIGURE 6 n Sketch Lines.

n FIGURE 4 n Types of Projection.

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 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

n FIGURE 9 n Drawing Inclined Lines.

n FIGURE 7 n Drawing Horizontal Lines. hence, they may be drawn with the same general move-
ments (Fig. 9).
In sketching long lines, mark the ends of the line
may overlap. All other lines should be dark and clean- with light dots. Then move the pencil back and forth
cut. Accent the ends of all dashes, and maintain a sharp between the dots in long sweeps, always keeping your
contrast between the line thicknesses. In particular, eye on the dot toward which the pencil is moving. The
make visible lines heavy so the outline will stand out point of the pencil should touch the paper lightly, with
clearly, and make hidden lines, center lines, dimension each successive stroke correcting the defects of the pre-
lines, and extension lines thin. ceding strokes.When the path of the line has been estab-
lished sufficiently, apply a little more pressure, replacing
6 n SKETCHING STRAIGHT LINES the trial series with a distinct line.Then dim the line with
Since most lines on an average sketch are straight lines, a soft eraser and draw the final line clean-cut and dark,
you should learn to make them correctly. Hold your pen- now keeping your eye on the point of the pencil.
cil naturally, about 1 12 – back from the point, and approxi- An easy method for blocking in horizontal or ver-
mately at right angles to the line to be drawn. Draw tical lines is to hold your hand and pencil rigidly and
horizontal lines from left to right with a free and easy glide your fingertips along the edge of the pad or board,
wrist-and-arm movement (Fig. 7). Draw vertical lines as shown in Fig. 10a. Another method is to mark the
downward with finger and wrist movements (Fig. 8). distance on the edge of a card or a strip of paper and
Inclined lines may be made to conform in direction transfer this distance at intervals (Fig. 10b); then draw
to horizontal or vertical lines by shifting position with the final line through these points. A third method is to
respect to the paper or by turning the paper slightly; hold your pencil as shown in the lower part of Fig. 10b
and to make distance marks on the paper at intervals by
tilting the lead down to the paper. All of these methods
n FIGURE 8 n Drawing Vertical Lines. of transferring distances are substitutes for dividers and
have many uses in sketching.
To find the midpoint of a line AB (Fig. 10c), hold
the pencil in your left hand with your thumb gauging
the estimated half-distance. Try this distance on the left
and then on the right until you locate the center by trial
and mark it C.Another method is to mark the total dis-
tance AB on the edge of a strip of paper and then to
fold the paper to bring points A and B together, thus
locating center C at the crease. To find quarter points,
the folded strip can be folded once more.

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 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

n FIGURE 10 n Blocking in Horizontal and Vertical Lines.

7 n SKETCHING CIRCLES AND ARCS

Small circles and arcs can be easily sketched in one or
two strokes without any preliminary blocking in.
One method of sketching a larger circle (Fig. 11) is
to first sketch lightly the enclosing square, mark the mid-
points of the sides, draw light arcs tangent to the sides of
the square, and then heavy in the final circle. Another
method (Fig. 12) is to sketch the two center lines, add n FIGURE 11 n Sketching a Circle.
light 458 radial lines, sketch light arcs across the lines at
the estimated radius distance from the center, and finally
sketch the required circle heavily. Dim all construction
lines with a soft eraser before heavying in the final circle.
An excellent method, particularly for large circles
(Fig. 13a), is to mark the estimated radius on the edge
of a card or scrap of paper, to set off from the center as
many points as desired, and to sketch the final heavy
circle through these points.
Clever drafters will prefer the method shown in
n FIGURE 12 n Sketching a Circle.
Figs. 13b and 13c, in which the hand is used as a com-
pass. You place the tip of your little finger or the knuck-
le joint of your little finger at the center, “feed” the
pencil out to the desired radius, hold this position rigidly, In Fig. 13d, two pencils are held rigidly like a
and carefully revolve the paper with the other hand, as compass and the paper is slowly revolved.
shown. If you are using a sketching pad, place the pad on Methods of sketching arcs (Fig. 14) are adapta-
your knee and revolve the entire pad. tions of those used for sketching circles. In general, it is

n FIGURE 13 n Sketching Circles.

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 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

n FIGURE 14 n Sketching Arcs.

easier to sketch arcs with your hand and pencil on the Fig. 15a, part I. Lighten all lines with a soft eraser and
concave side of the curve. In sketching tangent arcs, heavy in the final ellipse (Fig. 15a, part II).
always keep in mind the actual geometric construc- Another method (Fig. 15b) is to sketch lightly the
tions, carefully approximating all points of tangency. enclosing rectangle (Fig. 15b, part I), mark the mid-
points of the sides, and sketch light tangent arcs, as
shown. Then complete the ellipse lightly (Fig. 15b,
8 n SKETCHING ELLIPSES part II), lighten all lines with a soft eraser, and heavy in
If a circle is viewed obliquely, it appears as an ellipse. the final ellipse. The same general procedure shown in
With a little practice, you can learn to sketch small Fig. 15b may be used in sketching the ellipse on the
ellipses with a free arm movement (Fig. 15a). Hold the given axes (Fig. 15c).
pencil naturally, rest the weight on the upper part of the The trammel method (Fig. 15d), is excellent for
forearm, and move the pencil rapidly above the paper sketching large ellipses. Prepare a trammel on the edge
in the elliptical path desired; then lower the pencil to of a card or strip of paper, move it to different positions,
describe several light overlapping ellipses, as shown in and mark points on the ellipse at A. (The trammel

n FIGURE 15 n Sketching Ellipses.

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 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

n FIGURE 16 n Sketching a Utility Cabinet.

method is explained in §50.) Sketch the final ellipse In this case, the height is about 1 34 times the width.
through the points, as shown. For sketching isometric Then
ellipses, see §12.
1. Sketch the enclosing rectangle in the correct pro-
portion (Fig. 16I). In this case, the sketch is to be
slightly larger than the given picture.
9 n MAINTAINING PROPORTIONS
2. Divide the available drawer space into three parts
The most important rule in freehand sketching is keep with the pencil by trial (Fig. 16II). Sketch light
the sketch in proportion. No matter how brilliant the diagonals to locate centers of drawers, and block
technique or how well the small details are drawn, if the in drawer handles. Sketch all remaining details.
proportions—especially the large overall proportions— 3. Dim all construction with a soft eraser, and heavy
are bad, the sketch will be bad. First, the relative propor- in all final lines (Fig. 16III).
tions of the height to the width must be carefully
established; then as you proceed to the medium-sized Another method of estimating distances is illus-
areas and the small details, constantly compare each new trated in Fig. 17. On the edge of a card or strip of
estimated distance with already established distances. paper, mark an arbitrary unit. Then see how many units
If you are working from a given picture, such as wide and how many units high the desk is. If you are
the utility cabinet in Fig. 16a, you must first estab- working from the actual object, you can use a scale, a
lish the relative width compared to the height. One piece of paper, or the pencil itself as a unit to determine
way is to use the pencil as a measuring stick, as shown. the proportions.

n FIGURE 17 n Sketching a Desk.

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 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

n FIGURE 18 n Squares Method.

To sketch an object composed of many curves to pencil to compare measurements, as shown in Fig. 19.
the same scale or to a larger or smaller scale, the While doing this, do not change your position, and
method of “squares” is recommended (Fig. 18). On always hold your pencil at arm’s length. The length
the given picture, rule accurate grid lines to form sighted can then be compared in a similar manner with
squares of any convenient size. It is best to use a scale any other dimension of the object. If the object is small,
and some convenient spacing, such as either .500 or 10 such as a machine part, you can compare distances in
mm. On the new sheet rule a similar grid, marking the the manner of Fig. 16, by actually placing the pencil
spacing of the lines proportional to the original, but against the object itself.
reduced or enlarged as desired. Make the final sketch In establishing proportions, the blocking-in method
by drawing the lines in and across the grid lines as in is recommended, especially for irregular shapes. The
the original, as near as you can estimate by eye. steps for blocking in and completing the sketch of a
In sketching from an actual object, you can easily shaft hanger are shown in Fig. 20. As always, first give
compare various distances on the object by using the attention to the main proportions, next to the general

n FIGURE 19 n Estimating Dimensions.

n FIGURE 20 n Blocking In an irregular Object (Shaft Hanger).

133
 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

sizes and direction of flow of curved shapes, and finally

to the snappy lines of the completed sketch.
In making sketches from actual machine parts, it is
necessary to use the measuring tools used in the shop,
especially those needed to determine dimensions that
must be relatively accurate.

10 n PICTORIAL SKETCHING
We will now examine several simple methods of prepar-
ing pictorial sketches that will be of great assistance in
learning the principles of multiview projection.

11 n ISOMETRIC SKETCHING
Isometric sketching is one of several simple methods
of preparing pictorial sketches that will be of great
assistance in learning the principles of multiview pro-
jection.
To make an isometric sketch from an actual object,
hold the object in your hand and tilt it toward you, as
shown in Fig. 21a. In this position, the front corner
will appear vertical, and the two receding bottom edges n FIGURE 21 n Isometric Sketching.
and those parallel to them, respectively, will appear at
2. Block in the recess and the projecting block (Fig.
about 30° with horizontal, as shown. The steps in
21II).
sketching are as follows:*
3. Lighten all construction lines with a soft eraser, and
1. Sketch the enclosing box lightly, making AB vertical heavy in all final lines (Fig. 21III).
and AC and AD approximately 30° with horizontal
(Fig. 21I). These three lines are the isometric axes. 12 n ISOMETRIC ELLIPSES
Make AB, AC, and AD approximately proportional When objects with cylindrical or conical shapes are
in length to the actual corresponding edges on the placed in isometric or other oblique positions, the circles
object. Sketch the remaining lines parallel, respec- are seen at an angle and appear as ellipses (Fig. 22a).
tively, to these three lines. The most important consideration in sketching iso-
metric ellipses is as follows: The major axis of the ellipse
is always at right angles to the center line of the cylinder,
and the minor axis is at right angles to the major axis
and coincides with the center line.
*The angle of the receding lines may be less than 30° (say, 20° or 15°).
Two views of a block with a large cylindrical hole
Although the result will not be an isometric sketch, the sketch may be are shown in Fig. 23a. The steps in sketching the
more pleasing and effective in some cases. object are as follows:

n FIGURE 22 n Isometric Ellipses.

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 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

n FIGURE 23 n Isometric Ellipses.

1. Sketch the block and the enclosing parallelogram

for the ellipse, making the sides of the parallelogram
parallel to the edges of the block and equal in length
to the diameter of the hole (Fig. 23I). Draw diago-
nals to locate the center of the hole, and then draw
center lines AB and CD. Points A, B, C, and D will be
midpoints of the sides of the parallelogram, and the
ellipse will be tangent to the sides at those points.
The major axis will be on the diagonal EF, which is at
right angles to the center line of the hole, and the n FIGURE 24 n Isometric Ellipses.
minor axis will fall along the short diagonal. Sketch
long, flat elliptical sides CA and BD, as shown.
2. Sketch short, small-radius arcs CB and AD to com-
plete the ellipse (Fig. 23II). Avoid making the ends
of the ellipse “squared off” or pointed like a football.
3. Sketch lightly the parallelogram for the ellipse
that lies in the back plane of the object, and sketch n FIGURE 25 n Sketching Semiellipses.
the ellipse in the same manner as the front ellipse
(Fig. 23III).
4. Draw lines GH and JK tangent to the two ellipses
(Fig. 23IV). Dim all construction with a soft eras-
er, and heavy in all final lines.

Another method for determining the back ellipse

is shown in Fig. 24.
1. Select points at random on the front ellipse and
sketch “depth lines” equal in length to the depth
of the block (Fig. 24I).
2. Sketch the ellipse through the ends of the lines (Fig.
24II).
Two views of a bearing with a semicylindrical
opening are shown in Fig. 25a. The steps in sketching
are as follows:
1. Block in the object, including the rectangular
space for the semicylinder (Fig. 25I).
2. Block in the box enclosing the complete cylinder
(Fig. 25II). Sketch the entire cylinder lightly.

135
 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

3. Dim all construction lines, and heavy in all final 2. Sketch receding lines parallel to each other and at
lines, showing only the lower half of the cylinder any convenient angle (say, 30° or 45°) with the
(Fig. 25III). horizontal (Fig. 27II). Cut off the receding lines
at the correct depth. These lines may be full
13 n SKETCHING ON ISOMETRIC PAPER length, but three quarters or one half size pro-
Two views of a guide block are shown in Fig. 26a. The duces a more natural appearance. If the lines are
steps in sketching illustrate not only the use of isometric full length, the sketch is a cavalier sketch. If half
paper, but also the sketching of individual planes or faces size, the sketch is a cabinet sketch.
to build up a pictorial visualization from the given views. 3. Lighten all construction lines with a soft eraser and
heavy in the final lines (Fig. 27III).
1. Sketch the isometric of the enclosing box, count-
ing off the isometric grid spaces to equal the cor- Oblique sketching is not a very desirable method
responding squares on the given views (Fig. 26I). for sketching an object that has circular shapes in or
Sketch surface A, as shown. parallel to more than one plane of the object because
2. Sketch additional surfaces B and C and the small ellipses result when circular shapes are viewed
ellipse (Fig. 26II). obliquely. Therefore, place the object with most or all
of the circular shapes toward you so that they will
3. Sketch additional surfaces E, F, G, and H to com-
appear as true circles and arcs in oblique sketching, as
plete the sketch (Fig. 26III).
shown in Fig. 27a.
14 n OBLIQUE SKETCHING
15 n OBLIQUE SKETCHING
Another simple method for sketching pictorially is
ON GRAPH PAPER
oblique sketching. Hold the object in your hand (Fig.
27a). Ordinary graph paper is convenient for oblique sketch-
ing. Two views of a bearing bracket are shown in Fig.
1. Block in the front face of the bearing, as if you 28a. The dimensions are determined simply by count-
were sketching a front view (Fig 27I). ing the squares.

n FIGURE 26 n Sketching on Isometric Paper.

n FIGURE 27 n Sketching in Oblique.

136
 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

n FIGURE 28 n Oblique Sketching on Cross-Section Paper.

1. Sketch lightly the enclosing box construction (Fig. 4. Lighten all construction lines with a soft eraser, and
28I). Sketch the receding lines at 45° diagonally heavy in all final lines (Fig. 27IV). Note the simi-
through the squares. To establish the depth at a larity between the perspective sketch and the
reduced scale, sketch the receding lines diagonally oblique sketch in Fig. 27.
through half as many squares as the given number
shown in Fig. 28a. Two-point perspective (two vanishing points) is the
2. Sketch all arcs and circles (Fig. 28II). most true to life of all pictorial methods, but it requires
some natural sketching ability or considerable practice
3. Heavy in all final lines (Fig. 28III).
for best results. The simple method shown in Fig. 30
can be used successfully by the nonartistic student.
16 n PERSPECTIVE SKETCHING
1. Sketch the front corner of the desk in true
The bearing sketched in oblique in Fig. 27 can easily height, and locate two vanishing points (VPL and
be sketched in one-point perspective—that is, with one VPR) on a horizon line (eye level) (Fig. 30I).
vanishing point (Fig. 29). The distance CA may vary—the greater it is, the
1. Sketch the true front face of the object just as in higher the eye level will be and the more we will
oblique sketching (Fig. 29I). Select the vanishing be looking down on top of the object. A good
point (VP) for the receding lines. In most cases, it is de- rule of thumb is to make C-VPL one third to one
sirable to place VP above and to the right of the pic- fourth of C-VPR.
ture, as shown, although it can be placed anywhere in 2. Estimate depth and width, and sketch the enclos-
the vicinity of the picture. However, if the vanishing ing box (Fig. 30II).
point is placed too close to the center, the lines will 3. Block in all details (Fig. 30III). Note that all par-
converge too sharply, and the picture will be distorted. allel lines converge toward the same vanishing
2. Sketch the receding lines toward VP (Fig. 29II). point.
3. Estimate the depth to look good, and sketch in the 4. Lighten the construction lines with a soft eraser as
back portion of the object (Fig. 29III). Note that necessary, and heavy in all final lines (Fig. 30IV).
the back circle and arc will be slightly smaller than Make the outlines thicker and the inside lines thin-
the front circle and arc. ner, especially where they are close together.

n FIGURE 29 n Sketching in One-Point Perspective.

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 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

intended by the designer.To provide this information, a

number of views, systematically arranged, are used.
This system of views is called multiview projection.
Each view provides certain definite information if the
view is from a direction perpendicular to a principal
face or side of the object. For example, an observer
looking perpendicularly toward one face of an object
obtains a true view of the shape and size of that side
(Fig. 31a). The view as seen by the observer is shown
in Fig. 31b. (The observer is theoretically at an infi-
nite distance from the object.)
The three principal dimensions of an object are
width, height, and depth (Fig. 31a). In technical drawing,
these fixed terms are used for dimensions taken in these
directions, regardless of the shape of the object. The
terms “length” and “thickness” are not used because they
cannot be applied in all cases. Note that the front view in
Fig. 31b shows only the height and width of the object
and not the depth. In fact, any one view of a three-dimen-
sional object shows only two dimensions; the third dimen-
sion is found in an adjacent view.

18 n REVOLVING THE OBJECT

In addition to the three views just described, other
n FIGURE 30 n Two-Point Perspective. views can be obtained by revolving the object, as
shown in Fig. 32. First, hold the object in the front-
view position (Fig. 32a). To get the top view (Fig.
17 n VIEWS OF OBJECTS 32b), revolve the object to bring the top of the object
A pictorial drawing or a photograph shows an object as up and toward you. To get the right-side view (Fig.
it appears to the observer, but not as it is. Such a picture 32c), revolve the object to bring the right side toward
cannot describe the object fully, no matter which direc- you. To obtain views of any of the other sides, merely
tion it is viewed from, because it does not show the turn the object to bring those sides toward you.
exact shapes and sizes of the several parts. The top, front, and right-side views, arranged closer
In industry, a complete and clear description of the together, are shown in Fig. 32d. These are called the
shape and size of an object to be made is necessary to three regular views because they are the views most
make certain that the object is manufactured exactly as frequently used.

n FIGURE 31 n Front View of an Object.

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 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

n FIGURE 32 n The Three Regular Views.

At this stage we can consider spacing between 19 n THE SIX VIEWS

views as purely a matter of appearance. The views
should be spaced well apart, yet close enough to appear Any object can be viewed from six mutually perpendic-
related to each other. The space between the front and ular directions, as shown in Fig. 33a. These six views
top views may or may not be equal to the space may be drawn if necessary, as shown in Fig. 33b.
between the front and side views. If dimensions are to The six views are always arranged as shown, which is
be added to the sketch, adequate space for them will the American National Standard arrangement. The
have to be left between views. top, front, and bottom views align vertically, while the
An important advantage of a view over a photo- rear, left-side, front, and right-side views align horizon-
graph of an object is that hidden features can be clear- tally. To draw a view out of place is a serious error and
ly shown by means of hidden lines. In Fig. 32d, surface is generally regarded as one of the worst possible mis-
7-8-9-10 in the front view appears as a visible line 5-6 takes in drawing.
in the top view and as a hidden line 15-16 in the side Note that height is shown in the rear, left-side,
view. Also, hole A, which appears as a circle in the front front, and right-side views; width is shown in the rear,
view, shows as hidden lines 1-4 and 2-3 in the top view, top, front, and bottom views; and depth is shown in the
and 11-12 and 13-14 in the side view. For a complete four views that surround the front view—namely, the
discussion of hidden lines, see §24. Also note the use of left-side, top, right-side, and bottom views. Each view
center lines for the hole (see §25). shows two of the principal dimensions. Note also that

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 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

n FIGURE 33 n The Six Views.

in the four views that surround the front view, the front (Fig. 33). Another illustration of the second method is
of the object faces toward the front view. given in Fig. 34, which shows six views of a house. The
Adjacent views are reciprocal. If the front view in observer can walk around the house and view its front,
Fig. 33 is imagined to be the object itself, the right- sides, and rear and can imagine the top view as seen from
side view is obtained by looking toward the right side an airplane and the bottom or “worm’s-eye view” as seen
of the front view, as shown by the arrow RS. Likewise, if from underneath. Notice the use of the terms “plan,” for
the right-side view is imagined to be the object, the the top view, and “elevation,” for all views showing the
front view is obtained by looking toward the left side of height of the building. These terms are regularly used in
the right-side view, as shown by the arrow F. The same architectural drawing and occasionally with reference to
relation exists between any two adjacent views. drawings in other fields.*
Obviously, the six views may be obtained either by
shifting the object with respect to the observer (Fig. 32) *Architects frequently draw the views of a building on separate sheets
or by shifting the observer with respect to the object because of the large sizes of the drawings.

n FIGURE 34 n Six Views of a House.

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 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

n FIGURE 35 n Six Views of a Compact Automobile.

20 n ORIENTATION OF FRONT VIEW 21 n NECESSARY VIEWS

Six views of a compact automobile are shown in Fig. A drawing for use in production should contain only
35. The view chosen for the front view in this case is those views needed for a clear and complete shape
the side, not the front of the automobile. In general, description of the object. These minimum required
the front view should show the object in its operating views are referred to as the necessary views. In selecting
position, particularly of familiar objects (such as the views, the drafter should choose those that best show
house shown and the automobile). A machine part is essential contours or shapes and have the least number
often drawn in the position it occupies in the assem- of hidden lines.
bly. However, in most cases this is not important, and As shown in Fig. 36a, three distinctive features of
the drafter may assume the object to be in any conve- this object need to be shown on the drawing: (1) round-
nient position. For example, an automobile connect- ed top and hole, seen from the front; (2) rectangular
ing rod is usually drawn horizontally on the sheet. notch and rounded corners, seen from the top; and (3)
Also, it is customary to draw screws, bolts, shafts, right angle with filleted corner, seen from the side.
tubes, and other elongated parts in a horizontal posi- Another way to choose required views is to elimi-
tion. nate unnecessary views. Figure 36b shows a thumbnail

n FIGURE 36 n Choice of Views.

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 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

n FIGURE 37 n Two Necessary Views.

sketch of the six views. Both the front and rear views The question often arises: What are the absolute
show the true shapes of the hole and the rounded top, minimum views required? For example, in Fig. 38, the
but the front view is preferred because it has no hidden top view might be omitted, leaving only the front and
lines. Therefore, the rear view (which is seldom needed) right-side views. However, it is more difficult to “read”
is crossed out. Both the top and bottom views show the the two views or visualize the object, because the char-
rectangular notch and rounded corners, but the top acteristic “Z” shape of the top view is omitted. In addi-
view is preferred because it has fewer hidden lines. tion, one must assume that corners A and B (top view)
Both the right-side and left-side views show the right are square and not filleted. In this example, all three
angle with the filleted corner. In fact, in this case the views are necessary.
side views are identical, except reversed. In such If an object requires only two views and the left-
instances, it is customary to choose the right-side view. side and right-side views are equally descriptive, the
The necessary views, then, are the three remaining right-side view is customarily chosen (Fig. 39). If con-
views: the top, front, and right-side views. These are the
three regular views referred to in connection with Fig.
32. More complicated objects may require more than
three views or special views, such as partial views.

22 n TWO-VIEW DRAWINGS
Often only two views are needed to clearly describe
the shape of an object. In Fig. 37a, the right-side view
shows no significant contours of the object and is
crossed out. In Fig. 37b, the top and front views are
identical, so the top view is eliminated. In Fig. 37c, all
necessary information is given in the front and top
views so the side view is unnecessary. n FIGURE 38 n Three Views.

n FIGURE 39 n Choice of Right-Side View.

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 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

23 n ONE-VIEW DRAWINGS
Frequently, a single view supplemented by a note or
lettered symbols is sufficient to describe clearly the
shape of a relatively simple object. In Fig. 42a, one
view of the shim plus a note indicating the thickness as
0.25 mm is sufficient. In Fig. 42b, the left end is 65
mm square, the next portion is 49.22 mm diameter, the
next is 31.75 mm diameter, and the portion with the
thread is 20 mm diameter, as indicated in the note.
Nearly all shafts, bolts, screws, and similar parts should
be represented by single views in this manner.

24 n HIDDEN LINES
Correct and incorrect practices in drawing hidden lines
are illustrated in Fig. 43. In general, a hidden line
n FIGURE 40 n Choice of Top View. should join a visible line except when it causes the visi-
ble line to extend too far, as shown in Fig. 43a. In other
words, leave a gap whenever a hidden line is a continua-
tour A were omitted, then the presence of slot B would tion of a visible line. Hidden lines should intersect to
make it necessary to choose the left-side view in pref- form L and T corners (Fig. 43). A hidden line preferably
erence to the right-side view. should “jump” a visible line when possible (Fig. 43c).
If an object requires only two views and the top Parallel hidden lines should be drawn so that the dashes
and bottom views are equally descriptive, the top view are staggered, as in bricklaying (Fig. 43d). When two or
is customarily chosen (Fig. 40). three hidden lines meet at a point, the dashes should
If only two views are necessary and the top view and join, as shown for the bottom of the drilled hole in Fig.
right-side view are equally descriptive, the combination 43e and for the top of a countersunk hole in Fig. 43f.
chosen is the one that spaces best on the paper (Fig. 41). The example in Fig. 43g is similar to that in Fig. 43a;

n FIGURE 41 n Choice of Views to Fit Paper.

n FIGURE 42 n One-View Drawings.

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 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

n FIGURE 43 n Hidden-Line Practices.

hidden lines should not join visible lines when this makes ever, should be cautious about leaving out hidden lines
the visible line extend too far. Correct and incorrect until experience shows when they can be safely omitted.
methods of drawing hidden arcs are shown in Fig. 43h.
Poorly drawn hidden lines can easily spoil a draw-
ing. Dashes should be about 5 mm long and spaced 25 n CENTER LINES
about 1 mm apart, by eye. Accent the beginning and Center lines (symbol: cL) are used to indicate axes of sym-
end of each dash by pressing down on the pencil, metrical objects or features, bolt circles, and paths of
whether drawn freehand or mechanically. motion. Typical applications are shown in Fig. 44. As
As far as possible, views should be chosen that show shown in Fig. 44a, a single center line is drawn in the
features with visible lines. Hidden lines should be used longitudinal view and crossed center lines in the circular
where necessary to make the drawing clear. Hidden lines view.The small dashes should cross at the intersections of
not needed for clarity should be omitted so as not to clut- center lines. Center lines should extend uniformly about
ter the drawing and also to save time.The beginner, how- 8 mm outside the feature for which they are drawn.

n FIGURE 44 n Center-Line Applications.

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 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

n FIGURE 45 n Sketching Two Views of a Support Block.

The long dashes of center lines may vary from 20 establish the height of the object, while making
to 40 mm or more in length, depending on the size of spaces A approximately equal. Sketch vertical lines
the drawing. The short dashes should be about 5 mm 3, 4, 5, and 6 to establish the width and depth in cor-
long, with spaces about 2 mm. Center lines should rect proportion to the already established height,
always start and end with long dashes. Short center while making spaces B approximately equal and
lines, especially for small holes, may be made solid (Fig. space C equal to or slightly less than space B.
44e). Always leave a gap when a center line forms a 2. Block in smaller details, using diagonals to locate the
continuation of a visible or hidden line. Center lines center (Fig. 45II). Sketch lightly the circle and arcs.
should be thin enough to contrast well with the visible 3. Lighten all construction lines with a soft eraser, and
and hidden lines, but dark enough to reproduce well. heavy in all final lines (Fig. 45III).
Center lines are useful mainly in dimensioning and
should be omitted from unimportant rounded or fillet- 27 n SKETCHING THREE VIEWS
ed corners and other shapes that are self-locating.
A sketch of a lever bracket that requires three views is
26 n SKETCHING TWO VIEWS shown in Fig. 46a. The steps in sketching the three
views are as follows:
A sketch of the support block in Fig. 45a requires
only two views. The steps in sketching are as follows: 1. Block in the enclosing rectangles for the three
views (Fig. 46I). Sketch horizontal lines 1, 2, 3, and
1. Block in lightly the enclosing rectangles for the two
4 to establish the height of the front view and the
views (Fig. 45I). Sketch horizontal lines 1 and 2 to

n FIGURE 46 n Sketching Three Views of a Lever Bracket.

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 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

Graphics
Spotlight Sketching and Parametric Modeling
T HE D ESIGN P ROCESS
Using CAD parametric modeling in many ways mirrors the
design process. To get the rough ideas down, the designer
starts by making hand sketches. Then as the ideas are
refined, more accurate drawings are created either with
instruments or using CAD. Necessary analysis is per-
formed, and in response the design may change. The
drawings are revised as needed to meet the new require-
ments. Eventually the drawings are approved so that the
parts may be manufactured.

R OUGH S KETCHES
Using parametric modeling software, initially the designer
roughly sketches the basic on the screen. These sketches
do not have to have perfectly straight lines or accurate
(B) Constrained Sketch
corners. The software interprets the sketch much as you
would interpret a rough sketch given to you by a colleague. ated as a 3D feature to which other features can be added.
If the lines are nearly horizontal or vertical, the software As the design changes the dimensions and constraints that
assumes that you meant them thus. If the line appears to control the sketch geometry can be changed, and the para-
be perpendicular it is assumed that it is. metric model will update to reflect the new design.
When you are creating sketches by hand or for para-
C ONSTRAINING THE S KETCH
metric modeling, think about the implications of the geome-
Using a parametric CAD system, you can start by sketching
try you are drawing. Does the sketch imply that lines are
on the computer screen as though you were sketching free-
perpendicular? Are the arcs you have drawn intended to be
hand. Then the two-dimensional sketch is refined by adding
tangent or intersecting? When you are creating a parametric
geometric constraints, which tell how to interpret the sketch
model, the software makes assumptions about how you
and by adding parametric dimensions, which control the size
intend to constrain the geometry based on your sketch. You
of sketch geometry. Once the sketch is refined, it can be cre-
can remove, change, or add new constraints as you wish.
AutoCAD Mechanical Desktop software contains Auto-
CAD Designer parametric design software. Using it you can
create a rough sketch like the one you see in Fig. A.
You select the Profile command to have the software
constrain the sketch automatically. The results of profiling
the sketch are shown in Fig. B. The symbols show the con-
straints that were assumed.
The dialog box shown on the next page in Fig. C lists
types of geometric constraints you can use to control the
sketch geometry in AutoCAD Designer. The dialog box
labeled Fig. D on the left shows the constraints that you
can use to control the way parts fit together in an assembly.
When you have completed the parametric model, you
have an “intelligent” part. When design changes are nec-
essary, you can change a dimension or constraint causing
(A) Rough Sketch the model to automatically update. Orthographic drawings

146
 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

with correctly shown hidden lines and dimensions can be

generated automatically. Or the part can be exported for
rapid prototyping or manufacture.

(C) Assembly Constraints (D) Sketch Constraints

Images Courtesy of SolidWorks Corporation.

depth of the top view, making spaces A approxi- 4. Lighten all construction lines with a soft eraser
mately equal and space C equal to or slightly less (Fig. 46IV).
than one space A. Sketch vertical lines 5, 6, 7, and 8 5. Heavy in all final lines so that the views will stand
to establish the width of the top and front views out clearly (Fig. 46V).
and the depth of the side view. Make sure that this
is in correct proportion to the height, while making
spaces B approximately equal and space D equal to 28 n ALIGNMENT OF VIEWS
or slightly less than one space B. Note that spaces C Errors in arranging the views are so commonly made
and D are not necessarily equal, but are indepen- by students that it is necessary to repeat this: The views
dent of each other. Similarly, spaces A and B are not must be drawn in accordance with the American
necessarily equal. To transfer the depth dimension National Standard arrangement shown in Fig. 33.
from the top view to the side view, use the edge of a Figure 47a shows an offset guide that requires three
card or strip of paper, as shown, or transfer the dis- views. These three views, correctly arranged, are shown
tance by using the pencil as a measuring stick (see in Fig. 47b. The top view must be directly above the
Figs. 10b and 10c). Note that the depth in the top front view, and the right-side view directly to the right
and side views must always be equal. of the front view—not out of alignment, as in Fig. 47c.
2. Block in all details lightly (Fig. 46II). Also, never draw the views in reversed positions, with
3. Sketch all arcs and circles lightly (Fig. 46III). the bottom over the front or the right-side to the left of

n FIGURE 47 n Position of Views.

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 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

n FIGURE 49 n Precedence of Lines.

n FIGURE 48 n Meaning of Lines.

the front view (Fig. 47d), even though the views do 30 n PRECEDENCE OF LINES
line up with the front view. Visible lines, hidden lines, and center lines often coin-
cide on a drawing, and the drafter must know which
29 n MEANING OF LINES line to show. A visible line always takes precedence
A visible line or a hidden line has three possible mean- over (covers up) a center line or a hidden line, as shown
ings (Fig. 48): (1) intersection of two surfaces, (2) edge at A and B in Fig. 49. A hidden line takes precedence
view of a surface, and (3) contour view of a curved sur- over a center line, as shown at C. Note that at A and C
face. Since no shading is used on a working drawing, it is the ends of the center line are shown, but are separated
necessary to examine all the views to determine the from the view by short gaps.
meaning of the lines. For example, the line AB at the top
of the front view might be regarded as the edge view of a 31 n COMPUTER GRAPHICS
flat surface if we look at only the front and top views and Preliminary sketches are usually done on paper with a
do not observe the curved surface on top of the object, pencil or pen. More detailed CAD drawings usually fol-
as shown in the right-side view. Similarly, the vertical line low the initial sketches. Finished CAD drawings should
CD in the front view might be regarded as the edge view apply the same rules for arranging views, clearly depict-
of a plane surface if we look at only the front and side ing the subject of the drawing, using the proper line pat-
views. However, the top view shows that the line repre- terns and line weights, and following all of the necessary
sents the intersection of an inclined surface. standards as manually created drawings (Fig. 50).

n FIGURE 50 n Multiview CAD Assembly Drawing of a MAXIM Fire Truck. Courtesy of CADKEY.

148
 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

KEY WORDS
CONSTRUCTION LINES VISIBLE LINES OBLIQUE SKETCH
ORTHOGRAPHIC PRECEDENCE OF LINES GRID PAPER PROPORTIONS
PROJECTION ALIGNMENT OF VIEWS HIDDEN LINES
ISOMETRIC SHAPE DESCRIPTION CENTER LINES
PRIMARY VIEWS PICTORIAL SHADING

CHAPTER SUMMARY
■ Sketching is one of the most important skills that a tradi- ■ You can sketch circles by constructing a square and locat-
tional or CAD drafter must learn to become effective. ing the four tangent points where the circle touches the
■ Sketching is a quick way of visualizing and solving a square. This same technique can be applied to isometric
drawing problem. It is an effective way of communicating circles by drawing isometric “squares” (parallelograms).
with all members of the design team. ■ You can sketch objects using the same view orientation and
■ There are special techniques for sketching lines, circles, alignment that traditional drawing conventions demand.
and arcs. These techniques should be practiced so they ■ A sketched line must not look like a mechanical line. The
become second nature. main distinction between instrumental drawing and free-
■ Moving your thumb up or down the length of a pencil at hand sketching is the character or technique of the
arms length is an easy method for estimating proportion- linework.
al size. ■ Freehand sketches are made to proportion, but not nec-
■ Using a sketching grid makes measuring an easy task. essarily to a particular scale.
Grid paper comes in a variety of types, including square
grid and isometric grid.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What are the four standard types of projections? 7. What is the advantage of sketching an object first
2. What are the advantages of using grid paper for sketching? before drawing it using CAD?

3. What is the correct technique for sketching a circle or arc? 8. Why are tangent points so important when sketching,
drawing on paper with instruments, or using CAD?
4. Sketch the alphabet of lines. Which lines are thick?
Which are thin? Which are very light and will not repro- 9. What is the difference between proportion and scale?
duce when copied? 10. Which view should be sketched directly below the TOP
5. When is isometric grid paper used? When is square grid view?
paper used? 11. Why should center lines, visible lines, and hidden lines
6. What type of three-dimensional drawing can easily be line up between views when sketching?
drawn on square grid paper?

SKETCHING PROBLEMS
Figures 52 and 53 present a variety of objects from ric measurements may be easily utilized on appropriate
which the student is to sketch the necessary views. Using metric-grid graph paper.
8.5– * 11.0– graph paper, sketch a border and title strip In the problems in Fig. 53, no indications of size are
and divide the sheet into two parts (Fig. 51). Sketch two given. The student is to sketch the necessary views of
assigned problems per sheet. On the problems in Fig. assigned problems to fit the spaces comfortably, as shown
52, “ticks” are given that indicate .50– or .25– spaces. in Fig. 51. It is suggested that the student prepare a
Thus, measurements may be easily spaced off on graph small paper scale, making the divisions equal to those on
paper having .12– or .25– grid spacings. the paper scale in Prob. 1. This scale can be used to
If desired, the “ticks” on the problems in Fig. 52 may determine the approximate sizes. Let each division equal
be used to indicate 10-mm and 5-mm spaces. Thus, met- either .50– or 10 mm on your sketch.

149
 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

■ FIGURE 51 ■ Multiview Sketch (Layout A-1).

Missing-line and missing-view problems are given in ments may be easily utilized on appropriate metric-grid
Figs. 54 and 55, respectively. These are to be graph paper. In these problems, all holes are through holes.
sketched, two problems per sheet, in the arrangement
shown in Fig. 51. If the instructor so assigns, the miss- Prob. 25 Prob. 25–48 (Fig. 53) Sketch necessary
ing lines or views may be sketched with a colored pencil. views using Layout A-1 or A4-1 adjusted (freehand). No
The problems given in Figs. 54 and 55 may be indication of size is given in these problems. Sketch the nec-
sketched in isometric on isometric paper or in oblique on essary views to fit the spaces comfortably. Prepare a small
graph paper. paper scale, making the divisions equal to those on the paper
Since many of the problems in this chapter are of a gen- scale in Prob. 25, and apply to the problems to obtain
eral nature, they can also be solved on most computer approximate sizes. Let each division equal either .50– or 10
graphics systems. If a system is available, the instructor may mm on your sketch.
choose to assign specific problems to be completed by this Prob. 49 Prob. 49–72 (Fig. 54) Sketch given views
method. using Layout A-1 or A4-1 adjusted (freehand). Add missing
For all of the following problems, use 8.5– * 11.0– lines. The squares may be either .25– or 5 mm. The problems
graph paper or plain paper. Sketch a border and title strip, may be sketched in isometric on isometric paper or in
and divide the sheet into two parts, as shown in Fig. 51. oblique on graph paper.
Sketch two assigned problems per sheet.
Prob. 73–105 (Fig. 55) Using Layout A-1 or A4-1
Prob. 1 Prob. 1–24 (Fig. 52) Sketch necessary adjusted (freehand), sketch the two given views and add the
views using Layout A-1 or A4-1 adjusted (freehand). The missing views, as indicated. The squares may be either .25–
“ticks” on the figures indicate .50– or .25– spaces. Thus, mea- or 5 mm. The given views are either front and right-side
surements may be easily spaced off on graph paper having views or front and top views. Hidden holes with center lines
.12– or .25– grid spacings. The “ticks” may also be used to are drilled holes. Sketch in isometric on isometric paper or in
indicate 10-mm or 5-mm spaces, so that metric measure- oblique on cross-section paper.

150
 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

1 2 3 4

5 6 7 8

9 10 11 12

13 14 15 16

17 18 19 20

21 22 23 24
n FIGURE 52 n Multiview Sketching Problems. Sketch necessary views, using Layout A–1 (see Fig. 51) or A4–1
adjusted (freehand), on graph paper or plain paper, two problems per sheet as in Fig. 51. The units shown may be either .50– and .25– or
10 mm and 5 mm. All holes are through holes.

151
 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

4
1 2 3

5 6 7 8

12
9 10 11

13 14 15 16

20
17 18 19

21 22 23 24
n FIGURE 53 n Multiview Sketching Problems. Sketch necessary views, using Layout A–1 or A4–1 adjusted (freehand), on graph paper or
plain paper, two problems per sheet as in Fig. 51. Prepare paper scale with divisions equal to those in Prob. 1, and apply to problems to obtain
approximate sizes. Let each division equal either .50– or 10 mm on your sketch. See instructions in Sketching Problems.

152
 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

1 2 3 4

5 6 7 8

9 10 11 12

13 14 15 16

17 18 19 20

21 22 23 24

n FIGURE 54 n Missing-Line Sketching Problems. (1) Sketch given views, using Layout A–1 or A4–1 adjusted (freehand), on graph paper or
plain paper, two problems per sheet as in Fig. 51. Add missing lines. The squares may be either .25– or 5 mm. See instructions in Sketching
Problems. (2) Sketch in isometric on isometric paper or in oblique on cross-section paper.

153
 Technical Sketching and Shape Description

1 2 3

7
4 5 6

8 9 10
11

12 13 14

19

15 16 17 18

23
20 21 22

24 25 26

27

28 29 30 31 32 33

■ FIGURE 55 ■ Third-View Sketching Problems. (1) Using Layout A–1 or A4–1 adjusted (freehand), on graph paper or plain paper, two
problems per sheet as in Fig. 51, sketch the two given views and add the missing views, as indicated. The squares may be either .25– or 5 mm.
See instructions in Sketching Problems. The given views are either front and right-side views or front and top views. Hidden holes with center
lines are drilled holes. (2) Sketch in isometric on isometric paper or in oblique on cross-section paper.

154
Multiview Projection

OBJECTIVES OVERVIEW
After studying the material in this chapter, you A view of an object is known technically as a projection. A projec-
should be able to: tion is a view conceived to be drawn or projected onto a plane
1. Draw the six standard views of an known as the plane of projection. A system of views of an object
object. formed by projectors from the object perpendicular to the desired
2. Draw any three views using proper con- planes of projection is known as orthographic, or multiview, pro-
ventions, placement, and alignment. jection (see ANSI/ASME Y14.3M–1994). This system of required
3. Transfer height, width, or depth dimen- views provides for the shape description of the object.
sions between views. Drawing conventions describe the projection process so that all
4. Lay out a three-view drawing so it is technical drawings can be created and interpreted in the same way.
centered on the drawing medium. Conventions assure that no ambiguity exists between the drawer’s
5. Apply conventional practices to the rev- intent and the reader’s interpretation. Understanding surface orien-
olution of ribs, spokes, and webs. tations can help students visualize the six standard views of projec-
6. Identify and draw visible and hidden
tion. Surfaces are either normal, inclined, or oblique. The endpoints
lines in all six standard views. of lines define surface boundaries. Conic sections and irregular
curves can be approximated by mapping definable lines from one
7. Identify and project surfaces appearing
in all views.
view to another. Various manufacturing processes for holes, fillets,
and rounds are described in specific ways on technical drawings.
8. Identify surface shapes, and determine
edge views of surfaces.
9. Draw and project normal, inclined, and
oblique surfaces in all views.
10. Draw positive and negative cylinders in
all views.
11. Plot conic sections and irregular curves
in all views.
12. Understand drawing conventions for
hole treatments and machine process-
es.
13. Describe the concept of first-and-third
angle projections.
14. Understand and use fold lines or miter
lines to create new views.

From Chapter 6 of Engineering Graphics, Eighth Edition, Frederick E. Giesecke,

Alva Mitchell, Henry Cecil Spencer, Ivan Leroy Hill, Robert Olin Loving, John
Thomas Dygdon, James E. Novak. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Published by Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.
 Multiview Projection

n FIGURE 1 n Projection of an Object.

1 n PROJECTION METHOD description because it shows the true angle of the inclined
The method of viewing an object to obtain a multiview surface. In this view, the hole is invisible and its extreme
projection is illustrated for a front view in Fig. 1a. contours are represented by hidden lines, as shown.
Between the observer and the object, a transparent
plane or pane of glass representing a plane of projec- n FIGURE 2 n Top and Right-Side Views.
tion is located parallel to the front surfaces of the
object. The outline on the plane of projection shows
how the object appears to the observer. Theoretically,
the observer is at an infinite distance from the object so
that the lines of sight are parallel.
In more precise terms, this view is obtained by draw-
ing perpendicular lines, or projectors, from all points on
the edges or contours of the object to the plane of projec-
tion (Fig. 1b). The infinite number of collective piercing
points of these projectors form lines on the pane of glass
(Fig. 1c). As shown, a projector from point 1 on the
object pierces the plane of projection at point 7, which is
a view or projection of the point. The same procedure
applies to point 2, whose projection is point 9. Since 1
and 2 are endpoints of a straight line on the object, the
projections 7 and 9 are joined to give the projection of
the line 7–9. Similarly, if the projections of the four cor-
ners 1, 2, 3, and 4 are found, the projections 7, 9, 10, and
8 may be joined by straight lines to form the projection
of the rectangular surface.
The same procedure can be applied to curved
lines—for example, the top curved contour of the
object. A point, 5, on the curve is projected to the plane
at 6. The projection of an infinite number of such
points (a few are shown in Fig. 1b) on the plane of
projection results in the projection of the curve. If this
procedure of projecting points is applied to all edges
and contours of the object, a complete view or projec-
tion of the object results. This view is necessary in the
shape description because it shows the true curvature
of the top and the true shape of the hole.
A similar procedure may be used to obtain the top
view (Fig. 2a). This view is necessary in the shape

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 Multiview Projection

The right-side view (Fig. 2b) is necessary because frontal plane; the rear plane is hinged to the left-side
it shows the right-angled characteristic shape of the plane, except as explained in §8. Each plane revolves
object and the true shape of the curved intersection. outwardly from the original box position until it lies in
Note how the cylindrical contour at the top of the the frontal plane, which remains stationary. The hinge
object appears when viewed from the side. The lines of the glass box are known as folding lines.
extreme, or contour, element 1–2 on the object is pro- The positions of these six planes after they have
jected to give the line 3–4 on the view. The hidden hole been revolved are shown in Fig. 4. Carefully identify
is also represented by projecting the extreme elements. each of these planes and corresponding views with its
The plane of projection on which the front view is original position in the glass box, and repeat this men-
projected is called the frontal plane; that on which the tal procedure, if necessary, until the revolutions are
top view is projected, the horizontal plane; and that thoroughly understood.
on which the side view is projected, the profile plane. Observe that in Fig. 3b lines extend around the
glass box from one view to another on the planes of
projection. These are the projections of the projectors
2 n THE GLASS BOX from points on the object to the views. For example,
If planes of projection are placed parallel to the princi- the projector 1–2 is projected on the horizontal plane
pal faces of the object, they form a “glass box,” as at 7–8 and on the profile plane at 16–17. When the
shown in Fig. 3a. Notice that the observer is always top plane is folded up, lines 9–10 and 7–8 will become
on the outside looking in, so the object is seen through vertical and line up with 10–6 and 8–2, respectively.
the planes of projection. Since the glass box has six Thus, 9–10 and 10–6 form a single straight line 9–6,
sides, six views of the object can be obtained. and 7–8 and 8–2 form a single straight line 7–2, as
Note that the object has three principal dimen- shown in Fig. 4. This explains why the top view is the
sions: width, height, and depth. These are fixed terms same width as the front view and why it is placed
used for dimensions in these directions, regardless of directly above the front view. The same relation exists
the shape of the object. between the front and bottom views. Therefore, the
To show the views of a solid, or three-dimensional, front, top, and bottom views all line up vertically and
object on a flat sheet of paper, it is necessary to unfold are the same width.
the planes so that they will all lie in the same plane (Fig. In Fig. 3b, when the profile plane is folded out,
3b). All planes except the rear plane are hinged to the lines 4–13 and 13–15 become a single straight line

n FIGURE 3 n The Glass Box.

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 Multiview Projection

n FIGURE 4 n The Glass Box Unfolded.

4–15, and lines 2–16 and 16–17 become a single 3 n FOLDING LINES
straight line 2–17, as shown in Fig. 4. The same rela-
tion exists between the front, left-side, and rear views. The front, top, and right views of the object shown in the
Therefore, the rear, left-side, front, and right-side views previous figures are shown in Fig. 5a with folding lines
all line up horizontally and are the same height. between the views. These folding lines correspond to the
Note that in Fig. 3b lines OS and OW and lines hinge lines of the glass box, as we have seen.The H/F fold-
ST and WX are respectively equal. These lines of ing line, between the top and front views, is the intersec-
equal length are shown in the unfolded position in tion of the horizontal and frontal planes. The F/P folding
Fig. 4. Thus, it is seen that the top view must be the line, between the front and side views, is the intersection
same distance from the folding line OZ as the right- of frontal and profile planes (see Figs. 3 and 4).
side view is from the folding line OY. Similarly, the The distances X and Y, from the front view to the
bottom view and left-side view are the same distance respective folding lines, are not necessarily equal, since
from their respective folding lines as are the right- they depend on the relative distances of the object
side view and the top view. Therefore, the top, right- from the horizontal and profile planes. However, as
side, bottom, and left-side views are all equidistant explained in §8, distances D1, from the top and side
from the respective folding lines and are the same views to the respective folding lines, must always be
depth. Note that in these four views that surround the equal. Therefore, the views may be any desired dis-
front view, the front surfaces of the object are faced tance apart, and the folding lines may be drawn any-
inward or toward the front view. Observe also that where between them, as long as distances D1 are kept
the left-side and right-side views and the top and bot- equal and the folding lines are at right angles to the
tom views are the reverse of each other in outline projection lines between the views.
shape. Similarly, the rear and front views are the It will be seen that distances D2 and D3 , respectively,
reverse of each other. are also equal and that the folding lines H/F and F/P are

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 Multiview Projection

n FIGURE 5 n Folding Lines.

in reality reference lines for making equal depth mea- lines for setting off depth measurements in the top and
surements in the top and side views. Thus, any point in side views, we may use the front surface A of the object
the top view is the same distance from H/F as the corre- as a reference line. In this way, D 1, D 2, and all other
sponding point in the side view is from F/P. depth measurements are made to correspond in the two
While it is necessary to understand the folding lines, views in the same manner as if folding lines were used.
particularly because they are useful in solving graphical
problems in descriptive geometry, they are as a rule 4 n TWO-VIEW INSTRUMENTAL DRAWING
omitted in industrial practice as shown in Fig. 5b. The complete structure of some objects can be shown
Again, the distances between the top and front views with only two views. For example, the necessary views
and between the side and front views are not necessari- of the operating arm in Fig. 6a include only the front
ly equal. Instead of using the folding lines as reference and top views, as shown by the arrows.

n FIGURE 6 n Two-View Instrumental Drawing (dimensions in millimeters).

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 Multiview Projection

n FIGURE 7 n Transferring Depth Dimensions.

To draw [full size with instruments in Layout A–2] Professional drafters transfer dimensions between
the necessary views of the operating arm in Fig. 6, do the top and side views either with dividers or a scale
the following: (Figs. 7a and 7b). The scale method is especially
convenient when a drafting machine is used, because
1. Determine the spacing of the views (Fig. 6I). The
both vertical and horizontal scales are readily avail-
width of the front and top views is approximately
152 mm 16–; 25.4 mm = 1–2, and the width of the
able. Beginners may find it convenient to use a 45°

working space is approximately 266 mm A 10 12 – B .

miter line to project dimensions between top and side
views (Fig. 7c). Note that the right-side view may be
As shown in Fig. 6b, subtract 152 mm from 266 moved to the right or left, or the top view may be
mm and divide the result by 2 to get the value of moved upward or downward, by shifting the 45° line
space A. To set off the spaces, place the scale hori- accordingly. It is not necessary to draw continuous lines
zontally along the bottom of the sheet and make between the top and side views via the miter line.
short vertical marks. Instead, make short dashes across the miter line and
The depth of the top view is approximately 64
mm A 2 12 – B and the height of the front view is 45
project from these.

mm A 1 34 – B , while the height of the working space is

The 45° miter-line method is also convenient for
transferring a large number of points, as when plotting
194 mm A 7 58 – B . Assume a space C—say, 25 mm a curve (see Fig. 35).
11–2—between views that will look well and that
will provide sufficient space for dimensions, if any.
Add 64 mm, 25 mm, and 45 mm, subtract the 6 n PROJECTING A THIRD VIEW
total from 194 mm, and divide the result by 2 to Figure 8a is a pictorial drawing of an object that has
get the value of space B. To set off the spaces, place three necessary views. Each corner of the object is num-
the scale vertically along the left side of the sheet bered. Figure 8I shows the top and front views, with
with the full-size scale on the left, and make short each corner properly numbered. If a point is visible in a
marks perpendicular to the scale. given view, the number is placed outside the corner, but
2. Locate center lines from spacing marks (Fig. if the point is hidden, the numeral is placed inside the
6II). Construct arcs and circles lightly. corner. For example, in Fig. 8I, point 1 is visible in both
3. Draw horizontal and then vertical construction views and the number is therefore placed outside the
lines in the order shown (Fig. 6III). Allow con- corners in both views. However, point 2 is visible in the
struction lines to cross at corners. top view and the number is placed outside, while in the
4. Add hidden lines and heavy in all final lines, clean- front view it is hidden and is placed inside.
cut and dark (Fig. 6IV). This system, in which points are identified by the
same numbers in all views, is useful in projecting known
5 n TRANSFERRING DEPTH DIMENSIONS points in two views to unknown positions in a third view.
Note that this numbering system assigns the same num-
Since all depth dimensions in the top and side views ber to a given point in all views and should not be con-
must correspond point for point, accurate methods of fused with the system used in Fig. 23 and elsewhere, in
transferring these distances must be used. which a point has different numbers in each view.

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 Multiview Projection

Before starting to project the right-side view in Fig.

8, try to visualize the view as seen in the direction of
the arrow in Fig. 8a. Then construct the right-side view
point by point, using a hard pencil and very light lines.
As shown in Fig. 8I, locate point 1 in the side
view by projecting from point 1 in the top view and
point 1 in the front view. In Fig. 8II, project points 2,
3, and 4 in a similar manner to complete the vertical
end surface of the object. In Fig. 8III, project points 5
and 6 to complete the side view of the inclined surface
5–6–2–1. This completes the right-side view, since
invisible points 9, 10, 8, and 7 are directly behind visi-
ble corners 5, 6, 4, and 3, respectively.
As shown in Fig. 8IV, the drawing is completed
by heavying in the lines in the right-side view.

7 n THREE-VIEW INSTRUMENTAL DRAWING

The complete structure of some objects, such as that in
Fig. 9a, requires three views.
To draw (full size with instruments on Layout
A–2), the necessary views of the V-block in Fig. 9a, do
the following:

1. Determine the spacing of the views (Fig. 9I). The

width of the front view is 108 mm and the depth of
the side view is 58 mm, while the width of the
working space is 266 mm. Assume a space C
between views (say, 32 mm) that will look well and
will allow sufficient space for dimensions, if any.
As shown in Fig. 9b, add 108 mm, 32 mm,
and 58 mm, subtract the total from 266 mm, and
divide the result by 2 to get the value of space A.
To set off these horizontal spacing measurements,
place the scale along the bottom of the sheet and
make short vertical marks.
The depth of the top view is 58 mm and the
height of the front view is 45 mm, while the height
of the working space is 194 mm. Assume a space D
between views (say, 25 mm). As explained in §8,
space D need not be the same as space C. Add 58
mm, 25 mm, and 45 mm, subtract the total from
194 mm, and divide the result by 2 to get the value
of space B. To set off these vertical spacing mea-
surements, place the scale along the left side of the
sheet with the scale used on the left, and make
short marks perpendicular to the scale. Allow
space for written dimensions, if required.
2. Locate the center lines from the spacing marks
(Fig. 9II). Construct lightly the arcs and circles.
n FIGURE 8 n Use of Numbers. 3. Draw horizontal, then vertical, then inclined con-
struction lines, in the order shown (Fig. 9III).

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 Multiview Projection

n FIGURE 9 n Three-View Instrumental Drawing (Dimensions in Millimeters).

Allow construction lines to cross at the corners. 9 n PARTIAL VIEWS

Do not complete one view at a time; construct the A view may not need to be complete but may show only
views simultaneously. A convenient method for what is necessary for the clear description of the object
transferring the hole diameter from the top view (Fig. 11). Such a view is a partial view. A break line may
to the side view is to use the compass with the be used to limit the partial view (Fig. 11a); the contour
same setting used for drawing the hole. of the part shown may limit the view (Fig. 11b); if sym-
4. Add hidden lines and heavy in all final lines, clean- metrical, a half-view may be drawn on one side of the
cut and dark (Fig. 9IV). center line (Fig. 11c); or a partial view, “broken out,”
may be drawn (Fig. 11d). The half view shown in Figs.
11c and 11d should be the near side, as shown.
8 n ALTERNATE POSITIONS OF VIEWS Do not place a break line where it will coincide
If three views of a wide, flat object are drawn using the with a visible or hidden line.
conventional arrangement of views, a large wasted Occasionally the distinctive features of an object
space is left on the paper (Fig. 10a). In such cases, the are on opposite sides. In either complete side view there
profile plane may be considered hinged to the horizon- will be a considerable overlapping of shapes. In such
tal plane instead of the frontal plane (Fig. 10b). This cases two side views are often the best solution (Fig.
places the side view beside the top view, which results 12). The views are partial views, and in both, certain
in better spacing and sometimes makes the use of a visible and invisible lines have been omitted for clarity.
reduced scale unnecessary.
It is also permissible in extreme circumstances to
place the side view across horizontally from the bottom 10 n REVOLUTION CONVENTIONS
view. In this case the profile plane is considered hinged Regular multiview projections are sometimes awk-
to the bottom plane of projection. Similarly, the rear ward, confusing, or actually misleading. For example,
view may be placed directly above the top view or Fig. 13a shows an object that has three triangular ribs,
under the bottom view, if necessary. As a result, the three holes equally spaced in the base, and a keyway.
rear plane is considered hinged to the horizontal or The right-side view (Fig. 13b) is a regular projection
bottom plane, as the case may be, and then rotated into and is not recommended. The lower ribs appear in a
coincidence with the frontal plane.

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 Multiview Projection

n FIGURE 10 n Position of Side View.

n FIGURE 11 n Partial Views.

n FIGURE 12 n Incomplete Side Views.

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 Multiview Projection

n FIGURE 13 n Revolution Conventions.

foreshortened position, the holes do not appear in their Revolutions of the type discussed here are fre-
true relation to the rim of the base, and the keyway is quently used in connection with sectioning. Such sec-
projected as a confusion of hidden lines. tional views are called aligned sections.
The conventional method shown in Fig. 13c is
preferred, not only because it is simpler to read, but 11 n REMOVED VIEWS
also because it requires less drafting time. Each of the
A removed view is a complete or partial view removed to
features mentioned has been revolved in the front view
another place on the sheet so that it no longer is in direct
to lie along the vertical center line, from where it is pro-
projection with any other view (Fig. 15). Such a view may
jected to the correct side view (Fig. 13c).
be used to show some feature of the object more clearly,
Figures 13d and 13e show regular views of a
possibly to a larger scale, or to save drawing a complete
flange with many small holes. The hidden holes in Fig.
regular view. A viewing-plane line is used to indicate the
13e are confusing and take unnecessary time to draw.
part being viewed; the arrows at the corners show the
The preferred representation in Fig. 13f shows the
direction of sight. The removed views should be labeled
holes revolved, and the drawing is clear.
VIEW A–A or VIEW B–B and so on; the letters refer to those
Another example is given in Fig. 14. As shown in
placed at the corners of the viewing-plane line.
Fig. 14a, a regular projection produces a confusing fore-
shortening of the inclined arm. To preserve the appear-
ance of symmetry about the common center, the lower 12 n VISUALIZATION
arm is revolved to line up vertically in the front view so The ability to visualize or think in
that it projects true length in the side view (Fig. 14b). three dimensions is one of the most important abili-

n FIGURE 14 n Revolution Conventions.

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 Multiview Projection

13 n VISUALIZING THE VIEWS

Figure 16 illustrates a method of reading drawings
that is essentially the reverse of the mental process
used in obtaining the views by projection. The given
views of an angle bracket are shown in Fig. 16a.

1. The front view (Fig. 16I) shows that the object is

L-shaped, the height and width of the object, and
the thickness of the members. The meaning of the
hidden and center lines is not yet clear; nor do we
yet know the depth of the object.
2. The top view (Fig. 16II) tells us that the horizon-
tal member is rounded at the right end and has a
n FIGURE 15 n Removed View.
round hole. Some kind of slot is indicated at the
left end. The depth and width of the object are
shown.
ties of successful engineers, designers, and scientists.
3. The right-side view (Fig. 16III) tells us that the
In practice, this means the ability to study the views
left end of the object has rounded corners at the
of an object and to form a mental picture of it—to
top and has an open-end slot in a vertical position.
visualize its three-dimensional shape. To the designer
The height and depth of the object are shown.
it means the ability to synthesize, or form, a mental
picture before the object even exists and the ability
Thus, each view provides certain definite informa-
to express this image in terms of views. The engineer
tion regarding the shape of the object. All views must
is the master planner in the construction of new
be considered to visualize the object completely.
equipment, structures, or processes. The ability to
visualize and to use the graphic language as a means
of communication or recording of mental images is
indispensable. 14 n MODELS
Even experienced engineers and designers cannot One of the best aids to visualization is an actual model
look at a multiview drawing and instantly visualize the of the object. Such a model need not be made accurate-
object represented (except for the simplest shapes) any ly to scale and may be made of any convenient materi-
more than we can grasp the ideas on a book page al, such as modeling clay, soap, wood, styrofoam, or any
merely at a glance. It is necessary to study the drawing, material that can easily be shaped, carved, or cut.
to read the lines in a logical way, and to piece together A typical example of the use of soap or clay models
the little things until a clear idea of the whole emerges. is shown in Fig. 17. Three views of an object are given
How this is done is described in §§8–32. in Fig. 17a, and the student is to supply a missing line.

n FIGURE 16 n Visualizing from Given Views.

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 Multiview Projection

n FIGURE 17 n Use of Model to Aid Visualization.

n FIGURE 18 n Soap Models.

The model is carved as shown in Figs. 17I–17III. The the plane of projection to which it is parallel (see §8).
“missing” line discovered in the process is added to the If a plane surface is perpendicular to a plane of
drawing (Fig. 17b). projection, it appears as a line or edge view (EV) (Fig.
Some typical examples of soap models are shown 19a). If it is parallel, it appears as a true size (TS) sur-
in Fig. 18. face (Fig. 19b). If it is situated at an angle, it appears
as a foreshortened (FS) surface (Fig. 19c). Thus, a
plane surface always projects as a line or a surface.
15 n SURFACES, EDGES, AND CORNERS The intersection of two plane surfaces produces an
To analyze and synthesize multiview projections, the edge, or a straight line. Such a line is common to both
component elements that make up most solids must be surfaces and forms a boundary line for each. If an edge
considered. A surface (plane) may be bounded by is perpendicular to a plane of projection, it appears as a
straight lines, curves, or a combination of them. A sur- point (Fig. 20a); otherwise it appears as a line, as in
face may be frontal, horizontal, or profile, according to Figs.20b and 20c. If it is parallel to the plane of pro-

n FIGURE 19 n Projections of Surfaces.

166
 Multiview Projection

A CAD Solid Model and Several Surface Projections. Courtesy of SolidWorks Corporation.

jection, it shows true length (Fig. 20b); if not parallel, 16 n ADJACENT AREAS
it appears foreshortened (Fig. 20c). Thus, a straight
line always projects as a straight line or as a point. A line Consider the top view in Fig. 21a. Lines divide the
may be frontal, horizontal, or profile, according to the view into three areas. Each area must represent a sur-
plane of projection to which it is parallel. face at a different level. Surface A may be high and sur-
A corner, or point, is the common intersection of faces B and C lower (Fig. 21b). Or B may be lower
three or more surfaces or edges. A point appears as a than C (Fig. 21c). Or B may be highest, with C and A
point in every view. each lower (Fig. 21d). Or one or more surfaces may

n FIGURE 20 n Projections of Lines.

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 Multiview Projection

n FIGURE 21 n Adjacent Areas.

n FIGURE 22 n Similar Shapes.

be inclined (Fig. 21e). Or one or more surfaces may Evidently, line 11–15 in the front view is the edge view of
be cylindrical (Fig. 21f), and so on. No two adjacent the L-shaped surface.
areas can lie in the same plane. Surface 11–13–12 in the front view is triangular in
The same reasoning can apply, of course, to the shape, but no corresponding triangles appear in either
adjacent areas in any given view. Since an area (sur- the top or the side view. We note that point 12 lines up
face) in a view can be interpreted in several different with 8 and 4 and that point 13 lines up with 6 and 9.
ways, other views must be observed to determine However, surface 11–13–12 of the front view cannot
which interpretation is correct. be the same as surface 4–6–9–8 in the top view because
the former has three sides and the latter has four. Obvi-
17 n SIMILAR SHAPES OF SURFACES ously, the triangular surface appears as line 4–6 in the
top view and as line 16–19 in the side view.
If a surface is viewed from several different positions, it Surface 12–13–15–14 in the front view is trape-
will in each case been seen to have a certain number of zoidal in shape. But there are no trapezoids in the top and
sides and to have a certain characteristic shape. An side views, so the surface evidently appears in the top
L-shaped surface (Fig. 22a) will appear as an L-shaped view as line 7–10 and in the side view as line 18–20.
figure in every view in which it does not appear as a line. The remaining surfaces can be identified in the same
A T-shaped surface (Fig. 22b), a U-shaped surface (Fig. manner, where it will be seen that the object is bounded
22c), or a hexagonal surface (Fig. 22d) will in each case by seven plane surfaces, two of which are rectangular,
have the same number of sides and the same characteris- two triangular, two L-shaped, and one trapezoidal.
tic shape in every view in which it appears as a surface.
This repetition of shapes is one of our best meth-
ods for analyzing views. n FIGURE 23 n Reading a Drawing.

18 n READING A DRAWING
Suppose we want to visualize the object shown by
three views in Fig. 23. Since no lines are curved, we
know that the object is made up of plane surfaces.
Surface 2–3–10–9–6–5 in the top view is an L-shaped
surface of six sides. It appears in the side view at
16–17–21–20–18–19 and is L-shaped and six-sided. No
such shape appears in the front view, but we note that
points 2 and 5 line up with 11 in the front view, points 6
and 9 line up with 13, and points 3 and 10 line up with 15.

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 Multiview Projection

Note that the numbering system used in Fig. 23 is 17–18–20–19, as line 3–7 in the top view, and as line
different from that in Fig. 8 in that different numbers 10–13 in the front view. Normal surface C, an inverted
are used for all points and there is no significance in a T-shaped surface, is parallel to the frontal plane and
point being inside or outside a corner. appears true size in the front view at
9–10–13–14–16–15–11–12, as line 5–8 in the top
view, and as line 17–21 in the side view.
19 n NORMAL SURFACES All other surfaces of the object may be visualized
A normal surface is a plane surface that is parallel to a in a similar manner. In the four stages of Fig. 24,
plane of projection. It appears in true size and shape on observe carefully the changes in the views produced
the plane to which it is parallel, and as a vertical or a by the machining operations, including the introduc-
horizontal line on adjacent planes of projection. tion of new surfaces, new visible edges, and hidden
In Fig. 24 four stages in machining a block of edges and the dropping out of certain lines as the
steel to produce the final tool block in Fig 24IV are result of a new cut.
shown. All surfaces are normal surfaces. In Fig. 24I, The top view in Fig. 24I is cut by lines 2–6 and
normal surface A is parallel to the horizontal plane 3–7, which means that there are three surfaces,
and appears true size in the top view at 2–3–7–6, as 1–2–6–5, 2–3–7–6, and 3–4–8–7. In the front view, sur-
line 9–10 in the front view, and as line 17–18 in the face 9–10 is seen to be the highest, and surfaces 11–12
side view. Normal surface B is parallel to the profile and 13–14 are at the same lower level. In the side view,
plane and appears true size in the side view at both of these latter surfaces appear as one line 19–20.

n FIGURE 24 n Machining a Tool Block—Normal Surfaces and Edges.

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 Multiview Projection

Surface 11–12 might appear as a hidden line in the side 21 n INCLINED SURFACES
view, but surface 13–14 appears as a visible line 19–20, An inclined surface is a plane surface that is perpen-
which covers up the hidden line and takes precedence dicular to one plane of projection but inclined to adja-
over it. cent planes. An inclined surface projects as a straight
line on the plane to which it is perpendicular; it appears
foreshortened (FS) on planes to which it is inclined,
20 n NORMAL EDGES with the degree of foreshortening being proportional
A normal edge is a line that is perpendicular to a plane to the angle of inclination.
of projection. It appears as a point on the plane of pro- Figure 25 shows four stages in machining a locat-
jection to which it is perpendicular and as a line in true ing finger, producing several inclined surfaces. In Fig.
length on adjacent planes of projection. In Fig. 24I, 25I, inclined surface A is perpendicular to the hori-
edge D is perpendicular to the profile plane of projec- zontal plane of projection and appears as line 5–3 in
tion and appears as point 17 in the side view. It is par- the top view. It is shown as a foreshortened surface in
allel to the frontal and horizontal planes of projection the front view at 7–8–11–10 and in the side view at
and is shown true length at 9–10 in the front view and 12–13–16–15. Note that the surface is more foreshort-
6–7 in the top view. Edges E and F are perpendicular, ened in the side view than in the front view because the
respectively, to the frontal and horizontal planes of plane makes a greater angle with the profile plane of
projection, and their views may be similarly analyzed. projection than with the frontal plane of projection.

n FIGURE 25 n Machining a Locating Finger—Inclined Surfaces.

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 Multiview Projection

In Fig. 25III, edge 23–24 in the front view is in the top view at 5–3. It is foreshortened in the front
the edge view of an inclined surface that appears in view at 7–8 and in the side view at 12–13. Note that
the top view as 21–2–3–22 and in the side view as plane A produces two normal edges and two inclined
25–14–27–26. Note that 25–14 is equal in length to edges.
21–22 and that the surface has the same number of In Figs. 25III and 25IV, some of the sloping
sides (four) in both views in which it appears as a lines are not inclined lines. In Fig. 25III, the edge that
surface. appears in the top view at 21–22, in the front view at
In Fig. 25IV, edge 29–23 in the front view is the 23–24, and in the side view at 14–27 is an inclined line.
edge view of an inclined surface that appears in the top However, the edge that appears in the top view at
view as visible surface 1–21–22–5–18 and in the side 22–23, in the front view at 23–24, and in the side view
view as invisible surface 25–14–32–31–30. While the at 25–26 is not an inclined line by the definition given
surface does not appear true size in any view, it does here. Actually, it is an oblique line (see §8).
have the same characteristic shape and the same num-
ber of sides (five) in the views in which it appears as a
surface.
23 n OBLIQUE SURFACES
To obtain the true size of an inclined surface, it is
necessary to construct an auxiliary view or to revolve An oblique surface is a plane that is oblique to all
the surface until it is parallel to a plane of projection. planes of projection. Since it is not perpendicular to
any plane, it cannot appear as a line in any view. Since it
is not parallel to any plane, it cannot appear true size in
22 n INCLINED EDGES any view. Thus, an oblique surface always appears as a
An inclined edge is a line that is parallel to a plane of foreshortened surface in all three views.
projection but inclined to adjacent planes. It appears In Fig. 26II, oblique surface C appears in the top
true length on the plane to which it is parallel and fore- view at 25–3–6–26 and in the front view at
shortened on adjacent planes, with the degree of fore- 29–8–31–30. What are its numbers in the side view?
shortening being proportional to the angle of Note that any surface appearing as a line in any view
inclination. The true-length view of an inclined line is cannot be an oblique surface. How many inclined sur-
always inclined, while the foreshortened views are faces are there? How many normal surfaces?
either vertical or horizontal lines. To obtain the true size of an oblique surface, it is
In Fig. 25I, inclined edge B is parallel to the hor- necessary to construct a secondary, auxiliary view or to
izontal plane of projection and appears true length revolve the surface until it is parallel to a plane of pro-
jection.

n FIGURE 26 n Machining a Control Lever—Inclined and Oblique Surfaces.

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 Multiview Projection

24 n OBLIQUE EDGES
An oblique edge is a line that is oblique to all planes of
projection. Since it is not perpendicular to any plane, it
cannot appear as a point in any view. Since it is not par-
allel to any plane, it cannot appear true length in any
view. An oblique edge appears foreshortened and in an
inclined position in every view.
In Fig. 26II, oblique edge F appears in the top
view at 26–25, in the front view at 30–29, and in the
side view at 33–34.

25 n PARALLEL EDGES
If a series of parallel planes is intersected by another
plane, the resulting lines of intersection are parallel (Fig.
27a). In Fig. 27b, the top plane of the object intersects
the front and rear planes, producing the parallel edges
1–2 and 3–4. If two lines are parallel in space, their pro-
jections in any view are parallel. The example in Fig.
27b is a special case in which the two lines appear as
points in one view and coincide as a single line in anoth-
er and should not be regarded as an exception to the n FIGURE 27 n Parallel Lines.
rule. Note that even in the pictorial drawings the lines
are shown parallel. Parallel inclined lines are shown in
Fig. 27c, and parallel oblique lines in Fig. 27d. lines in space will be projected as parallel lines in any
Figure 28 shows three views of an object after a view. The remaining lines are thus drawn parallel to
plane has been passed through the points A, B, and C. lines AP, PB, and BA.
As shown in Fig. 28b, only points that lie in the same
plane are joined. In the front view, join points A and C,
which are in the same plane, extending the line to P on 26 n ANGLES
the vertical front edge of the block extended. In the If an angle is in a normal plane—that is, parallel to a
side view, join P to B, and in the top view, join B to A. plane of projection—the angle will be shown true size on
Complete the drawing by applying this rule: Parallel the plane of projection to which it is parallel (Fig. 29a).

n FIGURE 28 n Oblique Surface.

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n FIGURE 29 n Angles.

If the angle is in an inclined plane, it may be projected most common rounded surfaces are the cylinder, cone,
either larger or smaller than the true angle, depending on and sphere, a few of whose applications are shown in
its position (Figs. 29b and 29c). In Fig. 29b, the 45° Fig. 30. For other geometric solids, see Fig. 4.7.
angle is shown oversize in the front view, while in Fig.
29c the 60° angle is shown undersize in both views.
A 90° angle will be projected true size, even if it is 28 n CYLINDRICAL SURFACES
in an inclined plane, provided that one leg of the angle Three views of a right-circular cylinder, the most com-
is a normal line (Fig. 29d). In this figure, the 60° angle mon type, are shown in Fig. 31a. The single cylindrical
is projected oversize and the 30° angle undersize. Study surface is intersected by two plane (normal) surfaces,
these relations, using your own 30° * 60° triangle as a forming two curved lines of intersection or circular
model. edges (the bases of the cylinder). These circular edges
are the only actual edges on the cylinder. Figure 31b
shows a cylindrical hole in a right square prism.
27 n CURVED SURFACES The cylinder is represented on a drawing by its cir-
Rounded surfaces are common in engineering practice cular edges and the contour elements. An element is a
because they are easily formed on the lathe, the drill straight line on the cylindrical surface, parallel to the
press, and other machines using the principle of rota- axis, as shown in the pictorial view of the cylinder in
tion either of the “work” or of the cutting tool. The Fig. 31a. In both parts of Fig. 31, the circular edges

n FIGURE 30 n Curved Surfaces.

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 Multiview Projection

n FIGURE 31 n Cylindrical Surfaces.

of the cylinder appear in the top views as circles A, in contour elements 11–14 and 13–16 in the side views
the front views as horizontal lines 5–7 and 8–10, and in appear as points 2 and 4 in the top views.
the side views as horizontal lines 11–13 and 14–16. In Fig. 32, four possible stages in machining a cap
The contour elements 5–8 and 7–10 in the front are shown, producing several cylindrical surfaces. In
views appear as points 3 and 1 in the top views. The Fig. 32I, the removal of the two upper corners forms

n FIGURE 32 n Machining a Cap—Cylindrical Surfaces.

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 Multiview Projection

cylindrical surface A, which appears in the top view as which is equal in width to the diameter of the cylinder.
surface 1–2–4–3, in the front view as arc 5, and in the Surface 15–16 (front view) is read in the top view as
side view as surface 8–9–Y–X. 7–8–ARC 4. Surface 11–14 (front view) is read in the
In Fig. 32II, a large reamed hole shows in the top view as 5–6–ARC 3–8–7–ARC 2.
front view as circle 16, in the top view as cylindrical In Fig. 33c, two cylinders on the same axis are
surface 12–13–15–14, and in the side view as cylindri- shown, intersected by a normal surface parallel to
cal surface 17–18–20–19. the axis. Surface 17–20 (front view) is 23–25 in the
In Fig. 32III, two drilled and counterbored holes side view and 2–3–11–9–15–14–8–6 in the top view.
are added, producing four more cylindrical surfaces A common error is to draw a visible line in the top
and two normal surfaces. The two normal surfaces are view between 8 and 9. However, this would produce
those at the bottoms of the counterbores. two surfaces 2–3–11–6 and 8–9–15–14 not in the
In Fig. 32IV, a cylindrical cut is added, producing same plane. In the front view, the larger surface
two cylindrical surfaces that appear edgewise in the appears as line 17–20 and the smaller as line 18–19.
front view as arcs 30 and 33, in the top view as surfaces These lines coincide; hence, they are all one surface,
21–22–26–25 and 23–24–28–27, and in the side view and there can be no visible line joining 8 and 9 in the
as surfaces 36–37–40–38 and 41–42–44–43. top view.
The vertical surface that appears in the front view
29 n DEFORMITIES OF CYLINDERS at 17–18–ARC 22–19–20–ARC 21 appears as a line in
the top view at 5–12, which explains the hidden line
In shop practice, cylinders are usually machined or 8–9 in the top view.
formed to introduce other, often plane, surfaces. Figure
33a shows a cut that introduces two normal surfaces.
One surface appears as line 3–4 in the top view, as sur- 30 n CYLINDERS AND ELLIPSES
face 6–7–10–9 in the front view, and as line 13–16 in If a cylinder is cut by an inclined plane, as in Fig. 34a,
the side view. The other appears as line 15–16 in the the inclined surface is bounded by an ellipse. The
side view, as line 9–10 in the front view, and as surface ellipse appears as circle 1 in the top view, as straight
3–4, arc 2 in the top view. line 2–3 in the front view, and as ellipse ADBC in the
All elements touching arc 2, between 3 and 4 in side view. Note that circle 1 in the top view would
the top view, become shorter as a result of the cut. For remain a circle regardless of the angle of the cut. If the
example, element A, which shows as a point in the top cut is 45° with horizontal, the ellipse will appear as a
view, now becomes CD in the front view and 15–17 in circle in the side view (see phantom lines) since the
the side view. As a result of the cut, the front half of the major and minor axes in that view would be equal.
cylindrical surface has changed from 5–8–12–11 to Finding the true size and shape of the ellipse requires
5–6–9–10–7–8–12–11 (front view). The back half an auxiliary view with the line of sight perpendicular to
remains unchanged. surface 2–3 in the front view.
In Fig. 33b, two cuts introduce four normal sur- Since the major and minor axes AB and CD are
faces. Note that surface 7–8 (top view) is through the known, the ellipse can be drawn by any of the methods
center of the cylinder, producing in the side view line used with true ellipses or with the aid of an ellipse tem-
21–24 and in the front view surface 11–14–16–15, plate.

n FIGURE 33 n Cylinders and Ellipses.

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 Multiview Projection

n FIGURE 34 n Deformities of Cylinders.

If a cylinder is tilted forward its bases or circular CD is drawn perpendicular to AB. These are the projec-
edges 1–2 and 3–4 (side view) become ellipses in the tions of the major and minor axes, respectively, of the
front and top views (Fig. 34b). Points on the ellipses actual ellipse in space. In the front and side views, points
can be plotted from the semicircular end view of the A and B are assumed at the desired altitudes. Since CD
cylinder, as shown, with distances d being equal. Since appears true length in the top view, it will appear hori-
the major and minor axes for each ellipse are known, zontal in the front and side views, as shown. These axes
the ellipses can be drawn with the aid of an ellipse tem- in the front and side views are the conjugate axes of the
plate, or by any of the true ellipse methods, or by the ellipses. The ellipses may be drawn on these axes or by
approximate method. trial with the aid of an ellipse template.
If a cylinder is cut by an oblique plane, the elliptical The intersection of a plane and a quarter-round
surface appears as an ellipse in two views (Fig. 34c). In molding is shown in Fig. 35a, and intersection with a
the top view, points A and B are selected, diametrically cove molding is shown in Fig. 35b. In both figures,
opposite, as the high and low points in the ellipse, and assume points 1, 2, 3, Á at random in the side views in
which the cylindrical surfaces appear as curved lines,
and project the points to the front and top views, as
n FIGURE 35 n Plotting Elliptical Curves.
shown. A sufficient number of points should be used to
ensure smooth curves. Draw the final curves through
the points with an irregular curve.

31 n SPACE CURVES
The views of a space curve (an irregular curve) are
established by the projections of points along the curve
(Fig. 36). In this figure, any points 1, 2, 3, Á are selec-
ted along the curve in the top view and then projected to
the side view (or the reverse), and points are located in
the front view by projecting downward from the top
view and across from the side view. The resulting curve
in the front view is drawn with an irregular curve.

32 n INTERSECTIONS AND TANGENCIES

No line should be drawn where a curved surface is tan-
gent to a plane surface (Fig. 37a), but when a curved
surface intersects a plane surface, a definite edge is
formed (Fig. 37b). If curved surfaces are arranged as in

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37e–37h.
The intersection of a small cylinder with a large
cylinder is shown in Fig. 38a. The intersection is so
small that it is not plotted; a straight line is used
instead. In Fig. 38b, the intersection is larger, but still
not large enough to justify plotting the curve.The curve
is approximated by drawing an arc whose radius r is the
same as radius R of the large cylinder.
The intersection in Fig. 38c is significant enough to
justify constructing the true curve. Points are selected at
random in the circle in the side or top view, and these are
then projected to the other two views to locate points on
the curve in the front view, as shown. Depending on the
size of the intersection, a sufficient number of points
should be used to ensure a smooth and accurate curve.
Draw the final curve with the aid of an irregular curve.
n FIGURE 36 n Space (Irregular) Curve. In Fig. 38d, the cylinders are the same diame-
ter. The figure of intersection consists of two semiel-
lipses that appear as straight lines in the front view.
Fig. 37c, no lines appear in the top view. If the surfaces If the intersecting cylinders are holes, the intersec-
are arranged as in Fig. 37d, a vertical surface in the front tions will be similar to those for the external cylinders
view produces a line in the top view. Other typical inter- in Fig. 38.
sections and tangencies of surfaces are shown in Figs.

n FIGURE 37 n Intersections and Tangencies.

n FIGURE 38 n Intersections of Cylinders.

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 Multiview Projection

n FIGURE 39 n Intersections.

In Fig. 39a, a narrow prism intersects a cylin- In Fig. 40c, a hole is drilled and then the upper
der, but the intersection is insignificant and is part is enlarged cylindrically to a specified diameter
ignored. In Fig. 39b, the prism is larger, and the and depth. In Fig. 40d, a hole is drilled and then the
intersection is noticeable enough to warrant con- upper part is enlarged conically to a specified angle
struction, as shown. In Fig. 39c and 39d, a keyseat and diameter. The angle is commonly 82° but is drawn
and a small drilled hole, respectively, are shown; in 90° for simplicity. In Fig. 40e, a hole is drilled and
both cases the intersection is not important enough then the upper part is enlarged cylindrically to a speci-
to construct. fied diameter. The depth usually is not specified, but is
left to the shop to determine. For average cases, the
depth is drawn 1.5 mm A 161
– B.
33 n HOW TO REPRESENT HOLES
The correct methods of representing most common
types of machined holes are shown in Fig. 40. 34 n FILLETS AND ROUNDS
Instructions to the machinist are given in the form of
A rounded interior corner is called a fillet, and a
notes, and the drafter represents the holes in confor-
rounded exterior corner is called a round (Fig. 41a).
mity with these specifications. In general, the notes
Sharp corners should be avoided in designing parts to
tell the machine operator what to do and in which
be cast or forged not only because they are difficult to
order it is to be done. Hole sizes are always specified
produce but also because, in the case of interior cor-
by diameter—never by radius. For each operation
ners, they are a source of weakness and failure.
specified, the diameter is given first, followed by the
Two intersecting rough surfaces produce a round-
method— such as drill, ream, and so on—as shown in
ed corner (Fig. 41b). If one of these surfaces is
Figs. 40a and 40b.
machined (Fig. 41c), or if both surfaces are machined
The size of the hole may be specified as a diameter
(Fig. 41d), the corner becomes sharp. Therefore, in
without the specific method (such as drill, ream, and so
drawings, a rounded corner means that both intersect-
on) since the selection of the method will depend on
ing surfaces are rough, while a sharp corner means that
available production facilities (Figs. 40h–40j).
one or both surfaces are machined. On working draw-
A drilled hole is a through hole if it goes through a
ings, fillets and rounds are never shaded. The presence
member. If the hole has a specified depth, as shown in
of the curved surfaces is indicated only where they
Fig. 40a, the hole is called a blind hole. The depth
appear as arcs, except as shown in Fig. 45.
includes the cylindrical portion of the hole only. The
Fillets and rounds should be drawn with the fillet-
point of the drill leaves a conical bottom in the hole,
ed corners of a triangle, a special fillets and rounds
drawn approximately with the 30° * 60° triangle, as
template, or a circle template.
shown.
A through-drilled or reamed hole is drawn as
shown in Fig. 40b. The note tells how the hole is to be
35 n RUNOUTS
produced—in this case by reaming. Note that tolerances
are ignored in actually laying out the diameter of a hole. The correct method of representing fillets in connec-
tion with plane surfaces tangent to cylinders is shown
in Fig. 42. These small curves are called runouts.

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 Multiview Projection

n FIGURE 40 n How to Represent Holes. Dimensions for (a)–(e) in metric.

Note that the runouts F have a radius equal to that of the different shapes of the horizontal intersecting
the fillet and a curvature of about one eighth of a cir- members. In Figs. 43e and 43f, the runouts differ
cle (Fig. 42d). because the top surface of the web in Fig. 43e is flat,
Typical filleted intersections are shown in Fig. 43. with only slight rounds along the edge, while the top
The runouts from Figs. 43a–43d differ because of surface of the web in Fig. 43f is considerably rounded.

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 Multiview Projection

n FIGURE 41 n Rough and Finished Surfaces.

n FIGURE 42 n Runouts.

n FIGURE 43 n Conventional Fillets, Rounds, and Runouts.

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 Multiview Projection

A 3D CAD Representation of Fillets. Courtesy of SDRC, Milford, OH. A 3D CAD Representation of Rounds. Courtesy of SDRC, Milford, OH.

When two different sizes of fillets intersect, as in Figs. 37 n RIGHT-HAND AND LEFT-HAND PARTS
43g and 43j, the direction of the runout is dictated In industry, many individual parts are located symmetri-
by the larger fillet, as shown. cally so they can function in pairs. These opposite parts
are often exactly alike (for example, the wheel covers
36 n CONVENTIONAL EDGES used on the left and right sides of an automobile). In
Rounded and filleted intersections eliminate sharp edges fact, whenever possible, for economy’s sake the designer
and sometimes make it difficult to present a clear shape will design identical parts for use on both the right and
description. In fact, in some cases, true projection may left. But opposite parts often cannot be exactly alike,
actually be misleading, as in Fig. 44a, where the side such as a pair of gloves or a pair of shoes. Similarly, the
view of the railroad rail is quite blank. A clearer repre- right-front fender of an automobile cannot be the same
sentation results if lines are added for rounded and fillet- shape as the left-front fender.Therefore, a left-hand part
ed edges, as shown in Figs. 44b and 44c. The added is not simply a right-hand part turned around; the two
lines are projected from the actual intersections of the parts will be mirror images and not interchangeable.
surfaces as if the fillets and rounds were not present. A left-hand part is referred to as an LH part, and a
Figure 45 shows top views for each given front right-hand part as an RH part. In Fig. 46a, the image
view.The upper top views are nearly devoid of lines that in the mirror is the “other hand” of the part shown. If
contribute to the shape descriptions, while the lower top the part in front of the mirror is an RH part, the image
views, in which lines are used to represent the rounded shows the LH part. No matter how the object is turned,
and filleted edges, are quite clear. Note, in the lower top the image will show the LH part. Figures 46b and
views in Figs. 45a and 45c, the use of small Ys where 46c show LH and RH drawings of the same object;
rounded or filleted edges meet a rough surface. If such these drawings are also symmetrical with respect to a
an edge intersects a finished surface, no Y is shown. reference-plane line between them.

n FIGURE 44 n Conventional Repression of a Rail.

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 Multiview Projection

n FIGURE 45 n Conventional Edges.

n FIGURE 46 n Right-Hand and Left-Hand Parts.

If you hold a drawing faced against a windowpane object is said to be in the third angle. In this case, as
or on a light table so that the lines can be seen through we have seen, the observer is always “outside, look-
the paper, you can trace the reverse image of the part ing in,” so that for all views the lines of sight proceed
on the back or on tracing paper. This will be a drawing from the eye through the planes of projection and to
of the opposite part. the object.
It is customary to draw only one of two opposite If the object is placed above the horizontal plane
parts and to label the one that is drawn with a note, and in front of the vertical plane, the object is in the
such as LH PART SHOWN, RH OPPOSITE. If the oppo- first angle. In this case, the observer always looks
site-hand shape is not clear, a separate drawing must be through the object and to the planes of projection. Thus,
made for it and must be properly identified. the right-side view is still obtained by looking toward
the right side of the object, the front by looking toward
the front, and the top by looking down toward the top;
38 n FIRST-ANGLE PROJECTION but the views are projected from the object onto a
If the vertical and horizontal planes of projection are plane in each case. When the planes are unfolded (Fig.
considered indefinite in extent and intersecting at 47b), the right-side view falls at the left of the front
90° with each other, the four dihedral angles pro- view, and the top view falls below the front view, as
duced are the first, second, third, and fourth angles shown. A comparison between first-angle orthographic
(Fig. 47a). The profile plane intersects these two projection and third-angle orthographic projection is
planes and may extend into all angles. If the object is shown in Fig. 48. The front, top, and right-side views
placed below the horizontal plane and behind the shown in Fig. 47b for first-angle projection are
vertical plane, as in the glass box (see Fig. 3), the repeated in Fig. 48a. The front, top, and right-side

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n FIGURE 47 n First-Angle Projection. An object that is above the horizontal plane and in front of the vertical plane is in the first angle.
An observer looks through the object to the planes of projection.

views for third-angle projection of Fig. 4 are repeated 39 n COMPUTER GRAPHICS

in Fig. 48b. Ultimately, the only difference between
third-angle and first-angle projection is the arrange- You can use CAD to create 2D multiview projections in
ment of the views. Still, confusion and possibly manu- a way similar to creating a multiview drawing on paper.
facturing errors may result when the user reading a You can also create 3D models of a part using CAD.
first-angle drawing thinks it is a third-angle drawing, or From the 3D model, you can create 2D orthographic
vice versa. To avoid misunderstanding, international views automatically. This can save time in creating many
projection symbols, shown in Fig. 48, have been drawings, because you only have to create the 3D model
developed to distinguish between first-angle and third- once to generate as many different views as you want. It
angle projections on drawings. On drawings where the is important to develop an understanding of projection in
possibility of confusion is anticipated, these symbols order to use 3D CAD effectively. When you are looking
may appear in or near the title box. at a 3D wireframe drawing on your computer screen, it
In the United States and Canada (and, to some can be difficult to tell from which direction you are view-
extent, in England), third-angle projection is standard, ing the model. This is because some objects may look
while in most of the rest of the world, first-angle pro- identical on the computer screen even when viewed from
jection is used. First-angle projection was originally different directions. If you do not develop an understand-
used all over the world, including the United States, but ing of orthographic views, it can be very easy to lose your-
it was abandoned around 1890. self in the 3D space of your drawing (Fig. 49).

n FIGURE 48 n First-Angle Projection Compared to Third-Angle Projection.

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 Multiview Projection

n FIGURE 49 n Computer-Generated Multiview and Pictorial Drawing. Courtesy of SolidWorks Corporation.

KEY WORDS
PROJECTION WIDTH PLANE OF PROJECTION OBLIQUE
PROJECTORS REVOLUTION ORTHOGRAPHIC EDGES
MITER LINE NORMAL THE GLASS BOX HOLE CONVENTIONS
FOLD LINES SURFACES ALIGNMENT OF VIEWS FILLETS AND ROUNDS
DEPTH CYLINDERS INCLINED
HEIGHT THIRD-ANGLE PROJECTION

CHAPTER SUMMARY
n Orthographic drawings are the result of projecting the three principal views. Oblique surfaces do not appear in
image of a three-dimensional object onto one of six stan- edge view in any of the principal views.
dard planes of projection. The planes of projection inter- n Conic sections and irregular curves must be plotted by
sect each other at fold lines. The six standard planes of identifying points on the object. The points can be pro-
projection are often thought of as a “glass box.” jected to approximate the boundaries of the curved
n Each view in an orthographic projection is aligned with surface.
an adjacent view. The principal views most often used are n Drawing conventions define usual practices for the repre-
top, front, and right side. sentation of features such as holes, bosses, ribs, webs,
n To help project or verify surfaces you can label them with spokes, fillets, and rounds.
letters, and the corners of surfaces can be labeled with n Creating CAD drawings involves applying the same con-
numbers. There are normal, inclined, and oblique sur- cepts as paper drawing. The main difference is that the
faces. Normal surfaces appear true size in one principal paper surface is replaced by the monitor screen, and CAD
view and as an edge in the other two principal views. software can draw a line faster and more accurately than
Inclined surfaces appear as an edge view in one of the most drafters.

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REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Sketch a representation of third-angle projection. 8. How is the computer monitor used to view a CAD pro-
2. List the six principal views of projection. gram similar to a sheet of paper?
3. Sketch the top, front, and right-side views of an object 9. What dimensions are the same between the top and front
having normal, inclined, and oblique surfaces. view: width, height, or depth? Between the front and
4. In a drawing that shows the top, front, and right-side right-side view? Between the top and right-side view?
view, which two views show depth? Which view shows 10. List two ways of transferring depth between the top and
depth vertically? Which view shows depth horizontally? right-side views.
5. What is the definition of a normal surface? An inclined 11. If surface A contained corners 1, 2, 3, 4, and surface B
surface? An oblique surface? contained corners 3, 4, 5, 6, what is the name of the line
6. Describe the procedure necessary to center a three- where surfaces A and B intersect?
view drawing on a sheet of paper. 12. If the top view of an object shows a drilled-through
7. Describe the procedure necessary to center a CAD hole, how many hidden lines would be necessary in the
drawing on a sheet of paper. front view to describe the hole?

MULTIVIEW PROJECTION PROBLEMS

The following problems are intended primarily to afford In the following problems, often it is not possible for
practice in instrumental drawing, but any of them may be the dimensions to be shown in the preferred places in the
sketched freehand on graph paper or plain paper. Sheet standard manner. In doing the problems, you are expected
layouts such as those in Figs. 50 and 51 or inside the to move dimensions to the preferred locations and to
back cover are suggested, but your instructor may prefer a conform to dimensioning practices.
different sheet size or arrangement. Use metric or decimal-
inch as assigned.

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 Multiview Projection

n FIGURE 50 n Suggested Layout for Freehand Sketch (Layout A–2 or A4–2 adjusted).

n FIGURE 51 n Suggested Layout for Mechanical Drawing (Layout A–3 or A4–3 adjusted).

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 Multiview Projection

1 2

3 4

5 6

7 8

n FIGURE 52 n Missing-View Problems. Using Layout A–2 or 3 or Layout A4–2 or 3 (adjusted), sketch or draw with instruments the given
views, and add the missing view, as shown in Figs. 50 and 51. Use metric or decimal-inch dimensions as assigned by the instructor. Move
dimensions to better locations where possible. In Probs. 1–5, all surfaces are normal surfaces.

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 Multiview Projection

1 2

3 4

5 6

7 8

n FIGURE 53 n Missing-View Problems. Using Layout A–2 or 3 or Layout A4–2 or 3 (adjusted), sketch or draw with instruments the given
views, and add the missing view, as shown in Figs. 50 and 51. Use metric or decimal-inch dimensions as assigned by the instructor. Move
dimensions to better locations where possible.

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 Multiview Projection

1 2

3 4

5 6

7 8

n FIGURE 54 n Missing-View Problems. Using Layout A–2 or 3 or Layout A4–2 or 3 (adjusted), sketch or draw with instruments the given
views, and add the missing view, as shown in Figs. 50 and 51. Use metric or decimal-inch dimensions as assigned by the instructor. Move
dimensions to better locations where possible.

189
 Multiview Projection

n FIGURE 58 n Tool Holder (Layout A–3).*

n FIGURE 55 n Safety Key (Layout A–3).*

n FIGURE 56 n Finger Guide (Layout A–3).* n FIGURE 59 n Tailstock Clamp (Layout A–3).*

n FIGURE 57 n Rod Support (Layout A–3).* n FIGURE 60 n Index Feed (Layout A–3).*

*Draw or sketch necessary views. Layout A4–3 (adjusted) may be used. Use metric or decimal-inch dimensions as assigned by the instructor.

190
 Multiview Projection

n FIGURE 61 n Bearing (Layout A–3).*

n FIGURE 64 n Index Arm (Layout A–3).*

n FIGURE 62 n Holder Clip (Layout A–3).*

n FIGURE 65 n Roller Lever (Layout A–3).*

n FIGURE 63 n Cam (Layout A–3).* n FIGURE 66 n Support (Layout A–3).*

*Draw or sketch necessary views. Layout A4–3 (adjusted) may be used. Use metric or decimal-inch dimensions as assigned by the instructor.

191
 Multiview Projection

n FIGURE 70 n Index Slide (Layout A–3).*

n FIGURE 67 n Locating Finger (Layout A–3).*

n FIGURE 71 n Frame Guide (Layout A–3).*

n FIGURE 68 n Toggle Lever (Layout A–3).*

n FIGURE 69 n Cut-off Holder (Layout A–3).* n FIGURE 72 n Chuck Jaw (Layout A–3).*

*Draw or sketch necessary views. Layout A4–3 (adjusted) may be used. Use metric or decimal-inch dimensions as assigned by the instructor.

192
 Multiview Projection

n FIGURE 76 n Cross-feed Stop (Layout A–3).*

n FIGURE 73 n Hinge Bracket (Layout A–3).*

n FIGURE 77 n Cross Cam (Layout A–3).*

n FIGURE 74 n Tool Holder (Layout A–3).*

n FIGURE 75 n Shifter Block (Layout A–3).* n FIGURE 78 n Roller Stud (Layout A–3).*

*Draw or sketch necessary views. Layout A4–3 (adjusted) may be used. Use metric or decimal-inch dimensions as assigned by the instructor.

193
 Multiview Projection

n FIGURE 82 n Vibrator Arm (Layout A–3).*

n FIGURE 79 n Hinge Block (Layout A–3).*

n FIGURE 83 n Clutch Lever (Layout A–3).*

n FIGURE 80 n Feed Rod Bearing (Layout A–3).*

n FIGURE 81 n Lever Hub (Layout A–3).* n FIGURE 84 n Counter Bearing Bracket (Layout A–3).*

*Draw or sketch necessary views. Layout A4–3 (adjusted) may be used. Use metric or decimal-inch dimensions as assigned by the instructor.

194
 Multiview Projection

n FIGURE 88 n Tool Holder (Layout A–3).*

n FIGURE 85 n Tool Holder (Layout A–3).*

n FIGURE 86 n Control Block (Layout A–3).* n FIGURE 89 n Locating V-Block (Layout A–3).*

n FIGURE 87 n Socket Bearing (Layout A–3).* n FIGURE 90 n Anchor Bracket (Layout A–3).*

*Draw or sketch necessary views. Layout A4–3 (adjusted) may be used. Use metric or decimal-inch dimensions as assigned by the instructor.

195
 Multiview Projection

n FIGURE 94 n Chuck Jaw (Layout B–3).*

n FIGURE 91 n Door Bearing (Layout B–3).*

n FIGURE 95 n Holder (Layout B–3).*

n FIGURE 92 n Vise Base (Layout B–3).*

n FIGURE 93 n Dust Cap (Layout B–3).* n FIGURE 96 n Centering Wedge (Layout B–3).*

*Draw or sketch necessary views. Layout A4–3 (adjusted) may be used. Use metric or decimal-inch dimensions as assigned by the instructor.

196
 Multiview Projection

n FIGURE 98 n Socket Form Roller—LH. Draw or sketch

n FIGURE 97 n Motor Switch Lever. Draw or sketch necessary necessary views (Layout B–4 or A3–4 adjusted).*
views (Layout B–3 or A3–3).*

n FIGURE 99 n Stop Base. Draw or sketch necessary views

(Layout B–3 or A3–3).*

n FIGURE 100 n Hinge Base. Draw or sketch necessary views n FIGURE 101 n Automatic Stop Base. Draw or sketch necessary
(Layout B–3 or A3–3).* views (Layout C–3 or A2–3).*

*Use metric or decimal-inch dimensions as assigned by the instructor.

197
 Multiview Projection

n FIGURE 102 n Lead Screw Bracket. Draw or sketch

n FIGURE 104 n Gripper Rode Center. Draw or sketch necessary
necessary views (Layout C–3 or A2–3).*
views (Layout B–3 or A3–3).*

n FIGURE 103 n Lever Bracket. Draw or sketch necessary views n FIGURE 105 n Bearing Bracket. Draw or sketch necessary
(Layout C–3 or A2–3).* views (Layout B–3 or A3–3).*

*Use metric or decimal-inch dimensions as assigned by the instructor.

198
 Multiview Projection

n FIGURE 108 n LH Shifter Fork. Draw or sketch necessary

views (Layout B–3 or A3–3).*
n FIGURE 106 n Link Arm Connector. Draw or sketch
necessary views (Layout B–3 or A3–3).*

n FIGURE 107 n Mounting Bracket. Draw or sketch n FIGURE 109 n Gear Shift Bracket. Draw or sketch necessary
necessary views (Layout B–3 or A3–3).* views (Layout C–4).*

*Use metric or decimal-inch dimensions as assigned by the instructor.

199
 Multiview Projection

n FIGURE 110 n Fixture Base (Layout C–4).* n FIGURE 112 n Tension Bracket (Layout C–4).*

0 13
4 X/
016 9
/

n FIGURE 111 n Ejector Base (Layout C–4).* n FIGURE 113 n Offset Bearing (Layout C–4 or A2–4).*

*Draw or sketch necessary views. Layout A2–4 may be used. Use metric or decimal-inch dimensions as assigned by the instructor.

200
 Multiview Projection

n FIGURE 114 n Feed Guide (Layout C–4 or A2–4).*

n FIGURE 116 n Trip Lever. Given: Front, top, and partial side
views. Required: Front, bottom, and left-side views, drawn completely
(Layout B–3 or A3–3).*

n FIGURE 115 n Feed Shaft Bracket. Given: Front and top views. Required:
Front, top, and right-side views, half size (Layout B–3 or A3–3).*

*Draw or sketch necessary views. Layout A2–4 may be used. Use metric or decimal-inch dimensions as assigned by the instructor.

201
 Multiview Projection

n FIGURE 117 n Knurl Bracket Bearing. Given: Front and left-side views. Required: Take front as top view on new drawing, and add front and
right-side views (Layout B–3 or A3–3).*

n FIGURE 118 n Horizontal Bracket for Broaching Machine. n FIGURE 119 n Boom Swing Bearing for a Power Crane. Given:
Given: Front and top views. Required: Take top as front view in new Front and bottom views. Required: Front, top, and left-side views
drawing; then add top and left-side views (Layout C–4 or A2–4).* (Layout C–4 or A2–4).*
*Draw or sketch necessary views. Layout A2–4 may be used. Use metric or decimal-inch dimensions as assigned by the instructor.

202
 Multiview Projection

n FIGURE 120 n Sliding Nut for Mortiser. Given: Top and right-side views. Required: Front, top, and left-side views, full size
(Layout C–4 or A2–4).*

n FIGURE 121 n Power Feed Bracket for Universal Grinder. Given: Front and right-side views. Required: Front, top, and left-side views, full
size (Layout C–4 or A2–4).*

*Draw or sketch necessary views. Layout A2–4 may be used. Use metric or decimal-inch dimensions as assigned by the instructor.

203
 Multiview Projection

:
:2 28.

:
4
8* THR

4
6 U .1.2
3 .)
YP
8(T
R.8
.31
:
15
:
6

1.25
TH

:
R
U
2

3
2

3.0
6

38 3.
0 15°
R
3

18
12
15

.5
0
* .5
14
1
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ID OT

7
4

2
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3
)

.S

RU
12 TH
METRIC . 3 8 .375
ALL UNMARKED RADII = R1.5 x : *
3 .875
:
°
n FIGURE 122 n Transmission Part. Draw and sketch
1.25
necessary views (Layout C–3 or A2–3).
(2
1.25
.5
)

2.3125 1.6875 n FIGURE 123 n Vibration Isolator. Draw and sketch necessary views
6.75
(Layout C–3 or A2–3).
1.0625
12
.3750

3
7.6250
2.8750

.1175
.75

n FIGURE 124 n Line Actuator. Given: Front

3.3750
and right-side views. Required: Front and top
.6250 1.3125 1.3125
views. (Layout C–3 or A2–3).*

°
30 .38
4.13
2.25
1.00

1.7
5

.38
2.50 .88

W .50 5
1.25 VIE 1.7
T
ON
FR
1.12

4.25 n FIGURE 126 n Slide. Draw and sketch all necessary views
(Layout C–3 or A2–3).
1.50

*Draw or sketch necessary views. Layout A2–4 may be used. Use

n FIGURE 125 n Spacer. Draw and sketch all necessary views metric or decimal-inch dimensions as assigned by the instructor.
(Layout C–3 or A2–3).

204
Sectional Views

OBJECTIVES OVERVIEW
After studying the material in this chapter, you By means of a limited number of carefully selected views, the exter-
should be able to: nal features of the most complicated designs can be fully described.
1. Understand the meaning of sections and However, we often need to show interiors that cannot be illustrated
cutting-plane lines. clearly by hidden lines. We show such interiors by slicing through
2. Identify seven types of sections. the object much as we cut through an apple or melon. A cutaway
3. Draw a sectional view, given a two-view view of the part is then drawn; such views are called sectional
drawing. views, cross sections, or simply sections.
4. Demonstrate the proper techniques for Drafters use sectional views to improve the clarity of complex
sectioning ribs, webs, and spokes. objects when internal surfaces result in too many hidden lines.
5. Demonstrate the proper technique for
There are many types of sectional views, and a sectional view may
aligned sections. replace one of the primary views. The cutting-plane line shows
where the object is imagined to be cut. Section lining shows the solid
6. Demonstrate correct hidden-line prac-
tices.
parts of the object that have been in contact with the cutting plane.
Hidden lines are not usually found in sectional views. Special con-
7. Draw correct conventional break sym-
ventions are used to make a sectional view easy to understand. Cre-
bols for elongated objects.
ating a sectional view is one of the more complicated operations for
8. Recognize and draw the correct section-
a CAD program. CAD users need to understand thoroughly the
lining symbols for 10 different materials.
concepts of sectional views to create a sectional view with CAD
software. See ANSI/ASME Y14.2M–1992 and Y14.3M–1994 for
complete standards for multiview and sectional-view drawings.

From Chapter 7 of Engineering Graphics, Eighth Edition, Frederick E. Giesecke,

Alva Mitchell, Henry Cecil Spencer, Ivan Leroy Hill, Robert Olin Loving, John
Thomas Dygdon, James E. Novak. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Published by Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.
 Sectional Views

plane appears as a line, called a cutting-plane line (see

§5). The arrows at the ends of the cutting-plane line
indicate the direction of sight for the sectional view.
To obtain the sectional view, the right half is only
imagined to be removed and is not actually shown
removed anywhere except in the sectional view itself.
In the sectional view, the section-lined areas are those
portions that have been in actual contact with the cut-
ting plane. Those areas are cross-hatched with thin par-
allel section lines spaced carefully by eye. In addition,
the visible parts behind the cutting plane are shown but
are not cross-hatched.
As a rule, the location of the cutting plane is obvi-
ous from the section itself, and, therefore, the cutting-
plane line is omitted. It is shown in Fig. 2 for
illustration only. Cutting-plane lines should, of course,
A Section Created with CAD. This material has been reprinted with the permission
be used wherever necessary for clarity, as in Figs. 21,
from and under the copyright of Autodesk, Inc.
22, 24, and 25.

1 n SECTIONING 3 n LINES IN SECTIONING

To produce a sectional view, a cutting plane (§5) is A correct front view and sectional view are shown
assumed to be passed through the part (Fig. 1a). The in Figs. 3a and 3b. In general, all visible edges and
cutting plane is then removed, and the two halves are contours behind the cutting plane should be shown;
drawn apart, exposing the interior construction (Fig. otherwise a section will appear to be made up of dis-
1b). In this case, the direction of sight is toward the connected and unrelated parts, as shown in Fig. 3c.
left half, as shown, and for purposes of the section, the Occasionally, however, visible lines behind the cutting
right half is mentally discarded. The sectional view will plane are not necessary for clarity and should be
be in the position of a right-side view. omitted.
Sections are used primarily to replace hidden-line
2 n FULL SECTIONS representation; and, as a rule, hidden lines should be
The sectional view obtained by passing the cutting omitted in sectional views. As shown in Fig. 3d, the
plane fully through the object is called a full section hidden lines do not clarify the drawing; they tend to
(Fig. 2c). A comparison of this sectional view with the confuse, and they take unnecessary time to draw.
left-side view (Fig. 2a) emphasizes the advantage in Sometimes hidden lines are necessary for clarity and
clarity of the sectional view. The left-side view would should be used in such cases, especially if their use will
naturally be omitted. In the front view, the cutting make it possible to omit a view (Fig. 4).

n FIGURE 1 n A Section.

206
 Sectional Views

■ FIGURE 2 ■ Full Section.

A section-lined area is always completely bound- In a sectional view of an object, alone or in assembly,
ed by a visible outline—never by a hidden line, as in the section lines in all sectioned areas must be parallel,
Fig. 3e, since in every case the cut surfaces and their not as shown in Fig. 3f.The use of section lining in oppo-
boundary lines will be visible. Also, a visible line can site directions is an indication of different parts, as when
never cut across a section-lined area. two or more parts are adjacent in an assembly drawing.

■ FIGURE 3 ■ Lines in Sectioning.

■ FIGURE 4 ■ Hidden Lines in Sections.

207
 Sectional Views

■ FIGURE 5 ■ Symbols for Section Lining.

4 ■ SECTION LINING Section-lining symbols may be used in assembly

Section-lining symbols (Fig. 5) have been used to indi- drawings in cases where it is desirable to distinguish dif-
cate specific materials. These symbols represent general ferent materials; otherwise, the general-purpose symbol
material types only, such as cast iron, brass, and steel. is used for all parts.
Now, however, because there are so many different CAD programs usually include a library that
types of materials, and each has so many subtypes, a gen- allows the user to select from a variety of section-lining
eral name or symbol is not enough. For example, there patterns, making it easy to indicate various types of
are hundreds of different kinds of steel. Since detailed material rather than using the generic cast-iron symbol
specifications of material must be lettered in the form of for all sectioned parts.
a note or in the title strip, the general-purpose (cast- The correct method of drawing section lines is
iron) section lining may be used for all materials on shown in Fig. 6a. Draw the section lines with a sharp,
detail drawings (single parts). medium-grade pencil (H or 2H) with a conical point.

■ FIGURE 6 ■ Section-Lining Technique.

208
 Sectional Views

■ FIGURE 7 ■ Direction of Section Lines.

Always draw the lines at 45° with horizontal as shown, If section lines drawn at 45° with horizontal would
unless there is some advantage in using a different be parallel or perpendicular (or nearly so) to a promi-
angle. Space the section lines as evenly as possibly by nent visible outline, the angle should be changed to 30°,
eye from approximately 1.5 mm A 16 1
– B to 3 mm A 18 – B or 60°, or some other angle (Fig. 7).
more apart, depending on the size of the drawing or of Dimensions should be kept off sectioned areas, but
the sectioned area. For most drawings, space the lines when this is unavoidable the section lines should be omit-
about 2.5 mm A 32 3
– B or slightly more apart. As a rule, ted where the dimension figure is placed.
space the lines as generously as possible and yet close Section lines may be drawn adjacent to the bound-
enough to distinguish clearly the sectioned areas. aries of the sectioned areas (outline sectioning), pro-
After the first few lines have been drawn, look back vided that clarity is not sacrificed.
repeatedly at the original spacing to avoid gradually
increasing or decreasing the intervals (Fig. 6b). Begin-
ners almost invariably draw section lines too close 5 ■ THE CUTTING PLANE
together (Fig. 6c). This is very tedious because with The cutting plane is indicated in a view adjacent to the
small spacing the least inaccuracy in spacing is obvious. sectional view (Fig. 8). In this view, the cutting plane
Section lines should be uniformly thin, never vary- appears edgewise as a line called the cutting-plane line.
ing in thickness, as in Fig. 6d. There should be a marked Alternate styles of cutting-plane lines are also shown in
contrast in thickness of the visible outlines and the sec- Fig. 9. The form shown in Fig. 9a is composed of equal
tion lines. Section lines should not be too thick, as in Fig. dashes each about 6 mm A 14 – B or more long plus the arrow-
6e. Also avoid running section lines beyond the visible heads. This form without the dashes between the ends is
outlines or stopping the lines too short, as in Fig. 6f. especially desirable on complicated drawings. The form

■ FIGURE 8 ■ Cutting Planes and Sections.

209
 Sectional Views

■ FIGURE 9 ■ Cutting-Plane Lines (Full Size).

shown in Fig. 9b, composed of alternate long dashes and tion of sight as for a top view, and the resulting full sec-
pairs of short dashes plus the arrowheads, has been in gen- tion is a top view in section.
eral use for a long time. Both lines are drawn the same In Fig. 8c, two cutting planes are shown, one a
thickness as visible lines. Arrowheads indicate the direc- frontal plane and the other a profile plane,
tion in which the cutaway object is viewed. both of which appear edgewise in the top view. Each
Capital letters are used at the ends of the cutting- section is completely independent of the other and
plane line when necessary to identify the cutting-plane drawn as if the other were not present. For section A–A,
line with the indicated section. This most often occurs the front half of the object is imagined removed. The
in the case of multiple sections (see Fig. 25) or removed back half is then viewed in the direction of the arrows
sections (see Fig. 21). for a front view, and the resulting section is a front view
Sectional views occupy normal projected positions in section. For section B–B, the right half of the object is
in the standard arrangement of views. In Fig. 8a, the imagined removed. The left half then is viewed in the
cutting plane is a frontal plane and appears direction of the arrows for a right-side view, and the
as a line in the top view. The front half of the object resulting section is a right-side view in section. The cut-
(lower half in the top view) is imagined removed. The ting-plane lines are preferably drawn through an exte-
arrows at the ends of the cutting-plane line point in the rior view (in this case the top view, as shown) instead of
direction of sight for a front view—that is, away from a sectional view.
the front view or section. Note that the arrows do not The cutting-plane lines in Fig. 8 are shown for
point in the direction of withdrawal of the removed purposes of illustration only. They are generally omit-
portion. The resulting full section may be referred to as ted in cases such as these, in which the location of the
the front view in section since it occupies the front view cutting plane is obvious.When a cutting-plane line coin-
position. cides with a center line, the cutting-plane line takes
In Fig. 8b, the cutting plane is a horizontal plane precedence.
and appears as a line in the front view. The Correct and incorrect relations between cutting-
upper half of the object is imagined removed. The plane lines and corresponding sectional views are
arrows point toward the lower half in the same direc- shown in Fig. 10.

■ FIGURE 10 ■ Cutting Planes and Sections.

210
 Sectional Views

Graphics
Spotlight Using AutoCAD 2004 to Create “XYZ” Space
Two-dimensional computer-aided design is the most popular The UCS command has many options such as Default,
form of creating drawings for most applications. In manufac- New, Rotation, Object, Newface, View, etc.
turing applications, though, 3D models are becoming popular One of most exciting of these features is the rotation
for creating rapid prototypes. To assist the designer, Auto- option. This allows designer to view the 3D model from all
CAD’s User Coordinate Systems can be used to create con- angles (see Figure D). Using the X/Y/Z rotation option will
struction planes where features such as holes and slots are rotate the current user coordinate around the specific axis.
located. Figure A shows a box displayed along with the User When a letter is selected as a pivot, a prompt appears ask-
Coordinate System (USC) icon. The “W” represents the World ing for a rotation angle about that axis. Positive rotation
Coordinate System or home position of the drawing. Figure B appears in a counter-clockwise direction; negative rotation
identifies the directions of the three User Coordinate System appears in a clockwise direction. Figure C illustrates three
axes—X, Y, and Z. Notice that X and Y are identified in the rotations: (a) around the X-axis, (b) around the Y-axis, and
User Coordinate icon, while the Z axis can be drawn either up (c) around the Z-axis.
or down. A positive Z direction would be up and a negative Z Such tools not only increase the designer’s under-
direction would be down. The UCS command is used to cre- standing of coordinate space, but enable the designer to
ate different user-defined coordinate systems. learn the basics of solid modeling.

Y
Y
W
X

(A) (B)

+
Y X
Y

+ +
X X

(C)

211
 Sectional Views

■ FIGURE 11 ■ Visualizing a Section

6 ■ VISUALIZING A SECTION However, the corresponding section shown in Fig. 11c

is incomplete because certain visible lines are missing.
Figure 11a shows two views of an object to be sec- If the section is viewed in the direction of sight (Fig.
tioned; it has a drilled and counterbored hole. The cut- 11b), arcs A, B, C, and D will be visible. As shown in
ting plane is assumed to pass through the horizontal Fig. 11d, these arcs appear as straight lines 2–3, 6–7,
center line in the top view, and the front half of the 5–8, and 10–11. These lines may also be accounted for
object (lower half of the top view) is imagined removed. in other ways.The top and bottom surfaces of the object
A pictorial drawing of the remaining back half is shown appear in the section as lines 1–4 and 9–12.The bottom
in Fig. 11b. The two cut surfaces produced by the cut- surface of the counterbore appears in the section as line
ting plane are 1–2–5–6–10–9 and 3–4–12–11–7–7. 5–8. Also, the semicylindrical surfaces for the back half

■ FIGURE 12 ■ Drawing a Full Section.

212
 Sectional Views

of the counterbore and of the drilled hole will appear as view and 37–39 in the section. Point B is the point view of
rectangles in the section at 2–3–8–5 and 6–7–11–10. two vertical lines EF and GH in the front view, and 31–33
The front and top views of a collar are shown in Fig. and 35–38 in the section. Point A is the point view of
12a, and a right-side view in full section is required. three vertical lines EF, GJ, and KL in the front view, and
The cutting plane is understood to pass along the center 32–34, 36–40, and 42–44 in the section. This completes
lines AD and EL. If the cutting plane were drawn, the the boundaries of three sectioned areas 31–32–34–33,
arrows would point to the left in conformity with the 35–36–40–39–37–38, and 41–42–44–43. It is only neces-
direction of sight (see arrow) for the right-side view. The sary now to add the visible lines beyond the cutting plane.
right side of the object is imagined removed, and the left The semicylindrical left half F–21–G of the small hole
half is viewed in the direction of the arrow, as shown pic- (front view) is visible as a rectangle in the sections at
torially in Fig. 12d. The cut surfaces appear edgewise in 33–34–36–35 (Fig. 12c). The two semicircular arcs ap-
the top and front views along AD and EL; since the direc- pear as straight lines in the section at 33–35 and 34–36.
tion of sight for the section is at right angles to them, Surface 24–27, a line in the front view, appears as
they appear in true size and shape in the sectional view. line 11–16 in the top view and as surface 45–37–47–46,
Each sectioned area is completely enclosed by a bound- true size, in the section (Fig. 12c).
ary of visible lines. In addition to the cut surfaces, the Cylindrical surface J–29–K, an arc in the front view,
sectional view shows all visible parts behind the cutting appears in the top view as 2–A–C–11–16–15 and in the
plane. No hidden lines are shown. section as 46–47–39–40–42–41.Thus, arc 27–29–K (front
Whenever a surface of the object (plane or cylin- view) appears in the section (Fig. 12c) as straight line
drical) appears as a line and is intersected by a cutting 46–41; and arc J–29–K appears as straight line 40–42.
plane that also appears as a line, a new edge (line of All cut surfaces here are part of the same object,
intersection) is created that will appear as a point in and the section lines must all run in the same direction,
that view. Thus, in the front view, the cutting plane cre- as shown.
ates new edges appearing as points at E, F, G, H, J, K,
and L. In the sectional view (Fig. 12b), these are hori-
zontal lines 31–32, 33–34, 35–36, 37–38, 39–40, 7 ■ HALF SECTIONS
41–42, and 43–44. If a cutting plane passes halfway through an object, the
Whenever a surface of an object appears as a sur- result is a half section (Fig. 13). A half section has the
face (that is, not as a line) and is cut by a cutting plane advantage of exposing the interior of one half of the object
that appears as a line, a new edge is created that and retaining the exterior of the other half. Its usefulness
appears as a line in the view, coinciding with the cut- is, therefore, largely limited to symmetrical objects. It is not
ting-plane line, and as a line in the section. widely used in detail drawings (single parts) because of
In the top view, D is the point view of the vertical line this limitation of symmetry and also because of difficulties
KL in the front view and 41–43 in the section (Fig. 12b). in dimensioning internal shapes that are shown in part
Point C is the point view of the vertical line HJ in the front only in the sectioned half (Fig. 13b).

■ FIGURE 13 ■ Half Section.

213
 Sectional Views

In general, hidden lines should be omitted from

both halves of a half section. However, they may be used
in the unsectioned half if necessary for dimensioning.
The greatest usefulness of the half section is in
assembly drawing, in which it is often necessary to show
both internal and external construction on the same
view, but without dimensioning.
As shown in Fig. 13b, a center line is used to sepa-
rate the halves of the half section. The American Nation-
al Standards Institute recommends a center line for the
division line between the sectioned half and the unsec- ■ FIGURE 14 ■ Broken-Out Section.
tioned half of a half-sectional view, although in some
cases the same overlap of the exterior portion, as in a
broken-out section, is preferred (see Fig. 33b). Either
form is acceptable.

8 ■ BROKEN-OUT SECTIONS
It often happens that only a partial section of a view is
needed to expose interior shapes. Such a section, limit-
ed by a break line, is called a broken-out section. In Fig.
14, a full or half section is not necessary, and a small
broken-out section is sufficient to explain the construc-
tion. In Fig. 15, a half section would have caused the ■ FIGURE 15 ■ Break Around Keyway.
removal of half the keyway. The keyway is preserved by
breaking out around it. In this case, the section is limit-
ed partly by a break line and partly by a center line.
Revolved sections are made by assuming a plane per-
9 ■ REVOLVED SECTIONS pendicular to the center line or axis of the bar or other
The shape of the cross section of a bar, arm, spoke, or object, as shown in Fig. 17a, and then revolving the
other elongated object may be shown in the longitudi- plane through 90° about a center line at right angles to
nal view by means of a revolved section (Fig. 16). the axis (Fig. 17b and 17c).
■ FIGURE 16 ■ Revolved Sections.

■ FIGURE 17 ■ Use of the Cutting Plane in

Revolved Sections.

214
 Sectional Views

■ FIGURE 18 ■ Conventional Breaks Used with

Revolved Sections.

left to right on the sheet. Section letters should be used

in alphabetical order, but letters I, O, and Q should not
be used because they are easily confused with the
numeral 1 or the zero.
A removed section is often a partial section. Such a
removed section is frequently drawn to an enlarged
scale (Fig. 22). This is often desirable to show small
detail clearly and to provide sufficient space for dimen-
sioning. In such a case the enlarged scale should be
■ FIGURE 19 ■ A Common Error in Drawing Revolved Sections. indicated below the section title.
A removed section should be placed so that it no
longer lines up in projection with any other view. It
should be separated clearly from the standard arrange-
ment of views. Whenever possible, removed sections
should be on the same sheet as the regular views. If a
section must be placed on a different sheet, cross-refer-
ences should be given on the related sheets. A note
should be given below the section title, such as

SECTION B–B ON SHEET 4, ZONE A3

A similar note should be placed on the sheet on

which the cutting-plane line is shown, with a leader
pointing to the cutting-plane line and referring to the
sheet on which the section will be found. Sometimes it
■ FIGURE 20 ■ A Common Error in Drawing Revolved Sections. is convenient to place removed sections on center lines
extended from the section cuts (Fig. 23).

The visible lines adjacent to a revolved section

may be broken out if desired, as shown in Figs. 16k 11 ■ OFFSET SECTIONS
and 17. In sectioning through irregular objects, it is often
The superimposition of the revolved section desirable to show features that do not lie in a straight
requires the removal of all original lines covered by it line by “offsetting” or bending the cutting plane.
(Fig. 19). The true shape of a revolved section Such a section is called an offset section. In Fig. 24a
should be retained after the revolution of the cutting the cutting plane is offset in several places to include
plane, regardless of the direction of the lines in the the hole at the left end, one of the parallel slots, the
view (Fig. 20). rectangular recess, and one of the holes at the right
end. The front portion of the object is then imagined
to be removed (Fig. 24b). The path of the cutting
10 ■ REMOVED SECTIONS plane is shown by the cutting-plane line in the top
A removed section is a section that is not in direct pro- view (Fig. 24c), and the resulting offset section is
jection from the view containing the cutting plane— shown in the front view. The offsets or bends in the
that is, it is not positioned in agreement with the cutting plane are all 90° and are never shown in the
standard arrangement of views.This displacement from sectional view.
the normal projection position should be made without Figure 24 also illustrates how hidden lines in a
turning the section from its normal orientation. section eliminate the need for an additional view. In
Removed sections should be labeled, such as this case, an extra view would be needed to show the
SECTION A–A and SECTION B–B, corresponding to the small boss on the back if hidden lines were not
letters at the ends of the cutting-plane line (Fig. 21). shown.
They should be arranged in alphabetical order from

215
 Sectional Views

■ FIGURE 21 ■ Removed Sections.

■ FIGURE 22 ■ Removed Section.

■ FIGURE 23 ■ Removed Sections.

216
 Sectional Views

■ FIGURE 24 ■ Offset Section.

■ FIGURE 25 ■ Three Offset Sections.

Figure 25 shows an example of multiple offset ■ FIGURE 26 ■ Webs in Section.

sections. Notice that the visible background shapes
without hidden lines appear in each sectional view.

12 ■ RIBS IN SECTIONS
To avoid a false impression of thickness and solidity,
ribs, webs, gear teeth, and other similar flat features are
not sectioned even though the cutting plane passes
along the center plane of the feature. For example, in
Fig. 26, the cutting plane A–A passes flatwise through
the vertical web, or rib, and the web is not section lined
(Fig. 26a). Such thin features should not be section
lined, even though the cutting plane passes through
them. The incorrect section is shown in Fig. 26b. Note
the false impression of thickness or solidity resulting
from section lining the rib.
If the cutting plane passes crosswise through a
rib or any thin member, as does the plane B–B, the

217
 Sectional Views

■ FIGURE 27 ■ Alternate Section Lining.

member should be section lined in the usual manner,

as shown in the top view (Fig. 26c).
If a rib is not section lined when the cutting plane
passes through it flatwise, it is sometimes difficult to
tell whether the rib is actually present, as, for example,
ribs A in Figs. 27a and 27b. It is difficult to distin-
guish spaces B as open spaces and spaces A as ribs. In
such cases, double-spaced section lining of the ribs
should be used (Fig. 27c). This consists simply in con-
tinuing alternate section lines through the ribbed areas,
as shown.

13 ■ ALIGNED SECTIONS
■ FIGURE 28 ■ Aligned Section.
To include in a section certain angled elements, the cut-
ting plane may be bent to pass through those features.
The plane and features are then imagined to be
revolved into the original plane. For example, in Fig.
28, the cutting plane was bent to pass through the
angled arm and then revolved to a vertical position
(aligned), from where it was projected across to the
sectional view.
In Fig. 29 the cutting plane is bent to include
one of the drilled and counterbored holes in the sec-
tional view. The correct section view in Fig. 29b gives
a clearer and more complete description than does
the section in Fig. 29c, which was taken along the
vertical center line of the front view—that is, without
any bend in the cutting plane. In such cases, the angle ■ FIGURE 29 ■ Aligned Section.
of revolution should always be less than 90°.
The student is cautioned not to revolve features In Fig. 30a, the projecting lugs are not sectioned
when clearness is not improved. In some cases revolv- for the same reason that ribs are not sectioned. In Fig.
ing the features results in a loss of clarity. Examples in 30b, the projecting lugs are located so that the cutting
which revolution should not be used are Fig. 40 and plane passes through them crosswise; therefore, they
Probs. 17 and 18. are sectioned.

218
 Sectional Views

■ FIGURE 30 ■ Aligned Sections.

Another example involving rib sectioning and In sectioning a pulley or any spoked wheel (Fig.
aligned sectioning is shown in Fig. 31. In the circular 32a), it is standard practice to revolve the spokes if
view, the cutting plane is offset in circular-arc bends to necessary (if there is an odd number) and not to section
include the upper hole and upper rib, the keyway and line the spokes (Fig. 32b). If the spoke is sectioned, the
center hole, the lower rib, and one of the lower holes. section gives a false impression of continuous metal
These features are imagined to be revolved until they (Fig. 32c). If the lower spoke is not revolved, it will be
line up vertically and are then projected from that foreshortened in the sectional view, in which it presents
position to obtain the section shown in Fig. 31b. Note an “amputated” and wholly misleading appearance.
that the ribs are not sectioned. If a regular full section Figure 32 also illustrates correct practice in omitting
of the object were drawn without using the conven- visible lines in a sectional view. Notice that spoke B is omit-
tions discussed here, the resulting section (Fig. 31c) ted in Fig. 32b. If it is included, as shown in Fig. 32c, the
would be incomplete and confusing and would take spoke is foreshortened, difficult and time-consuming to
more time to draw. draw, and confusing to the reader of the drawing.

■ FIGURE 31 ■ Symmetry of Ribs.

219
 Sectional Views

■ FIGURE 32 ■ Spokes in Section.

14 ■ PARTIAL VIEWS and 34c. Larger figures of intersection may be pro-

jected, as shown in Fig. 34b, or approximated by cir-
If space is limited on the paper or if it is necessary to
cular arcs, as shown for the smaller hole in Fig. 34d.
save drafting time, partial views may be used in con-
Note that the larger hole K is the same diameter as the
nection with sectioning (Fig. 33). Half views are
vertical hole. In such cases the curves of intersection
shown in Figs. 33a and 33b in connection with a full
(ellipses) appear as straight lines, as shown.
section and a half section, respectively. Note that in
each case the back half of the object in the circular
view is shown, in conformity with the idea of removing 16 ■ CONVENTIONAL BREAKS
the front portion of the object to expose the back por- To shorten a view of an elongated object, conventional
tion for viewing in section. breaks are recommended, as shown in Fig. 35. For
Another method of drawing a partial view is to break example, the two views of a garden rake in Fig. 36a
out much of the circular view, retaining only those features are drawn to a small scale to fit them on the paper. In
that are needed for minimum representation (Fig.33c). Fig. 36b, the handle is “broken,” a long central por-
tion is removed, and the rake is then drawn to a larger
15 ■ INTERSECTIONS IN SECTIONING scale, producing a much clearer delineation.
Where an intersection is small or unimportant in a sec- Parts to be broken must have the same section
tion, it is standard practice to disregard the true projec- throughout, or if tapered they must have a uniform
tion of the figure of intersection, as shown in Figs. 34a

■ FIGURE 33 ■ Partial Views.

220
 Sectional Views

■ FIGURE 34 ■ Intersections.

■ FIGURE 35 ■ Conventional Breaks.

■ FIGURE 36 ■ Use of Conventional Breaks.

taper. Note in Fig. 36b that the full-length dimension 17 ■ COMPUTER GRAPHICS
is given, just as if the entire rake were shown.
The breaks used on cylindrical shafts or tubes are USING CAD Two- and three-dimensional sectional views
often referred to as “S-breaks” and in industrial drafting are created using CAD. Most CAD systems have a
are usually drawn entirely freehand or partly freehand Hatch command to generate the section lining and hatch
and partly with an irregular curve or compass.The results patterns to fill an area automatically. A wide variety of
of these methods are often very crude, especially when hatch patterns are generally available to show materials
attempted by beginners. Simple construction methods for such as steel, bronze, sand, concrete, and many more.
students or industrial drafters are shown in Figs. 37 and Creating a full-section view from a 3D model is gen-
38 and will always produce a professional result. Excel- erally very easy.You only need to define the cutting plane.
lent S-breaks are also obtained with an S-break template. Often the hatching for the cut surfaces is generated auto-
Breaks for rectangular metal and wood sections matically. Sectioned views other than full sections can be
are always drawn freehand, as shown in Fig. 35. more difficult to create.To create good sectional drawings
(See also Fig. 18, which illustrates the use of breaks using CAD, you should have a clear understanding of the
in connection with revolved sections.) standards for showing section views (Fig. 39).

221
 Sectional Views

■ FIGURE 37 ■ Steps in Drawing S-Breaks for Solid Shaft.

■ FIGURE 38 ■ Steps in Drawing S-Breaks for Tubing.

■ FIGURE 39 ■ Detail Drawing Produced by Using the VersaCAD Advanced System. Courtesy of VersaCAD.

222
 Sectional Views

KEY WORDS
SECTIONAL VIEW AUXILIARY SECTION SECTION LINES REMOVED SECTION
CUTTING-PLANE LINE RIBS, SPOKES, AND WEBS FULL AND HALF SECTION CONVENTIONS
OFFSET SECTION CONVENTIONAL BREAKS BROKEN-OUT SECTION ALIGNED SECTIONS
REVOLVED SECTION

CHAPTER SUMMARY
n Sectional views show internal details without the need for n The section-lining symbol denotes the material of the
hidden lines. object.
n Objects are imagined to be cut apart along the cutting- n Ribs, webs, and spokes are not shown with section lining.
plane line. n Symmetrical features like spokes and webs are revolved
n Along the cutting plane, the part of the object that is solid so the sectional view appears symmetrical.
(cut by the cutting plane) is shown with section lines (thin n Conventional breaks are used to represent various
lines drawn at 45°). objects in shortened form.
n In a sectional view, many hidden lines are replaced by
object lines because the internal surfaces are exposed
when the object is imagined to be cut open.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What does the cutting-plane line represent? 6. What type of line is used to show the boundary of a bro-
2. Sketch the section-line symbols for 10 different materials. ken-out section?
3. List seven different types of sections and sketch an 7. Why are hidden lines generally omitted in a sectional
example of each. view?
4. Which sectional views are used to replace an existing 8. Why are some symmetrical features, like spokes and
primary view? Which sectional views are used in addi- webs, revolved in the sectional view?
tion to the primary views? 9. Why is a rib outlined with object lines and not filled
5. How much of an object is imagined to be cut away in a with section lining?
half section?

SECTIONING PROBLEMS
Any of the following problems (Figs. 40–76) may be freehand. If desired, the problems may be sketched on
drawn freehand or with your instruments, as assigned by plain drawing paper.
the instructor. However, the problems in Fig. 40 are The problems in Figs. 41–73 are intended to be
especially suitable for sketching on 8.5– * 11.0–graph drawn with instruments, but may be dra wn freehand if
paper with appropriate grid squares. Two problems can be desired.
drawn on one sheet, using Layout A–1 with borders drawn

223
 Sectional Views

1 2 3

4 5 6

7 8

9 10 11
12

13 14 15 16

17 18 19 20

■ FIGURE 40 ■ Freehand Sectioning Problems. Using Layout A–1 or A4–1 adjusted (freehand) on graph paper or plain paper, two problems per
sheet, sketch views with sections as indicated. Each grid square = 6 mm A 14 – B . In Probs. 1–10, top and right-side views are given. Sketch front
sectional views and then move right-side views to line up horizontally with front sectional views. Omit cutting planes except in Probs. 5 and 6.

224
 Sectional Views

■ FIGURE 41 ■ Bearing. Draw necessary views, with full section ■ FIGURE 44 ■ Centering Bushing. Draw necessary views, with
(Layout A–3).* full section (Layout A–3).…

■ FIGURE 42 ■ Truck Wheel. Draw necessary views, with half ■ FIGURE 45 ■ Special Bearing. Draw necessary views, with full
section (Layout A–3).… section (Layout A–3).…

■ FIGURE 43 ■ Column Support. Draw necessary views, with full ■ FIGURE 46 ■ Idler Pulley. Draw necessary views, with full
section (Layout A–3).… section (Layout A–3).…

*Layout A4–3 (adjusted) may be used. Use metric or decimal-inch dimensions as assigned by the instructor.

225
 Sectional Views

■ FIGURE 47 ■ Cup Washer. Draw necessary views, with full ■ FIGURE 50 ■ Bearing. Draw necessary views, with half
section (Layout A–3 or A4–3 adjusted).* section. Scale: half size (Layout B–4 or A3–4 adjusted).…

■ FIGURE 48 ■ Fixed Bearing Cup. Draw necessary views, with ■ FIGURE 51 ■ Pulley. Draw necessary views, with full section,
full section (Layout A–3 or A4–3 adjusted).… and revolved section of spoke (Layout B–4 or A3–4 adjusted).*

■ FIGURE 49 ■ Stock Guide. Draw necessary views, with half ■ FIGURE 52 ■ Step-Cone Pulley. Draw necessary views, with
section (Layout B–4 or A3–4 adjusted).… full section (Layout B–4 or A3–4 adjusted).…

*Use metric or decimal-inch dimensions as assigned by the instructor.

226
 Sectional Views

■ FIGURE 54 ■ Operating Valve. Given: Front, left-side, and

■ FIGURE 53 ■ Sheave. Draw two views, including half section partial bottom views. Required: Front, right-side, and full bottom
(Layout B–4).* views, plus indicated removed sections (Layout B–4).…

■ FIGURE 55 ■ Rocker Arm. Draw necessary views, with revolved sections (Layout B–4).…

■ FIGURE 56 ■ Dash Pot Lifter. Draw

necessary views, using revolved section
instead of removed section (Layout B–4).…

*Layout A3–4 (adjusted) may be used. Use metric or decimal-inch dimensions as assigned by the instructor.

227
 Sectional Views

■ FIGURE 57 ■ Adjuster Base. Given: Front and top views. ■ FIGURE 59 ■ Hydraulic Fitting. Given: Front and top views.
Required: Front and top views and sections A–A, B–B, and C–C. Show Required: Front and top views and right-side view in full section
all visible lines (Layout B–4).* (Layout B–4).…

■ FIGURE 58 ■ Mobile Housing. Given: Front and left-side views. ■ FIGURE 60 ■ Auxiliary Shaft Bearing. Given: Front and top
Required: Front view, right-side view in full section, and removed views. Required: Front and top views and right-side view in full
section A–A (Layout B–4).… section (Layout B–4).…

*Use metric or decimal-inch dimensions as assigned by the instructor.

228
 Sectional Views

■ FIGURE 63 ■ Bracket. Given: Front and right-side views.

■ FIGURE 61 ■ Traverse Spider. Given: Front and left-side views. Required: Take front as new top; then add right-side view, front view
Required: Front and right-side views and top view in full section in full section A–A, and sections B–B and C–C (Layout B–4 or A3–4
(Layout B–4 or A3–4 adjusted).* adjusted).…

■ FIGURE 62 ■ Gland. Given: Front, top, and

partial left-side views. Required: Front view and ■ FIGURE 64 ■ Cocking Block. Given: Front and right-side views. Required: Take
right-side view in full section (Layout A–3 or front as new top view; then add new front view and right-side view in full section. Draw
A4–3 adjusted).… double size on Layout C–4 or A2–4 adjusted.…

*Layout A3–4 (adjusted) may be used. Use metric or decimal-inch dimensions as assigned by the instructor.

229
 Sectional Views

■ FIGURE 65 ■ Packing Ring. Given: Front and top views. ■ FIGURE 67 ■ Oil Retainer. Given: Front and top views.
Required: Front view and section A–A (Layout A–3 or A4–3 adjusted).* Required: Front view and section A–A (Layout B–4 or A3–4 adjusted).…

■ FIGURE 66 ■ Strainer Body. Given: Front and bottom views. ■ FIGURE 68 ■ Gear Box. Given: Front and top views. Required:
Required: Front and top views and right-side view in full section Front in full section, bottom view, and right-side section A–A. Draw
(Layout C–4 or A2–4).… half size on Layout B–4 or A3–4 (adjusted).…

*Use metric or decimal-inch dimensions as assigned by the instructor.

230
 Sectional Views

■ FIGURE 69 ■ Slotted Disk for Threading

Machine. Given: Front and left-side views.
Required: Front and right-side views and top full-
section view. Draw half size on Layout B–4 or
A3–4 (adjusted).*

■ FIGURE 70 ■ Web for Lathe Clutch. Given: Partial front and left-side views. Required: Full front view, right-side view in full section, and
removed section A–A (Layout C–4 or A2–4).…

*Use metric or decimal-inch dimensions as assigned by the instructor.

231
 Sectional Views

:
:2 28.

:
4
8* THR

4
6 U

:
15
:
6
TH
R
U
2
3

R
6
38

R
3
18

12
15

* .5
14
1
(4

ID OT

7
4

2
E
W L

3
)

.S

8
12
METRIC ALL UNMARKED RADII = R1.5

■ FIGURE 71 ■ Transmission Part. Draw necessary views with full section (Layout A–3).*

.1.2
3 .)
YP
8(T
R.8
.31
1.25
:

3.
0 3.0
15°

.5
0

RU
TH
. 3 8 .375
x : *
3 .875
:
°
1.25
(2

1.25
.5
)

■ FIGURE 72 ■ Bushing. Draw necessary views with full section (Layout A–3).…

*Use metric or decimal-inch dimensions as assigned by the instructor.

232
 Sectional Views

0.25
0.05

0.10 TOP VIEW OF ROOK

0.30
0.80

CUT OUTS
R0.05
FOR TOWER
ARE 36°
1.65
0.70

R0.05
R0.15
POLYGON BASE HAS 8 SIDES
AND A 15° TAPER ANGLE
THICKNESS = 0.15

0.20
0.35

■ FIGURE 73 ■ Plastic Chess Piece. Given: Top and left side. Required: Front in full section, bottom view, and right-side section. (Layout B–4
or A3–4 adjusted).*

:4
.00

2.2 :.8
5 8,
B.C TH
. RU
3X:
.50
EVE .50,T
H
AP NLY RU
AR SP
:3 T O AC
.5 N ED,
A
2.2 120°
1.0

5
B.C
.

■ FIGURE 74 ■ Plastic Spacer. Draw all necessary views with one half section (Layout A–3).…

*Use metric or decimal-inch dimensions as assigned by the instructor.

233
 Sectional Views

22 8
12 3

1.5 R6
:12 THRU

:41 :32
:50
:32 :40

:62

:25
R6
50 3
METRIC 68
88

■ FIGURE 75 ■ Motor. Draw all required views with one half section (Layout B–4 or A3–4 adjusted).*

R.06

.75 (1.5)
:1.0*2.5
4.0

2.0 1.38
(TYP.)

.25

R.38
(TYP.)
:.375, THRU

2.75
: 1.5

■ FIGURE 76 ■ Mounting Pin. Draw front and top view. Make one view a half section (Layout B–4 or A3–4 adjusted).*

*Use metric or decimal-inch dimensions as assigned by the instructor.

234
Auxiliary Views

OBJECTIVES OVERVIEW
After studying the material in this chapter, you Inclined planes and oblique lines do not appear true length or true
should be able to: size in any of the principal planes of projection. To determine the
1. Create an auxiliary view from any ortho- true length of an oblique line or the true size of an inclined plane, an
graphic projection using drawing instru- auxiliary view must be created. The techniques for creating an aux-
ments or CAD. iliary view are the same using traditional drawing or CAD. A line of
2. Draw folding lines or reference-plane sight and reference plane are defined. With traditional drawing, the
lines between any two adjacent views. view is manually created along line-of-sight projectors. With CAD
3. Construct depth, height, or width auxil- drawing, the computer generates the view automatically if a 3D
iary views. model of the object was originally created.
4. Plot curves in auxiliary views. Many objects are shaped such that their principal faces cannot
5. Construct partial auxiliary views. be assumed to be parallel to the regular planes of projection. For
example, in Fig. 1a, the base of the design for the bearing is shown
6. Create auxiliary sectional views.
in its true size and shape, but the rounded upper portion is situated
7. Find the true length of an oblique line by
at an angle with the planes of projection and does not appear in its
constructing an auxiliary view.
true size and shape in any of the three regular views. To show the
8. Find the true size of an oblique plane by true circular shapes, it is necessary to assume a direction of sight
constructing auxiliary views.
perpendicular to the planes of those curves, as shown in Fig. 1b.
The resulting view is known as an auxiliary view. This view, togeth-
er with the top view, completely describes the object. The front and
right-side views are not necessary.

From Chapter 8 of Engineering Graphics, Eighth Edition, Frederick E. Giesecke,

Alva Mitchell, Henry Cecil Spencer, Ivan Leroy Hill, Robert Olin Loving, John
Thomas Dygdon, James E. Novak. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Published by Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.
 Auxiliary Views

■ FIGURE 1 ■ Regular Views and Auxiliary Views.

1 ■ DEFINITIONS When the horizontal and auxiliary planes are

Any view obtained by a projection on a plane other unfolded to appear in the plane of the front view (Fig.
than the horizontal, frontal, and profile projection 2b), the folding lines represent the hinge lines joining
planes is an auxiliary view. A primary auxiliary view is the planes. The drawing is simplified by retaining the
projected onto a plane that is perpendicular to one of folding lines (H/F and F/1) and omitting the planes
the principal planes of projection and is inclined to the (Fig. 2c). As will be shown later, the folding lines may
other two. A secondary auxiliary view is projected from themselves be omitted in the actual drawing. The
a primary auxiliary view onto a plane that is inclined to inclined surface P is shown in its true size and shape in
all three principal projection planes (see §19). the auxiliary view; the long dimension of the surface is
projected directly from the front view and the depth
from the top view.
2 ■ THE AUXILIARY PLANE The positions of the folding lines depend on the
In Fig. 2a, the object shown has an inclined surface relative positions of the planes of the glass box. If the
that does not appear in its true size and shape in any horizontal plane is moved upward, the distance Y is
regular view. The auxiliary plane is assumed parallel to increased. If the frontal plane is brought forward, the
the inclined surface P—that is, perpendicular to the distances X are increased but remain equal. If the auxil-
line of sight, which is at right angles to that surface. The iary plane is moved to the right, the distance Z is
auxiliary plane is then perpendicular to the frontal increased. Note that both the top and auxiliary views
plane of projection and hinged to it. show the depth of the object.

■ FIGURE 2 ■ An Auxiliary View.

236
 Auxiliary Views

■ FIGURE 3 ■ Drawing an Auxiliary View—Folding-Line Method.

3 ■ DRAWING AN AUXILIARY VIEW: 3. Draw folding line F/1 for the auxiliary view at
FOLDING-LINE METHOD right angles to the projection lines and at any con-
venient distance from the front view (Fig. 3III).
As shown in Fig. 2c, the folding lines are the hinge
lines of the glass box. Distances X must be equal since 4. Draw the auxiliary view using the numbering sys-
they both represent the distance of the front surface of tem explained in §6.6 (Fig. 3IV). Locate all points
the object from the frontal plane of projection. the same distances from folding line F/1 as they are
Although distances X must remain equal, distances from folding line H/F in the top view. For example,
Y and Z, from the front view to the respective folding points 1 to 5 are distance X from the folding lines
lines, may or may not be equal. in both the top and auxiliary views, and points 6 to
The steps in drawing an auxiliary view with the aid 10 are distance D from the corresponding folding
of the folding lines, shown in Fig. 3, are described as lines. Since the object is viewed in the direction of
follows. the arrow, it will be seen that edge 5–10 will be hid-
den in the auxiliary view.
1. The front and top views are given (Fig. 3I). It is
necessary to draw an auxiliary view showing the
true size and shape of inclined surface P. Draw the
4 ■ REFERENCE PLANES
folding line H/F between the views at right angles In the auxiliary views shown in Figs. 2c and 3, the
to the projection lines. Distances X and Y may or folding lines represent the edge views of the frontal
may not be equal, as desired. plane of projection. In effect, the frontal plane is used
Note In the following steps, manipulate the triangle as a reference plane, or datum plane, for transferring
(either triangle), as shown in Fig. 4, to draw lines distances (depth measurements) from the top view to
parallel or perpendicular to the inclined face. the auxiliary view.
Instead of using one of the planes of projection as a
2. Assume a direction of sight perpendicular to sur-
reference plane, it is often more convenient to assume a
face P (Fig. 3II). Draw light projection lines from
reference plane inside the glass box parallel to the plane
the front view parallel to the arrow, or perpendic-
of projection and touching or cutting through the object.
ular to surface P.
For example, in Fig. 5a, a reference plane is assumed to
■ FIGURE 4 ■ Drawing Parallel or Perpendicular Lines. coincide with the front surface of the object. This plane
appears edgewise in the top and auxiliary views, and the
two reference lines are then used in the same manner as
folding lines. Dimensions D in the top and auxiliary
views are equal. The advantage of the reference-plane
method is that fewer measurements are required since
some points of the object lie in the reference plane.
The reference plane may coincide with the front
surface of the object (Fig. 5a); it may cut through the
object if the object is symmetrical (Fig. 5b); it may
coincide with the back surface of the object (Fig. 5c);
or it may cut through any intermediate point of the
object.

237
 Auxiliary Views

■ FIGURE 5 ■ Position of the Reference Plane.

The reference plane should be assumed in the to the auxiliary view with dividers or scale. Each
position most convenient for transferring distances point in the auxiliary view will be on its projection
with respect to it. Remember the following: line from the front view and the same distance
from the reference line as it is in the top view to
1. Reference lines, like folding lines, are always at right the corresponding reference line.
angles to the projection lines between the views.
5. Complete the auxiliary view by adding other visible
2. A reference plane appears as a line in two alter- edges and surfaces of the object (Fig. 6V). Each
nate views, never in adjacent views. numbered point in the auxiliary view lies on its pro-
3. Measurements are always made at right angles to jection line from the front view and is the same dis-
the reference lines or parallel to the projection tance from the reference line as it is in the top view.
lines. Note that two surfaces of the object appear as lines
4. In the auxiliary view, all points are at the same dis- in the auxiliary view.
tances from the reference line as the corresponding
points are from the reference line in the alternate
view, or the second previous view. 6 ■ CLASSIFICATION OF AUXILIARY VIEWS
Auxiliary views are classified and named according to
the principal dimensions of the object shown in the
5 ■ DRAWING AN AUXILIARY VIEW: auxiliary view. For example, the auxiliary view in Fig.
REFERENCE-PLANE METHOD 6 is a depth auxiliary view because it shows the princi-
The object in Fig. 6a is numbered as explained in pal dimension of the object, depth. Any auxiliary view
§6.6. To draw the auxiliary view, proceed as follows: projected from the front view, also known as a front
adjacent view, will show the depth of the object and is a
1. Draw two views of the object, and assume an depth auxiliary view.
arrow indicating the direction of sight for the aux- Similarly, any auxiliary view projected from the
iliary view of surface A (Fig. 6I). top view, also known as a top adjacent view, is a height
2. Draw projection lines parallel to the arrow (Fig. auxiliary view; and any auxiliary view projected from
6II). the side view (either side), also known as a side adja-
3. Assume a reference plane coinciding with the back cent view, is a width auxiliary view. For examples of
surface of the object, as shown in Fig. 6a. Draw height auxiliary views, see Figs. 1b and 13b. Depth
reference lines in the top and auxiliary views at auxiliary views are illustrated in Figs. 27 and 33.
right angles to the projection lines (Fig. 6III).
These are the edge views of the reference plane.
4. Draw auxiliary view of surface A (Fig. 6IV). It 7 ■ DEPTH AUXILIARY VIEWS
will be true size and shape because the direction An infinite number of auxiliary planes can be assumed
of sight was taken perpendicular to that surface. perpendicular to, and hinged to, the frontal plane (F) of
Transfer depth measurements from the top view projection. Five such planes are shown in Fig. 7a; the

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 Auxiliary Views

■ FIGURE 6 ■ Drawing an Auxiliary View—Reference-Plane Method.

horizontal plane is included to show that it is similar to The arrows indicate the directions of sight for the sev-
the others. All these views show the principal dimen- eral views, and the projection lines are respectively par-
sion, depth; therefore, all the auxiliary views are depth allel to these arrows. The arrows may be assumed but
auxiliary views. need not be actually drawn since the projection lines
The unfolded auxiliary planes are shown in Fig. determine the direction of sight. The folding lines are
7b, which also shows how the depth dimension may perpendicular to the arrows and the corresponding pro-
be projected from the top view to all auxiliary views. jection lines. Since the auxiliary planes can be assumed
■ FIGURE 7 ■ Depth Auxiliary Views.

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 Auxiliary Views

at any distance from the object, it follows that the fold- 9 ■ WIDTH AUXILIARY VIEWS
ing lines may be any distance from the front view. An infinite number of auxiliary planes can be assumed
The complete drawing, with the outlines of the perpendicular to, and hinged to, the profile plane (P) of
planes of projection omitted, is shown in Fig. 7c. This projection, several of which are shown in Fig. 9a. The
shows the drawing as it would appear on paper, in front view and all the auxiliary views show the princi-
which use is made of reference planes as described in pal dimension, width. Therefore, all the auxiliary views
§4; all depth dimensions are measured perpendicular are width auxiliary views.
to the reference line in each view. The unfolded planes are shown in Fig. 9b, and the
Note that the front view shows the height and the complete drawing, with the outlines of the planes of
width of the object, but not the depth. The depth is projection omitted, is shown in Fig. 9c. All reference
shown in all views that are projected from the front lines are perpendicular to the corresponding projection
view; thus, this rule: The principal dimension shown in lines, and all width dimensions are measured parallel to
an auxiliary view is the one not shown in the adjacent the projection lines, or perpendicular to the reference
view from which the auxiliary view was projected. lines, in each view. Note that in the right-side view
from, which the auxiliary views are projected, the only
8 ■ HEIGHT AUXILIARY VIEWS dimension not shown is width.
An infinite number of auxiliary planes can be assumed
perpendicular to, and hinged to, the horizontal plane
(H) of projection, several of which are shown in Fig. 10 ■ REVOLVING A DRAWING
8a. The front view and all the auxiliary views show In Fig. 10a is a drawing showing top, front, and auxil-
the principal dimension, height.Therefore, all the auxil- iary views. Figure 10b shows the drawing revolved, as
iary views are height auxiliary views. indicated by the arrows, until the auxiliary view and the
The unfolded projection planes are shown in Fig. front view line up horizontally. Although the views
8b, and the complete drawing, with the outlines of remain exactly the same, the names of the views are
the planes projection omitted, is shown in Fig. 8c. changed if drawn in this position. The auxiliary view
All reference lines are perpendicular to the corre- now becomes a right-side view, and the top view
sponding projection lines, and all height dimensions becomes an auxiliary view. Some students find it easier
are measured parallel to the projection lines, or per- to visualize and draw an auxiliary view when revolved
pendicular to the reference lines, in each view. Note to the position of a regular view in this manner. In any
that in the view projected from, which is the top case, it should be understood that an auxiliary view
view, the only dimension not shown is height. basically is like any other view.

■ FIGURE 8 ■ Height Auxiliary Views.

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 Auxiliary Views

■ FIGURE 9 ■ Width Auxiliary Views.

■ FIGURE 10 ■ Revolving a Drawing.

11 ■ DIHEDRAL ANGLES dihedral angle between the planes. To get the true angle
between two planes, find the point view of the line inter-
The angle between two planes is a dihedral angle. One section of the planes.
of the principal uses of auxiliary views is to show dihe- In Fig. 11b, the line of intersection 1–2 does not
dral angles in true size, mainly for dimensioning pur- appear as a point in the front view; as a result, planes A
poses. In Fig. 11a, a block is shown with a V-groove and B do not appear as lines, and the true dihedral angle
situated so that the true dihedral angle between is not shown.Assuming that the actual angle is the same
inclined surfaces A and B is shown in the front view. as in Fig. 11a, does the angle show larger or smaller
Assume a line in a plane. For example, draw a than in Fig. 11a? The angle does not appear true size
straight line on a sheet of paper; then hold the paper to in Fig. 11b because the direction of sight (see arrow) is
view the line as a point. You will observe that when the not parallel to the line of intersection 1–2.
line appears as a point, the plane containing the line In Fig. 11c, the direction-of-sight arrow is taken
appears as a line. Thus, this rule applies: To get the edge parallel to the line 1–2, producing an auxiliary view in
view of a plane, find the point view of any line in that plane. which line 1–2 appears as a point, planes A and B
In Fig. 11a, line 1–2 is the line of intersection of appear as lines, and the true dihedral angle is shown. To
planes A and B. Now, line 1–2 lies in both planes at the draw a view showing a true dihedral angle, assume the
same time; therefore, a point view of this line will show direction of sight parallel to the line of intersection
both planes as lines, and the angle between them is the between the planes of the angle.

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 Auxiliary Views

■ FIGURE 11 ■ Dihedral Angles.

12 ■ PLOTTED CURVES side view, and project them across to the inclined surface
or to the left-end surface, and then upward to the auxil-
When a cylinder is cut by an inclined plane, the inclined iary view. In this manner, two points can be projected
surface is elliptical in shape. When such a surface is each time, as shown for points 1–2, 3–4, and 5–6. Dis-
produced, the ellipse does not show true size and shape tances a are equal and are transferred from the side view
because the plane of the ellipse is not seen at right to the auxiliary view. A sufficient number of points must
angles in any view. be projected to establish the curves accurately. Use the
In Fig. 12a, the line of sight is taken perpendicular irregular curve to connect the projected points.
to the edge view of the inclined surface, and the result- Since the major and minor axes are known, any of
ing ellipse is shown in true size and shape in the auxiliary the true ellipse methods may be used. The quickest and
view. The major axis is found by direct projection from easiest method using instruments is to use an ellipse
the front view, and the minor axis is equal to the diame- template.
ter of the cylinder. The left end of the cylinder (a circle) In Fig. 12b, the auxiliary view shows the true size
will appear as an ellipse in the auxiliary view, the major and shape of the inclined cut through a piece of mold-
axis of which is equal to the diameter of the cylinder. ing. The method of plotting points is similar to that
Since this is a symmetrical object, the reference plane explained for the ellipse in Fig. 12a.
is assumed to be located through the center, as shown. To
plot points on the ellipses, select points on the circle of the

■ FIGURE 12 ■ Plotted Curves.

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 Auxiliary Views

■ FIGURE 13 ■ Reverse Construction.

13 ■ REVERSE CONSTRUCTION 14 ■ PARTIAL AUXILIARY VIEWS

To complete the regular views, it is often necessary to The use of an auxiliary view often makes it possible to
construct an auxiliary view first. For example, in Fig. omit one or more regular views and thus to simplify the
13a, the upper portion of the right-side view cannot shape description, as shown in Fig. 1b. In Fig. 14
be constructed until the auxiliary view is drawn and three complete auxiliary-view drawings are shown. To
points are established on the curves and then projected make such drawings takes a great deal of time, particu-
back to the front view, as shown. larly when ellipses are involved, as is so often the case.
In Fig. 13b, the 60° angle and the location of line The completeness of detail may add nothing to clear-
1–2 in the front view are given.To locate line 3–4 in the ness or may even detract from it because of the clutter
front view and the lines 2–4, 3–4, and 4–5 in the side of lines. However, in these cases, some portion of every
view, it is necessary to first construct the 60° angle in view is needed—no view can be completely eliminated.
the auxiliary view and project back to the front and Partial views are often sufficient, and the
side views, as shown. resulting drawings are considerably simplified and

■ FIGURE 14 ■ Primary Auxiliary Views.

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 Auxiliary Views

■ FIGURE 15 ■ Partial Views.

easier to read. Similarly, as shown in Fig. 15, partial regu- 16 ■ HIDDEN LINES IN AUXILIARY VIEWS
lar views and partial auxiliary views are used with the In practice, hidden lines should be omitted in auxiliary
same result. Usually a break line is used to indicate the views, unless they are needed for clearness. The begin-
imaginary break in the views. Do not draw a break line ner, however, should show all hidden lines, especially if
coinciding with a visible line or a hidden line. the auxiliary view of the entire object is shown. Later,
To clarify the relationship of views, the auxiliary in advanced applications, it will become clearer as to
views should be connected to the views from which when hidden lines can be omitted.
they are projected, either with a center line or with one
or two projection lines. This is particularly important
for partial views, which are often small and appear to 17 ■ AUXILIARY SECTIONS
be “lost” and not related to any view.
An auxiliary section is simply an auxiliary view in section.
In Fig. 17a, note the cutting-plane line and the terminat-
15 ■ HALF AUXILIARY VIEWS ing arrows that indicate the direction of sight for the aux-
If an auxiliary view is symmetrical, and if it is necessary iliary section. Observe that the section lines are drawn at
to save space on the drawing or to save time in draft- approximately 45° with visible outlines. In an auxiliary
ing, only half of the auxiliary view may be drawn (Fig. section drawing, the entire portion of the object behind
16). In this case, half of a regular view is also shown, the cutting plane may be shown (Fig. 17a), or the cut
since the bottom flange is also symmetrical. Note that surface alone may be shown (Fig. 17b and 17c).
in each case the near half is shown. An auxiliary section through a cone is shown in Fig.
18. This is one of the conic sections, in this case
■ FIGURE 16 ■ Half Views. a parabola. The parabola may be drawn by other meth-
ods, but the method shown here is by projection. In Fig.
18, elements of the cone are drawn in the front and top
views. These intersect the cutting plane at points 1, 2, 3,
and so on. These points are established in the top view
by projecting upward to the top views of the corre-
sponding elements. In the auxiliary section, all points on
the parabola are the same distance from the reference
plane RP as they are in the top view.
A typical example of an auxiliary section in machine
drawing is shown in Fig. 19. Here, there is not sufficient
space for a revolved section, although a removed section
could have been used instead of an auxiliary section.

18 ■ TRUE LENGTH OF LINE:

AUXILIARY-VIEW METHOD
A line will show in true length when projected to a pro-
jection plane parallel to the line.

244
 Auxiliary Views

■ FIGURE 17 ■ Auxiliary Sections.

Figure 20 shows how to find the true length of

the hip rafter 1–2 by means of a depth auxiliary view.

1. Assume an arrow perpendicular to 1–2 (front

view) indicating the direction of sight, and place
the H/F folding line as shown.
2. Draw the F/1 folding line perpendicular to the
arrow and at any convenient distance from 1–2
(front view), and project the points 1 and 3
toward it.
3. Set off the points 1 and 2 in the auxiliary view at
the same distance from the folding line as they are
in the top view. The triangle 1–2–3 in the auxiliary
view shows the true size and shape of the roof sec-
■ FIGURE 18 ■ Auxiliary Section.
tion 1–2–3, and the distance 1–2 in the auxiliary
view is the true length of the hip rafter 1–2.

■ FIGURE 19 ■ Auxiliary Section.

■ FIGURE 20 ■ True Length of a Line by Means of an Auxiliary View.

245
 Auxiliary Views

19 ■ SUCCESSIVE AUXILIARY VIEWS To draw views 3, 4, and so on, repeat this proce-
Up to this point we have dealt with primary auxiliary dure, remembering that each time we will be con-
views—that is, single auxiliary views projected from cerned only with a sequence of three views. In drawing
one of the regular views. In Fig. 21, auxiliary view 1 is any auxiliary view, the paper may be revolved to make
a primary auxiliary view projected from the top view. the last two views line up as regular views.
From primary auxiliary view 1, a secondary auxil-
iary view 2 can be drawn; then from it a third auxiliary 20 ■ USES OF AUXILIARY VIEWS
view 3, and so on. An infinite number of such succes- Generally, auxiliary views are used to show the true
sive auxiliary views may be drawn. However, secondary shape or true angle of features that appear distorted in
auxiliary view 2 is not the only one that can be project- the regular views. Basically, auxiliary views have the
ed from primary auxiliary view 1. As shown by the following four uses:
arrows around view 1, an infinite number of secondary
auxiliary views, with different lines of sight, may be pro- 1. True length of line, TL (§18).
jected. Any auxiliary view projected from a primary aux- 2. Point view of line (§11).
iliary view is a secondary auxiliary view. Furthermore, 3. Edge view of plane, EV (§21).
any succeeding auxiliary view may be used to project an 4. True size of plane, TS (§21).
infinite series of views from it.
In this example, folding lines are more convenient
than reference-plane lines. In auxiliary view 1, all num- 21 ■ TRUE SIZE OF AN OBLIQUE SURFACE:
bered points of the object are the same distance from FOLDING-LINE METHOD
folding line H/1 as they are in the front view from fold- A typical use for a secondary auxiliary view is to show
ing line H/F. These distances, such as distance a, are the true size and shape of an oblique surface, such as
transferred from the front view to the auxiliary view. surface 1–2–3–4 in Fig. 22. In this case folding lines
To draw the secondary auxiliary view 2, disregard the are used, but the same results can be obtained with ref-
front view and center attention on the sequence of three erence lines. Proceed as follows:
views: the top view, view 1, and view 2. Draw arrow 2
toward view 1 in the direction desired for view 2, and 1. Draw the primary auxiliary view showing surface
draw light projection lines parallel to the arrow. Draw 1–2–3–4 as a line. As explained in §11, the edge
folding line 1/2 perpendicular to the projection lines and view (EV) of a plane is found by getting the point
at any convenient distance from view 1. Locate all num- of view of a line in that plane. To get the point view
bered points in view 2 from folding line 1/2 at the same of a line, the line of sight must be assumed parallel
distances they are in the top view from folding line H/1, to the line. Therefore, draw arrow P parallel to
using the dividers to transfer distances. For example, lines 1–2 and 3–4, which are true length (TL) in the
transfer distance b to locate points 4 and 5. Connect front view, and draw projection lines parallel to
points with straight lines, and determine visibility.The cor- the arrow. Draw folding line H/F between the top
ner nearest the observer (11) for view 2 will be visible, and front views and F/1 between the front and
and the one farthest away (1) will be hidden, as shown. auxiliary views, perpendicular to the respective

■ FIGURE 21 ■ Successive Auxiliary Views.

246
 Auxiliary Views

■ FIGURE 22 ■ True Size of Oblique Surface—Folding-Line Method.

projection lines. All points in the auxiliary view line F/1—as, for example, dimensions c and d. The
will be the same distance from the folding line F/1 true size (TS) of the surface 1–2–3–4 will be shown in
as they are in the top view from folding line H/F. the secondary auxiliary view since the direction of
Lines 1–2 and 3–4 will appear as points in the aux- sight, arrow S, was taken perpendicular to it.
iliary view, and plane 1–2–3–4 will therefore
appear edgewise—that is, as a line.
2. Draw arrow S perpendicular to the edge view of 22 ■ TRUE SIZE OF AN OBLIQUE SURFACE:
plane 1–2–3–4 in the primary auxiliary view, and REFERENCE-PLANE METHOD
draw projection lines parallel to the arrow. Draw Figure 23a shows the steps in drawing an auxiliary
folding line 1/2 perpendicular to these projection view in which triangular surface 1–2–3 appears in true
lines and at a convenient distance from the primary size and shape. For the true size of the surface to
auxiliary view. appear in the secondary auxiliary view, arrow S must be
3. Draw the secondary auxiliary view. Locate each point assumed perpendicular to the edge view of that sur-
(transfer with dividers) the same distance from the face; it is therefore necessary to have the edge view of
folding line 1/2 as it is in the front view to the folding surface 1–2–3 in the primary auxiliary view first. To do

■ FIGURE 23 ■ True Size of an Oblique Surface—Reference-Plane Method.

247
 Auxiliary Views

this, the direction of sight, arrow P, must be parallel to a desired secondary auxiliary views of the object. To
line in surface 1–2–3 that appears true length (TL) in draw these views, proceed as follows:
the front view. Therefore, arrow P is drawn parallel to
line 1–2 of the front view, line 1–2 will appear as a 1. Draw a primary auxiliary view of both the object
point in the primary auxiliary view, and surface 1–2–3 and the assumed arrow, which will show the true
must therefore appear edgewise in that view. length of the arrow. To do this, assume a horizontal
In this case it is convenient to use reference lines reference plane X–X in the front and auxiliary
and to assume the reference plane X (for drawing the views, as shown. Then assume a direction of sight
primary auxiliary view) coincides with the back surface perpendicular to the given arrow. In the front
of the object, as shown. For the primary auxiliary view, view, the butt end of the arrow is a distance a
all depth measurements, as a in the figure, are trans- higher than the arrow point, and this distance is
ferred with dividers from the top view with respect to transferred to the primary auxiliary view, as
the reference line X–X. shown. All height measurements in the auxiliary
For the secondary auxiliary view, reference plane Y is view correspond to those in the front view.
assumed to be cutting through the object for convenience 2. Draw a secondary auxiliary view that shows the
in transferring measurements. All measurements perpen- arrow as a point. This can be done because the
dicular to Y–Y in the secondary auxiliary view are the arrow appears true length in the primary auxiliary
same as between the reference plane and the correspond- view and projection lines for the secondary auxil-
ing points in the front view. Note that corresponding mea- iary view are drawn parallel to it. Draw reference
surements must be inside (toward the central view in the line Y–Y for the secondary auxiliary view perpen-
sequence of three views) or outside (away from the cen- dicular to these projection lines. In the top view,
tral view). For example, dimension b is on the side of Y–Y draw Y–Y perpendicular to the projection lines to
away from the primary auxiliary view in both places. the primary auxiliary view. All measurements, such
Figure 23b shows how to determine the true size as b, with respect to Y–Y correspond in the sec-
and shape of surface 1–2–3–4–5–6–7 without drawing ondary auxiliary view and the top view.
the complete secondary auxiliary view. The method is
similar to that just described. Note that the secondary auxiliary views of Figs. 23a
and 24 have considerable pictorial value. These are
23 ■ SECONDARY AUXILIARY VIEW, OBLIQUE trimetric projections. However, the direction of sight
DIRECTION OF SIGHT GIVEN could be assumed, in the manner of Fig. 24, to produce
either isometric or dimetric projections. If the direction
In Fig. 24 two views of a block are given, with two of sight is assumed parallel to the diagonal of a cube, the
views of an arrow indicating the lines of sight for the resulting view is an isometric projection.
A typical application of a secondary auxiliary view is
■ FIGURE 24 ■ Secondary Auxiliary View with Oblique Direction shown in Fig. 25. All views are partial views, except the
of Sight Given. front view.The partial secondary auxiliary view illustrates
a case in which break lines are not needed. Note the use
of an auxiliary section to show the true shape of the arm.

24 ■ ELLIPSES
A circle viewed obliquely appears as an ellipse. This
often occurs in successive auxiliary views because of
the variety of directions of sight. In Fig. 26a, the hole
appears as a true circle in the top view. The circles
appear as straight lines in the primary auxiliary view
and as ellipses in the secondary auxiliary view. In the
latter, the major axis AB of the ellipse is parallel to the
projection lines and equal in length to the true diame-
ter of the circle in the top view. The minor axis CD is
perpendicular to the major axis, and its foreshortened
length is projected from the primary auxiliary view.

248
 Auxiliary Views

drawing. Or the ellipses may be easily and rapidly

drawn with the aid of an ellipse template. The “angle”
of ellipse to use is one that most closely matches the
angle between the direction-of-sight arrow and the
plane (EV) containing the circle, as seen in this case in
the primary auxiliary view. Here the angle is 36 12 ° , so a
35° ellipse is selected.
In Fig. 26b, successive auxiliary views are shown
in which the true circular shapes appear in the sec-
ondary auxiliary view, and the elliptical projections in
the front and top views. It is necessary to construct the
circular shapes in the secondary auxiliary view, then to
project plotted points back to the primary auxiliary
view, the front view, and finally to the top view, as
shown in the figure for points 1, 2, 3, and 4. The final
curves are then drawn with the aid of an irregular
curve.
If the major and minor axes are found, any of the
true-ellipse methods may be used; or better still, an
ellipse template may be employed. The major and
minor axes are easily established in the front view, but
in the top view, they are more difficult to find. The
major axis AB is at right angles to the center line GL of
■ FIGURE 25 ■ Secondary Auxiliary View—Partial Views. the hole, and equal in length to the true diameter of the
hole. The minor axis ED is at right angles to the major
axis. Its length is found by plotting several points in the
The ellipse can be completed by projecting points, vicinity of one end of the minor axis or by using
such as 1 and 2, symmetrically located about the refer- descriptive geometry to find the angle between the line
ence plane RP coinciding with CD, with distances a of sight and the inclined surface, and by this angle
equal in the top and secondary auxiliary views as selecting the ellipse guide required.
shown, and finally, after a sufficient number of points
have been plotted, by using an irregular curve.
Since the major and minor axes are easily found, any 25 ■ COMPUTER GRAPHICS
of the true-ellipse methods may be used, or an approximate USING CAD Using 3D CAD, any view can be generated in
ellipse may be found sufficiently accurate for a particular one or two steps, eliminating the need to project auxiliary
views manually. It is still very important to have a clear

■ FIGURE 26 ■ Ellipses.

249
 Auxiliary Views

understanding which line of sight will produce a true size dimension from the CAD system will be that of the
view or a view which shows a true dihedral angle. When apparent, or projected, distance. Incorrectly dimensioned
measuring or dimensioning a view from a CAD screen, if dihedral angles can be a common error in CAD drawings
the surface or angle is not true size the automatic created by inexperienced operators.

KEY WORDS
AUXILIARY VIEW DIHEDRAL ANGLE FOLDING LINES TRUE LENGTH
REFERENCE PLANE TRUE SIZE PARTIAL AUXILIARY VIEW INCLINED SURFACE
PRIMARY AUXILIARY OBLIQUE LINE SECONDARY AUXILIARY VIEW OBLIQUE SURFACE

CHAPTER SUMMARY
■ An auxiliary view can be used to create a projection that ■ A principal use of auxiliary views is to show dihedral
shows the true length of an oblique line or true size of an angles in true size.
inclined plane. ■ Curves are plotted as points in auxiliary views and are
■ Primary and secondary auxiliary views can also create the connected with an irregular curve drawing instrument or
edge view of an oblique plane, the point view of an spline CAD function.
oblique line, and the true size of an oblique plane. ■ An auxiliary view can also be drawn as a sectional view.
■ An auxiliary view can be automatically created using The same sectional view conventions apply when the sec-
CAD if the original object was drawn as a three-dimen- tion is also an auxiliary view.
sional model. ■ A secondary auxiliary view can be constructed from a
■ Folding lines or reference-plane lines represent the edge previously drawn (primary) auxiliary view.
views of projection planes.
■ Points are projected between views parallel to the line of
sight and perpendicular to the reference-plane lines or
folding lines.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is meant by true length? By true size? 5. What is the difference between a complete auxiliary
2. Why is a true-length line always parallel to an adjacent view and a partial auxiliary view?
reference-plane line? 6. How are curves drawn in an auxiliary view?
3. If an auxiliary view is drawn from the front view, its depth 7. How many auxiliary views are necessary to draw the
dimensions would be the same as in what other views? true size of an inclined plane? Of an oblique plane?
4. Describe one method for transferring depth between 8. What is the angle between the reference-plane lines and
views. the direction-of-sight lines?

AUXILIARY-VIEW PROBLEMS
The problems in Figs. 27–64 are to be drawn with ing the actual drawing. Allowances for dimensions must be
instruments or freehand. If partial auxiliary views are not made if metric or decimal dimensions are to be included.
assigned, the auxiliary views are to be complete views of Since many of the problems in this chapter are of a gener-
the entire object, including all necessary hidden lines. al nature, they can also be solved on most computer graphics
It is often difficult to space properly the views of an aux- systems. If a system is available, your instructor may choose to
iliary-view drawing. In some cases it may be necessary to assign specific problems to be completed by this method.
make a trial blocking out on a preliminary sheet before start-

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 Auxiliary Views

■ FIGURE 28 ■ V-Block. Given: Front and auxiliary views.

■ FIGURE 27 ■ RH Finger. Given: Front and auxiliary views.
Required: Complete front, top, and auxiliary views (Layout A–3 or
Required: Complete front, auxiliary, left-side, and top views (Layout
A4–3 adjusted).
A–3 or A4–3 adjusted).

1 2 3 4 5 6

7 8 9 10 11

12

13 14
15 16 17
18

19 20 21 22 23 24

30

25 26 27
28 29

■ FIGURE 29 ■ Auxiliary View Problems. Make freehand sketch or instrument drawing of selected problem as assigned. Draw given front and
right-side views, and add incomplete auxiliary view, including all hidden lines (Layout A–3 or A4–3 adjusted). If assigned, design your own right-
side view consistent with given front view, and then add complete auxiliary view.

251
 Auxiliary Views

■ FIGURE 30 ■ Anchor Bracket. Draw necessary views or partial ■ FIGURE 33 ■ Guide Block. Given: Right-side and auxiliary
views (Layout A–3 or A4–3 adjusted).* 1 views. Required: Right-side, auxiliary, plus front and top views—all
complete (Layout B–3 or A3–3).*

■ FIGURE 31 ■ Centering Block. Draw complete front, top, and ■ FIGURE 34 ■ Angle Bearing. Draw necessary views, including
right-side views, plus indicated auxiliary views (Layout B–3 or A3–3).* a complete auxiliary view (Layout A–3 or A4–3 adjusted).*

■ FIGURE 32 ■ Clamp Slide. Draw necessary views completely ■ FIGURE 35 ■ Guide Bracket. Draw necessary views or partial
(Layout B–3 or A3–3).* views (Layout B–3 or A3–3).*

*Use metric or decimal-inch dimensions as assigned.

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 Auxiliary Views

■ FIGURE 36 ■ Rod Guide. Draw necessary views, including

complete auxiliary view showing true shape of upper rounded portion ■ FIGURE 39 ■ Angle Guide. Draw necessary views, including a
(Layout B–4 or A3–4 adjusted).* partial auxiliary view of cylindrical recess (Layout B–4 or A3–4 adjusted).*

■ FIGURE 37 ■ Brace Anchor. Draw necessary views, including ■ FIGURE 40 ■ Holder Block. Draw front and right-side views
partial auxiliary view showing true shape of cylindrical portion (Layout (2.80– apart) and complete auxiliary view of entire object showing true
B–4 or A3–4 adjusted).* shape of surface A and all hidden lines (Layout A–3 or A4–3 adjusted).*

■ FIGURE 38 ■ 45° Elbow. Draw necessary views, including a broken ■ FIGURE 41 ■ Control Bracket. Draw necessary views, including
section and two half views of flanges (Layout B–4 or A3–4 adjusted).* partial auxiliary views and regular views (Layout C–4 or A2–4).*

*Use metric or decimal-inch dimensions as assigned.

253
 Auxiliary Views

■ FIGURE 42 ■ Tool Holder Slide. Draw given views, and add

complete auxiliary view showing true curvature of slot on bottom ■ FIGURE 44 ■ Guide Bearing. Draw necessary views and partial
(Layout B–4 or A3–4 adjusted).* views, including two partial auxiliary views (Layout C–4 or A2–4).*

■ FIGURE 43 ■ Adjuster Block. Draw necessary views, including ■ FIGURE 45 ■ Drill Press Bracket. Draw given views and add
complete auxiliary view showing true shape of inclined surface complete auxiliary view showing true shape of inclined face (Layout
(Layout B–4 or A3–4 adjusted).* B–4 or A3–4 adjusted).** 1

*Use metric or decimal-inch dimensions as assigned.

254
 Auxiliary Views

■ FIGURE 46 ■ Brake Control Lever. Draw necessary views and ■ FIGURE 48 ■ Cam Bracket. Draw necessary views or partial
partial views (Layout B–4 or A3–4 adjusted).* views as needed. (Layout B–4 or A3–4 adjusted).** 1

■ FIGURE 47 ■ Shifter Fork. Draw necessary views, including ■ FIGURE 49 ■ RH Tool Holder. Draw necessary views, including
partial auxiliary view showing true shape of inclined arm (Layout B–4 partial auxiliary views showing 105° angle and square hole true size.
or A3–4 adjusted).* (Layout B–4 or A3–4 adjusted).*

*
Use metric or decimal-inch dimensions as assigned.

255
 Auxiliary Views

■ FIGURE 50 ■ Draw secondary auxiliary views, complete, which (except Prob. 2) will show the true sizes of the inclined surfaces. In Prob. 2
draw secondary auxiliary view as seen in direction of arrow (Layout B–3 or A3–3).*

■ FIGURE 51 ■ Control Bracket. Draw necessary views including ■ FIGURE 53 ■ Dovetail Slide. Draw complete given views and
primary and secondary auxiliary views so that the latter shows true auxiliary views, including view showing true size of surface 1–2–3–4
shape of oblique surface A (Layout B–4 or A3–4 adjusted).* (Layout B–4 or A3–4 adjusted).*

■ FIGURE 52 ■ Holder Block. Draw given views and primary and

secondary auxiliary views so that the latter shows true shape of ■ FIGURE 54 ■ Dovetail Guide. Draw given views plus complete
oblique surface (Layout B–4 or A3–4 adjusted).* 1 auxiliary views as indicated (Layout B–4 or A3–4 adjusted).**

*Use metric or decimal-inch dimensions as assigned.

256
 Auxiliary Views

■ FIGURE 55 ■ Adjustable Stop. Draw complete front and ■ FIGURE 56 ■ Tool Holder. Draw complete front view and
auxiliary views plus partial right-side view. Show all hidden lines primary and secondary auxiliary views as indicated (Layout B–4 or
(Layout C–4 or A2–4).* A3–4 adjusted).*

■ FIGURE 57 ■ Box Tool Holder for Turret Lathe. Given: Front and right-side views. Required: Front and left-side views and complete auxiliary
1
view as indicated by arrow (Layout C–4 or A2–4).*

*Use metric or decimal-inch dimensions as assigned.

257
 Auxiliary Views

■ FIGURE 58 ■ Pointing Tool Holder for Automatic Screw Machine. Given: Front and right-side views. Required: Front view and three partial
auxiliary views (Layout C–4 or A2–4).* 1

5.50

R 1.00 R 1.25

Ø 1.25
4.00

2.75

2 x R.875 2x Ø.875

■ FIGURE 59 ■ Print Roller. Given: Right-side view. Design your own front and auxiliary view (Use Layout A–3 or A4–3 adjusted). If assigned,
use CAD to create a partial auxiliary view.*

*Use metric or decimal-inch dimensions as assigned.

258
 Auxiliary Views

RU
TH
8
:.6
2X

1.0

45
°

2
.5
.38
W
T VIE
ON
FR

R
.7
5
TY
P
.
■ FIGURE 60 ■ Clamp. Draw all required views. Include at least
one auxiliary view (Layout A–3 or A4–3 adjusted).* 1
.5
0
.5
0

1.7
5
1.2
5

60
°

3.5
W 0
VIE 0
O NT 2.0
FR
■ FIGURE 61 ■ Plastic Slide. Draw all required views. Include at
least one auxiliary view (Layout A–3 or A4–3 adjusted).*

*Use metric or decimal-inch dimensions as assigned.

259
 Auxiliary Views

:.6
2
TH
R.6 RU (2 .4 3 )
2
1.12
.6 2
1.2 5
.50
R .2 8
R.5 R.2
0 1
.12

32 .0 6
0.6 .50 °
1.50 1.0 1.0 R .5 6

IE W
N T V
F RO

■ FIGURE 62 ■ Mounting Clip. Draw all required views. Include at least one auxiliary view (Layout A–3 or A4–3 adjusted).* 1

*Use metric or decimal-inch dimensions as assigned.

260
Revolutions

OBJECTIVES OVERVIEW
After studying the material in this chapter, you Revolution, like auxiliary-view projection, is a method of deter-
should be able to: mining the true length and true size of inclined and oblique lines
1. Revolve an object about any principal and planes. To obtain an auxiliary view, the observer changes posi-
axis of revolution. tion with respect to the object, as shown by the arrow in Fig. 1a.
2. Revolve an object to show the true The auxiliary view shows the true size and shape of surface A. The
length and true size of lines and planes. same view of the object can be obtained by moving the object with
3. Construct multiple revolutions to deter- respect to the observer, as shown in Fig. 1b. Here the object is
mine the true size of an oblique plane. revolved until surface A appears in its true size and shape in the
4. Revolve a point about a normal axis. right-side view. Revolution determines true length and true size
5. Revolve a circle to create an ellipse.
without creating another view. Instead, revolution positions an
object in space to create true size and shape.
6. Revolve a three-dimensional object in
space using CAD.

From Chapter 9 of Engineering Graphics, Eighth Edition, Frederick E. Giesecke,

Alva Mitchell, Henry Cecil Spencer, Ivan Leroy Hill, Robert Olin Loving, John
Thomas Dygdon, James E. Novak. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Published by Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.
 Revolutions

n FIGURE 1 n Auxiliary View and Revolution Compared.

1 n AXIS OF REVOLUTION jection. Thus, an object may be revolved about an axis

In Fig. 1b the axis of revolution is assumed perpen- perpendicular to the horizontal, frontal, or profile
dicular to the frontal plane of projection. The view in planes of projection, and the views drawn in the new
which the axis of revolution appears as a point (in this positions. Such a process is called a primary revolution.
case the front view) revolves but does not change shape; If this drawing is then used as a basis for another revo-
in the views in which the axis is shown as a line in true lution, the operation is called successive revolutions.
length, the dimensions of the object parallel to the axis Obviously, this process may be continued indefinitely.
do not change.
To make a revolution drawing, the view on the 2 n REVOLUTION ABOUT AXIS
plane of projection that is perpendicular to the axis of PERPENDICULAR TO FRONTAL PLANE
revolution is drawn first, since it is the only view that A primary revolution is illustrated in Fig. 2. An imag-
remains unchanged in size and shape. This view is inary axis XY is assumed (Fig. 2I), about which the
drawn revolved either clockwise or counterclockwise object is to revolve to the desired position. In this case
about a point that is the end view, or point view, of the the axis is selected perpendicular to the frontal plane
axis of revolution. This point may be assumed at any of projection, and during the revolution all points of
convenient position on or outside the view. The other the object describe circular arcs parallel to that plane.
views are then projected from this view. The axis may pierce the object at any point or may be
The axis of revolution is usually considered per-
pendicular to one of the three principal planes of pro-

n FIGURE 2 n Primary Revolution About

an Axis Perpendicular to Frontal Plane.

262
 Revolutions

n FIGURE 3 n Primary Revolution About

an Axis Perpendicular to Horizontal Plane.

exterior to it. In Fig. 2II, the front view is drawn

revolved, but not changed in shape, through the angle
desired (30° in this case), and the top and side views are
obtained by projecting from the front view.
The depth of the top view and the side view is
found by projecting from the top view of the first
unrevolved position (Fig. 2I) because the depth, since
it is parallel to the axis, remains unchanged. If the front
view of the revolved position is drawn directly with-
out first drawing the normal unrevolved position, the
depth of the object, as shown in the revolved top and
side views, may be drawn to known dimensions.
Note the similarity between the top and side views
in Fig. 2II and some of the auxiliary views of Fig. 8.7c.

3 n REVOLUTION ABOUT AXIS

PERPENDICULAR TO HORIZONTAL PLANE
A revolution about an axis perpendicular to the hori-
zontal plane of projection is shown in Fig. 3. An imag-
inary axis XY is assumed perpendicular to the top plane
of projection (Fig. 3I), and the top view is drawn
revolved (but not changed in shape) to the desired
position (30° in this case) (Fig. 3II); the other views n FIGURE 4 n Primary Revolution About an Axis Perpendicular to
are obtained by projecting from this view. During the Profile Plane.
revolution, all points of the object describe circular arcs
parallel to the horizontal plane. The heights of all
points in the front and side views in the revolved posi- cular arcs parallel to the profile plane of projection.
tion remain unchanged, since they are measured paral- The widths of the top and front views in the revolved
lel to the axis, and may be drawn by projecting from the position remain unchanged, since they are measured
initial front and side views in Fig. 3I. parallel to the axis and may be obtained by projection
Note the similarity between the front and side views from the top and front views in Fig. 4I, or may be set
in Fig. 3II. off by direct measurement.
Note the similarity between the top and front views
in Fig. 4II and some of the auxiliary views of Fig. 8.9c.
4 n REVOLUTION ABOUT AXIS
PERPENDICULAR TO PROFILE PLANE 5 n SUCCESSIVE REVOLUTIONS
A revolution about an axis XY perpendicular to the It is possible to draw an object in an infinite number of
profile plane of projection is illustrated in Fig. 4. Dur- revolved positions by making successive revolutions.
ing the revolution, all points of the object describe cir- Such a procedure (Fig. 5), limited to three or four

263
 Revolutions

n FIGURE 5 n Successive Revolutions of a Prism.

stages, offers excellent practice in multiview projection. In (III), the object from (II) has been revolved coun-
While it is possible to make several revolutions of a terclockwise through an angle of 30° about an axis per-
simple object without the aid of a system of numbers, it pendicular to the horizontal plane of projection. During
is absolutely necessary in successive revolutions to the revolution, all points describe horizontal circular arcs
assign a number or a letter to every corner of the object. and remain at the same distance from the horizontal
The numbering or lettering must be consistent in the plane of projection. The top view from (II) is shown
various views of the several stages of revolution. Figure revolved through 30° in (III). The front and side views
5 shows four sets of multiview drawings numbered I, II, are obtained by projecting from the front and side views
III, and IV, respectively. They represent the same object of (II) and from the top view of (III).
in different positions with reference to the planes of In Fig. 5IV, the object from (III) has been revolved
projection. clockwise through 15° about an axis perpendicular to the
In Fig. 5I, the object is represented in its normal profile plane of projection. During the revolution, all
position with its faces parallel to the planes of projec- points of the object describe circular arcs parallel to the
tion. In (II), the object is shown revolved clockwise profile plane of projection and remain at the same dis-
through an angle of 30° about an axis perpendicular to tance from that plane. The side view is copied from the
the frontal plane.The drawing in (III) is placed under (I) side view of (III), but revolved through 15°.The front and
so that the side view, whose width remains unchanged, top views are projected from the side view of (IV), and
can be projected from space I to space II as shown. from the top and front views of (III).
During the revolution, all points of the object Another convenient method of copying a view in a
describe circular arcs parallel to the frontal plane of new revolved position is to use tracing paper.
projection and remain at the same distance from that Either a tracing can be made and transferred by rub-
plane. The side view, therefore, may be projected from bing, or the prick points may be made and transferred.
the side view in (I) and the front view in (II). The top In Figs. 5III and IV, each view is an axonometric
view may be projected in the usual manner from the projection. An isometric projection can be
front and side views in (II).

264
 Revolutions

6 n REVOLUTION OF A POINT: NORMAL AXIS

Examples of the revolution of a point about a straight-
line axis are often found in design problems that
involve pulleys, gears, cranks, linkages, and so on. For
example, in Fig. 6a, as the disk is revolved, point 3
moves in a circular path lying in a plane perpendicular
to the axis 1–2. This relationship is represented in the
two views in Fig. 6b. Note in this instance that the axis
is normal or perpendicular to the frontal plane of pro-
jection, resulting in a front view that shows a point view
of the axis and a true-size view of the circular path of
revolution for point 3. The top view shows the path of
revolution in edge view and perpendicular to the true-
length view of the axis. Similar two-view relationships
would occur if the axis were perpendicular or normal
to either the horizontal or profile planes of projection.
The clockwise revolution through 150° for point 3
is illustrated in Fig. 6c.

7 n REVOLUTION OF A POINT: INCLINED AXIS

In Fig. 7a, the axis of revolution for point 3 is posi-
tioned parallel to the frontal plane and inclined to the
horizontal and profile projection planes. Since the axis
1–2 is true length in the front view, the edge view of the
path of revolution can be located as in Fig. 7b. To
establish the circular path of revolution for point 3, an
auxiliary view showing the axis in point view is
required (Fig. 7c). The required revolution of point 3
(in this case, 210°) is now performed in this circular
view. The revolved position of the point is projected to
the given front and top views, as shown.
Note the similarity of the relationships of the front
view and auxiliary view and the constructions shown in
Fig. 6c.

8 n REVOLUTION OF A POINT: OBLIQUE AXIS

In Fig. 8a, the axis of revolution for point 3 is oblique
to all principal planes of projection and, therefore, is
shown neither in true length nor as a point view in the
top, front, or profile views. To establish the necessary
true length and point view of the axis 1–2 in adjacent
views, two successive auxiliary views are needed (Fig.
n FIGURE 6 n Revolution of a Point About a Normal Axis. 8b). The required revolved position of point 3 can
now be located and then projected back to complete
the given front and top views.
obtained by revolution and a dimetric projection can be
constructed in a similar manner. If neither an isometric
nor a dimetric projection is specifically sought, successive 9 n REVOLUTION OF A LINE
revolution will produce a trimetric projection as shown The procedure for the revolution of a line about an axis
in Fig. 5. is very similar to that required for the revolution of a

265
 Revolutions

n FIGURE 7 n Revolution of a Point About an Inclined Axis.

point (see §6). All points on a line must revolve through and 2R , as the revolved position of the line is drawn
the same angle or the revolved line becomes altered. perpendicular to the radial line extending under the
In Fig. 9a, the line 1–2 is to be revolved through 150° arc of revolution and tangent to the smaller circle.
150° about the inclined axis 3–4. Since the axis 3–4 is The alternate-position line is used to distinguish the
given in true length in the top view, an auxiliary view is revolved-position line from the original given line.
required to provide a point view of the axis (Fig. 9b).
The necessary revolution can then be made about
point view 3–4. To ensure that all points on the line 10 n TRUE LENGTH OF A LINE:
rotate through the same number of degrees, a construc- REVOLUTION METHOD
tion circle is drawn tangent to line 1–2 and a perpen- If a line is parallel to one of the planes of projection, its
dicular through the tangency point becomes the projection on that plane is equal in length to the line.
reference for measuring the angle of rotation. The cir- In Fig. 10a, the element AB of the cone
cular arc paths for points 1 and 2 locate the points 1R is oblique to the planes of projection; therefore, its pro-

n FIGURE 8 n Revolution of a Point About

an Oblique Axis.

266
 Revolutions

n FIGURE 9 n Revolution of a Line About an Inclined Axis.

jections are foreshortened. If AB is revolved about the and whose altitude is the difference in elevation of the
axis of the cone until it coincides with either of the con- ends.The hypotenuse of the triangle is equal to the true
tour elements (for example, ABR), it will be shown in its length of the line.
true length in the front view because it will then be In these cases the lines are revolved until parallel
parallel to the frontal plane of projection. to a plane of projection. The true length of a line may
Likewise, in Fig. 10b, the edge of the pyramid CD also be found by leaving the line stationary but shifting
is shown in its true length CDR when it has been the position of the observer—that is, using auxiliary
revolved about the axis of the pyramid until it is paral- views.
lel to the frontal plane of projection. In Fig. 10c, the
line EF is shown true length at EFR when it has been
revolved about a vertical axis until it is parallel to the 11 n TRUE SIZE OF A PLANE SURFACE:
frontal plane of projection. REVOLUTION METHOD
The true length of a line may also be found by con- If a surface is parallel to one of the planes of projec-
structing a right triangle or a true-length diagram (Fig. tion, its projection on that plane is true size.
10d) whose base is equal to the top view of the line In Fig. 11a, the inclined surface 1–2–3–4 is

n FIGURE 10 n True Length of a Line—Revolution Method.

267
 Revolutions

n FIGURE 11 n True Size of a Plane Surface—Revolution Method.

foreshortened in the top and side views and appears as 12 n REVOLUTION OF CIRCLES
a line in the front view. Line 2–3 is taken as the axis of A circle, when viewed obliquely, can appear as an ellipse.
revolution, and the surface is revolved clockwise in the In that case the coin is revolved by the fingers. The geo-
front view to the position 4R –3 and projected to the metric construction of this revolution is shown in Fig.
side view at 4R –1R –2–3, which is the true size of the 12a. In the front view the circle appears as ACBD, and in
surface. In this case the surface was revolved until par- the side view as line CD, which is really the edge view of
allel to the profile plane of projection. the plane containing the circle. In the side view, CD (the
In Fig. 11b, triangular surface 1–2–3 is revolved side view of the circle) is revolved through any desired
until parallel to the horizontal plane of projection so that acute angle to CR DR .
the surface appears true size in the top view, as shown. To find points on the ellipse, draw a series of horizon-
In Fig. 11c, the true size of the oblique surface tal lines across the circle in the front view. Each line will
1–2–3–4–5 cannot be found by a simple primary revo- cut the circle at two points, as 1 and 2. Project these points
lution. The true size can be found by two successive rev- across to the vertical line representing the unrevolved cir-
olutions or by a combination of an auxiliary view and a cle; then revolve each point and project horizontally to
primary revolution (as in Fig. 11c). First, draw an aux- the front view to establish points on the ellipse. Plot as
iliary view that will show the edge view (EV) of the many points as necessary to secure a smooth curve. Figure
plane (see Fig. 22). Second, revolve the edge view of 12b shows an application of this construction to the rep-
the surface until it is parallel to the folding line F/1, as resentation of a revolved object with a large hole.
shown. All points in the front view, except those in the
axis of revolution line 4–5, will describe circular arcs
parallel to the folding line F/1. These arcs will appear in 13 n COUNTERREVOLUTION
the front view as lines parallel to the folding line, such as The reverse procedure to revolution is counterrevolu-
2–2R and 3–3R . The true size of the surface is found by tion. For example, if the three views in Fig. 2II are
connecting the points with straight lines. given, the object can be drawn in the unrevolved posi-

n FIGURE 12 n Revolution of a Circle.

268
 Revolutions

Graphics
Spotlight The Art of Making Surfboards Using CAD
With a slow surfer’s drawl, John Gillis describes his After he returned to Australia in 1992, he stumbled
creation as “unreal,” an adjective not generally used by across Mr. Pearce’s software, which was being used to
most inventors. But then, most inventors don’t surf. Mr. design board templates that were printed out on a blotter.
Gillis, who makes surfboards in a Sydney suburb in Aus- Hoping Mr. Pierce would rewrite the software for his machine,
tralia, hopes that his invention, the Computer Enhanced Mr. Gillis rang the developer and invited him to Australia. “He
Technology board-shaping machine, changes the sport. came out here for four weeks and the surf was good,” Mr.
Traditionally, surfboard shapers spend hours in poorly ven- Gillis said with a shrug. “It inspired him to do the job.”
tilated bays, hand-carving surfable shapes out of slabs of There are those detractors, including the legendary surfer
polyurethane foam or wood. To be a successful shaper, Greg Noll, who said shaping machines “took the heart and
you need an intimate knowledge of how a surfboard inter- soul” out of shaping. Mr. Gillis says soul has nothing to do
acts with waves. You also must stoop and squat continual- with shaping. “The chemicals in a board, have they got soul?”
ly and tolerate a lifetime of breathing foam dust. he asked. “The soul we’re talking about here is when you go
Using Mr. Gillis’s machine, along with software surfing.”
designed by Ian Pearce, a British surfer, shapers forgo
these last two requirements. They create boards on a PC
Adapted from “The Art of Making Surfboards Has Become More of a Sci-
using Mr. Pearce’s Deadly Accurate Template, or D.A.T., a ence,” by Denis Faye, The New York Times, May 27, 1999.
computer-assisted design and modeling system. The
information is then fed into the Computer Enhanced Tech-
nology machine, which will carve a board with one-hun-
dredth-of-a-millimeter accuracy. The machine can also act
as a board scanner, creating exact duplicates of existing
boards. This means that wherever there is a PC, there’s a
shaping bay.
Shaping machines have been around for years and
similar computer-aided technology is being developed
independently in California, France, and Brazil. Mr. Gillis
says the advantage of such machines is that they allow the
user to design from scratch in the computer, not just repli-
cate an existing model.
In the early 1990s, when Mr. Gillis was shaping sail-
boards on the Hawaiian island of Maui, he found that once
he built a great board, it was almost impossible to repro-
duce. “Slight changes in the board made major differ-
ences,” he explained. “We couldn’t get it by hand.” Courtesy of Getty Images.

tion in Fig. 2I by counterrevolution. The front view is given oblique surface. In such an oblique position, it is
simply counterrevolved back to its normal upright posi- very difficult to draw the views of the object because of
tion, and the top and side views are drawn as shown. the foreshortening of lines. The work is greatly simpli-
Similarly, in Fig. 5, the object may be counterrevolved fied by counterrevolving the oblique surface to a sim-
from its position in Fig. 5IV to its unrevolved position ple position, completing the drawing, and then
in Fig. 5I by simply reversing the process. revolving to the original given position.
In practice, it sometimes becomes necessary to An example is shown in Fig. 13. Assume that
draw the views of an object located on or parallel to a the oblique surface 8–4–3–7, shown in three views in

269
 Revolutions

When the two views in (III) have been drawn, counter-

revolve the object from (III) to (II) and then from (II) to
(I) to find the required views of the given object in (I).

14 n COMPUTER GRAPHICS
Computer graphics programs provide the user with sim-
ple and fast ways of revolving objects about any desired
axis. Successive revolutions can be easily accomplished
using CAD. Computer-generated revolutions also
enable a drafter to readily depict circular features, which
appear elliptical when viewed obliquely (Fig. 14).

n FIGURE 13 n Counterrevolution of a Prism.

Fig. 13I, is given and that it is required to draw the

three views of a prism 13 mm high with the given
oblique surface as its base. Revolve the surface about
any horizontal axis XX, perpendicular to the side view,
until the edges 8–4 and 3–7 are horizontal, as shown in
Fig. 13II. Then revolve the surface about any vertical
axis YY, which appears as a point in the top view, until
the edges 8–7 and 4–3 are parallel to the frontal plane,
as shown in Fig. 13III. In this position the given surface
is perpendicular to the frontal plane, and the front and n FIGURE 14 n Pictorial Drawings With Different Viewing Angles
top views of the required prism can be drawn, as shown Created by Using Computervision Designer System. The system
by phantom lines in the figure, because the edges 4–1 provides complete flexibility to manipulate the original illustration to
and 3–2, for example, are parallel to the frontal plane display any desired viewing orientation. Courtesy of Computervision
and, therefore, are shown in their true lengths, 13 mm. Corporation, a subsidiary of Prime Computer, Inc.

KEY WORDS
AXIS OF REVOLUTION INCLINED AXIS SUCCESSIVE REVOLUTIONS CLOCKWISE
NORMAL AXIS OBLIQUE AXIS COUNTERREVOLUTION

CHAPTER SUMMARY
n Revolution moves an object in space, to reveal what locate revolved points and lines. Both drawing tools use
would normally be an auxiliary view of the object in a pri- the same principles of revolution.
mary view (top, front, right side). n Circles can be revolved to create ellipses or circles that
n The main purpose of revolution is to reveal the true will appear as ellipses when foreshortened on an inclined
length and true size of inclined and oblique lines and or oblique plane.
planes in a primary view. n When solving for true shape, the axis of revolution is
n A normal axis is perpendicular to one of the principal drawn perpendicular to the plane of projection that
planes of projection (front, top, right side). shows the inclined or oblique surface in edge view.
n Three-dimensional objects can be revolved at will with
CAD. Traditional drawing methods require projection to

270
 Revolutions

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is the purpose of revolution? 3. How can an ellipse be created by revolution?
2. What is the axis of revolution? What determines where 4. What is a normal axis? An inclined axis?
the axis is drawn? 5. What are successive revolutions?

REVOLUTION PROBLEMS
In Figs. 15–19 are problems covering primary revolu- graphics systems. If a system is available, the instructor
tions, successive revolutions, and counterrevolutions. may choose to assign specific problems to be completed
Since many of the problems in this chapter are of a by this method.
general nature, they can also be solved on most computer

n FIGURE 15 n Using size B or A3 sheet, divide working area into four equal parts, as shown. Draw given views of the rectangle, and then
the primary revolution in space II, followed by successive revolutions in spaces III and IV. Number points as shown. Omit dimensions. Use Form 3
title box.

271
 Revolutions

n FIGURE 16 n Using size B or A3 sheet, divide working area into four equal parts, as shown. Draw given views of prism as shown in space I;
then draw three views of the revolved prism in each succeeding space, as indicated. Number all corners. Omit dimensions. Use Form 3 title box.

n FIGURE 17 n Using Layout B–4 or A3–4 (adjusted) sheet, divide into four equal parts as in Fig. 15. In the upper two spaces, draw a
simple revolution as in Fig. 2 and in the lower two spaces, draw a simple revolution as in Fig. 3, but for each problem use a block assigned
from Fig. 17.
Alternative Assignment: Using Layout B–4 or A3–4 (adjusted), divide into four equal parts as in Fig. 15. In the two left-hand spaces, draw a
simple revolution as in Fig. 4, but use an object assigned from Fig. 17. In the two right-hand spaces, draw another simple revolution as in Fig.
4, but use a different object taken from Fig. 17 and revolve through 45° instead of 30°.

n FIGURE 18 n Using Layout A–2 or A–3 or Layout A4–2 or A4–3

(adjusted), draw three views of the blocks but revolved 30° clockwise
about an axis perpendicular to the top plane of projection. Do not
change the relative positions of the blocks.

272
 Revolutions

1 2 3

4 5 6

7 8 9

n FIGURE 19 n Use Layout A–1 or A4–1 (adjusted), and divide the working area into four equal areas for four problems per sheet to be
assigned by the instructor. Data for the layout of each problem are given by a coordinate system in metric dimensions. For example, in Prob. 1,
point 1 is located by the scale coordinates (28 mm, 38 mm, 76 mm). The first coordinate locates the front view of the point from the left edge of
the problem area. The second one locates the front view of the point from the bottom edge of the problem area. The third one locates either the
top view of the point from the bottom edge of the problem area or the side view of the point from the left edge of the problem area. Inspection of
the given problem layout will determine which application to use.
1. Revolve clockwise point 1(28, 38, 76) through 210° about the axis 2(51, 58, 94)–3(51, 8, 94).
2. Revolve point 3(41, 38, 53) about the axis 1(28, 64, 74)–2(28, 8, 74) until point 3 is at the farthest distance behind the axis.
3. Revolve point 3(20, 8, 84) about the axis 1(10, 18, 122)–2(56, 18, 76) through 210° and to the rear of line 1–2.
4. Revolve point 3(5, 53, 53) about the axis 1(10, 13, 71)–2(23, 66, 71) to its extreme position to the left in the front view.
5. Revolve point 3(15, 8, 99) about the axis 1(8, 10, 61)–2(33, 25, 104) through 180°.
6. By revolution find the true length of line 1(8, 48, 64)–2(79, 8, 119). Scale: 1:100.
7. Revolve line 3(30, 38, 81)–4(76, 51, 114) about axis 1(51, 33, 69)–2(51, 33, 122) until line 3–4 is shown true length and below the axis 1–2.
Scale: 1:20.
8. Revolve line 3(53, 8, 97)–4(94, 28, 91) about the axis 1(48, 23, 81)–2(91, 23, 122) until line 3–4 is in true length and above the axis.
9. Revolve line 3(28, 15, 99)–4(13, 30, 84) about the axis 1(20, 20, 97)–2(43, 33, 58) until line 3–4 is level an above the axis.

273
 Revolutions

n FIGURE 20 n Using Layout B–3 or A3–3, draw three views of a n FIGURE 21 n Using Layout B–3 or A3–3, draw three views of a
right prism 38 mm high that has as its lower base the triangle shown right pyramid 51 mm high, having as its lower base the parallelogram
above. See §13. shown above. See §13.

5.70

1.80 0.70

1.50

4.50

4x R.125

1.00

1.50

7.00

n FIGURE 22 n Using Layout A–2 or A–3 or a computer graphic system (CAD), design a three-dimensional view of this mounting plate
revolved through 45° clockwise about an axis perpendicular to the top plane.

274
 Revolutions

1.25 100
.75

.50 1.0
.75 100

2.50

R.25
BOTH ENDS

2.25
R.50
TYPICAL 4.25

n FIGURE 23 n Using Layout A–2 or A–3 or a computer graphic system (CAD), design a three-dimensional view of this support base as an
isometric view. Make two drawings. Use a depth of .25 for the first; use .50 as the depth for the second.

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Manufacturing Design and Processes

From Chapter 10 of Engineering Graphics, Eighth Edition, Frederick E. Giesecke,

Alva Mitchell, Henry Cecil Spencer, Ivan Leroy Hill, Robert Olin Loving, John
Thomas Dygdon, James E. Novak. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Published by Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.
 Manufacturing Design and Processes

OVERVIEW OBJECTIVES
Take a few moments and inspect various objects around you: your pen, After studying the material in this chapter, you
watch, calculator, telephone, chair, and light fixtures. You will soon realize should be able to:
that all these objects had a different shape at one time. You could not find 1. Define manufacturing as we know it today.

them in nature as they appear in your room.They have been transformed 2. Discuss the importance of the initial
from various raw materials and assembled into the shapes that you now see. design stages in product development
Some objects are made of a single part, such as nails, bolts, wire and manufacture.
or plastic coat hangers, metal brackets, and forks. However, most 3. Define concurrent engineering and show

objects such as aircraft jet engines (invented in 1939), ball-point how this systematic approach integrates
pens (1938), toasters (1926), washing machines (1910), air condi- the design and manufacturing processes.
tioners (1928), refrigerators (1931), photocopiers (1949), all types of 4. Define integrated product development

machines, and thousands of other products are made of an assem- and explain its benefits.
bly of several parts made from a variety of materials. All are made 5. Explain the importance of computer-

by various processes that we call “manufacturing.” aided design, engineering, and manu-
Manufacturing, in its broadest sense, is the process of converting raw facture in product development.
materials into products. It encompasses (1) product design, (2) selection 6. Define computer-supported cooperative

of raw materials, and (3) selection of processes by which manufacturing work and discuss its possible integra-
of goods takes place, using various production methods and techniques. tion with concurrent engineering.
7. Explain the importance of prototypes
Manufacturing is the backbone of any industrialized nation. Its
importance is emphasized by the fact that, as an economic activity, it com- and rapid prototyping in modern manu-
facturing processes.
prises approximately 20 to 30 of the value of all goods and services pro-
8. Define design for manufacture and
duced. The level of manufacturing activity is directly related to the
design for manufacture and assembly.
economic health of a country. Generally, the higher the level of manufac-
9. Define modeling for assembly and explain
turing activity in a country,the higher is the standard of living of its people.
its importance to the modern factory.
Manufacturing also involves activities in which the manufac-
10. Explain the importance of proper materi-
tured product is itself used to make other products. Examples are
als selection based on their properties,
large presses to shape sheet metal for car bodies, machinery to make
cost and availability, appearance, ser-
bolts and nuts, and sewing machines for making clothing. An equal-
vice life, and recycle potentials.
ly important aspect of manufacturing activities is servicing and
11. List the manufacturing processes typi-
maintaining this machinery during its useful life.
cally used today.
Engineering drawings, whether created with drawing instruments or
12. Explain the importance of dimensional
CAD, are detailed instructions for manufacturing the described objects.
accuracy and surface finish.
The drawings must give information regarding shape, size, materials,
13. List the typical measuring devices used
finish, and, sometimes, the manufacturing process required.This chapter
in manufacturing.
provides engineers with information about terms and processes used in
14. Discuss the benefits of computer-
manufacturing; information that will assist them with their drawings.
integrated manufacturing.

278
 Manufacturing Design and Processes

1 n “MANUFACTURING” DEFINED Manufacturing activities must be responsive to

The word “manufacturing” is derived from the Latin several demands and trends:
manu factus, meaning “made by hand.” In the modern
sense, manufacturing involves making products from 1. A product must fully meet design requirements
raw materials by various processes, machinery, and oper- and product specifications and standards.
ations, following a well-organized plan for each activity 2. A product must be manufactured by the most
required. The word “product” means something that is environmentally friendly and economical methods.
produced, and the words product and production first 3. Quality must be built into the product at each
appeared sometime during the 15th century. The word stage, from design to assembly, rather than relying
“production” is often used interchangeably with the on quality testing after the product is made. Fur-
word “manufacturing”. Whereas manufacturing engi- thermore, quality should be appropriate to the
neering is the term used widely in the United States to product’s use.
describe this area of industrial activity, the equivalent 4. In a highly competitive environment, production
term in other countries is production engineering. methods must be sufficiently flexible so as to
Because a manufactured item has undergone a respond to changing market demands, types of
number of processes in which a piece of raw material products, production rates, production quantities,
has become a useful product, it has a value—defined as and on-time delivery to the customer.
monetary worth or marketable price. For example, as 5. New developments in materials, production meth-
the raw material for ceramics, clay has a certain value ods, and computer integration of both technologi-
as mined. When the clay is used to make a ceramic cut- cal and managerial activities in a manufacturing
ting tool or electrical insulator, value is added to the organization must constantly be evaluated with a
clay. Similarly, a wire coat hanger or a nail has a value view to their appropriate, timely, and economic
over and above the cost of a piece of wire from which it implementation.
is made. Thus manufacturing has the important func-
6. Manufacturing activities must be viewed as a large
tion of adding value.
system, each part of which is interrelated to oth-
Manufacturing may produce discrete products,
ers. Such systems can be now modeled in order to
meaning individual parts, or continuous products.
study the effect of factors such as changes in mar-
Nails, gears, balls for bearings, beverage cans, and
ket demands, product design, and materials. Vari-
engine blocks are examples of discrete parts, even
ous other factors and production methods affect
though they are mass produced at high production
product quality and cost.
rates. On the other hand, a spool of wire, metal or plas-
tic sheet, tubes, hose, and pipe are continuous products, 7. A manufacturing organization must constantly
which may be cut into individual lengths and thus strive for higher levels of quality and productivi-
become discrete parts. ty (defined as the optimum use of all its resources:
Manufacturing is generally a complex activity materials, machines, energy, capital, labor, and
involving a wide variety of resources and activities such technology). Output per employee per hour in all
as: phases must be maximized. Zero-based part re-
jection and waste are also an integral aspect of
productivity.
• Product design
• Purchasing
• Marketing 2 n THE DESIGN PROCESS
• Machinery and tooling The design process for a product first requires a clear
• Manufacturing understanding of the functions and the performance
• Sales expected of that product. The product may be new, or it
• Process planning may be a revised version of an existing product. We all
• Production control have observed, for example, how the design and style
of radios, toasters, watches, automobiles, and washing
• Shipping
machines have changed. The market for a product and
• Materials its anticipated uses must be defined clearly, with the
• Support services assistance of sales personnel, market analysts, and oth-
• Customer service ers in the organization. Product design is a critical

279
 Manufacturing Design and Processes

activity because it has been estimated that 70 to 80 of would then be forwarded to other departments in the
the cost of product development and manufacture is organization, such as materials departments where, for
determined at the initial design stages. example, particular alloys and vendor sources would be
Traditionally, design and manufacturing activities identified. The specifications would then be sent to a
have taken place sequentially rather than concurrently manufacturing department where the detailed draw-
or simultaneously (Fig. 1a). Designers would spend ings would be reviewed and processes selected for effi-
considerable effort and time in analyzing components cient production. While this approach seems logical
and preparing detailed part drawings; these drawings and straightforward, in practice it has been found to be
extremely wasteful of resources.

n FIGURE 1 n Design and manufacturing activities traditionally have taken place sequentially rather than concurrently. With CAM, the
design process can work simultaneously with the manufacturing process.

(a) (b)

Definition of product need;

marketing information

Market

Conceptual design and evaluation;

feasibility study

Design analysis; codes / standards review; Specification

physical and analytical models
ITERATIONS
Computer-aided
Prototype production; testing design
and evaluation (CAD)
Concept design
DESIGN

Production drawings;
MAIN

FLOW

instruction manuals

Material specification; process Computer-aided Detail design

and equipment selection; safety review manufacturing and
process planning
(CAM and CAPP)

Pilot production

Manufacture
Production
Computer-integrated
manufacturing
(CIM)
Inspection and quality assurance
Sell

Packaging; marketing and

sales literature

Product

280
 Manufacturing Design and Processes

In theory, a product can flow from one department distribution, use, and its ultimate disposal and recy-
in an organization to another and directly to the mar- cling) are considered simultaneously. The basic goals
ketplace, but in practice there are usually difficulties of concurrent engineering are to minimize product
encountered. For example, a manufacturing engineer design and engineering changes and the time and costs
may wish to taper the flange on a part to improve its involved in taking the product from design concept to
castability, or a different alloy may be desirable, thus production and introduction of the product into the
necessitating a repeat of the design analysis stage to marketplace.
ensure that the product will still function satisfactorily. The philosophy of life cycle engineering requires
These iterations, also shown in Fig. 1a, are certainly that the entire life of a product be considered in the
wasteful of resources but, more importantly, of time. design stage (i.e., the design, production, distribution,
There is a great desire, originally driven by the con- use and disposal/recycling must be considered simul-
sumer electronics industry, to bring products to market taneously). Thus a well-designed product is functional
as quickly as possible. The rationale is that products (design stage), well manufactured (production), pack-
introduced early enjoy a greater percentage of the mar- aged so that it safely arrives to the end user or cus-
ket and hence profits, and have a longer life before tomer (distribution), functions effectively for its
obsolescence (clearly a concern with consumer elec- intended life and has components which can be easily
tronics). For these reasons, concurrent engineering, also replaced for maintenance or repair (use), and can be
called simultaneous engineering, has come to the fore. disassembled so that components can be recycled
A more modern product development approach is (disposal).
shown in Fig. 1b. While there is a general product Although the concept of concurrent engineering
flow from market analysis to design to manufacturing, appears to be logical and efficient, its implementation
there are recognized iterations which occur in the can take considerable time and effort when those using
process. The main difference to the more modern it either do not work as a team or fail to appreciate its
approach is that all disciplines are involved in the early real benefits. It is apparent that for concurrent engi-
design stages, so that the iterations which naturally neering to succeed it must:
occur result in less wasted effort and lost time. A key to
the approach is the now well-recognized importance of a. Have the full support of the upper management,
communication between and within disciplines. That is, b. Have multifunctional and interactive teamwork,
while there must be communication between engineer- including support groups, and
ing and marketing and service functions, so too must c. Utilize all available technologies.
there be avenues of interactions between engineering
sub-disciplines, for example, design for manufacture, There are numerous examples of the benefits of
design recyclability, and design for safety. concurrent engineering. An automotive company, for
The design process begins with the development of example, has reduced the number of components in an
an original product concept. An innovative approach engine by 30%, and as a result has decreased its weight
to design is highly desirable—and even essential—at by 25% and cut manufacturing time by 50%. The con-
this stage for the product to be successful in the mar- current engineering concept can be implemented not
ketplace. Innovative approaches can also lead to major only in large organizations but in smaller companies as
savings in material and production costs. The design well. This is particularly noteworthy in view of the fact
engineer or product designer must be knowledgeable that 98% of U.S. manufacturing establishments have
of the interrelationships among materials, design and fewer than 500 employees.
manufacturing, as well as the overall economics of the
operation.
4 n CONCURRENT ENGINEERING,
INTEGRATED PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT, AND
3 n CONCURRENT ENGINEERING COMPUTER-SUPPORTED COOPERATIVE WORK
Concurrent engineering is a systematic approach inte- The basic tenet of concurrent engineering is the integra-
grating the design and manufacture of products with tion of methodologies, processors, human beings, tools,
the view of optimizing all elements involved in the life and methods to support product development. Concur-
cycle of the product. Life cycle means that all aspects of rent engineering is multi-disciplinary in that it includes
a product (such as design, development, production, aspects from object-oriented programming, constraint

281
 Manufacturing Design and Processes

programming, visual programming, knowledge-based ing of cooperative work. The major difference between
systems, hypermedia, database management systems, CSCW and concurrent engineering is the focus on
and CAD/CAM. development activities. Concurrent engineering focuses
Integrated Product Development (IPD) is a philos- more on information interchange and the creation of
ophy that systematically employs a teaming of function- multiple schemas to support different processes (design,
al disciplines to integrate and concurrently apply all development, test and evaluation, and maintenance).
necessary processes to produce an effective and efficient
product that satisfies the customer’s needs. Benefits of 5 n COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN AND
CE and IPD include 30% to 70% less development time, PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
65% to 90% fewer engineering changes, 20% to 90% less
For both large and small companies, product design
time to market, 200% to 600% higher quality, and 20% to
often involves preparing analytical and physical mod-
110% higher white collar productivity.
els of the product, as an aid to studying factors such as
Concurrent engineering involves the interaction of
forces, stresses, deflections, and optimal part shape. The
diverse groups of individuals who may be scattered over
necessity for such models depends on product com-
a wide geographic range. To enable effective and com-
plexity. Today, constructing and studying analytical
plete communication among them, there are certain
models is simplified through the use of computer-aided
technological concepts that must also become organized
design (CAD), engineering (CAE), and manufacturing
into concurrent layers. Distributed information sharing
(CAM) techniques.
and collaborative/cooperative work are important tech-
Computer-aided design (CAD) allows the designer
niques to maintain or exceed the current level of soft-
to conceptualize objects more easily without having to
ware development productivity. Concurrent engineering
make costly illustrations, models, or prototypes. These
takes advantage of shared information and allows simul-
systems are now capable of rapidly and completely
taneous focus on different phases of the software devel-
analyzing designs, from a simple bracket to complex
opment life cycle. Many existing World Wide Web
structures. For example, the two-engine Boeing 777
(www) capabilities can support a wide area of concur-
passenger airplane was designed completely by com-
rent engineering environments.
puter (paperless design) with AutoCAD 2000 worksta-
For a concurrent engineering approach to be effec-
tions linked to eight computers (Fig. 2). The airplane
tive, though, there must exist a strong level of commu-
was constructed directly from the CAD/CAM software
nication between the developers and the end-users.
developed, and no prototypes or mockups were built,
The customer is both internal and external to the
unlike previous models.
development process. By paying attention to all aspects
of design at each phase, errors are detected prior to
6 n COMPUTER-AIDED ENGINEERING
being implemented in the product. This integrated
ALLOWS FOR FUTURE MODIFICATION
design system must include a strong information shar-
ing system, an iterative process of redesigns and modi- Using computer-aided engineering, the performance
fication, trade-off analysis for design optimization, and of structures subjected to static or fluctuating loads
documentation of all parts of the design.
Much research has been done in the area of com- n FIGURE 2 n Boeing 777 in Flight. Courtesy of Boeing Co.
puter-supported cooperative work (CSCW); group
decisions support systems (GDSS), calendar manager,
group authoring tools, electronic meeting rooms, and
videoconferencing are just some examples of CSCW.
There are similarities between concurrent engi-
neering and CSCW as both fields are multi-disciplinary
and focus on the concept of group-derived solution to
problems. Although the initial work in each field
emphasizes the different aspects of group work, an
overlap of concepts and methodologies occurs. Trans-
ferring techniques from the CSCW domain to the con-
current engineering domain may present new methods
for distributed development and enhance understand-

282
 Manufacturing Design and Processes

and various temperatures can now be simulated, ana- Tests of prototypes must be designed to simulate as
lyzed, and tested efficiently, accurately, and more closely as possible the conditions under which the prod-
quickly than ever. The information developed can be uct is to be used. These include environmental condi-
stored, retrieved, displayed, printed, and transferred tions such as temperature and humidity, as well as the
anywhere in the organization. Designs can be opti- effects of vibration and repeated use and misuse of the
mized and modifications can be made directly and product. Computer-aided engineering techniques are
easily at any time. now capable of comprehensively and rapidly perform-
ing such simulations. During this stage, modifications in
the original design, materials selected, or production
7 n COMPUTER-AIDED ENGINEERING LINKS methods may be necessary. After this phase has been
ALL PHASES OF MANUFACTURING completed, appropriate process plans, manufacturing
Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) involves all methods (Table 1), equipment, and tooling are select-
phases of manufacturing by utilizing and processing ed with the cooperation of manufacturing engineers,
further the large amount of information on materials process planners, and others involved in production.
and processes collected and stored in the organiza-
tion’s database. Computers now assist manufacturing 9 n DESIGN FOR MANUFACTURE, ASSEMBLY,
engineers and others in organizing tasks such as pro- DISASSEMBLY, AND SERVICE
gramming numerical control of machines; program-
ming robots for material handling and assembly; As we have seen, design and manufacturing must be
designing tools, dies, and fixtures; and maintaining intimately interrelated; they should never be viewed as
quality control. separate disciplines or activities. Each part or compo-
On the basis of the models developed using the nent of a product must be designed so that it not only
above-mentioned techniques, the product designer meets design requirements and specifications, but also
selects and specifies the final shape and dimensions of can be manufactured economically and efficiently. This
the product, its dimensional accuracy and surface fin- approach improves productivity and allows a manufac-
ish, and the materials to be used. The selection of turer to remain competitive.
materials is often made with the advice and coopera- This broad view has become recognized as the area
tion of materials engineers, unless the design engineer of design for manufacture (DFM). It is a comprehen-
is also experienced and qualified in this area. An sive approach to production of goods and integrates
important design consideration is how a particular the design process with materials, manufacturing meth-
component is to be assembled into the final product. ods, process planning, assembly, testing, and quality
Lift the hood of your car and observe how hundreds of assurance. Effectively implementing design for manu-
components are put together in a limited space. facture requires that designers have a fundamental
understanding of the characteristics, capabilities, and
limitations of materials, manufacturing processes, and
related operations, machinery, and equipment. This
8 n THE ROLE OF PROTOTYPES AND RAPID knowledge includes characteristics such as variability
PROTOTYPING IN PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT in machine performance, and dimensional accuracy
The next step in the production process is to make and and surface finish of the workpiece, processing time,
test a prototype, that is, an original working model of and the effect of processing method on part quality.
the product. An important development is rapid proto- Designers and product engineers must be able to
typing, which relies on CAD/CAM and various manu- assess the impact of design modifications on manufac-
facturing techniques (using metallic or nonmetallic turing process selection, assembly, inspection, tools and
materials) to quickly produce prototypes in the form dies, and product cost. Establishing quantitative rela-
of a solid physical model of a part and at low cost. For tionships is essential in order to optimize the design for
example, prototyping new automotive components by ease of manufacturing and assembly at minimum prod-
traditional methods of shaping, forming, machining, uct cost (also called producibility). Computer-aided
etc. costs hundreds of millions of dollars a year; some design, engineering, manufacturing, and process plan-
components may take a year to produce. Rapid proto- ning techniques, using powerful computer programs,
typing can cut these costs as well as development times have become indispensable to those conducting such
significantly. These techniques are being advanced fur- analysis. New developments include expert systems,
ther so that they can be used for low-volume economi- which have optimization capabilities, thus expediting
cal production of actual parts. the traditional iterative process in design optimization.

283
 Manufacturing Design and Processes

TABLE 1 n Shapes and Some Common Methods of Production.

Shape of Feature Production Method

Flat surfaces Rolling, planing, broaching, milling, shaping, grinding
Parts with cavities End milling, electrical-discharge machining, electrochemical machining,
ultrasonic machining, casting
Parts with sharp features Permanent mold casting, machining, grinding, fabricating,
powder metallurgy
Thin hollow shapes Slush casting, electroforming, fabricating
Tubular shapes Extrusion, drawing, roll forming, spinning, centrifugal casting
Tubular parts Rubber forming, expanding with hydraulic pressure, explosive forming,
spinning
Curvature on thin sheets Stretch forming, peen forming, fabricating, assembly
Opening in thin sheets Blanking, chemical blanking, photochemical blanking
Cross-sections Drawing, extruding, shaving, turning, centerless grinding
Square edges Fine blanking, machining, shaving, belt grinding
Small holes Laser, electrical discharge machining, electrochemical machining
Surface textures Knurling, wire brushing, grinding, belt grinding, shot blasting, etching,
deposition
Detailed surface feature Coining, investment casting, permanent-mold casting, machining
Threaded parts Thread cutting, thread rolling, thread grinding, chasing
Very large parts Casting, forging, fabricating, assembly
Very small parts Investment casting, machining, etching, powder metallurgy,
nanofabrication, micromachining

After individual parts have been manufactured, assembly times and costs are minimized while main-
they have to be assembled into a product. Assembly is taining product integrity and performance; the system
an important phase of the overall manufacturing oper- also improves the product’s ease of disassembly. The
ation and requires consideration of the ease, speed, and trend now is to combine design for manufacture and
cost of putting parts together. Also, many products design for assembly into the more comprehensive
must be designed so that disassembly is possible, design for manufacture and assembly (DFMA) which
enabling the products to be taken apart for mainte- recognizes the inherent interrelationships between
nance, servicing, or recycling of their components. design and manufacturing.
Because assembly operations can contribute signifi- There are several methods of assembly, such as
cantly to product cost, design for assembly (DFA) as using fasteners, adhesives, or by welding, soldering,
well as design for disassembly are now recognized as and brazing, each with its own characteristics and
important aspects of manufacturing. Typically, a prod- requiring different operations. The use of a bolt and
uct that is easy to assemble is also easy to disassemble. nut, for example, requires preparation of holes that
The latest trend now includes design for service, ensur- must match in location and size. Hole generation
ing that individual parts or sub-assemblies in a product requires operations such as drilling or punching, which
are easy to reach and service. take additional time, require separate operations, and
Methodologies and computer software (CAD) produce scrap. On the other hand, products assembled
have been developed for DFA utilizing 3D conceptual with bolts and nuts can be taken apart and reassem-
designs and solid models. In this way, subassembly and bled with relative ease.

284
 Manufacturing Design and Processes

Graphics
Spotlight Digital Factory: Quick Production Planning
Mercedes-Benz Passenger Cars Production Planning a step that makes it possible to create digital process and
(PP) intends to cut planning times by up to 50 percent in building data mush faster during the planning phase.
order to be able to react even more rapidly to changed Experts can thus address issues such as how a part that
customer preferences. Conventional planning methods are currently only exists as a CAD diagram can best be fitted
not suitable for achieving this goal, and Emmerich Schiller, at all. One of the key goals here is to shorten the devel-
project manager for Digital Factories at PP, has therefore opment time for a passenger car model to less than three
introduced new approaches. These digitally network indi- years from the drawing up of specifications to the start of
vidual steps within the production planning process and series production. “To achieve this goal, Mercedes-Benz
link them up to development and purchasing departments, Production Planning has set up the following objective for
the production plants, and sales units in the form of work- the year 2005: No production plant will be planned, built,
flows. Digital planning allows different solutions to be or operated without having a solid digital foundation,”
quickly compared, thus enabling the most time-optimized says Schiller.
method for installing components to be determined.
This allows development engineers to send digital
geometric data of a new vehicle to production planners— Courtesy of DaimlerChrysler AG.

(a) (b)

Parts can also be assembled with adhesives. This such as the complexity of the product, the number of
method, which is being used extensively in aircraft and parts to be assembled, the protection required to pre-
automobile production, does not require holes. How- vent damage or scratching of finished surfaces of the
ever, surfaces to be assembled must match properly parts, and the relative costs of labor and machinery
and be clean because joint strength is adversely affect- required for automated assembly.
ed by the presence of contaminants such as dirt, dust,
oil, and moisture. Unlike mechanical fastening, adhe-
sively joined components, as well as those that are 10 n MODELING FOR ASSEMBLY
welded, are not usually designed to be taken apart and With ever-increasing plant costs, manufacturers are
reassembled, hence are not suitable for the important always looking for ways to cut their manufacturing and
purposes of recycling individual parts in the product. materials costs. One way to avoid increased costs is not to
Parts may be assembled by hand or by automatic retool their factories for every new or revised product.
equipment and robots. The choice depends on factors Retooling costs money and down time. Manufacturers

285
 Manufacturing Design and Processes

look to their designers and engineers to keep manufac- database is then stored on your computer, on a server,
turing costs in check. One way of accomplishing this is to or on a network. If the parts are modeled properly, you
model or design new or revised products for the existing should be able to use the database to interface directly
production line. The engineers can use modeling for with computer-aided manufacturing systems to create
assembly techniques for both new and updated products, molds, machined parts, dies, and anything else that may
thereby saving the manufacturer both money and time. need fabrication. Today’s modeling software not only
Using software programs such as Pro/ENGI- allows you keep track of your database, but also lets you
NEER or SolidWorks, the engineer, designer, or devel- check to see if individual parts will interface correctly in
oper can update and modify their assembly drawings to the assembly. Variations in manufacturing criteria can
fit changing criteria such as product or material easily be evaluated using the 3D solid models, and parts
changes, modifications to production or assembly can either be rejected or accepted based on their assem-
processes, or design changes, just to name a few. bly success. See Figure 4 for an example of an assem-
Through the use of such software programs, engi- bly diagram for sunglasses as an exploded view.
neers can quickly update product designs, but also initi-
ate the needed changes to all levels of production. For
example, Figure 3 illustrates how quickly an engineer 11 n MATERIAL SELECTION
using Pro/E can change the pattern of bolts and holes An ever-increasing variety of materials is now avail-
from four to six automatically if the revision is requested. able, each having its own characteristics, applications,
By using concurrent engineering methods, such a change advantages, and limitations. The following are the gen-
not only can be implemented on the factory floor, but eral types of materials used in manufacturing today
other departments involved with such a change would either individually or in combination.
automatically be alerted to this change. This is an
extremely simplified example, but illustrates how such • Ferrous metals: carbon, alloy, stainless, and tool
software programs can aid in modeling for assembly. and die steels.
(See the Graphics Spotlight box for a further discussion • Nonferrous metals: aluminum, magnesium, cop-
of one company’s use of modeling for assembly.) per, nickel, titanium, superalloys, refractory met-
Using 3D modelers such as Pro-E or SolidWorks als, beryllium, zirconium, low-melting alloys, and
lets you build a database of the product’s design. This precious metals.

Pattern of four holes

Mate
Insert

Modify number
of instances to 6

The number of bolts

automatically follows
the number of holes
n FIGURE 3 n Modifying a Pattern is Easy Using Pro/E.
The number of instances (holes) of the pattern determines the
number of components (bolts) to be assembled. Therefore, if
you modify the number of instances (holes) in the pattern, the
number of required components (bolts) is updated.

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 Manufacturing Design and Processes

n FIGURE 4 n An Exploded View of an Assembly Diagram. These subassembly diagrams would be combined to create the final design.
Courtesy of SolidWorks Corp.

• Plastics: thermoplastics, thermosets, and elastomers. neer and designer with new designer and assembly chal-
• Ceramics, glass ceramics, glasses, graphite, dia- lenges. Ceramics have also become a hot item as they
mond, and diamond-like materials. are used to make such things as computer chips, spark
• Composite materials: reinforced plastics, metal- plugs, etc. Working with such delicate material presents
matrix and ceramic-matrix composites. These are the engineer/designer with a wide range of potential
also known as engineered materials. design and implementation challenges.
• Nanomaterials, shape-memory alloys, amorphous
12 n PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
alloys, superconductors, and various other materi-
als with unique properties. When selecting materials for products, we first consid-
er their mechanical properties: strength, toughness,
As new materials are developed, the selection of ductility, hardness, elasticity, fatigue, and creep. The
appropriate materials becomes even more challenging. strength-to-weight and stiffness-to-weight ratios of
Aerospace structures, as well as products such as sport- material are also important, particularly for aerospace
ing goods, have been at the forefront of new material and automotive applications. Aluminum, titanium, and
usage. The trend has been to use more titanium and reinforced plastics, for example, have higher ratios
composites for the airframe of commercial aircraft, than steels and cast irons. The mechanical properties
with a gradual decline of the use of aluminum and specified for a product and its components should, of
steel. There are constantly shifting trends in the usage course, be for the conditions under which the product
of materials in all products, driven principally by eco- is expected to function. We then consider the physical
nomic considerations as well as other considerations. properties of density, specific heat, thermal expansion
For instance, plastics are now widely used in numer- and conductivity, melting point, and electrical and
ous applications for such items as childre’s toys, automo- magnetic properties.
tive and electrical parts, furniture, dinnerware, telephone Chemical properties also play a significant role in
and computer equipment, etc. because of their durability hostile as well as normal environments. Oxidation, cor-
and lower manufacturing costs. Plastics present the engi- rosion, general degradation of properties, toxicity, and

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TABLE 2 n General Manufacturing Characteristics of Various Alloys.

Alloy Castability Weldability Machinability

Aluminum E F G-E
Copper F-G F F-G
Gray cast iron E D G
White cast iron G VP VP
Nickel F F F
Steels F E F
Zinc E D E
E, excellent; G, good; F, fair; D, difficult; VP, very poor

flammability of materials are among the important fac- Reliability of supply, as well as demand, affects
tors to be considered. In some commercial airline dis- cost. Most countries import numerous raw materials
asters, for example, many deaths have been caused by that are essential for production. The United States, for
toxic fumes from burning nonmetallic materials in the example, imports the majority of raw materials such as
aircraft cabin. natural rubber, diamond, cobalt, titanium, chromium,
Manufacturing properties of materials determine aluminum, and nickel from other countries. The broad
whether they can be cast, formed, machined, welded, political implications of such reliance on other coun-
and heat treated with relative ease (Table 2). The tries are self-evident.
method(s) used to process materials to the desired Different costs are involved in processing materi-
shapes can adversely affect the product’s final proper- als by different methods. Some methods require expen-
ties, service life, and cost. sive machinery, others require extensive labor, and still
others require personnel with special skills, a high level
of education, or specialized training.
13 n COST AND AVAILABILITY
OF MATERIALS 14 n APPEARANCE, SERVICE LIFE,
Cost and availability of raw and processed materials AND RECYLING
and manufactured components are major concerns in The appearance of materials after they have been man-
manufacturing. Competitively, the economic aspects ufactured into products influences their appeal to the
of material selection are as important as the techno- consumer. Color, feel, and surface texture are charac-
logical considerations of properties and characteris- teristics that we all consider when making a decision
tics of materials. about purchasing a product.
If raw or processed materials or manufactured Time- and service-dependent phenomena such as
components are not available in the desired shapes, wear, fatigue, creep, and dimensional stability are
dimensions and quantities, substitutes and/or addi- important. These phenomena can significantly affect a
tional processing will be required, which can con- product’s performance and, if not controlled, can lead
tribute significantly to product cost. For example, if to total failure of the product. Similarly, compatibility
we need a round bar of a certain diameter and it is not of materials used in a product is important. Friction
available in standard form, then we have to purchase and wear, corrosion, and other phenomena can shorten
a larger rod and reduce its diameter by some means, a product’s life or cause it to fail prematurely. An
such as machining, drawing through a die, or grinding. example is galvanic corrosion between mating parts
It should be noted, however, that a product design can made of dissimilar metals.
be modified to take advantage of standard dimen- Recycling or proper disposal of materials at the end of
sions of raw materials, thus avoiding additional manu- their useful service lives has become increasingly impor-
facturing costs. tant in an age when we are more conscious of preserving

288
 Manufacturing Design and Processes

resources and maintaining a clean and healthy environ- Part

ment. Note, for example, the use of biodegradable packag-
ing materials or recyclable glass bottles and aluminum
beverage cans.The proper treatment and disposal of toxic
wastes and materials are also a crucial consideration.

15 n MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
Before preparing a drawing for the production of a part,
the drafter/designer should consider what manufacturing
processes are to be used. These processes will determine
the representation of the detailed features of the part, the Casting
choice of dimensions, and the machining of processing
n FIGURE 5 n This Casting Mold Is an Example of a Permanent
accuracy. Many processes are used to produce parts and
Mold.
shapes (Table 1), and there is usually more than one
method of manufacturing a part from a given material.The
broad categories of processing methods for materials are: d. Joining: Welding, brazing, soldering, diffusion
bonding, adhesive bonding, and mechanical join-
a. Casting: Expendable molds (i.e., sand casting)
ing (Fig. 8a-b).
and permanent molds (Fig. 5).
e. Finishing: Honing, lapping, polishing, burnishing,
b. Forming and shaping: Rolling, forging, extrusion,
deburring, surface treating, coating, and plating.
drawing, sheet forming, powder metallurgy, and
molding (Fig. 6a-d). Selection of a particular manufacturing process, or
c. Machining: Turning, boring, drilling, milling, plan- a series of processes, depends not only on the shape to
ing, shaping, broaching, grinding, ultrasonic be produced but also on many other factors pertaining
machining; chemical, electrical, and electrochemi- to material properties (Table 2). Brittle and hard
cal machining; and high-energy beam machining materials, for example, cannot be shaped easily, where-
(Fig. 7a-g). as they can be cast or machined by several methods.

(a) (b)

Rod or wire drawing

Rolling

(c) (d)

Blank Drawn cup

Deep Drawing n FIGURE 6 n Examples of Forming and

Extrusion Shaping Methods.

289
 Manufacturing Design and Processes

(a)

Turning

(b) (c) (d)

Drilling

Milling

(e) (f) Wire (g)

Dielectric
supply

Broaching
Grinding

Wire electrical-discharge
machining

n FIGURE 7 n Examples of Different Types of Machining.

(a) (b) Butt joint

Lap
joint

Joining

n FIGURE 8 n Example of Joining Method.

290
 Manufacturing Design and Processes

100 mm
(4 in.)

(a) Casting (b) Stamping

n FIGURE 9 n Two Steel Mounting Brackets (a) Made by

Casting, (b) Made by Stamping.

The manufacturing process usually alters the proper-

ties of materials. Metals that are formed at room tem-
perature, for example, become stronger, harder, and
less ductile than they were before processing.
Two steel mounting brackets are shown in Fig. 9,
one made by casting, and the other by stamping of sheet
metal. Note that there are some differences in the designs,
although the parts are basically alike. Each of these two n FIGURE 10 n Cutting Sheet Metal with a Laser Beam Courtesy
of Rofin-Sinar, Inc., and Manufacturing Engineering Magazine, Society of Manufacturing
manufacturing processes has its own advantages and limi-
Engineers.
tations, as well as production rates and manufacturing cost.
Manufacturing engineers are constantly being
not be formed easily and economically, whereas they
challenged to find new solutions to manufacturing
may be cast or fabricated from individual pieces.
problems and cost reduction. For a long time, for exam-
Tolerances and surface finish obtained in hot-
ple, sheet metal parts were cut and fabricated by tradi-
working operations cannot be as good as those ob-
tional tools, punches, and dies. Although they are still
tained in cold-working (room temperature) operations
widely used, some of these operations are now being
because dimensional changes, warpage, and surface oxi-
replaced by laser cutting techniques (Fig. 10). With
dation occur during processing at elevated tempera-
advances in computer technology, we can automatical-
tures. Some casting processes produce a better surface
ly control the path of the laser, thus increasing the
finish than others because of the different types of mold
capability for producing a wide variety of shapes accu-
materials used and their surface finish.
rately, repeatedly, and economically.
The size and shape of manufactured products vary
widely. For example, the main landing gear for a twin-
16 n DIMENSIONAL ACCURACY engine, 400-passenger Boeing 777 jetliner is 4.3 m (14
AND SURFACE FINISH ft) high, with three axles and six wheels, made by forg-
Size, thickness, and shape complexity of the part have a ing and machining processes (Fig. 2). At the other
major bearing on the manufacturing process selected extreme is the generation of a 0.05-mm (0.002-in.)
to produce it. Flat parts with thin cross-sections, for diameter hole at one end of a 0.35-mm (0.014-in.)
example, cannot be cast properly. Complex parts can- diameter needle (Fig. 11), using a process called

n FIGURE 11 n A 0.05-mm Hole

Produced in a Needle, Using the Electrical-
Discharge Machining Process. Courtesy of Derata
Corporation.

291
 Manufacturing Design and Processes

Human Hair dent that to dimension correctly, the engineering

designer must have at least a working knowledge of the
common measuring tools. The machinists’ steel rule, or
scale, is a commonly used measuring tool in the shop
(Fig. 13a). The smallest division on one scale of this
rule is 0, and such a scale is used for common fractional
dimensions. Also, many machinists’ rules have a deci-
mal scale with the smallest division of .010, which is
used for dimensions given on the drawing by the deci-
mal system. For checking the nominal size of outside
diameters, the outside spring caliper and steel scale are
used, as shown in Figs. 13b and 13c. Likewise, the
inside spring caliper is used for checking nominal
dimensions, as shown in Figs. 13d and 13e. Anoth-
er use for the outside caliper (Fig. 13f) is to check
the nominal distance between holes (center to center).
The combination square may be used for checking
n FIGURE 12 n Microscopic Gear with a Diameter on the Order height (Fig. 13g) and for a variety of other measure-
of 100 mm, Made by a Special Etching Process. Courtesy of Wisconsin ments. Measuring devices are also available that have
Center for Applied Microelectronics, University of Wisconsin–Madison. metric scales.
For dimensions that require more precise mea-
electrical-discharge machining. The hole is burr-free surements, the vernier caliper (Figs. 13h and 13j)
and has a location accuracy of ;0.003 mm (0.0001 in.). or the micrometer caliper (Fig. 13k) may be used. It
Another small-scale manufacturing example is is common practice to check measurements to 0.025
given in Fig. 12, which shows microscopic gears as mm (.0010) with these instruments, and in some
small as 100 m (0.004 in.) in diameter. These gears have instances they are used to measure directly to 0.0025
possible applications such as powering microrobots to mm (.00010).
repair human cells, microknives in surgery, and camera Many of the measuring devices discussed here have
shutters for precise photography. The gears are made been supplemented with newer, more sophisticated tools.
by a special electroplating and x-ray etching technique Computerized measuring devices have broadened the
of metal plates coated with a polymer film. The center range of accuracy previously attainable. Figure 14
hole in these gears is so small that a human hair cannot illustrates an ultraprecision electronic digital readout
pass through it. Such small-scale operations are called micrometer and caliper that contain integral micro-
nanotechnology and nanofabrication (“nano” meaning processors. In addition to the hand-held printer/recorder
one billionth). providing a hard-copy output of measurements, the
Ultraprecision manufacturing techniques and printer also calculates and lists statistical mean, mini-
machinery are now being developed and are coming mum, and maximum values, as well as standard deviation.
into more common use. For machining mirrorlike sur- Most measuring devices in manufacturing are
faces, for example, the cutting tool is a very sharp dia- adjustable so they can each be employed to measure any
mond tip and the equipment has very high stiffness size within their range of designed usage. There is also a
and must be operated in a room where the tempera- need for measuring devices designed to be used for only
ture is controlled within 1° C. Highly sophisticated one particular dimension. These are called fixed gages
techniques such as molecular-beam epitaxy and scan- because their setting is fixed and cannot be changed.
ning-tunneling engineering are being implemented to A common type of fixed gage consists of two care-
obtain accuracies on the order of the atomic lattice fully finished rounds. One might think of each of these
(0.1 nm; 10-8 in.). rounds as being 25.4 mm (1.000) in diameter and 38 mm
(1.5000) long. Let one of these diameters be slightly larg-
er than the other. One can see that, for a certain range of
17 n MEASURING DEVICES USED hole sizes, the smaller round will enter the hole but the
IN MANUFACTURING larger will not. If the larger round diameter is made
Although the machinist uses various measuring slightly greater than the largest acceptable hole diameter
devices depending on the kind of dimensions (fraction- and if the diameter of the smaller round is made slightly
al, decimal, or metric) shown on the drawing, it is evi- less than the smallest acceptable hole diameter, then the

292
 Manufacturing Design and Processes

n FIGURE 13 n Measuring Devices Used by the Machinist.

n FIGURE 14 n Computerized Measurement System. Courtesy of large round will never go into any acceptable hole but the
Fred V. Fowler Co., Inc. small round will go into any acceptable hole.A fixed gage
consisting of two such rounds is called a “go–no go” gage.
There are, of course, many kinds of “go–no go” gages.
The subject of gages and gaging is a specialized
field and involves so many technical considerations
that many large companies employ highly trained
workers to attend to nothing but this one feature of
their operations.

18 n OPERATIONAL AND MANUFACTURING

COSTS
The design and cost of tooling, the lead time
required to begin production, and the effect of
workpiece material on tool and die life are major

293
 Manufacturing Design and Processes

considerations. Depending on its size, shape, and 20 n NET-SHAPE MANUFACTURING

expected life, the cost of tooling can be substan- Since not all manufacturing operations produce finished
tial. For example, a set of steel dies for stamping parts, additional operations may be necessary. For exam-
sheet-metal fenders for automobiles may cost ple, a forged part may not have the desired dimensions
about $2 million. or surface finish; thus additional operations such as
For parts made from expensive materials, the machining or grinding may be necessary. Likewise, it
lower the scrap rate, the more economical the pro- may be difficult, impossible, or economically undesir-
duction process will be; thus, every attempt should able to produce a part with holes using just one manu-
be made for zero-base waste. Because it generates facturing process, thus necessitating additional processes
chips, machining may not be more economical than such as drilling. Also, the holes produced by a particular
forming operations, all other factors being the same. manufacturing process may not have the proper round-
Availability of machines and equipment and oper- ness, dimensional accuracy, or surface finish, thus creat-
ating experience within the manufacturing facility are ing a need for additional operations such as honing.
also important cost factors. If they are not available, Finishing operations can contribute significantly
some parts may have to be manufactured by outside to the cost of a product. Consequently, the trend has
firms. Automakers, for example, purchase many parts been for net-shape or near-net-shape manufacturing, in
from outside vendors, or have them made by outside which the part is made as close to the final desired
firms according to their specifications. dimensions, tolerances, surface finish, and specifica-
The number of parts required (quantity) and the tions as possible.Typical examples of such manufactur-
required production rate (pieces per hour) are impor- ing methods are near-net-shape forging and casting of
tant in determining the processes to be used and the parts, stamped sheet-metal parts, injection molding of
economics of production. Beverage cans or transistors, plastics, and components made by powder-metallurgy
for example, are consumed in numbers and at rates techniques.
much higher than telescopes and propellers for ships.
The operation of machinery has significant envi-
ronmental and safety implications. Depending on the 21 n COMPUTER-INTEGRATED
type of operation, some processes adversely affect the MANUFACTURING
environment, such as the use of oil-base lubricants in
hot metalworking processes. Unless properly con- The major goals of automation in manufacturing facili-
trolled, such processes can cause air, water, and noise ties are to integrate various operations to improve pro-
pollution. The safe use of machinery is another impor- ductivity, increase product quality and uniformity,
tant consideration, requiring precautions to eliminate minimize cycle times, and reduce labor costs. Beginning
hazards in the workplace. in the 1940s, automation has accelerated because of
rapid advances in control systems for machines and in
computer technology.
Few developments in the history of manufac-
19 n CONSEQUENCES OF IMPROPER
turing have had a more significant impact than
SELECTION OF MATERIALS AND PROCESSES
computers. Computers are now used in a very broad
Numerous examples of product failure can be traced to range of applications, including control and opti-
improper selection of material or manufacturing mization of manufacturing processes, material han-
processes or improper control of process variables. A dling, assembly, automated inspection and testing of
component or a product is generally considered to products, as well as inventory control and numerous
have failed when: management activities. Beginning with computer
graphics and computer-aided design and manufac-
• It stops functioning (broken shaft, gear, bolt, turing, the use of computers has been extended to
cable, or turbine blade). computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM). Computer-
• It does not function properly or perform within integrated manufacturing is particularly effective
required specification limits (worn bearings, gears, because of its capability for:
tools, and dies).
• It becomes unreliable or unsafe for further use • Responsiveness to rapid changes in market demand
(frayed cable in a winch, crack in a shaft, poor con- and product modification.
nection in a printed-circuit board, or delamination • Better use of materials, machinery, and personnel,
of a reinforced plastic component). and reduced inventory.

294
 Manufacturing Design and Processes

• Better control of production and management of

the total manufacturing operation.
• High-quality products at low cost.

The major applications of computers in manufac-

turing are:

a. Computer numerical control (CNC) is a method

of controlling the movements of machine com-
ponents by direct insertion of coded instructions
in the form of numerical data. Numerical con-
trol was first implemented in the early 1950s and
was a major advance in automation of machines.
b. Adaptive control (AC). The parameters in a
manufacturing process are adjusted automati-
cally to optimize production rate and product
quality, and to minimize cost. Parameters such as
forces, temperatures, surface finish, and dimen-
sions of the part are monitored constantly. If
they move outside the acceptable range, the sys-
tem adjusts the process variables until the para-
meters again fall within the acceptable range.
c. Industrial robots. Introduced in the early 1960s,
industrial robots (Figs. 15 and 16) have been
replacing humans in operations that are repetitive,
boring, and dangerous, thus reducing the possibili-
ty of human error, decreasing variability in prod-
uct quality, and improving productivity. Robots
with sensory perception capabilities are being n FIGURE 15 n Industrial Robots. Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron.
developed (intelligent robots), with movements
that simulate those of humans.
d. Automated handling of materials. Computers duced by classifying them into families, according
have allowed highly efficient handling of materi- to similarities in design and similarities in manu-
als and products in various stages of completion facturing processes to produce the part. In this
(work in progress), such as from storage to way, part designs and process plans can be stan-
machines, from machine to machine, and at the dardized and families of parts can be produced
points of inspection, inventory, and shipment. efficiently and economically.
e. Automated and robotic assembly systems are h. Just-in-time production (JIT). The principal of
replacing costly assembly by operators. Products JIT is that supplies are delivered just in time to be
are designed or redesigned so that they can be used, parts are produced just in time to be made
assembled more easily by machine (Fig. 17). into subassemblies and assemblies, and products
f. Computer-aided process planning (CAPP) is are finished just in time to be delivered to the cus-
capable of improving productivity in a plant by tomer. In this way, inventory-carrying costs are
optimizing process plans, reducing planning costs, low, part defects are detected right away, produc-
and improving the consistency of product quality tivity is increased, and high-quality products are
and reliability. Functions such as cost estimating made at low cost.
and work standards (time required to perform a i. Cellular manufacturing. Cellular manufacturing
certain operation) can also be incorporated into involves workstations, which are manufacturing
the system. cells usually containing several machines and with
g. Group technology (GT). The concept of group a central robot, each performing a different opera-
technology is that parts can be grouped and pro- tion on the part.

295
 Manufacturing Design and Processes

n FIGURE 16 n Robotic Welding on Ford Automobile Assembly Line. Courtesy of Ford Motor Co.

n FIGURE 17 n Automated Manufacturing

System. Courtesy of Cargill Detroit.

296
 Manufacturing Design and Processes

Graphics
Spotlight Digital Polish for Factory Floors
Without question, this has been the decade in which course not. But until the advent of software that can simu-
software moved irrevocably into the industrial designer’s late assembly lines and the movements of the people who
world. In corporate offices across the country, engineers run them, no one really knew a good way to gauge what
have been booting up programs that let them tinker, in they could salvage from an older factory. Now, with software
three dimensions, with every permutation and combination from companies like Tecnomatix Technologies Inc. of Israel,
of a product’s design. Be the item as lowly as a dinner Dassault Systemes of France and Aspen Technology in the
plate or as complex as a Boeing 777 jet, the goal has United States, it is as feasible to design or remodel an entire
always been the same: save time and money in getting plant as it is to reconfigure a car.
products to market. Production engineers in industries as diverse as chem-
It was just a matter of time before engineers would aim icals, automobiles, and aluminum smelting are manipulat-
their computers at designing and refining the assembly ing virtual pictures of their plants and processes to see
lines on which those products are made. Apparently, that whether moving a clamp or adding a new ingredient will
time has come: make existing equipment more productive, or will enable
the same assembly line to skip freely from product to prod-
• These days, before it approves a design for a new car
uct. Some are even testing out a new virtual reality pro-
or van, the Ford Motor Company checks the plan
gram that enables engineers wearing special goggles to
against computer models of its factory floor. Often,
detect problems by “walking through and around” a three-
through subtle changes like relocating a few seams or
dimensional model of their factory designs. The entire rela-
shaving a few millimeters from the length of a fender,
tionship between product design and production
Ford can lop weeks off the time it takes to prepare an
engineering is being turned on its ear. No longer is it
old plant to make a new car.
enough for designers to create products that can be made
• The Dow Chemical Company now uses computers to
and maintained efficiently. Increasingly, management is
simulate its methods for making plastics, running
asking them whether the products can be manufactured
what-if scenarios to fine-tune the temperatures, pres-
with a minimum of retooling or work disruption—and if not,
sures, and rates at which it feeds in raw materials.
whether it is worth giving up a particular feature to wring
Dow can now switch production among 15 different
time and money from the manufacturing process.
grades of plastics in minutes, with almost no wasted
Of course, there is little allure to the time-honored
material. Before computer modeling, the process took
alternative to computer modeling—setting up an actual
two hours and yielded lots of useless byproducts.
assembly line and trouble-shooting it piece by piece. “It’s
• The International Business Machines Corporation, the too risky and expensive to try new tools or methods if you
world’s largest computer maker and an early convert to have to build prototype hardware to test every change,”
factory-simulation software, has learned that its assem- said Rani Agarwal Finstad, director of manufacturing
bly lines can accommodate diverse products of similar math-based systems for GM Powertrain, a manufacturer
size, as long as IBM tweaked its conveyor belts to deliv- of car components that recently used simulation software
er different parts and products to different work areas. to squeeze a month out of the process of programming
One early result: with almost no retooling, IBM expand- robots to make new crankshafts.
ed a plant in Charlotte, NC, that had made only banking The market for simulation software is growing, if slow-
systems to include voice-messaging systems, bar-code ly. Bernard Charles, Dassault’s president, calculates that
readers, and devices to program pacemakers. companies spent $300 million globally for software that
“No one wants to build a new assembly line, if they can simulates manufacturing operations last year. That is noth-
re-use the one they have,” said Frank Lerchenmuller, an IBM ing compared with the $4 billion he estimates that industry
vice president for engineering technology solutions. Of spent on product-design software, but “there’s a growing
(continues on next page)

297
 Manufacturing Design and Processes

understanding that computer simulations can replace cookie packs for vending machines.
physical mockups of plants the same way they’ve Various forces are driving the trend toward computer
replaced mockups of products,” Mr. Charles said. Appar- modeling. For one thing, computer technology has finally
ently, IBM agrees; it is marketing Dassault’s factory-simu- caught up with manufacturing pipe dreams. “Only recently
lation software in the United States. have computers been powerful enough to quickly simulate
Testimonials to factory modeling are easy to find. The what happens if you change something in a chemical reac-
engineers who design the automation systems sold by tor,” said David E. Waite, Dow’s manufacturing manager
Rockwell International have used simulation to design for information technology.
assembly lines that can handle different-sized items, Economic and marketplace forces are at work, too.
enabling factories to produce small batches of products Companies that spent much of the 1990’s paring ancillary
cost-effectively. “We’re headed to where modeling will let product lines and work forces are now trimming capital
us design plants that can efficiently build a single-lot size investment, lest shareholders think they have lost their
of one item,” said Randall L. Freeman, vice president for cost-cutting touch. Consumers, meanwhile, have grown
global marketing at Rockwell Automation. increasingly picky and expect to be able to choose among
Computer simulations of the tread-etching process myriad colors, sizes, and shapes for almost any product.
have enabled tire makers like Goodyear Tire and Rubber to That means that manufacturers must mix and match parts
switch production from one type of tire to another in about as the orders come in. And that, in turn, means having tools
an hour—a process that previously took an entire work that can respond to electronic commands to switch paint
shift. And simulations have shown cookie companies like wells, move clamps, or change packaging and labels.
the Nabisco unit of RJR Nabisco Holdings how to use the
Adapted from “Digital Polish for Factory Floors; Software Simulations Head
same packaging machines to make five-pound bags for to Better Assembly Lines,” by Claudia H. Deutsch, The New York Times,
price clubs, one-pound bags for grocery stores, and six- March 22, 1999.

j. Flexible manufacturing systems (FMS) integrate problems in machine performance, conducting fi-
manufacturing cells into a large unit, all interfaced nancial planning, and managing a company’s man-
with a central computer. Flexible manufacturing ufacturing strategy.
systems have the highest level of efficiency, sophis-
tication, and productivity in manufacturing.
Although costly, they are capable of producing 22 n SHARED MANUFACTURING
parts randomly and changing manufacturing Although large corporations can afford to implement
sequences on different parts quickly; thus, they can modern technology and take risks, smaller companies
meet rapid changes in market demand for various generally have difficulty in doing so with their limited
types of products. personnel, resources, and capital. More recently, the con-
k. Expert systems, which are basically intelligent cept of shared manufacturing has been proposed. This
computer programs, are being developed rapidly consists of a regional or nationwide network of manufac-
with capabilities to perform tasks and solve diffi- turing facilities with state-of-the-art equipment for train-
cult real-life problems as human experts would. ing, prototype development and small-scale production
l. Artificial intelligence (AI) involves the use of ma- runs, and is available to help small companies develop
chines and computers to replace human intelli- products that compete in the global marketplace.
gence. Computer-controlled systems are becoming In view of these advances and their potential, some
capable of learning from experience and making experts have envisaged the factory of the future.
decisions that optimize operations and minimize Although highly controversial and viewed as unrealistic
costs. Artificial neural networks, which are designed by some, this is a system in which production will take
to simulate the thought processes of the human place with little or no direct human intervention. The
brain, have the capability of modeling and simu- human role is expected to be confined to supervision,
lating production facilities, monitoring and con- maintenance, and upgrading of machines, computers,
trolling manufacturing processes, diagnosing and software.

298
 Manufacturing Design and Processes

KEY WORDS
ADAPTIVE CONTROL COMPUTER-INTEGRATED FORMING NET-SHAPE
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE MANUFACTURING GROUP TECHNOLOGY MANUFACTURING

ARTIFICIAL NEURAL COMPUTER NUMERICAL INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS PRODUCIBILITY

NETWORKS CONTROL PRODUCT COST
JOINING
AUTOMATED ASSEMBLY CONCURRENT ENGINEERING PROTOYTPES
JUST-IN-TIME PRODUCTION
AUTOMATED MATERIALS DESIGN FOR MANUFACTURE, RAPID PROTOTYPING
LIFE CYCLE ENGINEERING
HANDLING ASSEMBLY, DISASSEMBLY,
ROBOTIC ASSEMBLY
AND SERVICE MACHINING
CASTING SCALE
DIMENSIONAL ACCURACY MANUFACTURING
CELLULAR MANUFACTURING SHAPING
ENGINEERING
EXPERT SYSTEMS
COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN, SHARED MANUFACTURING
FINISHING MICROKNIVES
ENGINEERING, AND
STEEL RULE
MANUFACTURING FIXED GAGES MICROROBOTS
ULTRAPRECISION
COMPUTER-AIDED PROCESS FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING NANOFABRICATION
MANUFACTURING
PLANNING SYSTEMS NANOTECHNOLOGY

CHAPTER SUMMARY
n Modern manufacturing involves product design, selection the designer to conceptualize objects more easily and more
of materials, and selection of processes. The process of cost efficiently.
transforming raw materials into a finished product is called n The selection of appropriate materials is key to successful
the manufacturing process. product development.
n The design process requires a clear understanding of the n Manufacturing processing methods have changed dra-
functions and performance expected of that product. matically over the last few decades. More cost and time
n Concurrent engineering integrates the design process with efficient processes can be implemented using computer-
production to optimize the life cycle of the product. integrated manufacturing.
n Computer-aided design, engineering, and manufacturing are
used to construct and study models (prototypes) allowing

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. List the three important phases in the manufacturing 6. Explain the benefits of rapid prototyping.
process. 7. List four types of materials used in manufacturing today.
2. Define concurrent engineering and explain how it can be
8. List the five broad categories of manufacturing processing.
used to enhance the design and manufacturing process.
9. Give at least two examples of nanotechnology.
3. Define integrated product development and explain
its benefits. 10. List four types of measuring devices.
4. Define computer-supported cooperative work and dis- 11. Give three consequences of improper selection of mate-
cuss its relationship with concurrent engineering. rials and processes.
5. Define modeling for assembly and list at least two bene- 12. List four application of computer-integrated manu-
fits for the modern manufacturer. facturing.

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Dimensioning

From Chapter 11 of Engineering Graphics, Eighth Edition, Frederick E. Giesecke,

Alva Mitchell, Henry Cecil Spencer, Ivan Leroy Hill, Robert Olin Loving, John
Thomas Dygdon, James E. Novak. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Published by Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.
 Dimensioning

OVERVIEW OBJECTIVES
We have all heard of the “rule of thumb.” Actually, at one time an After studying the material in this chapter, you
inch was defined as the width of a thumb, and a foot was simply the should be able to:
length of a man’s foot. In old England, an inch used to be “three 1. Use conventional dimensioning tech-
barley corns, round and dry.” In the time of Noah and the Ark, the niques to describe size and shape accu-
cubit was the length of a man’s forearm, or about 18–. rately on an engineering drawing.
In 1791, France adopted the meter* 11 meter = 39.37–; 2. Create and read a drawing at a specified
1– = 25.4 mm2, from which the decimalized metric system scale.
evolved. In the meantime England was setting up a more accurate 3. Create drawings using metric, engi-
determination of the yard, which was legally defined in 1824 by act neering, and architect scales.
of Parliament. A foot was 31 yard, and an inch was 36 1
yard. From 4. Correctly place dimension lines, exten-
these specifications, graduated rulers, scales, and many types of sion lines, angles, and notes.
measuring devices have been developed to achieve even more accu- 5. Recognize aligned and unidirectional
racy of measurement and inspection. dimensioning systems.
Until this century, common fractions were considered adequate 6. Dimension circles, arcs, and inclined
for dimensions. Then, as designs became more complicated and it surfaces.
became necessary to have interchangeable parts to support mass 7. Apply finish symbols and notes to a
production, more accurate specifications were required, and it drawing.
became necessary to turn to the decimal-inch system or to the SI
system (see §§9 and 10).
Graphical entities on engineering drawings describe shape and
position. Dimensions and notes describe size and necessary manu-
facturing processes if the engineering drawing is to be a complete
instruction for the shop technician. Objects in engineering drawings
are created to scale. Large objects are drawn smaller than life size;
small objects are drawn larger than life size. The ratio of drawn size
to life size is the scale. Dimensions describe the size and location of
features of an object. The correct placement of dimensions is strictly
prescribed by an extensive list of drawing conventions. CAD can
accurately measure the length of a drawn line, but it takes a person
skilled in drawing practices to place dimensions correctly so that
their interpretation is clear and unambiguous.

*In the SI system the meter is now defined as a length equal to the distance traveled by light of
a certain wavelength in a vacuum during a time interval of 1/299,792,458 second.

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 Dimensioning

1 ■ INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS Whenever possible—that is, when there is no conflict

The current rapid growth of worldwide science and with functional dimensioning (§4)—dimensions
commerce has fostered an international system of units should be given that are convenient for the individual
(SI) suitable for measurements in the physical and bio- worker or the production engineer. These dimensions
logical sciences and in engineering. The seven basic should be given so that it will not be necessary to scale
units of measurement are the meter (length), kilogram or assume any dimensions. No dimensions should be
(mass), second (time), ampere (electric current), kelvin specified for points or surfaces that are not accessible
(thermodynamic temperature), mole (amount of sub- to the worker.
stance), and candela (luminous intensity). Dimensions should not be duplicated or super-
The SI system is gradually coming into use in the fluous (§30). Only those needed to produce and inspect
United States, especially by the many multinational the part against the design specifications should be
companies in the chemical, electronic, and mechanical given. Students often mistakenly give the dimensions
industries.A tremendous effort is now under way to con- used to make the drawing. These are not necessarily the
vert all standards of the American National Standards dimensions required. There is much more to the theory
Institute (ANSI) to the SI units in conformity with the of dimensioning, as we will see.
International Standards Organization (ISO) standards.
3 ■ SCALE OF DRAWING
Drawings should be made to scale, and the scale should
2 ■ SIZE DESCRIPTION be indicated in the title block even though the worker
In addition to a complete shape description of an object, is never expected to scale the drawing or print for a
as discussed in previous chapters, a drawing of the design needed dimension.
must also give a complete size description; that is, it must A heavy straight line should be drawn under any
be dimensioned (see ANSI/ASME Y14.5M–1994). dimension that is not to scale, or the abbreviation
The need for interchangeability of parts is the basis NTS (not to scale) should be indicated. This proce-
for the development of modern methods of size dure may be necessary when a change made in a
description. Drawings today must be dimensioned so drawing is not important enough to justify making an
that production personnel in widely separated places entirely new drawing.
can make mating parts that will fit properly when When a drawing is prepared on a CAD system,
brought together for final assembly or when used as agreement should be maintained between the defining
repair or replacement parts by the customer (§26). dimensions, true size, location, and direction in all
The increasing need for precision manufacturing views of the object represented.
and the necessity of controlling sizes for interchange- Many preprinted drawing borders include a note
ability has shifted responsibility for size control to the such as “Do not scale drawing for dimensions.”
designing engineer and the drafter. The production
worker no longer exercises judgment in engineering The Increasing Complexity of Modern Designs Requires the Production
matters, but only in the proper execution of instruc- of Precisely Dimensioned Drawings. Courtesy of Diamond Star Motors.
tions given on the drawings. Therefore, engineers and
designers should be familiar with materials and meth-
ods of construction and with production requirements.
Engineering students and designers should seize every
opportunity to become familiar with the fundamental
manufacturing processes.
A drawing submitted to production should show
the object in its completed condition and should con-
tain all necessary information to bring it to that final
state. Therefore, in dimensioning a drawing, the
designer and the drafter should keep in mind the fin-
ished piece, the production processes required, and,
above all, the function of the part in the total assembly.

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 Dimensioning

■ FIGURE 1 ■ Dimensioning Technique. Dimensions in Millimeters.

4 ■ LEARNING TO DIMENSION adversely affecting the functional dimensioning. A

Dimensions are given in the form of linear distances, “geometric breakdown” (§20) will assist the be-
angles, or notes regardless of the dimensioning units being ginner in selecting dimensions. In most cases di-
used. The ability to dimension properly in millimeters, mensions thus determined will be functional, but
decimal inch, or fractional inch requires the following. this method should be accompanied by a logical
analysis of the functional requirements.
1. The student must learn the technique of dimen-
sioning: the character of the lines, the spacing of 5 ■ LINES USED IN DIMENSIONING
dimensions, the making of arrowheads, and so A dimension line (Fig. 2a) is a thin, dark, solid line
forth. A typical dimensioned drawing is shown in terminated by arrowheads, which indicates the direc-
Fig. 1. Note the strong contrast between the tion and extent of a dimension. In machine drawing,
visible lines of the object and the thin lines used the dimension line is broken, usually near the middle,
for the dimensions. to provide an open space for the dimension figure. In
2. The student must learn the rules of placement of structural and architectural drawing, it is customary
dimensions on the drawing. These practices assure to place the dimension figure above an unbroken
a logical and practical arrangement with maxi- dimension line.
mum legibility. As shown in Fig. 2b, the dimension line nearest
3. The student should learn the choice of dimensions. the object outline should be spaced at least 10 mm A 38 – B
Formerly, manufacturing processes were consid- away. All other parallel dimension lines should be at
ered the governing factor in dimensioning. Now least 6 mm A 14 – B apart, and more if space is available.
function is considered first and the manufacturing The spacing of dimension lines should be uniform
processes second. The proper procedure is to di- throughout the drawing.
mension tentatively for function and then review An extension line (Fig. 2a) is a thin, dark, solid
the dimensioning to see if any improvements from line that “extends” from a point on the drawing to
the standpoint of production can be made without which a dimension refers. The dimension line meets

■ FIGURE 2 ■ Dimensioning Technique.

304
 Dimensioning

■ FIGURE 3 ■ Dimension and Extension Lines.

the extension lines at right angles except in special A dimension line should never coincide with, or form a
cases (see Fig. 6a). A gap of about 1.5 mm A 16 1
–B continuation of, any line of the drawing (Fig. 3d).
should be left where the extension line would join the Avoid crossing dimension lines wherever possible.
object outline. The extension line should extend about Dimensions should be lined up and grouped together
3 mm A 18 – B beyond the outermost arrowhead (Figs. as much as possible, as in Fig. 4a, and not as in Fig. 4b.
2a and 2b). In many cases, extension lines and center lines must
The foregoing dimensions for lettering height, spac- cross visible lines of the object (Fig. 5a). When this
ing, and so on should be increased approximately 50% occurs, gaps should not be left in the lines (Fig. 5b).
for drawings that are to be microfilmed and then reduced Dimension lines are normally drawn at right angles
to one-half size for the working print. Otherwise the let- to extension lines, but an exception may be made in the
tering and dimensioning often are not legible. interest of clarity, as in Fig. 6a. In crowded conditions,
A center line is a thin, dark line composed of alter- gaps may be left in extension lines near arrowheads so
nate long and short dashes and used to represent axes that the dimensions show clearly (Fig. 6b). In general,
of symmetrical parts and to denote centers. As shown avoid dimensioning to hidden lines (Fig. 6c).
in Fig. 2c, center lines are commonly used as exten-
sion lines in locating holes and other features. When so
used, the center line crosses over other lines of the 7 ■ ARROWHEADS
drawing without gaps. A center line should always end Arrowheads (Fig. 7) indicate the extent of dimen-
in a long dash. sions.They should be uniform in size and style through-
out the drawing and not varied according to the size of
the drawing or the length of dimensions. Arrowheads
6 ■ PLACEMENT OF DIMENSION should be drawn freehand, and the length and width
AND EXTENSION LINES should be in a ratio of 3:1. The length of the arrowhead
The correct placement of dimension lines and extension should be equal to the height of the dimension whole
lines is shown in Fig. 3a. The shorter dimensions are numbers. For average use, make arrowheads about 3
nearest to the object outline. Dimension lines should mm A 18 – B long and very narrow (Fig. 7a). Use strokes
not cross extension lines, as in Fig. 3b, which results toward the point or away from the point desired (Figs.
from placing the shorter dimensions outside. Note that 7b to 7d). The method in Fig. 7b is easier when
it is perfectly satisfactory to cross extension lines (Fig. the strokes are drawn toward the drafter. For best
3a), but they should never be shortened (Fig. 3c). appearance, fill in the arrowhead, as in Fig. 7d.

■ FIGURE 4 ■ Grouped Dimensions. ■ FIGURE 5 ■ Crossing Lines.

305
 Dimensioning

■ FIGURE 6 ■ Placement of Dimensions.

■ FIGURE 7 ■ Arrowheads.

8 ■ LEADERS 9 ■ FRACTIONAL, DECIMAL,

A leader (Fig. 8) is a thin, solid line leading from a AND METRIC DIMENSIONS
note or dimension and terminating in an arrowhead or In the early days of machine manufacturing in the
a dot touching the part to which attention is directed. United States, workers would scale the undimensioned
Arrowheads should always terminate on a line, such as design drawing to obtain any needed dimensions, and it
the edge of a hole; dots should be within the outline of was their responsibility to see that the parts fit together
the object. A leader should generally be an inclined properly. Workers were skilled and very accurate, and
straight line, if possible, except for the short horizontal excellent fits were obtained. Hand-built machines were
shoulder (6 mm or 14 –, approx.) extending from mid- often beautiful examples of precision craftsmanship.
height of the lettering at the beginning or end of a note. The system of units and common fractions is still
A leader to a circle should be radial; that is, if used in architectural and structural work, in which
extended, it would pass through the center. A drawing close accuracy is relatively unimportant and the steel
presents a more pleasing appearance if leaders near tape or framing square is used to set off measurements.
each other are drawn parallel. Leaders should cross as Architectural and structural drawings are therefore
few lines as possible and should never cross each other. often dimensioned in this manner. Also, certain com-
They should not be drawn parallel to nearby lines of mercial commodities, such as pipe and lumber, are
the drawing, allowed to pass through a corner of the identified by standard nominal designations that are
view, made unnecessarily long, or drawn horizontally close approximations of actual dimensions.
or vertically on the sheet. A leader should be drawn at As industry has progressed, there has been greater
a large angle and terminate with the appropriate and greater demand for more accurate specifications of
arrowhead, or with a dot (Fig. 8f). the important functional dimensions—more accurate

■ FIGURE 8 ■ Leaders.

306
 Dimensioning

1 identified by standardized nominal designations. Combi-

than the 64 – permitted by the engineers’, architects’, and
machinists’ scale. Since it was cumbersome to use still nation dimensioning employs decimals for all dimensions
1 1 except the designations of nominal sizes of parts or features,
smaller fractions, such as 128 or 256 , it became the practice
to give decimal dimensions, such as 4.2340 and 3.815, for such as bolts, screw threads, keyseats, or other standardized
the dimensions requiring accuracy. However, some fractional designations (ANSI/ASME Y14.5M–1994).
dimensions, such as standard nominal sizes of materials, In these systems, two-place inch or one-place mil-
punched holes, drilled holes, threads, keyways, and other limeter decimals are used when a common fraction has
features produced by tools that are so designated are been regarded as sufficiently accurate.
still expressed in whole numbers and common fractions. In the combination dimensioning system, common
Thus, drawings may be dimensioned entirely with fractions may be used to indicate nominal sizes of
whole numbers and common fractions, or entirely with materials, drilled holes, punched holes, threads, key-
decimals, or with a combination of the two. However, ways, and other standard features.
more recent practice adopted the decimal-inch system, One-place millimeter decimals are used when tol-
and current practice also utilizes the metric system as erance limits of ;0.1 mm or more can be permitted.
recommended by ANSI. Millimeters and inches in the Two (or more)-place millimeter decimals are used for
decimal form can be added, subtracted, multiplied, and tolerance limits less than ;0.1 mm. Fractions are con-
divided more easily than can fractions. sidered to have the same tolerance as two-place deci-
mal-inch dimensions when determining the number of
places to retain in the conversion to millimeters. Keep
in mind that 0.1 mm is approximately equal to .004 inch.
10 ■ DECIMAL SYSTEMS Two-place inch decimals are used when tolerance
A decimal system based on the decimal inch or the mil- limits of ;.01– or more can be permitted. Three or
limeter as a linear unit of measure has many advan- more decimal places are used for tolerance limits less
tages and is compatible with most measuring devices than ;.01–. In two-place decimals, the second place
and machine tools. Metric measurement is based on preferably should be an even digit (for example, .02,
the meter as a linear unit of measure, but the millime- .04, and .06 are preferred to .01, .03, or .05) so that
ter is used on most engineering drawings. To facilitate when the dimension is divided by 2, as is necessary in
the changeover to metric dimensions, many drawings determining the radius from a diameter, the result will
are dual-dimensioned in millimeters and decimal inch- be a decimal of two places. However, odd two-place
es (see §11). decimals are used when required for design purposes,
Complete decimal dimensioning employs decimals such as in dimensioning points on a smooth curve or
for all dimensions and designations except where certain when strength or clearance is a factor.
commercial commodities, such as pipe and lumber, are A typical example of the use of the complete decimal-
inch system is shown in Fig. 9. The use of the preferred
decimal-millimeter system is shown in Fig. 10.

■ FIGURE 9 ■ Complete
Decimal Dimensioning.

307
 Dimensioning

■ FIGURE 10 ■ Complete Metric Dimensioning.

When a decimal value is to be rounded off to fewer They must stop thinking in terms of inches and com-
places than the calculated number, regardless of the mon fractions and think in terms of millimeters and
unit of measurement involved, the method prescribed other SI units. Dimensioning practices remain essen-
is as follows. tially the same; only the units are changed (compare
The last figure to be retained should not be changed Figs. 9 and 10).
when the figure beyond the last figure to be retained is Shop scales and drafting scales for use in the dec-
less than 5. imal-inch and metric systems are available in a variety
of forms. Refer to the inside of the front cover for a
EXAMPLE 3.46325, if rounded off to three places,
two-, three-, and four-place decimal equivalent table.
should be 3.463.
Once the metric system is installed, the advantages
The last figure to be retained should be increased by in computation, in checking, and in simplified dimen-
1 when the figure beyond the last figure to be retained is sioning techniques are considerable.
greater than 5 (or two figures are greater than 50).
EXAMPLE 8.37652, if rounded off to three places, 11 ■ DIMENSION FIGURES
should be 8.377.
The importance of good lettering of dimension figures
The last figure to be retained should be unchanged cannot be overstated. The shop produces according to
if it is even, or increased by 1 if odd, when followed by the directions on the drawing, and to save time and
exactly 5. prevent costly mistakes, all lettering should be perfect-
ly legible.
EXAMPLE 4.365 becomes 4.36 when rounded off
Legibility should never be sacrificed by crowding
to two places. Also, 4.355 becomes 4.36 when cut off
dimension figures into limited spaces. For every such
to two places.
case there is a practical and effective method, as shown
The use of the metric system means not only a in Fig. 11. In Fig. 11a, there is only enough room
changeover of measuring equipment but also a change- for the figure, and the arrowheads are placed outside.
over in thinking on the part of drafters and designers.

■ FIGURE 11 ■ Dimension Figures. Metric Dimensions (c)–(f).

high

308
 Dimensioning

■ FIGURE 12 ■ Decimal Dimension Figures. Metric Dimensions (a)–(d).

In Fig. 11b, both the arrowheads and the figure are In a group of parallel dimension lines, the numer-
placed outside. Other methods are shown in Figs. als should be staggered, as in Fig. 14a, and not
11c and 11d. stacked up one above the other, as in Fig. 14b.
If necessary, a removed partial view may be drawn
to an enlarged scale to provide the space needed for DUAL DIMENSIONING Dual dimensioning is used to show
clear dimensioning. metric and decimal-inch dimensions on the same draw-
Make all decimal points bold, allowing ample space. ing. Two methods of displaying the dual dimensions are
Where the metric dimension is a whole number, neither a as follows.
decimal point nor a zero is given (Figs. 11a and 11d). POSITION METHOD The millimeter value is placed above
Where the metric dimension is less than 1 millimeter, a the inch dimension and is separated by a dimension line
zero precedes the decimal point (Fig. 11b). Where the or an added line for some dimensions when the unidirec-
dimension exceeds a whole number by a fraction of 1 mil- tional system of dimensioning is used. An alternative
limeter, the last digit to the right of the decimal point is arrangement in a single line places the millimeter dimen-
not followed by a zero except when expressing tolerances sion to the left of the inch dimension, separated by a slash
(Figs. 12c and 12d). line (virgule). Each drawing should illustrate the dimen-
Methods of lettering and displaying decimal dimen- sion identification as MILLIMETER or MILLIMETER/INCH.
INCH
sion figures are shown in Fig. 11. Where the decimal- (Placement of the inch dimension above or to the left of
inch dimension is used on drawings, a zero is not used the millimeter is also acceptable.)
before the decimal point of values less than 1 inch (Figs.
12f to 12j). The decimal-inch dimension is expressed EXAMPLES
to the same number of decimal places as its tolerance.
Thus, zeros are added to the right of the decimal point as
necessary (Fig. 12e).
Never letter a dimension figure over any line on the
drawing, but break the line if necessary. Place dimension
figures outside a sectioned area if possible (Fig. 13a).
When a dimension must be placed on a sectioned area,
leave an opening in the section lining for the dimension
figure (Fig. 13b).

■ FIGURE 13 ■ Dimensions and Section Lines. Metric. ■ FIGURE 14 ■ Staggered Numerals. Metric.

309
 Dimensioning

BRACKET METHOD The millimeter dimension is enclosed

in square brackets, [ ]. The location of this dimension is
optional but should be uniform on any drawing—that
is, above or below or to the left or right of the inch
dimension. Each drawing should include a note to iden-
tify the dimension values as DIMENSIONS IN [ ] ARE
MILLIMETERS.

EXAMPLES
■ FIGURE 16 ■ Directions of Dimensions.

system (Fig. 15b), all dimension figures are aligned

with the dimension lines so that they may be read from
the right side of the sheet. Dimension lines in this system
should not run in the directions included in the shaded
area of Fig. 16, if avoidable.
In both systems, dimensions and notes shown with
leaders are aligned with the bottom of the drawing.
Notes without leaders should also be aligned with the
bottom of the drawing.
When converting a decimal-inch dimension to mil-
limeters, multiply the inch dimension by 25.4 and round 13 ■ MILLIMETERS AND INCHES
off to one less digit to the right of the decimal point than Millimeters are indicated by the lowercase letters mm
for the inch value (see §10). When converting a millime- placed one space to the right of the numeral; thus, 12.5
ter dimension to inches, divide the millimeter dimension mm. Meters are indicated by the lowercase m placed
by 25.4 and round off to one more digit to the right of similarly; thus, 50.6 m. Inches are indicated by the
the decimal point than for the millimeter value. symbol – placed slightly above and to the right of the
numeral; thus, 2 12 –. Feet are indicated by the symbol ¿
12 ■ DIRECTION OF DIMENSION FIGURES similarly placed; thus, 3¿ –0, 5¿ –6, 10¿ –0 14. It is custom-
Two systems of reading direction for dimension figures ary in such expressions to omit the inch marks.
are available. In the preferred unidirectional system, It is standard practice to omit mm designations
approved by ANSI (Fig. 15a), all dimension figures and inch marks on a drawing except when there is a
and notes are lettered horizontally on the sheet and are possibility of misunderstanding. For example, 1 VALVE
read from the bottom of the drawing. The unidirectional should be 1– VALVE, and 1 DRILL should be 1– DRILL or
system has been extensively adopted in the aircraft, 1 mm DRILL. Where some inch dimensions are shown
automotive, and other industries because it is easier to on a millimeter-dimensioned drawing, the abbreviation
use and read, especially on large drawings. In the aligned IN. follows the inch values.

■ FIGURE 15 ■ Directions of Dimension Figures.

310
 Dimensioning

■ FIGURE 17 ■ Angles.

In some industries, all dimensions, regardless of

size, are given in inches; in others, dimensions up to 72–
inclusive are given in inches, and those greater are
given in feet and inches. In structural and architectural
drafting, all dimensions of 1¿ or over are usually
expressed in feet and inches.
If suitable, the drawing should contain a note stat- ■ FIGURE 18 ■ Angles in Civil Engineering Projects.
ing “Unless otherwise specified, all dimensions are in
millimeters” (or in inches, as applicable). one member of the ratio equal to 1, as shown in Fig.
18. Grade, as of a highway, is similar to slope but is
expressed in percentage of rise per 100¿ of run. Thus a
14 ■ DIMENSIONING ANGLES
20¿ rise in a 100¿ run is a grade of 20.
Angles are dimensioned preferably by means of an In structural drawings, angular measurements are
angle in degrees and a linear dimension (Fig. 17a), made by giving the ratio of “run” to “rise,” with the
or by means of coordinate dimensions of the two legs larger size being 12–. These right triangles are referred
of a right triangle (Fig. 17b). The coordinate method to as bevels.
is more suitable for work requiring a high degree of
accuracy. Variations of angle (in degrees) are hard to
control because the amount of variation increases with 15 ■ DIMENSIONING ARCS
the distance from the vertex of the angle. Methods of A circular arc is dimensioned in the view in which its
indicating various angles are shown in Figs. 17c to true shape is shown by giving the numerical value of its
17f. radius preceded by the abbreviation R (Fig. 19). The
When degrees alone are indicated, the symbol ° is centers may be indicated by small crosses to clarify the
used. When minutes alone are given, the number drawing but not for small or unimportant radii. Crosses
should be preceded by 0°; thus 0°23¿. In all cases, should not be shown for undimensioned arcs.As shown
whether in the unidirectional system or in the aligned in Figs. 19a and 19b, when there is room enough,
system, the dimension figures for angles are lettered on both the numeral and the arrowhead are placed inside
horizontal guide lines. the arc. In Fig. 19c, the arrowhead is left inside, but
In civil engineering drawings, slope represents the the numeral had to be moved outside. In Fig. 19d,
angle with the horizontal, whereas batter is the angle both the arrowhead and the numeral had to be moved
referred to the vertical. Both are expressed by making outside. Figure 19e shows an alternate method that
can be used when section lines or other lines are in the

■ FIGURE 19 ■ Dimensioning Arcs.

311
 Dimensioning

way. Note that in the unidirectional system, all of these ing, counterboring, and broaching, or when the dimen-
numerals are lettered horizontally on the sheet. sion implies a finished surface, such as ¤6.22 –6.35
For a long radius (Fig. 19f), when the center falls (metric) or ¤2.45 –2.50 (decimal-inch).
outside the available space, the dimension line is drawn Three styles of finish marks, the general ∨ symbol, the
toward the actual center; but a false center may be indi- new basic 2 symbol, and the traditional symbol, are
cated and dimension line “jogged” to it, as shown. used to indicate an ordinary smooth machined surface.
The ∨ symbol is like a capital V, made about 3 mm A 18 – B
16 ■ FILLETS AND ROUNDS high in conformity with the height of dimensioning letter-
ing (Fig. 20a). The extended 2 symbol, preferred by
Individual fillets and rounds are dimensioned as any
ANSI, is like a larger capital with the right leg extended
(Fig. 20b). The short leg is made about 5 mm A 16 – B high
arc (Figs. 19c to 19e). If there are only a few and 3

and the height of the long leg is about 10 mm A 8 – B . The

they are obviously the same size, as in Fig. 43e, one
3
typical radius is sufficient. However, fillets and rounds
are often quite numerous on a drawing, and most of basic symbol may be altered for more elaborate surface
them are likely to be some standard size, as R3 and R6 texture specifications.
when dimensioning in metric or R125 and R250 when For best results, all finished marks should be drawn
using the decimal-inch system. with the aid of a template or the 30° * 60° triangle.
In such cases it is customary to give a note in the The point of the ∨ symbol should be directed inward
lower portion of the drawing to cover all uniform fillets toward the body of metal in a manner similar to that of
and rounds; thus, a tool bit. The 2 symbol is not shown upside down
(see Fig. 36).
FILLETS R6 AND ROUNDS R3 UNLESS OTHER- The preferred form and placement for the sym-
WISE SPECIFIED bol are shown in Fig. 20e. The symbol is in limited
or use and found mainly on drawings made in accordance
with earlier drafting standards.
ALL CASTING RADII R6 UNLESS NOTED Figure 20c shows a simple casting having sever-
al finished surfaces; in Fig. 20d, two views of the
or simply same casting show how the finish marks are indicated
ALL FILLETS AND ROUNDS R6 on a drawing. The finish mark is shown only on the edge
view of a finished surface and is repeated in any other
view in which the surface appears as a line, even if the
17 ■ FINISH MARKS line is a hidden line.
A finish mark is used to indicate that a surface is to be The several kinds of finishes are detailed in machine
machined, or finished, as on a rough casting or forging.To shop practice manuals. The following terms are among
the patternmaker or diemaker, a finish mark means that the most commonly used: finish all over, rough finish, file
allowance of extra metal in the rough workpiece must be finish, sand blast, pickle, scrape, lap, hone, grind, polish,
provided for the machining. On drawings of parts to be burnish, buff, chip, spotface, countersink, counterbore,
machined from rolled stock, finish marks are generally core, drill, ream, bore, tap, broach, and knurl. When it is
unnecessary, for it is obvious that the surfaces are fin- necessary to control the surface texture of finished sur-
ished. Similarly, it is not necessary to show finish marks faces beyond that of an ordinary machine finish, the 2
when an operation is specified in a note that indicates symbol is used as a base for the more elaborate surface
machining, such as drilling, reaming, boring, countersink- quality symbols.

■ FIGURE 20 ■ Finish Marks.

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 Dimensioning

If a part is to be finished all over, finish marks are gained by placing them on the views, where they will
should be omitted, and a general note, such as FINISH be closer to the features dimensioned. When a dimen-
ALL OVER or FAO, should be lettered on the lower sion must be placed in a sectioned area or on the view,
portion of the sheet. leave an opening in the sectioned area or a break in
the lines for the dimension figures (see Figs. 13b
and 21c).
18 ■ DIMENSIONS ON OR OFF VIEWS
Dimensions should not be placed on a view unless
doing so promotes the clearness of the drawing. The
ideal form is shown in Fig. 21a, in which all dimen- 19 ■ CONTOUR DIMENSIONING
sions are placed outside the view. Compare this with Views are drawn to describe the shapes of the various
the evidently poor practice in Fig. 21b. This is not to features of the object, and dimensions are given to
say that a dimension should never be placed on a view, define exact sizes and locations of those shapes. It fol-
for in many cases (particularly in complicated draw- lows that dimensions should be given where the shapes
ings) this is necessary (Fig. 21c). Certain radii and are shown—that is, in the views where the contours are
other dimensions are given on the views, but in each delineated, as in Fig. 22a. Incorrect placement of the
case investigation will reveal a good reason for placing dimensions is shown in Fig. 22b.
the dimension on the view. Place dimensions outside of Attachment of individual dimensions directly to
views, except where directness of application and clarity the contours that show the shapes being dimensioned

■ FIGURE 21 ■ Dimensions On or Off the Views.

■ FIGURE 22 ■ Contour Dimensioning.

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 Dimensioning

automatically prevents the attachment of dimensions The dimensioning of engineering structures involves
to hidden lines, as shown for the depth 10 of the slot in two basic steps:
Fig. 22b. It also prevents the attachment of dimen-
sions to a visible line, the meaning of which is not clear 1. Give the dimensions showing the sizes of the sim-
in a particular view, such as dimension 20 for the height ple geometric shapes, called size dimensions.
of the base in Fig. 22b. 2. Give the dimensions locating these elements with
Although the placement of notes for holes follows respect to each other, called location dimensions.
the contour rule wherever possible (Fig. 22a), the
diameter of an external cylindrical shape is preferably The process of geometric analysis is very helpful in
given in the rectangular view, where it can be readily dimensioning any object, but it must be modified when
found near the dimension for the length of the cylinder there is a conflict either with the function of the part in
(see Figs. 23b, 27, and 28). the assembly or with the manufacturing requirements
in the shop.
Figure 23b is a multiview drawing of the object
20 ■ GEOMETRIC BREAKDOWN shown in isometric in Fig. 23a. Here it will be seen that
Engineering structures are composed largely of simple each geometric shape is dimensioned with size dimen-
geometric shapes, such as the prism, cylinder, pyramid, sions and that these shapes are then located with respect
cone, and sphere (Fig. 23a). They may be exterior to each other with location dimensions. Note that a
(positive) or interior (negative) forms. For example, a location dimension locates a three-dimensional geometric
steel shaft is a positive cylinder, and a round hole is a element and not just a surface; otherwise, all dimensions
negative cylinder. would have to be classified as location dimensions.
These shapes result directly from the design neces-
sity of keeping forms as simple as possible and from USING CAD TO DIMENSION Once your views have been
the requirements of the fundamental manufacturing drawn, a design is not ready for the production process
operations. Forms having plane surfaces are produced until the numbers describing the width, height, and
by planing, shaping, milling, and so forth, while forms depth of the object are added to the drawing. These
having cylindrical, conical, or spherical surfaces are numbers must be added in an organized pattern so as
produced by turning, drilling, reaming, boring, counter- not to confuse the reader.
sinking, and other rotary operations.

■ FIGURE 23 ■ Geometric Breakdown.

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 Dimensioning

CAD Systems Make Dimensioning Easy and Often Automatic. Drawing by Enidine. Courtesy of SolidWorks Corporation.

Dimensions can be created somewhat automati- ed through the keyboard, but this process can become
cally using CAD. The size, appearance, and dimension long (Fig. 24).
value can all be generated automatically. Alignment of Some systems will generate the dimensions totally
the dimension values and whether to show metric or automatically, but you must review them carefully
inch units or both can all be accomplished using CAD. making sure that the dimensions given describe the
Because of the complexity and intelligence that must intent for your design and the permissible tolerances.
be used in selecting which dimensions to place in the
drawing, most CAD systems require you to pick what
you will dimension and where to place the dimension. 21 ■ SIZE DIMENSIONS: PRISMS
In AutoCAD 2004, for example, a Dimension tool- The right rectangular prism is probably the most com-
bar makes the selection of dimensioning commands mon geometric shape. Front and top views are dimen-
easier. The Dimension pull-down menu is an additional sioned as shown in Figs. 25a and 25b. The height
area used for selecting the most common dimension and width are given in the front view and the depth in
commands. Dimension commands can also be activat- the top view. The vertical dimensions can be placed on

■ FIGURE 24 ■ AutoCAD 2004 Can Make Dimensioning Easy. Courtesy of SDRC, Milford, OH.

315
 Dimensioning

■ FIGURE 25 ■ Dimensioning Rectangular Prisms. ■ FIGURE 27 ■ Dimensioning Cylinders.

to give both its diameter and its length in the rectangu-

lar view (Fig. 27). If the cylinder is drawn in a verti-
cal position, its length or altitude may be given at the
right, as in Fig. 27a, or on the left, as in Fig. 27b. If
the cylinder is drawn in a horizontal position, the
length may be given above the rectangular view, as in
Fig. 27c, or below, as in Fig.27d. An application
showing the dimensioning of cylindrical shapes is
shown in Fig. 28. The use of a diagonal diameter in
the circular view, in addition to the method shown in
Fig. 27, is not recommended except in special cases
when clarity is improved. The use of several diagonal
diameters on the same center is definitely to be dis-
couraged, because the result is usually confusing.
■ FIGURE 26 ■ Dimensioning a Machine Part Composed of The radius of a cylinder should never be given
Prismatic Shapes. because measuring tools, such as the micrometer
caliper, are designed to check diameters.
the left or right, provided both of them are placed in Small cylindrical holes, such as drilled, reamed, or
line. The horizontal dimension applies to both the front bored holes, are usually dimensioned by means of notes
and top views and should be placed between them, as specifying the diameter and the depth, with or without
shown, and not above the top or below the front view. manufacturing operations (Figs. 28 and 33).
Front and side views should be dimensioned as in The diameter symbol ¤ should be given before all
Figs. 25c and 25d. The horizontal dimensions can diametral dimensions (Fig. 29a) (ANSI/ASME
be placed above or below the views, provided both are Y14.5M–1994). In some cases, the symbol ¤ may be
placed in line. The dimension between views applies to used to eliminate the circular view (Fig. 29b). The
both views and should not be placed elsewhere without abbreviation DIA following the numerical value will be
a special reason. found on older decimal-inch drawings.
An application of size dimensions to a machine
part composed entirely of rectangular prisms is shown 23 ■ SYMBOLS AND SIZE DIMENSIONS:
in Fig. 26. MISCELLANEOUS SHAPES
Traditional terms and abbreviations used to describe
22 ■ SIZE DIMENSIONS: CYLINDERS various shapes and manufacturing processes, in addi-
The right circular cylinder is the next most common tion to size specifications, are employed in
geometric shape and is commonly seen as a shaft or a this text. A variety of dimensioning symbols were
hole. The general method of dimensioning a cylinder is introduced by ANSI/ASME (Y14.5M–1994) to replace

316
 Dimensioning

■ FIGURE 28 ■ Dimensioning a Machine Part That Is Composed of Cylindrical Shapes.

■ FIGURE 29 ■ Use of ¤ or DIA in Dimensioning Cylinders.

traditional terms or abbreviations. These symbols are A rectangular pyramid is dimensioned by giving the
given with construction details in Fig. 30. Traditional heights in the front view, and the dimensions of the base
terms and abbreviations are suitable for use where the and the centering of the vertex in the top view (Fig. 32b).
symbols are not desired. Typical applications of some If the base is square, it is necessary to give the dimensions
of these symbols are given in Fig. 31. for only one side of the base, provided it is labeled SQ as
A triangular prism is dimensioned by giving the shown or preceded by the square symbol n (Fig. 32c).
height, width, and displacement of the top edge in the A cone is dimensioned by giving its altitude and
front view and the depth in the top view (Fig. 32a). diameter of the base in the triangular view (Fig. 32d).

■ FIGURE 30 ■ Form and Proportion of Dimensioning Symbols (ANSI/ASME Y14.5M–1994).

317
 Dimensioning

■ FIGURE 31 ■ Use of Dimensioning Symbols (ANSI/ASME Y14.5M–1994).

A frustum of a cone may be dimensioned by giving the Internal shapes corresponding to the external
vertical angle and the diameter of one of the bases (Fig. shapes in Fig. 32 would be dimensioned in a simi-
32e). Another method is to give the length and the lar manner.
diameters of both ends in the front view. Still another is
to give the diameter at one end and the amount of taper
per foot in a note (see §33). 24 ■ SIZE DIMENSIONING OF HOLES
Figure 32f shows a two-view drawing of a plastic Holes that are to be drilled, bored, reamed, punched,
knob. The main body is spherical and is dimensioned cored, and so on are usually specified by symbols or stan-
by giving its diameter preceded by the abbreviation dard notes, as shown in Figs. 30, 33, and 45. The
and symbol for spherical diameter S¤ or followed by order of items in a note corresponds to the order of pro-
the abbreviation SPHER. A bead around the knob is in cedure in the shop in producing the hole. Two or more
the shape of a torus and it is dimensioned by giving the holes are dimensioned by a single note, the leader point-
thickness of the ring and the outside diameter, as ing to one of the holes, as shown at the top of Fig. 33.
shown. In Fig. 32g, a spherical end is dimensioned by As illustrated in Fig. 33, the leader of a
a radius preceded by the abbreviation SR. note should, as a rule, point to the circular view of the

■ FIGURE 32 ■ Dimensioning Various Shapes.

318
 Dimensioning

■ FIGURE 33 ■ Dimensioning Holes.

hole. It should point to the rectangular view only when erence to their faces. In Fig. 34b, cylindrical or coni-
clarity is thereby improved. When the circular view of cal holes or bosses, or other symmetrical shapes, are
the hole has two or more concentric circles, as for coun- located with reference to their center lines.
terbored, countersunk, or tapped holes, the arrowhead As shown in Fig. 35, location dimensions for holes
should touch the outer circle (see Figs. 45b, 45c, are preferably given in the circular view of the holes.
and 45e to 45j). Location dimensions should lead to finished surfaces
Notes should always be lettered horizontally on the wherever possible because rough castings and forgings
drawing paper, and guide lines should always be used. vary in size, and unfinished surfaces cannot be relied on
The use of decimal fractions to designate metric or
inch drill sizes has gained wide acceptance* (Fig. 33b).
For numbered or letter-size drills, it is recomended that ■ FIGURE 34 ■ Location Dimensions.
the decimal size be given in this manner, or given in
parentheses; thus, #28 (.1405) DRILL, or “P” (.3230)
DRILL. Metric drills are all decimal size and are not des-
ignated by number or letter.
On drawings of parts to be produced in large
quantity for interchangeable assembly, dimensions
and notes may be given without specification of the
manufacturing process to be used. Only the dimen-
sions of the holes are given, without reference to
whether the holes are to be drilled, reamed, or
punched (Figs. 33c and 33d). It should be real-
ized that even though manufacturing operations are
omitted from a note, the tolerances indicated would
tend to dictate the manufacturing processes required.
■ FIGURE 35 ■ Locating Holes.
25 ■ LOCATION DIMENSIONS
After the geometric shapes composing a structure have
been dimensioned for size, as discussed, location
dimensions must be given to show the relative posi-
tions of these geometric shapes, as shown in Fig. 33.
Figure 34a shows that rectangular shapes, whether
in the form of solids or of recesses, are located with ref-

*Although drills are still listed fractionally in manufacturers’ cata-

logs, many companies have supplemented drill and wire sizes with a
decimal value. In many cases the number, letter, or common fraction
has been replaced by the decimal-inch size. Metric drills are usually
listed separately with a decimal-millimeter value.

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 Dimensioning

Unequally spaced holes are located by means of the

bolt circle diameter plus angular measurements with
reference to only one of the center lines (Fig. 37b).
Where greater accuracy is required, coordinate
dimensions should be given (Fig. 37c). In this case,
the diameter of the bolt circle is enclosed in parenthe-
ses to indicate that it is to be used only as a reference
dimension. Reference dimensions are given for infor-
mation only. They are not intended to be measured and
do not govern the manufacturing operations. They rep-
resent calculated dimensions and are often useful in
showing the intended design sizes (Fig. 37c).
When several nonprecision holes are located on a
common arc, they are dimensioned by giving the
radius and the angular measurements from a baseline
(Fig. 38a). In this case, the baseline is the horizontal
■ FIGURE 36 ■ Dimensions to Finished Surfaces.
center line.
In Fig. 38b, the three holes are on a common
center line. One dimension locates one small hole from
for accurate measurements (Fig. 36). Of course, the the center; the other gives the distances between the
starting dimension, used in locating the first machined small holes. Note the omission of a dimension at X. This
surface on a rough casting or forging, must necessarily method is used when (as is usually the case) the dis-
lead from a rough surface, or from a center or a center tance between the small holes is the important consid-
line of the rough piece. eration. If the relation between the center hole and
In general, location dimensions should be built each of the small holes is more important, then include
from a finished surface as a datum plane, or from an the distance at X, and denote the overall dimension as a
important center or center line. reference dimension with parentheses.
When several cylindrical surfaces have the same Figure 38c shows another example of coordinate
center line, as in Fig. 29b, it is not necessary to locate dimensioning. The three small holes are on a bolt circle
them with respect to each other. whose diameter is given in parentheses for reference
Holes equally spaced about a common center may purposes only. From the main center, the small holes
be dimensioned by giving the diameter (diagonally) of are located in two mutually perpendicular directions.
the circle of centers, or bolt circle (Fig. 37a). Repeti- Another example of locating holes by means of
tive features or dimensions may be specified by the use linear measurements is shown in Fig. 38d. In this
of an X preceded with a numeral to indicate the number case, one such measurement is made at an angle to the
of times or places the feature is required. Allow a space coordinate dimensions because of the direct functional
between the letter X and the dimension as shown. relationship of the two holes.

■ FIGURE 37 ■ Locating Holes about a Center.

320
 Dimensioning

■ FIGURE 38 ■ Locating Holes.

In Fig. 38e, the holes are located from two (Figs. 39b and 39c). Other dimensions are not
baselines, or datums. When all holes are located from a mating dimensions since they do not control the accu-
common datum, the sequence of measuring and machin- rate fitting together of two parts. The actual values of
ing operations is controlled, overall tolerance accumula- two corresponding mating dimensions may not be
tions are avoided, and proper functioning of the finished exactly the same. For example, the width of the slot in
1
part is assured, as intended by the designer. The datum Fig. 39b may be dimensioned 32 – (0.8 mm) or sever-
surfaces selected must be more accurate than any mea- al thousandths of an inch larger than the width of the
surement made from them, must be accessible during block in Fig. 39c, but these are mating dimensions
manufacture, and must be arranged to facilitate tool and figured from a single basic width. It will be seen that
fixture design. Thus, it may be necessary to specify accu- the mating dimensions shown might have been arrived
racy of the datum surfaces in terms of straightness, at from a geometric breakdown (see §20). However,
roundness, flatness, and so forth. the mating dimensions need to be identified so that
Figure 38f shows a method of giving, in a single they can be specified in the corresponding locations on
line, all the dimensions from a common datum. Each the two parts and so that they can be given with the
dimension except the first has a single arrowhead and degree of accuracy commensurate with the proper fit-
is accumulative in value. The final and longest dimen- ting of the parts.
sion is separate and complete. In Fig. 40a the dimension A should appear on
These methods of locating holes are equally applic- both the drawings of the bracket and of the frame and,
able to locating pins or other symmetrical features. therefore, is a necessary mating dimension. In Fig.
40b, which shows a redesign of the bracket into two
26 ■ MATING DIMENSIONS parts, dimension A is not used on either part because it
In dimensioning a single part, its relation to mating is not necessary to control closely the distance between
parts, must be taken into consideration. For example, in the cap screws. But dimensions F are now essential
Fig. 39a, a guide block fits into a slot in a base. Those mating dimensions and should appear correspondingly
dimensions common to both parts are mating dimen- on the drawings of both parts. The remaining dimen-
sions, as indicated. sions E, D, B, and C are not considered to be mating
These mating dimensions should be given on the dimensions since they do not directly affect the mating
multiview drawings in the corresponding locations of the parts.

321
 Dimensioning

■ FIGURE 39 ■ Mating Dimensions.

■ FIGURE 40 ■ Bracket Assembly.

27 ■ MACHINE, PATTERN, ■ FIGURE 41 ■ Machine and Pattern Dimensions.

AND FORGING DIMENSIONS
In Fig. 39a, the base is machined from a rough cast-
ing; the patternmaker needs certain dimensions to
make the pattern, and the machinist needs certain
dimensions for the machining. In some cases one
dimension will be used by both. Again, in most cases,
these dimensions will be the same as those resulting
from a geometric breakdown, but it is important to
identify them to assign values to them.
Figure 41 shows the same part as in Fig. 39,
with the machine dimensions and pattern dimensions
identified by the letters M and P. The patternmaker is
interested only in the dimensions required to make the

322
 Dimensioning

pattern, and the machinist, in general, is concerned only the dimension line (see also Fig. 19f). Another method
with the dimensions needed to machine the part. Fre- is to dimension the outline envelope of a curved shape so
quently, a dimension that is convenient for the machinist that the various radii are self-locating from “floating cen-
is not convenient for the patternmaker, or vice versa. ters” (Fig. 42b). Either a circular or a noncircular curve
Since the patternmaker uses the drawing only once, may be dimensioned by means of coordinate dimensions,
while making the pattern, and the machinist refers to it or datums (Fig. 42c; see also Fig. 6a).
continuously, the dimensions should be given primarily
for the convenience of the machinist. 29 ■ DIMENSIONING OF ROUNDED-END
If the part is large and complicated, two separate SHAPES
drawings are sometimes made, one showing the pattern
The method used for dimensioning rounded-end
dimensions and the other the machine dimensions. The
shapes depends on the degree of accuracy required
usual practice, however, is to prepare one drawing for
(Fig. 43). When precision is not necessary, the meth-
both the patternmaker and the machinist.
ods used are those that are convenient for manufactur-
For forgings, it is common practice to make sepa-
ing, as in Figs. 43a to 43c.
rate forging drawings and machining drawings.
In Fig. 43a, the link to be cast or to be cut from
Unless a decimal system is used (see §10), the
sheet metal or plate is dimensioned as it would be laid
pattern dimensions are nominal, usually to the nearest
1 out for manufacture, by giving the center-to-center dis-
16 –, and given in whole numbers and common fractions. tance and the radii of the ends. Note that only one such
If a machine dimension is given in whole numbers and
radius dimension is necessary, but that the number of
common fractions, the machinist is usually allowed a tol-
1 places may be included with the size dimension.
erance (permissible in variation in size) of ; 64 –. Some
In Fig. 43b, the pad on a casting, with a milled
companies specify a tolerance of ;.010– on all common
slot, is dimensioned from center to center for the con-
fractions. If greater accuracy is required, the dimensions
venience of both the patternmaker and the machinist
are given in decimal form. Metric dimensions are given
in layout. An additional reason for the center-to-cen-
to one or more places, and decimal-inch dimensions are
ter distance is that it gives the total travel of the
given to three or more places (see §10). Remember that
milling cutter, which can be easily controlled by the
0.1 mm is approximately .004 inch.
machinist. The width dimension indicates the diame-
ter of the milling cutter; hence, it is incorrect to give
the radius of a machined slot. On the other hand, a
28 ■ DIMENSIONING OF CURVES cored slot should be dimensioned by radius in confor-
Curved shapes may be dimensioned by giving a group of mity with the patternmaker’s layout procedure.
radii, as shown in Fig. 42a. Note that in dimensioning In Fig. 43c, the semicircular pad is laid out in a
the R126 arc whose center is inaccessible, the center may similar manner to the pad in Fig. 43b, except that
be moved inward along a center line and a jog made in angular dimensions are used. Angular tolerances can
be used if necessary.
When accuracy is required, the methods shown in
Figs. 43d to 43g are recommended. Overall
lengths of rounded-end shapes are given in each case,
and radii are indicated, but without specific values. In

■ FIGURE 42 ■ Dimensioning Curves.

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 Dimensioning

■ FIGURE 43 ■ Dimensioning Rounded-End Shapes.

the example in Fig. 43f, the center-to-center distance Production personnel should not be allowed a choice
is required for accurate location of the holes. between two dimensions. Avoid “chain” dimensioning,
In Fig. 43g, the hole location is more critical in which a complete series of detail dimensions is given
than the location of the radius; hence, the two are locat- together with an overall dimension. In such cases, one
ed independently, as shown. dimension of the chain should be omitted, as shown, so
that the machinist is obliged to work from one surface
only. This is particularly important in tolerance dimen-
30 ■ SUPERFLUOUS DIMENSIONS sioning, where an accumulation of tolerances can cause
All necessary dimensions must be shown, but the design- serious difficulties.
er should avoid giving unnecessary or superfluous dimen- Some inexperienced detailers have the habit of
sions (Fig. 44a). Dimensions should not be repeated on omitting both dimensions, such as those at the right in
the same view or on different views; nor should the same Fig. 44b, on the theory that the holes are symmet-
information be given in two different ways. rically located and will be understood to be centered.
Figure 44b illustrates a type of superfluous One of the two location dimensions should be given.
dimensioning that should generally be avoided, espe- As shown in Fig. 44e, when one dimension
cially in machine drawing, where accuracy is important. clearly applies to several identical features, it need not

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 Dimensioning

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

(g) (h) (i)

(j) (k) (l)

■ FIGURE 44 ■ Superfluous Dimensions.

be repeated, but the number of places should be indi- 31 ■ NOTES

cated. Dimensions for fillets and rounds and other non-
critical features need not be repeated nor number of It is usually necessary to supplement the direct dimen-
places specified. sions with notes. Notes should be brief and carefully
For example, the radii of the rounded ends in Figs. worded to allow only one interpretation. Notes should
43a to 43f need not be repeated, and in Fig. 1 always be lettered horizontally on the sheet, with guide
both ribs are obviously the same thickness so it is lines, and arranged in a systematic manner. They should
unnecessary to repeat the 10-mm dimension. not be lettered in crowded places, and they should not

325
 Dimensioning

be placed between views, if possible. They should not 32 ■ DIMENSIONING OF THREADS

be lettered so close together as to confuse the reader or Local notes are used to specify dimensions of threads.
so close to another view or detail as to suggest applica- For tapped holes the notes should, if possible, be
tion to the wrong view. Leaders should be as short as attached to the circular views of the holes, as shown in
possible and cross as few lines as possible. Leaders Fig. 45g. For external threads, the notes are usually
should never run through a corner of a view or through placed in the longitudinal views, where the threads are
any specific points or intersections. more easily recognized, as in Figs. 45v and 45w.
Notes are classified as general notes when they
apply to an entire drawing and as local notes when they
apply to specific items. 33 ■ DIMENSIONING OF TAPERS
A taper is a conical surface on a shaft or in a hole. The
GENERAL NOTES General notes should be lettered in usual method of dimensioning a taper is to give the
the lower right-hand corner of the drawing, above or to amount of taper in a note, such as TAPER 0.167 ON
the left of the title block, or in a central position below DIA (often TO GAGE added), and then give the diam-
the view to which they apply. eter at one end, plus the length, or give the diameter at
both ends and omit the length. Taper on diameter
means the difference in diameter per unit of length.
EXAMPLES
Standard machine tapers are used on machine spin-
dles,shanks of tools,or pins,for example,and are described
FINISH ALL OVER (FAO)
in “Machine Tapers” (ANSI/ASME B5.10–1994). Such
BREAK SHARP EDGES TO R0.8 standard tapers are dimensioned on a drawing by giving
G33106 ALLOY STEEL–BRINELL 340–380 the diameter, usually at the large end, the length, and a
ALL DRAFT ANGLES 38° UNLESS note, such as NO. 4 AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARD
OTHERWISE SPECIFIED TAPER (see Fig. 46a).
DIMENSIONS APPLY AFTER PLATING For not-too-critical requirements, a taper may be
dimensioned by giving the diameter at the large end, the
In machine drawings, the title strip or title block will length, and the included angle, all with proper tolerances
carry many general notes, including material, general (see Fig. 46b). Or the diameters of both ends, plus the
tolerances, heat treatment, and pattern information. length, may be given with necessary tolerances.
For close-fitting tapers, the amount of taper per
unit on diameter is indicated as shown in Figs. 46c
LOCAL NOTES Local notes apply to specific operations and 46d. A gage line is selected and located by a
only and are connected by a leader to the point at comparatively generous tolerance, while other dimen-
which such operations are performed (Fig. 45). The sions are given appropriate tolerances as required.
leader should be attached at the front of the first word
of a note, or just after the last word, and not at any
intermediate place. 34 ■ DIMENSIONING OF CHAMFERS
For information on notes applied to holes, see §24. A chamfer is a beveled or sloping edge, and it is dimen-
Certain commonly used abbreviations may be sioned by giving the length of the offset and the angle
used freely in notes, such as THD, DIA, MAX. The less (see Fig. 47a). A 45° chamfer also may be dimensioned
common abbreviations should be avoided as much as in a manner similar to that shown in Fig. 47a, but usual-
possible. All abbreviations should conform to ANSI ly it is dimensioned by note without or with the word
Y1.1–1989. See Figs. 30 and 31 for form and use of CHAM, as in Fig. 47b.
alternative dimensioning symbols.
In general, leaders and notes should not be placed
on the drawing until the dimensioning is substantially 35 ■ SHAFT CENTERS
completed. If notes are lettered first, they will almost Shaft centers are required on shafts, spindles, and other
invariably be in the way of necessary dimensions and conical or cylindrical parts for turning, grinding, and
will have to be moved. other operations. Such a center may be dimensioned,
as shown in Fig. 48. Normally the centers are produced
by a combined drill and countersink.

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 Dimensioning

■ FIGURE 45 ■ Local Notes. See also Fig. 33.

327
 Dimensioning

■ FIGURE 46 ■ Dimensioning Tapers.

37 ■ DIMENSIONING OF KNURLS
A knurl is a roughened surface to provide a better
handgrip or to be used for a press fit between two
parts. For handgripping purposes, it is necessary only
■ FIGURE 47 ■ Dimensioning Chamfers. to give the pitch of the knurl, the type of knurling, and
the length of the knurled area (Fig. 50a and
50b). To dimension a knurl for a press fit, the toler-
anced diameter before knurling should be given (Fig.
50c). A note should be added giving the pitch and
type of knurl and the minimum diameter after knurl-
ing [see ANSI/ASME B94.6-1984 (R1995)].
■ FIGURE 48 ■ Shaft Center.
38 ■ DIMENSIONING ALONG CURVED
SURFACES
36 ■ DIMENSIONING KEYWAYS
When angular measurements are unsatisfactory,
Methods of dimensioning keyways for Woodruff keys chordal dimensions (Fig. 51a) or linear dimensions
and stock keys are shown in Fig. 49. Note, in both on the curved surfaces (Fig. 51b) may be given.
cases, the use of a dimension to center the keyway in
the shaft or collar. The preferred method of dimen-
sioning the depth of a keyway is to give the dimension 39 ■ SHEET-METAL BENDS
from the bottom of the keyway to the opposite side of In sheet-metal dimensioning, allowance must be made
the shaft or hole, as shown. The method of computing for bends. The intersection of the plane surfaces adja-
such a dimension is shown in Fig. 49d. Values for A cent to a bend is called the mold line, and this line,
may be found in machinists’ handbooks. rather than the center of the arc, is used to determine

■ FIGURE 49 ■ Dimensioning Keyways.

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 Dimensioning

Graphics
Spotlight Semiautomatic Dimensioning Using CAD
D IMENSIONING C ONTROLS PART
Dimensioning is an important skill because the dimensions
given in the drawing control how the part will be constructed
and how tolerance values will be applied. Even when a draw-
ing or model database is exported for direct machining, the
machinist must know which fits and dimensions are critical,
and where the part can vary. No parts are created exactly to
the same size as the dimensions specified, so the designer
must make it clear what allowances are possible. Dimension-
ing CAD drawings is accomplished using a suite of dimen-
sioning tools provided by the software. Programs like
AutoCAD 2004 call their tools semiautomatic dimensioning
because the dimension lines, values, arrowheads, and exten-
sion lines are created for you automatically, but you must still
choose where you will place dimensions in the drawing.
(A)

D IMENSION S TYLES from the parent style. Once a characteristic of a child dimen-
AutoCAD 2002 lets you create different families of dimension sion style is set differently than the parent style, changing the
appearances, called dimension styles. You use this to change parent no longer changes the child. You can use these styles
the appearance of dimensions for different types of drawings. to manage the appearance of the dimensions in your draw-
For example, architectural drawings have a different standard ing so that you do not have to tweak individual dimensions.
for their appearance than mechanical drawings, and civil Dimension styles also allow you to have a consistent
drawings may still have yet another appearance. To create approach to controlling the appearance of the dimensions in
dimension styles and set their appearance in AutoCAD 2004, the drawing so that you know how the dimensions will
you use the Dimension Styles dialog box. You can quickly update if you make a change. Figure B shows the dialogue
pick it from the Dimensioning Toolbar shown in Figure A. box you can use.

(B)
PARENT & C HILD S TYLES
AutoCAD 2004 uses child styles to let you change
the appearance of dimension types within the
style; for example radial dimensions can have a
different appearance than linear dimensions, or
ordinate dimensions. You can have a different
appearance for each of these types of dimen-
sions: linear, radial, angular, diameter, ordinate,
and leader. You can think of child styles like this. If
you have a child, they generally resemble you;
have brown eyes if you do, etc. But the child may
decide to dye their hair. After that, no amount of
you dying your hair will change the appearance of
the child’s hair. This is essentially how child
dimension styles work. You can set the child style
for a type of dimension so that it looks different

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 Dimensioning

■ FIGURE 52 ■ Profile Dimensioning.

machine on which the bend is made and is at the center

of the bend radius.
The length, or stretchout, of the pattern equals the
sum of the flat sides of the angle plus the distance
around the bend measured along the neutral axis. The
distance around the bend is called the bend allowance.
When metal bends, it compresses on the inside and
■ FIGURE 50 ■ Dimensioning Knurls. stretches on the outside. At a certain zone in between,
the metal is neither compressed not stretched, and this
is called the neutral axis (Fig. 53d). The neutral axis
is usually assumed to be 0.44 of the thickness from the
inside surface of the metal.
The developed length of material, or bend allo-
wance (BA), to make the bend is computed from the
empirical formula
BA = 10.017453R + 0.0078T2N,
where R = radius of bend, T = metal thickness, and
■ FIGURE 51 ■ Dimensioning along Curved Surfaces. N = number of degrees of bend (Fig. 53c).

dimensions (Fig. 52). The following procedure for 40 ■ TABULAR DIMENSIONS

calculating bends is typical. If the two inner plane sur- A series of objects having like features but varying in
faces of an angle are extended, their line of intersection dimensions may be represented by one drawing (Fig.
is called the IML or inside mold line (Figs. 53a to 54). Letters are substituted for dimension figures on
53c). Similarly, if the two outer plane surfaces are the drawing, and the varying dimensions are given in
extended, they produce the OML or outside mold line. tabular form. The dimensions of many standard parts
The center line of bend (c L B) refers primarily to the are given in this manner in catalogs and handbooks.

■ FIGURE 53 ■ Bends.

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 Dimensioning

■ FIGURE 54 ■ Tabular Dimensioning.

41 ■ STANDARDS DRILL instead of 14 DRILL. If the all-metric system of

Dimensions should be given, wherever possible, to dimensioning is used, then the preferred metric drill of
make use of readily available materials, tools, parts, the approximate same size 1.2480–2 will be indicated as
and gages. The dimensions for many commonly used a 6.30 DRILL.
machine elements, such as bolts, screws, nails, keys,
tapers, wire, pipes, sheet metal, chains, belts, ropes, 42 ■ COORDINATE DIMENSIONING
pins, and rolled metal shapes, have been standard- In general, the basic coordinate dimensioning prac-
ized, and the drafter must obtain these sizes from tices are compatible with the data requirements for
company standards manuals, from published hand- tape or computer-controlled automatic production
books, from American National Standards, or from machines. However, to design for automated produc-
manufacturers’ catalogs. tion, the designer and/or drafter should first consult
Such standard parts are not delineated on detail the manufacturing machine manuals before making
drawings unless they are to be altered for use, but are the drawings for production. Certain considerations
drawn conventionally on assembly drawings and are should be noted.
listed in parts lists. Common fractions are often used to
indicate the nominal sizes of standard parts or tools. If 1. A set of three mutually perpendicular datum or
the complete decimal-inch system is used, all such sizes reference planes is usually required for coordinate
ordinarily are expressed by decimals; for example, .250 dimensioning. These planes either must be obvi-
ous or clearly identified (Fig. 55).

■ FIGURE 55 ■ Coordinate Dimensioning.

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 Dimensioning

■ FIGURE 56 ■ Rectangular Coordinate Dimensioning without Dimension Lines (ANSI/ASME Y14.5M-1994).

2. The designer selects as origins for dimensions those 3. Dimensions should be given between points or
surfaces or other features most important to the surfaces that have a functional relation to each
functioning of the part. Enough of these features other or that control the location of mating
are selected to position the part in relation to the parts.
set of mutually perpendicular planes. All related 4. Dimensions should be given to finished surfaces
dimensions on the part are then made from these or important center lines, in preference to rough
planes. An example of rectangular coordinate surfaces, wherever possible.
dimensioning without dimension lines is shown in 5. Dimensions should be so given that it will not be
Fig. 56. necessary for the machinist to calculate, scale, or
3. All dimensions should be in decimals. assume any dimension.
4. Angles should be given, where possible, in degrees 6. Dimensions should be attached to the view where
and decimal parts of degrees. the shape is best shown (contour rule).
5. Standard tools, such as drills, reamers, and taps, 7. Dimensions should be placed in the views where
should be specified when required. the features dimensioned are shown true shape.
6. All tolerances should be determined by the design 8. Dimensioning to hidden lines should be avoided
requirements of the part, not by the capability of wherever possible.
the manufacturing machine. 9. Dimensions should not be placed on a view
unless clarity is promoted and long extension
lines are avoided.
43 ■ DO’S AND DON’TS OF DIMENSIONING
10. Dimensions applying to two adjacent views
The following checklist summarizes briefly most of should be placed between views, unless clarity is
the situations in which a beginning designer is likely to promoted by placing some of them outside.
make a mistake in dimensioning. Students should
11. The longer dimensions should be placed outside
check the drawing by this list before submitting it to
all intermediate dimensions so that dimension
the instructor.
lines will not cross extension lines.
1. Each dimension should be given clearly so that it 12. In machine drawing, all unit marks should be
can be interpreted in only one way. omitted, except when necessary for clarity; for
2. Dimensions should not be duplicated or the same example, 1– VALVE or 1 mm DRILL.
information given in two different ways—dual 13. Production personnel should not be expected to
dimensioning excluded—and no dimensions should assume that a feature is centered (as a hole on a
be given except those needed to produce or inspect plate), but a location dimension should be given
the part. from one side. However, if a hole is to be centered

332
 Dimensioning

on a symmetrical rough casting, mark the center 30. Dimension figures should be about 3 mm 1.13–2
line and omit the locating dimension from the high for whole numbers and 6 mm 1.25–2 high
center line. for fractions.
14. A dimension should be attached to only one view, 31. Dimension figures should never be crowded or in
not to extension lines connecting two views. any way made difficult to read.
15. Detail dimensions should “line up” in chain fashion. 32. Dimension figures should not be lettered over
16. A complete chain of detail dimensions should be lines or sectioned areas unless necessary, in which
avoided; it is better to omit one; otherwise refer- case a clear space should be reserved for the
ence should be added to one detail dimension or dimension figures.
the overall dimension by enclosing within paren- 33. Dimension figures for angles should generally be
theses. lettered horizontally.
17. A dimension line should never be drawn through 34. Fraction bars should never be inclined except in
a dimension figure. A figure should never be let- confined areas, such as in tables.
tered over any line of the drawing. The line can be 35. The numerator and denominator of a fraction
broken if necessary. should never touch the fraction bar.
18. Dimension lines should be spaced uniformly 36. Notes should always be lettered horizontally on
throughout the drawing. They should be at least 10 the sheet.
mm 1.38–2 from the object outline and 6 mm 37. Notes should be brief and clear, and the wording
1.25–2 apart. should be standard in form.
19. No line of the drawing should be used as a dimen- 38. Finish marks should be placed on the edge views of
sion line or coincide with a dimension line. all finished surfaces, including hidden edges and the
20. A dimension line should never be joined end to contour and circular views of cylindrical surfaces.
end (chain fashion) with any line of the drawing. 39. Finish marks should be omitted on holes or
21. Dimension lines should not cross, if avoidable. other features where a note specifies a machin-
ing operation.
22. Dimension lines and extension lines should not
cross, if avoidable. (Extension lines may cross 40. Finish marks should be omitted on parts made
each other.) from rolled stock.
41. If a part is finished all over, all finish marks should
23. When extension lines cross extension lines or
be omitted, and the general note FINISH ALL
visible lines, no break in either line should be
OVER or FAO should be used.
made.
42. A cylinder is dimensioned by giving both its diam-
24. A center line may be extended and used as an
eter and length in the rectangular view, except
extension line, in which case it is still drawn like a
when notes are used for holes. A diagonal diame-
center line.
ter in the circular view may be used in cases where
25. Center lines should generally not extend from clarity is gained thereby.
view to view.
43. Holes to be bored, drilled, reamed, and so on are
26. Leaders for notes should be straight, not curved, size-dimensioned by notes in which the leaders
and pointing to the center of circular views of preferably point toward the center of the circu-
holes wherever possible. lar views of the holes. Indications of manufac-
27. Leaders should slope at 45°, or 30°, or 60° with turing processes may be omitted from notes.
horizontal but may be made at any convenient 44. Drill sizes are preferably expressed in decimals.
angle except vertical or horizontal. For drills designated by number or letter, the deci-
28. Leaders should extend from the beginning or mal size must also be given.
from the end of a note, the horizontal “shoulder” 45. In general, a circle is dimensioned by its diameter,
extending from midheight of the lettering. an arc by its radius.
29. Dimension figures should be approximately cen- 46. Diagonal diameters should be avoided, except for
tered between the arrowheads, except that in a very large holes and for circles of centers. They
“stack” of dimensions, the figures should be may be used on positive cylinders when clarity is
“staggered.” gained thereby.

333
 Dimensioning

47. A diameter dimension value should always be it is necessary to give only typical (abbreviation
preceded by the symbol ¤. TYP) dimensions or to use a note.
48. A radius dimension should always be preceded by 53. When a dimension is not to scale, it should be
the letter R. The radial dimension line should have underscored with a heavy straight line or marked
only one arrowhead, and it should pass through or NTS or NOT TO SCALE.
point through the arc center and touch the arc. 54. Mating dimensions should be given correspond-
49. Cylinders should be located by their center lines. ingly on drawings of mating parts.
50. Cylinders should be located in the circular views, 55. Pattern dimensions should be given in two-place
if possible. decimals or in common whole numbers and frac-
1
51. Cylinders should be located by coordinate dimen- tions to the nearest 16 –.
sions in preference to angular dimensions where 56. Decimal dimensions should be used for all
accuracy is important. machining dimensions.
52. When there are several rough, noncritical features 57. Cumulative tolerances should be avoided, espe-
obviously the same size (fillets, rounds, ribs, etc.), cially in limit dimensioning.

■ FIGURE 57 ■ Dimensioned Detail Drawing Produced by SolidWorks. Drawing by Enidine, Courtesy of SolidWorks Corporation.

KEY WORDS
METRIC SCALE FINISH MARKS ENGINEERING SCALE SIZE DIMENSIONS
ARCHITECTS’ SCALE LOCATION DIMENSIONS EXTENSION LINES ANSI STANDARDS
DIMENSION LINES NOTES LEADERS COORDINATE DIMENSIONS
UNIDIRECTIONAL SYSTEM ABBREVIATIONS ALIGNED SYSTEM SUPERFLUOUS

334
 Dimensioning

CHAPTER SUMMARY
■ To increase clarity, dimensions and notes are added to a ■ Dimensions and notes are placed on drawings according
drawing to precisely describe size, location, and manufac- to prescribed standards.
turing process. ■ Dimensions that are incorrectly placed on a drawing are
■ Drawings are scaled to fit on a standard sheet of paper. considered just as wrong as if the numbers in the dimen-
Drawings created by hand are drawn to scale. CAD sion were incorrect.
drawings are drawn full size and scaled when they are ■ Special dimensioning techniques are used for surfaces
printed. that have been machined by one of the manufacturing
■ The three types of scales are metric, engineers’, and processes.
architects’.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What are the different units used when a drawing is cre- 7. Draw an example of dimensioning an angle.
ated with a metric scale? With an engineering scale? 8. When are finish marks used? Draw two types.
With an architects’ scale?
9. How are negative and positive cylinders dimensioned?
2. Explain the concept of contour dimensioning. Draw examples.
3. Which type of line is never crossed by any other line 10. How are holes and arcs dimensioned? Draw examples.
when dimensioning an object?
11. What are notes and leaders used for?
4. How is geometric analysis used in dimensioning?
12. Why is it important to avoid superfluous dimensions?
5. What is the difference between a size dimension and a
location dimension?
6. Which dimension system allows dimensions to be read
from the bottom and from the right? When can a dimen-
sion be read from the left?

DIMENSIONING PROBLEMS
Most of a student’s practice in dimensioning will be in con- Since many of the problems in this and other chapters
nection with working drawings assigned from other chap- are of a general nature, they can also be solved on most
ters. However, a limited number of special dimensioning computer graphics systems. If a system is available, the
problems are available here in Figs. 58 and 59. The instructor may choose to assign specific problems to be
problems are designed for Layout A–3 18.5– * 11.0–2 and completed by this method.
are to be drawn with instruments and dimensioned to a full-
size sale. Layout A4–3 1297 mm * 420 mm2 may be used
with appropriate adjustments in the title strip layout.

335
 Dimensioning

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

(g) (h)

■ FIGURE 58 ■ Using Layout A–3 or A4–3 (adjusted), draw assigned problem with instruments. To obtain sizes, place bow dividers on the
views on this page and transfer to scale at the side to obtain values. Dimension drawing completely in one-place millimeters or two-place inches
as assigned, full size.

336
 Dimensioning

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

(g) (h)

■ FIGURE 59 ■ Using Layout A–3 or A4–3 (adjusted), draw assigned problem with instruments. To obtain sizes, place bow dividers on the
views on this page and transfer to scale at the side to obtain values. Dimension drawing completely in one-place millimeters or two-place inches
as assigned, full size.

337
 Dimensioning

R .500

R.300 5.50

R.100
7.50 2.50

■ FIGURE 60 ■ Using Sheet Layout A–3 of A4–3 (adjusted), draw the OML and IML. Calculate the bend allowance using the formula in Section 39.

338
Tolerancing

OBJECTIVES OVERVIEW
After studying the material in this chapter, you
Interchangeable manufacturing allows parts made in widely separated
should be able to:
localities to be brought together for assembly. That the parts all fit
1. Read and create limit dimensions. together properly is an essential element of mass production. Without
2. Describe the nominal size, tolerance, lim- interchangeable manufacturing, modern industry could not exist, and
its, and allowance of two mating parts. without effective size control by the engineer, interchangeable manu-
3. Identify a clearance fit, interference fit, facturing could not be achieved.
and transition fit. For example, an automobile manufacturer not only subcontracts
the manufacture of many parts of a design to other companies but must
4. Describe the basic hole and basic
also provide the parts for replacement. All parts in each category must
shaft systems.
be nearly enough alike so that any one of them will fit properly in any
5. Dimension two mating parts using limit assembly. Unfortunately, it is impossible to make anything to exact size.
dimensions, unilateral tolerances, and Parts can be made to very close dimensions, even to a few millionths of
bilateral tolerances. an inch or thousandths of a millimeter (e.g., gage blocks), but such
6. Describe the classes of fit and give accuracy is extremely expensive.
examples of each. Fortunately, exact sizes are not needed. The need is for varying
7. Draw geometric tolerancing symbols. degrees of accuracy according to functional requirements. A manu-
8. Specify position and geometric tolerances.
facturer of children’s tricycles would soon go out of business if the
parts were made with jet-engine accuracy—no one would be willing
to pay the price. So what is wanted is a means of specifying dimen-
sions with whatever degree of accuracy is required. The answer to
the problem is the specification of a tolerance on each dimension.
The concept of quality in manufacturing is primarily a factor of
machining tolerances. Products with small variations in shape and
size are considered high quality and can command higher prices.
Waste results when the manufacturing process cannot maintain shape
and size within prescribed limits. By monitoring the manufacturing
processes and reducing waste, a company can improve profits. This
direct benefit to profits is why tolerancing is critical to manufacturing
success. Tolerancing is an extension of dimensioning. It provides
additional information about the shape, size, and position of every
feature of a product. It communicates exacting directions about how
to manufacture a product. Basic CAD program functionality is often
supplemented with advanced dimensioning and tolerancing software
that can assist with the tolerancing process. It takes a highly skilled
designer to be able to apply tolerance dimensions correctly.
From Chapter 12 of Engineering Graphics, Eighth Edition, Frederick E. Giesecke,
Alva Mitchell, Henry Cecil Spencer, Ivan Leroy Hill, Robert Olin Loving, John
Thomas Dygdon, James E. Novak. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Published by Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.
 Tolerancing

n FIGURE 1 n Fits between Mating Parts.

1 n TOLERANCE DIMENSIONING hole and shaft are shown in Fig. 1b. The difference in
the dimensions for either the hole or shaft is 0.03 mm,
Tolerance is the total amount that a specific dimension is the total tolerance.
permitted to vary; it is the difference between the maxi- A pictorial illustration of the dimensions in Fig.
mum and the minimum limits for the dimension 1a is shown in Fig. 2a. The maximum shaft is
(ANSI/ASME Y14.5M–1994). For example, a dimension shown solid, and the minimum shaft is shown in phan-
given as 1.625 ; .002 means that the manufactured tom. The difference in diameters, .001–, is the toler-
part may be 1.627– or 1.623–, or anywhere between ance on the shaft. Similarly, the tolerance on the hole is
these limit dimensions. The tolerance, or total amount of the difference between the two limits shown, or .001–.
variation “tolerated,” is .004–. Thus, it becomes the func- The loosest fit, or maximum clearance, occurs when the
tion of the detailer or designer to specify the allowance smallest shaft is in the largest hole (Fig. 2b). The
error that may be tolerated for a given dimension and tightest fit, or minimum clearance, occurs when the
still permit the satisfactory functioning of the part. Since largest shaft is in the smallest hole (Fig. 2c). The dif-
greater accuracy costs more money, the detailer or ference between these, .002–, is the allowance. The
designer will not specify the closest tolerance, but instead average clearance is .003–, which is the same differ-
will specify as generous a tolerance as possible. ence as allowed in the example in Fig. 1a; thus, any
To control the dimensions of quantities of the two shaft will fit any hole interchangeably.
parts so that any two mating parts will be interchange- When expressed in metric dimensions, the limits
able, it is necessary to assign tolerance to the dimen- for the hole are 31.75 mm and 31.78 mm; the differ-
sions of the parts, as shown in Fig. 1a. The diameter ence between them, 0.03 mm, is the tolerance. Similar-
of the hole may be machined not less than 1.250– and ly, the limits for the shaft are 31.70 mm and 31.67 mm;
not more than 1.251–; these two figures represent the the tolerance on the shaft is the difference between
limits and the difference between them (.001– is the them, or 0.03 mm.
tolerance). Likewise, the shaft must be produced When parts are required to fit properly in assem-
between the limits of 1.248– and 1.247–; the tolerance bly but not to be interchangeable, the size of one part
on the shaft is the difference between these, or .001–. need not be toleranced, but is indicated to be made to
The metric versions for these limit dimensions for the fit at assembly (Fig. 3).

n FIGURE 2 n Limit Dimensions.

340
 Tolerancing

ANSI B4.2–1978 (R1994)]. There are four general

types of fit between parts.

1. In a clearance fit, an internal member fits in an exter-

nal member (as a shaft in a hole) and always leaves a
space or clearance between the parts. In Fig. 2c,
the largest shaft is 1.248– and the smallest hole is
1.250–, which permits a minimum air space of .002–
n FIGURE 3 n Noninterchangeable Fit.
between the parts.This space is the allowance, and in
a clearance fit it is always positive.
2. In an interference fit, the internal member is larger
2 n SIZE DESIGNATIONS than the external member such that there is always
At this point, it is well to fix in mind the definitions of an actual interference of material. In Fig. 4a, the
certain terms (ANSI/ASME Y14.5M–1994). smallest shaft is 1.2513–, and the largest hole is
Nominal size is the designation used for general 1.2506–, so that there is an actual interference of
identification and is usually expressed in common frac- metal amounting to at least .0007–. Under maxi-
tions. In Fig. 1, the nominal size of both hole and mum material conditions the interference would
shaft, which is 1 14 –, would be 1.25– or 31.75 mm in a be .0019–. This interference is the allowance, and
decimal system of dimensioning. in an interference fit it is always negative.
Basic size, or basic dimension, is the theoretical size 3. A transition fit may result in either a clearance or in-
from which limits of size are derived by the application of terference condition. In Fig. 4b, the smallest shaft,
allowances and tolerances. It is the size from which limits 1.2503–, will fit in the largest hole, 1.2506–, with
are determined for the size, shape, or location of a feature. .003– to spare. But the largest shaft, 1.2509–, will
In Fig. 1a, the basic size is the decimal equivalent of the have to be forced into the smallest hole, 1.2500–,
nominal size 1 14 –, or 1.250– or 31.75 mm in Fig. 1b. with an interference of metal (negative allowance)
Actual size is the measured size of the finished part. of .0009–.
Allowance is the minimum clearance space (or
4. In a line fit, the limits of size are so specified that a
maximum interference) intended between the maxi-
clearance or surface contact may result when mat-
mum material condition (MMC) of mating parts. In Fig.
ing parts are assembled.
2c, the allowance is the difference between the small-
est hole, 1.250–, and the largest shaft, 1.248–, or .002–.
Allowance, then, represents the tightest permissible fit
4 n SELECTIVE ASSEMBLY
and is simply the smallest hole minus the largest shaft. If allowances and tolerances are properly given, mating
For clearance fits, this difference will be positive, while parts can be completely interchangeable. But for close
for interference fits it will be negative. fits, it is necessary to specify very small allowances and
tolerances, and the cost may be very high. To avoid this
expense, either manual or computer-controlled selective
3 n FITS BETWEEN MATING PARTS assembly is often used. In selective assembly, all parts
“Fit is the general term used to signify the range of are inspected and classified into several grades accord-
tightness or looseness that may result from the applica- ing to actual sizes, so that “small” shafts can be matched
tion of a specific combination of allowances and toler- with “small” holes, “medium” shafts with “medium”
ances in mating parts.” [ANSI B4.1–1967 (R1994) and holes, and so on. In this way, very satisfactory fits may be

n FIGURE 4 n Fits between Parts.

341
 Tolerancing

obtained at much less expense than by machining all eral parts having different fits, but one nominal size, are
mating parts to very accurate dimensions. Since a transi- required on a single shaft. In this system, the maximum
tion fit may or may not represent an interference of shaft is taken as the basic size, an allowance for each
metal, interchangeable assembly generally is not as satis- mating part is assigned, and tolerances are applied on
factory as selective assembly. both sides of, and away from, this allowance.
In Fig. 5b, the maximum size of the shaft, .500–,
5 n BASIC HOLE SYSTEM is taken as the basic size. An allowance of .002– is
Standard reamers, broaches, and other standard tools decided on and added to the basic shaft size, giving the
are often used to produce holes, and standard plug minimum hole, .502–. Tolerances of .003– and .001–,
gages are used to check the actual sizes. On the other respectively, are applied to the hole and shaft to obtain
hand, shafting can easily be machined to any size the maximum hole, .505–, and the minimum shaft,
desired. Therefore, toleranced dimensions are com- .499–. Thus, the minimum clearance between the parts
monly figured on the so-called basic hole system, in is .502– - .500– = .002– (smallest hole minus largest
which the minimum hole is taken as the basic size, an shaft), and the maximum clearance is .505– - .499– =
allowance is assigned, and tolerances are applied on .006– (largest hole minus smallest
both sides of, and away from, this allowance. shaft).
In Fig. 5a, the minimum size of the hole, .500–, In the case of an interference fit, the minimum
is taken as the basic size. An allowance of .002– is hole size would be found by subtracting the desired
decided on and subtracted from the basic hole size, allowance from the basic shaft size.
making the maximum shaft .498–. Tolerances of .002– The basic shaft size may be changed to the basic
and .003–, respectively, are applied to the hole and hole size by adding the allowance for a clearance fit or
shaft to obtain the maximum hole of .502– and the by subtracting it for an interference fit. The result is the
minimum shaft of .495–. Thus, the minimum clearance smallest hole size, which is the new basic size.
between the parts becomes .500– - .498– = .002–
(smallest hole minus largest shaft), and the maximum 7 n SPECIFICATIONS OF TOLERANCES
clearance is .502– - .495– = .007– (largest hole A tolerance of a decimal dimension must be given in dec-
minus smallest shaft). imal form to the same number of places (see Fig. 8).
In the case of an interference fit, the maximum General tolerances on decimal dimensions in
shaft size would be found by adding the desired which tolerances are not given may also be covered in
allowance (maximum interference) to the basic hole a printed note, such as
size. In Fig. 4a, the basic size is 1.2500–. The maxi-
mum interference decided on was .0019–, which added DECIMAL DIMENSION TO BE HELD TO
to the basic size gives 1.2519–, the largest shaft size. ; .001.
The basic hole size can be changed to the basic Thus, if a dimension 3.250 is given, the worker
shaft size by subtracting the allowance for a clearance machines between the limits 3.249 and 3.251 (see Fig.
fit, or adding it for an interference fit. The result is the 9).
largest shaft size, which is the new basic size. Tolerances for metric dimensions may be covered
in a note, such as the commonly used
6 n BASIC SHAFT SYSTEM
METRIC DIMENSIONS TO BE HELD TO ; 0.08.
In some branches of industry, such as textile machinery
manufacturing, in which use is made of a great deal of Thus, when the given dimension of 3.250– is converted
cold-finished shafting, the basic shaft system is often to millimeters, the worker machines between the limits
used. This system should be used only when there is a of 82.63 mm and 82.74 mm.
reason for it. For example, it is advantageous when sev- Every dimension on a drawing should have a toler-
ance, either direct or by general tolerance note, except
n FIGURE 5 n Basic-Hole and Basic-Shaft Systems. that commercial material is often assumed to have the
tolerances set by commercial standards.
It is customary to indicate an overall general tolerance
for all common fraction dimensions by means of a printed
note in or just above the title block (see Fig. 9).

EXAMPLE
1
ALL FRACTIONAL DIMENSIONS ; 64 – UNLESS
OTHERWISE SPECIFIED.

342
 Tolerancing

n FIGURE 8 n Bilateral Tolerances.

n FIGURE 6 n Method of Giving Limits.

size nearest the critical size because it is nearest to

General angular tolerances also may be given as the tolerance zone; hence the tolerance is taken
ANGULAR TOLERANCE ; 1°. away from the critical size. A unilateral tolerance is
always all plus or all minus; that is, either the plus
Several methods of expressing tolerances in or the minus value must be zero. However, the
dimensions are approved by ANSI (ANSI/ASME zeros should be given as shown in Fig. 7a.
Y14.5M–1994) as follows. The bilateral system of tolerances allows varia-
tions in both directions from the basic size. Bilateral
1. Limit dimensioning. In this preferred method, the tolerances are usually given with location dimen-
maximum and minimum limits of size and location sions or with any dimensions that can be allowed to
are specified, as shown in Fig. 6. The high limit vary in either direction. In Fig. 7b, the basic size is
(maximum value) is placed above the low limit 1.876– (47.65 mm), and the actual size may be larg-
(minimum value) (Fig. 6a). In single-line note er by .002– (0.05 mm) or smaller by .001– (0.03
form, the low limit precedes the high limit separat- mm). If it is desired to specify an equal variation in
ed by a dash (Fig. 6b). both directions, the combined plus-or-minus symbol
2. Plus-or-minus dimensioning. In this method the 1;2 is used with a single value, as shown in Fig. 8
basic size is followed by a plus-or-minus expres- A typical example of limit dimensioning is
sion of tolerance resulting in either a unilateral or given in Fig. 9.
bilateral tolerance (Fig. 7). If two unequal tol- 3. Single-limit dimensioning. It is not always neces-
erance numbers are given, one plus and one sary to specify both limits. MIN or MAX is often
minus, the plus is placed above the minus. One of placed after a number to indicate minimum or
the numbers may be zero, if desired. If a single tol- maximum dimensions desired where other ele-
erance value is given, it is preceded by the plus-or- ments of design determine the other unspecified
minus symbol 1;2 (Fig. 8). This method should limit. For example, a thread length may be dimen-
be used when the plus and minus values are equal. sioned as: ƒ ; 1.500 : ƒ MIN FULL THD or a radius
The unilateral system of tolerances allows dimensioned as .05 R MAX —Ω. Other applica-
variations in only one direction from the basic size. tions include depths of holes, chamfers, and so on
This method is advantageous when a critical size is 4. Angular Tolerances are usually bilateral and in
approached as material is removed during manu- terms of degrees, minutes, and seconds.
facture, as in the case of close-fitting holes and
shafts. In Fig. 7a the basic size is 1.878– (47.70 EXAMPLES 25° ; 1°, 25° 0¿ ; 0° 15¿, or
mm). The tolerance .002– (0.05 mm) is all in one 25° ; 0.25° (see also §18).
direction—toward the smaller size. If this is a shaft
diameter, the basic size 1.878– (47.70 mm) is the 8 n AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARD
LIMITS AND FITS
n FIGURE 7 n Tolerance Expression. The American National Standards Institute has issued the
ANSI B4.1–1967 (R1994), “Preferred Limits and Fits for
Cylindrical Parts,” defining terms and recommending pre-
ferred standard sizes, allowances, tolerances, and fits in
terms of the decimal inch. This standard gives a series of
standard types and classes of fits on a unilateral hole basis
such that the fit produced by mating parts in any one class
will produce approximately similar performance through-
out the range of sizes.These tables prescribe the fit for any

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 Tolerancing

n FIGURE 9 n Limit Dimensions.

given size or type of fit; they also prescribe the standard ances for the first two classes, used chiefly as slide fits,
limits for the mating parts which will produce the fit. increase more slowly with diameter than the other
The tables are designed for the basic hole system classes, so that accurate location is maintained even at
(§5). For coverage of the metric system of tolerances the expense of free relative motion.
and fits, see §§11–13.
Letter symbols to identify the five types of fits are LOCATIONAL FITS Locational fits are fits intended to
as follows: determine only the location of the mating parts; they
RC Running or Sliding Clearance Fits may provide rigid or accurate location, as with interfer-
ence fits, or provide some freedom of location, as with
LC Locational Clearance Fits
clearance fits. Accordingly, they are divided into three
LT Transition Clearance or Interference Fits groups: clearance fits, transition fits, and interference
LN Locational Interference Fits fits.
FN Force or Shrink Fits
These letter symbols, plus a number indicating the FORCE FITS Force or shrink fits constitute a special type
class of fit within each type, are used to indicate a com- of interference fit, normally characterized by mainte-
plete fit. Thus, FN 4 means a Class 4 Force Fit. The fits nance of constant bore pressures throughout the range of
are described [ANSI B4.1–1967 (R1994)] as follows. sizes. The interference therefore varies almost directly
with diameter, and the difference between its minimum
RUNNING AND SLIDING FITS Running and sliding fits, for and maximum value is small to maintain the resulting
which description of classes of fits and limits of clear- pressures within reasonable limits.
ance are given, are intended to provide a similar In the tables for each class of fit, the range of nom-
running performance, with suitable lubrication inal sizes of shafts or holes is given in inches. To simpli-
allowance, throughout the range of sizes. The clear- fy the tables and reduce the space required to present
them, the other values are given in thousandths of an

344
 Tolerancing

inch. Minimum and maximum limits of clearance are The shaft would then be dimensioned in inches
given; the top number is the least clearance, or the as follows:
allowance, and the lower number the maximum clear-
ance, or the greatest looseness of fit. Then, under the 1.9996 +.0000
or 1.9996
heading “Standard Limits” are given the limits for the 1.9993 -.0003.
hole and for the shaft that are to be applied alge-
braically to the basic size to obtain the limits of size for
the parts, using the basic hole system. 9 n ACCUMULATION OF TOLERANCES
For example, take a 2.0000– basic diameter with a In tolerance dimensioning, it is very important to con-
Class RC 1 fit. In the column headed “Nominal Size sider the effect of one tolerance on another. When the
Range, Inches,” find 1.97–3.15, which embraces the location of a surface in a given direction is affected by
2.0000– basic size. Reading to the right, we find under more than one tolerance figure, the tolerances are
“Limits of Clearance” the values 0.4 and 1.2, represent- cumulative. For example, in Fig. 10a, if dimension Z
ing the maximum clearance between the parts in thou- is omitted, surface A will be controlled by both dimen-
sandths of an inch. To get these values in inches, simply sions X and Y, and there can be a total variation of
4 1
multiply by one thousandth; thus, 10 * 1000 = .0004–. .010– instead of the variation of .005– permitted by
To convert 0.4 thousandths to inches, simple move the dimension Y, which is the dimension directly applied to
decimal point three places to the left; thus, .0004–. surface A. Furthermore, if the part is made to all the
Therefore, for this 2.0000– diameter, with a Class RC 1 minimum tolerances of X, Y, and Z, the total variation in
fit, the minimum clearance, or allowance, is .0004–, and the length of the part will be .015–, and the part can be
the maximum clearance, representing the greatest as short as 2.985–. However, the tolerance on the over-
looseness, is .0012–. all dimension W is only .005–, permitting the part to be
Reading farther to the right, we find under “Stan- only as short as 2.995–. The part is superfluously
dard Limits” the value + 0.5, which when converted to dimensioned.
inches is .0005–. Add this to the basic size thus: In some cases, for functional reasons, it may be
2.0000– + .0005– = 2.0005–, the upper limit of the desired to hold all three small dimensions X, Y, and Z
hole. Since the other value given for the hole is zero, closely without regard to the overall length. In such a
the lower limit of the hole is the basic size of the hole, case the overall dimension is just a reference dimen-
or 2.0000–. The hole would then be dimensioned as sion and should be denoted with parentheses. In other
2.0005 +.0005 cases it may be desired to hold two small dimensions X
or 2.0000 and Y and the overall closely without regard to dimen-
2.0000 -.0000.
sion Z. In that case, dimension Z should be omitted, or
The limits for the shaft are read as -.0004– and denoted as a reference with parentheses.
-.0007–. To get the limits of the shaft, subtract these As a rule, it is best to dimension each surface so
values from the basic size; thus, that it is affected by only one dimension. This can be
done by referring all dimensions to a single datum sur-
2.000– - .0004– = 1.9996–1upper limit2 face, such as B, as shown in Fig. 10b.
2.000– - .0007– = 1.9993–1lower limit2.

n FIGURE 10 n Cumulative Tolerances.

345
 Tolerancing

n FIGURE 11 n Tolerances Related to Machining Processes.

10 n TOLERANCES AND MACHINING standard.The system is specified for holes, cylinders, and
PROCESSES shafts, but it is also adaptable to fits between parallel
surfaces of such features as keys and slots. The following
As has been repeatedly stated in this chapter, tolerances
terms for metric fits, although somewhat similar to those
should be as coarse as possible and still permit satisfac-
for decimal-inch fits, are illustrated in Fig. 12.
tory use of the part. If this is done, great savings can be
effected from the use of less expensive tools, lower labor
and inspection costs, and reduced scrapping of material.
Figure 11 shows a chart of tolerance grades n FIGURE 12 n Terms Related to Metric Limits and Fits [ANSI
obtainable in relation to the accuracy of machining B4.2–1978 (R1994)].
processes that may be used as a guide by the designer.
Metric values may be ascertained by multiplying the
given decimal-inch values by 25.4 and rounding off the
product to one less place to the right of the decimal
point than given for the decimal-inch value.

11 n METRIC SYSTEM OF TOLERANCES

AND FITS
The preceding material on limits and fits between mat-
ing parts is suitable, without need of conversion, for the
decimal-inch system of measurement. A system of pre-
ferred metric limits and fits by the International Organi-
zation for Standardization (ISO) is in the ANSI B4.2

346
 Tolerancing

1. Basic size is the size from which limits or devia-

tions are assigned. Basic sizes, usually diameters,
should be selected from a table of preferred sizes
(see Fig. 17).
2. Deviation is the difference between the basic size
and the hole or shaft size. This is equivalent to the
tolerance in the decimal-inch system.
3. Upper deviation is the difference between the
basic size and the permitted maximum size of the
part. This is comparable to maximum tolerance in
the decimal-inch system.
4. Lower deviation is the difference between the
basic size and the minimum permitted size of the
part. This is comparable to minimum tolerance in
the decimal-inch system.
n FIGURE 13 n International Tolerance Grades Related to
5. Fundamental deviation is the deviation closest to
Machining Processes [ANSI B4.2–1978 (R1994)].
the basic size. This is comparable to minimum
allowance in the decimal-inch system.
6. Tolerance is the difference between the permitted
minimum and maximum sizes of a part.
7. International tolerance grade (IT) is a set of toler- 8. Tolerance zone refers to the relationship of the
ances that varies according to the basic size and tolerance to basic size. It is established by a combi-
provides a uniform level of accuracy within the nation of the fundamental deviation indicated by
grade. For example, in the dimension 50H8 for a a letter and the IT grade number. In the dimen-
close-running fit, the IT grade is indicated by the sion 50H8, for the close-running fit, the H8 speci-
numeral 8. (The letter H indicates that the toler- fies the tolerance zone (see Fig. 14).
ance is on the hole for the 50-mm dimension.) In 9. The hole-basis system of preferred fits is a system
all, there are 18 IT grades—IT01, IT0, and IT1 in which the basic diameter is the minimum size.
through IT16 (Figs. 13 and 14)—for IT grades For the generally preferred hole-basis system, the
related to machining processes and for the practi- fundamental deviation is specified by the upper-
cal use of the IT grades. case letter H (Fig. 15a).

n FIGURE 14 n Practical Use of International Tolerance Grades.

n FIGURE 15 n Application of Definitions and Symbols to Holes and Shafts [ANSI B4.2–1978 (R1994)].

347
 Tolerancing

TABLE 1 n Preferred Sizes [ANSI B4.2–1978 (R1994)]

Basic Size, Basic Size, Basic Size,

mm mm mm
n FIGURE 16 n Acceptable Methods of Giving Tolerance
Symbols (ANSI/ASME Y14.5M–1994). First Second First Second First Second
Choice Choice Choice Choice Choice Choice
1 10 100
10. The shaft-basis system of preferred fits is a system
in which the basic diameter is the maximum size 1.1 11 110
of the shaft. The fundamental deviation is given by 1.2 12 120
the lowercase letter f (Fig. 15b).
1.4 14 140
11. An interference fit results in an interference between
two mating parts under all tolerance conditions. 1.6 16 160
12. A transition fit results in either a clearance or an 1.8 18 180
interference condition between two assembled parts.
13. Tolerance symbols are used to specify the tolerances 2 20 200
and fits for mating parts (Fig. 15c). For the hole- 2.2 22 220
basis system, the 50 indicates the diameter in mil-
limeters; the fundamental deviation for the hole is 2.5 25 250
indicated by the capital letter H, and for the shaft it 2.8 28 280
is indicated by the lowercase letter f. The numbers
following the letters indicate this IT grade. Note that 3 30 300
the symbols for the hole and shaft are separated by 3.5 35 350
the slash. Tolerance symbols for a 50-mm-diameter
hole may be given in several acceptable forms (Fig. 4 40 400
16). The values in parentheses are for reference 4.5 45 450
only and may be omitted.
5 50 500
5.5 55 550
12 n PREFERRED SIZES
6 60 600
The preferred basic sizes for computing tolerances
are given in Table 1. Basic diameters should be 7 70 700
selected from the first choice column since these are 8 80 800
readily available stock sizes for round, square, and
hexagonal products. 9 90 900
1000
13 n PREFERRED FITS
The symbols for either the hole-basis or shaft-basis Suppose that you want to use the symbols to speci-
preferred fits (clearance, transition, and interference) fy the dimensions for a free-running fit (hole basis) for
are given in Table 2. Fits should be selected from a proposed diameter of 48 mm. Since 48 mm is not list-
this table for mating parts where possible. ed as a preferred size in Table 1, the design is altered
Although second and third choice basic size diame- to use the acceptable 50-mm diameter. From the pre-
ters are possible, they must be calculated from tables not ferred fits descriptions in Table 2, the free-running
included in this text. For the generally preferred hole- fit (hole-basis) is H9/d9. To determine the upper and
basis system, note that the ISO symbols range from lower deviation limits of the hole as given in the pre-
H11/c11 (loose running) to H7/u6 (force fit). For the ferred hole-basis table, follow across from the basic
shaft-basis system, the preferred symbols range from size of 50 to H9 under “Free running.” The limits for
C11/h11 (loose fit) to U7/h6 (force fit). the hole are 50.000 and 50.062 mm. Then the upper and
lower limits of deviation for the shaft are found in the
d9 column under “Free running.” They are 49.920 and

348
 Tolerancing

TABLE 2 n Preferred Fits [ANSI B4.2–1978 (R1994)]

ISO Symbol
Hole Shafta
Basis Basis Description
Clearance Fits

H11/c11 C11/h11 Loose-running fit for wide commercial tolerances or allowances on

More clearance ¬¡
external members.
H9/d9 D9/h9 Free-running fit not for use where accuracy is essential, but good for large
temperature variations, high running speeds, or heavy journal pressures.
H8/f7 F8/h7 Close-running fit for running on accurate machines and for accurate
location at moderate speeds and journal pressures.
H7/g6 G7/h6 Sliding fit not intended to run freely, but to move and turn freely and
locate accurately.
Transition Fits

H7/h6 H7/h6 Locational clearance fit provides snug fit for locating stationary parts; but
can be freely assembled and disassembled.
H7/k6 K7/h6 Locational transition fit for accurate location, a compromise between
clearance and interference.
H7/n6 N7/h6 Locational transition fit for more accurate location where greater
interference is permissible.

—9More interference
H7/p6 P7/h6 Locational interference fit for parts requiring rigidity and alignment with
Interference Fits

prime accuracy of location but without special bore pressure

requirements.
H7/s6 S7/h6 Medium drive fit for ordinary steel parts or shrink fits on light sections, the
tightest fit usable with cast iron.
H7/u6 U7/h6 Force fit suitable for parts which can be highly stressed or for shrink fits
where the heavy pressing forces required are impractical.
a
The transition and interference shaft-basis fits shown do not convert to exactly the same hole-basis fit conditions for basic sizes in the
range from Q through 3 mm. Interference fit P7/h6 converts to a transition fit H7/p6 in the above size range.

49.858 mm, respectively. Limits for other fits are estab- See Figs. 16 and 17 for acceptable methods of spec-
lished in a similar manner. ifying tolerances by symbols on drawings. A single note
for the mating parts (free-running fit, hole basis) would
be ¤50 H9/d9 (Fig. 17).

n FIGURE 17 n Methods of Specifying Tolerances with Symbols for Mating Parts.

349
 Tolerancing

14 n GEOMETRIC TOLERANCING mended rather than by traditional notes and are dis-
cussed and illustrated subsequently. See the latest
Geometric tolerances state the maximum allowable vari-
Dimensioning and Tolerancing Standard (ANSI/ASME
ations of a form or its position from the perfect geometry
Y14.5M–1994) for more complete coverage.
implied on the drawing. The term “geometric” refers to
various forms, such as a plane, a cylinder, a cone, a square,
or a hexagon. Theoretically these are perfect forms, but, 15 n SYMBOLS FOR TOLERANCES
because it is impossible to produce perfect forms, it may OF POSITION AND FORM
be necessary to specify the amount of variation permit- Since traditional narrative notes for specifying tolerances
ted. These tolerances specify either the diameter or the of position (location) and form (shape) may be confusing
width of a tolerance zone within which a surface or the or unclear, may require too much space, and may not be
axis of a cylinder or a hole must be if the part is to meet understood internationally, most multinational compa-
the required accuracy for proper function and fit. When nies have adopted symbols for such specifications
tolerances of form are not given on a drawing, it is cus- (ANSI/ASME Y14.5M–1994).These ANSI symbols pro-
tomary to assume that, regardless of form variations, the vide an accurate and concise means of specifying geo-
part will fit and function satisfactorily. metric characteristics and tolerances in a minimum of
Tolerances of form and position or location control space (Table 3). The symbols may be supplemented by
such characteristics as straightness, flatness, parallelism, notes if the precise geometric requirements cannot be
perpendicularity (squareness), concentricity, roundness, conveyed by the symbols.
angular displacement, and so on. Combinations of the various symbols and their
Methods of indicating geometric tolerances by meanings are given in Fig. 18. Application of the sym-
means of geometric characteristic symbols are recom-

TABLE 3 n Geometric Characteristic and Modifying Symbols (ASME Y14.5M–1994)

Geometric characteristic symbols Modifying symbols

Type of
Tolerance Characteristic Symbol Term Symbol
Straightness At maximum material condition M
For Flatness At least material condition L
individual Form
features Circularity (roundness) Projected tolerance zone P

Cylindricity Free state F

For individual Tangent plane T

Profile of a line
or related Profile Diameter
features Profile of a surface
Spherical diameter S
Angularity
Radius R
Orientation Perpendicularity
Spherical radius SR
Parallelism
Controlled radius CR
For related Position Reference ( )
features Location Concentricity Arc length
)

Symmetry Statistical tolerance ST

* Between
Circular runout
Runout
*
Total runout
*
ARROWHEADS MAY BE FILLED OR NOT FILLED

350
 Tolerancing

n FIGURE 18 n Use of Symbols for Tolerance of Position and Form (ASME Y14.5M–1994).

bols to drawing are illustrated in Fig. 43. The geomet- ing with a triangle. The triangle may be filled or
ric characteristic symbols plus the supplementary sym- not filled (see Fig. 18b). Letters of the alphabet
bols are further explained and illustrated with material (except I, O, and Q) are used as datum-identifying
adapted from ANSI/ASME Y14.5M–1994, as follows. letters. A point, line, plane, cylinder, or other geo-
metric form assumed to be exact for purposes of
1. The basic dimension symbol is identified by the computation may serve as a datum from which the
enclosing frame symbol (Fig. 18a). The basic location or geometric relationship of features of a
dimension (size) is the value used to describe the part may be established, as shown in Fig. 19.
theoretically exact size, shape, or location of a fea- 3. Supplementary symbols include the symbols for
ture. It is the basis from which permissible variations MMC (maximum material condition), (i.e., mini-
are established by tolerances on other dimensions in mum hole diameter, maximum shaft diameter)
notes, or in feature control frames. and LMC (least material condition), (i.e., maxi-
2. The datum identifying symbol consists of a capital mum hole diameter, minimum shaft diameter)
letter in a square frame and a leader line extending (Fig. 18c). The abbreviations MMC and LMC
from the frame to the concerned feature, terminat- are also used in notes (see also Table 3).

n FIGURE 19 n Placement of Datum Feature Symbol (ASME Y14.5M–1994).

(a) Feature Surface and an extension line (b) Feature Size - Ø (c) Feature Size - Ø (d) Feature Size

(e) Feature Size - Ø (f) Feature Size - Ø (g) Feature Size - Ø (h) Feature Control Frame

351
 Tolerancing

n FIGURE 20 n Tolerance Zones.

The symbol for diameter is used instead of the 16 n POSITIONAL TOLERANCES

abbreviation DIA to indicate a diameter, and it
precedes the specified tolerance in a feature con- Traditional methods of locating holes include using
trol symbol (Fig. 18d). This symbol for diameter rectangular coordinates or angular dimensions. Each
instead of the abbreviation DIA is used on a draw- dimension has a tolerance, either given directly or indi-
ing, and it should precede the dimension. For nar- cated on the completed drawing by a general note.
rative notes, the abbreviation DIA is preferred. Figure 20a shows a hole located from two sur-
4. Combined symbols are found when individual sym- faces at right angles to each other. In Fig. 20b, the cen-
bols, datum reference letters, needed tolerances, ter may lie anywhere within a square tolerance zone, the
and so on are found in a single frame (Fig. 18e). sides of which are equal to the tolerances. Thus, the total
variations along either diagonal of the square by the
A position of form tolerance is given by a feature coordinate method of dimensioning will be 1.4 times
control symbol made up of a frame about the appropri- greater than the indicated tolerance. Hence, a .014-diam-
ate geometric characteristic symbol plus the allowable eter tolerance zone would increase the square tolerance
tolerance. A vertical line separates the symbol and the zone area 57 without exceeding the tolerance permitted
tolerance (Fig. 18d). Where needed, the tolerance along the diagonal of the square tolerance zone.
should be preceded by the symbol for the diameter and Features located by toleranced angular and radial
followed by the symbol for MMC or LMC. dimensions will have a wedge-shaped tolerance zone.
A tolerance of position or form related to a datum (see Fig. 29).
is so indicated in the feature control symbol by placing If four holes are dimensioned with rectangular
the datum reference letter following either the geomet- coordinates as in Fig. 21a, acceptable patterns for
ric characteristic symbol or the tolerance. Vertical lines the square tolerance zones for the holes are shown in
separate the entries, and, where applicable, the datum Figs. 21b and 21c. The locational tolerances are
reference letter entry includes the symbol for MMC or actually greater than indicated by the dimensions.
LMC (Fig. 18).

n FIGURE 21 n Tolerance Zones.

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 Tolerancing

n FIGURE 22 n True-Position Dimensioning [ANSI Y14.5M–1982 (R1988)].

Feature control symbols are related to the feature These disadvantages are overcome by giving exact
by one of several methods illustrated in Fig. 44. The theoretical locations by untoleranced dimensions and
following methods are preferred: then specifying by a note how far actual positions may
1. Adding the symbol to a note or dimension per- be displaced from these locations. This is called true-
taining to the feature. position dimensioning. It will be seen that the tolerance
zone for each hole will be a circle, with the size of the
2. Running a leader from the symbol to the feature.
circle depending on the amount of variation permitted
3. Attaching the side, end, or corner of the symbol from true position.
frame to an extension line from the feature. A true-position dimension denotes the theoretical-
4. Attaching a side or end of the symbol frame to the ly exact position of a feature. The location of each fea-
dimension line pertaining to the feature. ture, such as a hole, slot, or stud, is given by
In Fig. 21a, hole A is selected as a datum, and untoleranced basic dimensions identified by the
the other three are located from it. The square toler- enclosing frame or symbol. To prevent misunderstand-
ance zone for hole A results from the tolerances on the ings, true position should be established with respect to
two rectangular coordinate dimensions locating hole a datum. In simple arrangements, the choice of a datum
A. The sizes of the tolerance zones for the other three may be obvious and not require identification.
holes result from the tolerances between the holes, Positional tolerancing is identified by a character-
while their locations will vary according to the actual istic symbol directed to a feature, which establishes a
location of the datum hole A. Two of the many possible circular tolerance zone (Fig. 22).
zone patterns are shown in Figs. 21b and 21c. Actually, the “circular tolerance zone” is a cylindri-
Thus, with the dimensions shown in Fig. 21a, it is cal tolerance zone (the diameter of which is equal to
difficult to say whether the resulting parts will actually the positional tolerance while its length is equal to the
fit the mating parts satisfactorily even though they con- length of the feature unless otherwise specified), and
form to the tolerances shown on the drawing. its axis must be within this cylinder (Fig. 23).

n FIGURE 23 n Cylindrical
Tolerance Zone (ASME Y14.5M–1994).

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 Tolerancing

n FIGURE 25 n No Tolerance Accumulation.

tures, such as slots, may vary on either side of a true-

n FIGURE 24 n True Position Interpretation (ASME position plane (Fig. 26).
Y14.5M–1994). Since the exact locations of the true positions are
given by untoleranced dimensions, it is important to
prevent the application of general tolerances to these.
The center line of the hole may coincide with the cen- A note should be added to the drawing, such as
ter line of the cylindrical tolerance zone (Fig. 23a); it
may be parallel to it but displaced so as to remain within GENERAL TOLERANCES DO NOT APPLY TO
the tolerance cylinder (Fig. 23b); or it may be inclined BASIC TRUE-POSITION DIMENSIONS.
while remaining within the tolerance cylinder (Fig.
23c). In this last case we see that the positional tolerance
also defines the limits of squareness variation. 17 n MAXIMUM MATERIAL CONDITION
In terms of the cylindrical surface of the hole, the Maximum material condition, usually abbreviated
positional tolerance specification indicates that all ele- MMC, means that a feature of a finished product con-
ments on the hole surface must be on or outside a tains the maximum amount of material permitted by
cylinder whose diameter is equal to the minimum the toleranced size dimensions shown for that feature.
diameter (MMC; §17) or the maximum diameter of the Thus, we have MMC when holes, slots, or other inter-
hole minus the positional tolerance (diameter, or twice nal features are at minimum size, or when shafts, pads,
the radius), with the center line of the cylinder located bosses, and other external features are at their maxi-
at true position (Fig. 24). mum size. We have MMC for both mating parts when
The use of basic untoleranced dimensions to locate the largest shaft is in the smallest hole and there is the
features at true position avoids one of the chief diffi- least clearance between the parts.
culties in tolerancing—the accumulation of tolerances In assigning positional tolerance to a hole, it is nec-
(§9), even in a chain of dimensions (Fig. 25). essary to consider the size limits of the hole. If the hole is
While features, such as holes and bosses, may vary at MMC (smallest size), the positional tolerance is not
in any direction from the true-position axis, other fea- affected, but if the hole is larger, the available positional

n FIGURE 26 n Positional Tolerancing for Symmetry (ASME Y14.5M–1994).

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 Tolerancing

n FIGURE 27 n Maximum and Minimum Material Conditions—Two-Hole Pattern (ASME Y14.5M–1994).

tolerance is greater. In Fig. 27a, two half-inch holes all features may vary in size, it is necessary to make
are shown. If they are exactly .500– in diameter (MMC, clear on the drawing at what basic dimension the true
or smallest size) and are exactly 2.000– apart, they position applies. In all but a few exceptional cases,
should receive a gage made of two round pins .500– in the additional positional tolerance available when
diameter fixed in a plate 2.000– apart (Fig. 27b). holes are larger than minimum size is acceptable and
However, the center-to-center distance between the desirable. Parts thus accepted can be freely assem-
holes may vary from 1.993– to 2.007–. bled whether or not the holes or other features are
If the .500– diameter holes are at their extreme within the specified positional tolerance. This prac-
positions (Fig. 27c), the pins in the gage would have tice has been recognized and used in manufacturing
to be .007– smaller, or .493– diameter, to enter the for years, as is evident from the use of fixed-pin
holes. Thus, if the .500– diameter holes are located at gages, which have been commonly used to inspect
the maximum distance apart, the .493– diameter gage parts and control the least favorable condition of
pins would contact the inner sides of the holes; and if assembly. Thus it has become common practice for
the holes are located at the minimum distance apart, both manufacturing and inspection to assume that
the .493– diameter pins would contact the outer sur- positional tolerance applies to MMC and that greater
faces of the holes, as shown. If gagemakers’ tolerances positional tolerance becomes permissible when the
are not considered, the gage pins would have to be part is not at MMC.
.493– diameter and exactly 2.000 apart if the holes are To avoid possible misinterpretation as to whether
.500 diameter, or MMC. maximum material condition (MMC) applies, it should
If the holes are .505– diameter—that is, at maximum be clearly stated on the drawing by the addition of
size (Fig. 27d)—they will be accepted by the same MMC symbols to each applicable tolerance or by suit-
.493– diameter gage pins at 2.000– apart if the inner sides able coverage in a document referenced on the drawing.
of the holes contact the inner sides of the gage pins and When MMC is not specified on the drawing with
the outer sides of the holes contact the outer sides of the respect to an individual tolerance, datum reference, or
gage pins, as shown. Thus the holes may be 2.012– apart, both, the following rules apply:
which is beyond the tolerance permitted for the center-
to-center distance between the holes. Similarly, the holes 1. True-position tolerances and related datum refer-
may be as close together as 1.988– from center to center, ences apply at MMC. For a tolerance of position,
which again is outside the specified positional tolerance. RFS (regardless of feature size) may be specified
Thus, when the holes are at maximum size, a on the drawing with respect to the individual tol-
greater positional tolerance becomes available. Since erance, datum reference, or both, as applicable.

355
 Tolerancing

2. All applicable geometric tolerances, such as angu- within a tolerance zone (Fig. 29b). The angular zone
larity, parallelism, perpendicularity, concentricity, will be wider as the distance from the vertex increases.
and symmetry tolerances, including related datum To avoid the accumulation of tolerances—that is, to
references, or both, apply at RFS, where no modi- decrease the tolerance zone—the basic angle toleranc-
fying symbol is specified. Circular runout, total ing method (Fig. 29c) is recommended (ASME
runout, concentricity, and symmetry are applicable Y14.5M–1994). The angle is indicated as basic with the
only on an RFS basis and cannot be modified to proper symbol and no angular tolerance is specified.The
MMC or LMC. No element of the actual feature tolerance zone is now defined by two parallel planes,
will extend beyond the envelope of the perfect form resulting in improved angular control (Fig. 29d).
at MMC. MMC or LMC must be specified on the
drawing where it is required. 19 n FORM TOLERANCES FOR SINGLE
FEATURES
18 n TOLERANCES OF ANGLES Straightness, flatness, roundness, cylindricity, and, in
Bilateral tolerances have traditionally been given on some instances, profile are form tolerances applicable
angles (Fig. 28). Consequently, the wedge-shaped tol- to single features regardless of feature size (RFS).
erance zone increases as the distance from the vertex of
the angle increases. Thus, the tolerance had to be figured 1. A straightness tolerance specifies a tolerance zone
after considering the total displacement at the point far- within which an axis or all points of the considered
thest from the vertex of the angle before a tolerance element must lie (Fig. 30). Straightness is a condi-
could be specified that would not exceed the allowable tion in which an element of a surface or an axis is a
displacement. The use of angular tolerances may be straight line.
avoided by using gages.Taper turning is often handled by 2. A flatness tolerance specifies a tolerance zone
machining to fit a gage or by fitting to the mating part. defined by two parallel planes within which the
If an angular surface is located by a linear and an surface must lie (Fig. 31). Flatness is the condi-
angular dimension (Fig. 29a), the surface must lie tion of a surface having all elements in one plane.
3. A roundness (circularity) tolerance specifies a tol-
n FIGURE 28 n Tolerances of Angles. erance zone bounded by two concentric circles
within which each circular element of the surface
must lie (Fig. 32). Roundness is a condition of a
surface of revolution in which, for a cone or cylin-
der, all points of the surface intersected by any
plane perpendicular to a common axis are equidis-
tant from that axis. For a sphere, all points of the
surface intersected by any plane passing through a
common center are equidistant from that center.
4. A cylindricity tolerance specifies a tolerance zone
bounded by two concentric cylinders within which
the surface must lie (Fig. 33). This tolerance
applies to both circular and longitudinal elements
of the entire surface. Cylindricity is a condition of

n FIGURE 29 n Angular Tolerance Zones (ASME Y14.5M–1994).

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 Tolerancing

n FIGURE 30 n Specifying Straightness (ASME Y14.5M–1994). n FIGURE 31 n Specifying Flatness (ASME Y14.5M–1994).

a surface of revolution in which all points of the ments of the surface must lie (Figs. 35 and 36).
surface are equidistant from a common axis. A profile is the outline of an object in a given plane
When no tolerance of form is given, many possi- (two-dimensional) figure. Profiles are formed by
ble shapes may exist within a tolerance zone, as projecting a three-dimensional figure onto a plane
illustrated in Fig. 34. or by taking cross sections through the figure, with
5. A profile tolerance specifies a uniform boundary the resulting profile composed of such elements as
or zone along the true profile within which all ele- straight lines, arcs, or other curved lines.

n FIGURE 32 n Specifying Roundness for a Cylinder or Cone (ASME Y14.5M–1994).

n FIGURE 33 n Specifying Cylindricity (ASME

Y14.5M–1994).

357
 Tolerancing

n FIGURE 34 n Acceptable Variations of Form—No Specified Tolerance of Form.

n FIGURE 35 n Specifying Profile of a Surface All Around (ASME Y14.5M–1994).

n FIGURE 36 n Specifying Profile of a Surface between Points (ASME Y14.5–1994).

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 Tolerancing

20 n FORM TOLERANCES FOR RELATED surface or axis of the feature must lie, or the paral-
FEATURES lelism tolerance may specify a cylindrical toler-
Angularity, parallelism, perpendicularity, and in some ance zone parallel to a datum axis within which
instances, profile are form tolerances applicable to the axis of the feature must lie (Figs. 38–40).
related features. These tolerances control the attitude 3. Perpendicularity tolerance. Perpendicularity is a
of features to one another (ASME Y14.5M–1994). condition of a surface, median plane, or axis at 90°
to a datum plane or axis. A perpendicularity toler-
1. An angularity tolerance specifies a tolerance zone ance specifies one of the following:
defined by two parallel planes at the specified a. A tolerance zone is defined by two parallel
basic angle (other than 90°) from a datum plane or planes perpendicular to a datum plane, datum
axis within which the surface or the axis of the fea- axis, or axis within which the surface of the
ture must lie (Fig. 37). feature must lie (Fig. 41).
2. A parallelism tolerance specifies a tolerance zone b. A cylindrical tolerance zone perpendicular to
defined by two parallel planes or lines parallel to a a datum plane within which the axis of the fea-
datum plane or axis, respectively, within which the ture must lie (Fig. 42).

n FIGURE 37 n Specifying Angularity for a Plane

Surface (ASME Y14.5M–1994).

n FIGURE 38 n Specifying Parallelism for a Plane

Surface (ASME Y14.5M–1994).

n FIGURE 39 n Specifying Parallelism for an Axis

Feature RFS (ASME Y14.5M–1994).

359
 Tolerancing

n FIGURE 40 n Specifying Parallelism for

an Axis Feature at MMC (ASME Y14.5M–1994).

n FIGURE 41 n Specifying Perpendicularity (ASME Y14.5M–1994).

360
 Tolerancing

n FIGURE 42 n Specifying Perpendicularity for

an Axis, Pin, or Boss (ASME Y14.5M–1994).

4. Concentricity tolerance. Concentricity is the con- 21 n APPLICATION OF GEOMETRIC

dition in which the axes of all cross-sectional ele- TOLERANCING
ments of a feature’s surface of revolution are The use of various feature control symbols in lieu of
common to the axis of a datum feature. A concen- notes for position and form tolerance dimensions as
tricity tolerance specifies a cylindrical tolerance abstracted from ASME Y14.5M–1994 is illustrated in
zone whose axis coincides with a datum axis and Fig. 44. For a more detailed treatment of geometric
within which all cross-sectional axes of the feature tolerancing, consult the latest ASME Y14.5M dimen-
being controlled must lie (Fig. 43). sioning and tolerancing standard.

n FIGURE 43 n Specifying Concentricity (ASME

Y14.5M–1994).

n FIGURE 44 n Application of
Symbols to Position and Form
Tolerance Dimensions (ASME
Y14.5M–1994).

361
 Tolerancing

Graphics
Spotlight Geometric Tolerances With AutoCAD 2004
AutoCAD 2004 has built-in dialog boxes which allow picking in the empty box below the heading Dia. A diameter
you to create feature control frames for geometric toleranc- symbol appears automatically. The area to the right of the
ing. You can create a feature control frame by picking the diameter symbol is a text entry box that you use to type in the
Tolerance icon from AutoCAD’s Dimensioning toolbar. When value you want to show for the tolerance.
you do so the dialog box shown in Figure A will appear on To add a modifier symbol pick in the next empty box to
your screen. It shows the standard tolerance symbols. the right. The Material Condition dialog box shown in Fig-
ure C pops up on the screen. You can quickly pick the
modifier you want to add from the dialog box.
Datum references can be created just as quickly by
picking in the appropriate box and typing in the letter you
want to use. Datum references can also have a modifier
when used with certain types of tolerances. Again, just
pick in the empty box below the modifier and use the dia-
log box that appears to add a symbol.
If you want stacked tolerances or a datum identifier, you
continue on with the same basic procedure. When you pick
(A) OK at the end of the process, you will be prompted to pick a
location to place the tolerance in the drawing. You can also
To begin creating a feature control frame all you need to use the Leader command and select the options to place a
do is double-click on the symbol you want to use. For exam- tolerance at the end of a leader line. Using these dialog boxes
ple, you could double-click on the positional tolerance sym- you can quickly add geometric tolerance symbols as shown in
bol shown in the upper left-hand corner of the dialog box. Figure D to your drawings. Creating the symbols is easy, but
When you have selected the symbol a new dialog box shown you must give careful consideration to what the placement of
in Figure B will appear on the screen. You use it to create a the symbols in the drawing means and make sure to reflect
single feature control frame, or a stacked feature control the intent of the design and the tolerances that are required for
frame. You can also add diameter symbols, modifiers, datum the part to function correctly in the assembly. Specifying
references, or datum identifiers. The diameter symbol shown needlessly restrictive tolerances just increases the cost of the
in the Geometric Tolerance dialog box was added just by part, without adding more functionality to the design.

(B)

362
 Tolerancing

(D)
(C)

22 n SURFACE ROUGHNESS, WAVINESS, ity specifications should be used only where needed,
AND LAY since the cost of producing a finished surface becomes
greater as the quality of the surface called for is
The modern demands of the automobile, the airplane, increased. Generally, the ideal surface finish is the rough-
and other modern machines that can stand heavier est one that will do the job satisfactorily.
loads and higher speeds with less friction and wear The system of surface texture symbols recom-
have increased the need for accurate control of surface mended by ANSI/ASME (Y14.36M–1996) for use on
quality by the designer regardless of the size of the fea- drawings, regardless of the system of measurement
ture. Simple finish marks are not adequate to specify used, is now broadly accepted by American industry.
surface finish on such parts. These symbols are used to define surface texture,
Surface finish is intimately related to the functioning roughness, and lay. See Fig. 45 for the meaning and
of a surface, and proper specification of finish of such construction of these symbols. The basic surface tex-
surfaces as bearings and seals is necessary. Surface qual- ture symbol in Fig. 46a indicates a finished or

n FIGURE 45 n Surface Texture Symbols and Construction (ANSI/ASME Y14.36M–1996).

363
 Tolerancing

n FIGURE 46 n Application of Surface Texture Symbols and Surface Characteristics (ANSI/ASME Y14.36M–1996).

TABLE 4 n Preferred Series Roughness Average Values 1Ra2 machined surface by any method, just as does the gen-
(ANSI/ASME Y14.36–1996). Recommended values are in color. eral V symbol (Fig. 11.20a). Modifications to the basic
surface texture symbol (Figs. 45b to 45d), define
Micro- Micro- Micro- Micro- restrictions on material removal for the finished sur-
metersa inches metersa inches face. Where surface texture values other than rough-
(Mm) (Min.) (Mm) (Min.) ness average 1Ra2 are specified, the symbol must be
0.012 0.5 1.25 50 drawn with the horizontal extension, as shown in Fig.
45e. Construction details for the symbols are given
0.025 1 1.60 63 in Fig. 45f.
0.050 2 2.0 80 Applications of the surface texture symbols are
given in Fig. 46a. Note that the symbols read
0.075 3 2.5 100 from the bottom and/or the right side of the drawing
0.10 4 3.2 125 and that they are not drawn at any angle or upside
down.
0.125 5 4.0 180 Measurements for roughness and waviness, unless
0.15 6 5.0 200 otherwise specified, apply in the direction that gives
the maximum reading, usually across the lay (Fig.
0.20 8 6.3 250 46b). The recommended roughness height values are
0.25 10 8.0 320 given in Table 4.
When it is necessary to indicate the roughness-
0.32 13 10.0 400 width cutoff values, the standard values to be used are
0.40 16 12.5 500 listed in Table 5. If no value is specified, the 0.80
value is assumed.
0.50 20 15 600 When maximum waviness height values are
0.63 25 20 800 required, the recommended values to be used are as
given in Table 6.
0.80 32 25 1000 When it is desired to indicate lay, the lay symbols
1.00 40 in Fig. 47 are added to the surface texture symbols
as per the examples given. Selected applications of the
a
Micrometers are the same as thousandths of a millimeter surface texture values to the symbols are given and
11 mm = 0.001 mm2
explained in Fig. 48.

364
 Tolerancing

n FIGURE 47 n Lay Symbols (ANSI/ASME Y14.36M–1996).

n FIGURE 48 n Application
of Surface Texture Values to
Symbol (ANSI/ASME
Y14.36M–1996).

TABLE 5 n Standard Roughness Sampling Length (Cutoff) Values TABLE 6 n Preferred Series Maximum Waviness Height Values
(ANSI/ASME Y14.36–1996). (ANSI/ASME Y14.36–1996).

Millimeters Inches Millimeters Inches Millimeters Inches Millimeters Inches

(mm) (in.) (mm) (in.) (mm) (in.) (mm) (in.)
0.08 .003 2.5 .1 0.0005 .00002 0.025 .001
0.25 .010 8.0 .3 0.0008 .00003 0.05 .002
0.80 .030 25.0 1.0 0.0012 .00005 0.08 .003
0.0020 .00008 0.12 .005
0.0025 .0001 0.20 .008
0.005 .0002 0.25 .010
0.008 .0003 0.38 .015
A typical range of surface roughness values that
may be obtained from various production methods is 0.012 .0005 0.50 .020
shown in Fig. 49. Preferred roughness-height values 0.020 .0008 0.80 .030
are shown at the top of the chart.

365
 Tolerancing

n FIGURE 49 n Surface Roughness Produced by Common Production Methods (ANSI/ASME B46.1–1985). The ranges shown are typical of
the processes listed. Higher or lower values may be obtained under special conditions.

23 n USING GEOMETRIC DIMENSIONING views that part in relations to its related parts. This
AND TOLERANCING allows the designer more latitude in defining the
part’s features more accurately by not only consid-
Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing (GDT) has ering the part’s dimensions, but its tolerances at the
evolved over the last forty years to become an initial design stage. GDT also simplifies the inspec-
indispensable tool for defining parts and features tion process.This is accomplished through the use of
more accurately. GDT not only considers an indi- ASME standards (ASME—Y14.5M), as we have
vidual part and its dimensions and tolerances, but discussed previously.

366
 Tolerancing

1. DEFINE THE PART’S (FEATURE’S) FUNCTION:

Basic function

Additional function(s)

2. LIST THE FUNCTIONS IN ORDER OF PRIORITY

Function# Function# Function#

3. DEFINE DATUM REFERENCE FRAME

Part # Function
Primary Datum Feature Secondary Datum Feature

Part # Function
Primary Datum Feature Secondary Datum Feature

Part # Function
Primary Datum Feature Secondary Datum Feature

4. SELECT CONTROL TYPE

Part# Part #
Control Control

5. CALCULATE THE TOLERANCES

Part # Part# Part#

n FIGURE 50 n Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing Design Worksheet.

Individually manufactured parts and compo- sible. For example, a lawnmower wheel’s functions is to:
nents must eventually be assembled into products. (a) Give the product mobility; (b) Lift the mowing deck
We take for granted that each part of a lawnmower, off the ground; (c) Add rigidity to the body, etc.
for example, will mate properly with its other compo- Step 2: List the functions by priority. Only one func-
nents when assembled. The wheels will slip into their tion should have top priority. This step can be difficult
axles, the pistons will fit properly into their cylinders, since many parts are designed to incorporate multiple
etc. Nothing should be too tight or too loose. functions. In our lawnmower wheels example, the func-
Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing, there- tion with top priority would be to give the product
fore, is important to both the design and manufactur- mobility.
ing processes. Step 3: Define the datum reference frame. This step
Applying GDT principles to the design process should be based on your list of priorities. This may
requires five steps: mean creating several reference frames, each based on
Step 1: Define the part’s functions. It is best to break the a priority on your list. The frame should be set up in
part down to its simplest functions. Be as specific as pos- either one, two, or three planes.

367
 Tolerancing

Step 4: Control selection. (See §§19, 21, 22.) In most marks, and other standard symbols are typically avail-
cases, several controls will be needed (e.g., runout, po- able as a part of the CAD program or as a symbol
sition, concentricity, roughness, etc.). Begin with the sim- library.
plest control. By “simplest” we mean least restrictive. Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing has
Work from the least restrictive to the most restrictive set become an essential part of today’s manufacturing indus-
of controls. try. To compete in today’s marketplace, companies are
Step 5: Calculate tolerances. Most tolerances are math- required to develop and produce products of the highest
ematically based. This step should be the easiest. Apply quality, at lowest cost, and guarantee on-time delivery.
MMC, RFS, or LMC where indicated. (See §§15, 17, 19.) Although considered by most to be a design specification
Avoid completing this step first, it should always be your language, GDT is a manufacturing and inspection lan-
last. See Fig. 50 for a worksheet out-lining these five guage as well, providing a means for uniform interpreta-
steps. tion and understanding by these various groups. It
provides both a national and international contract base
CAD programs generally allow the user to add for customers and suppliers.
tolerances to dimension values in the drawings. Geo-
metric dimensioning and tolerancing symbols, finish

n FIGURE 51 n Application of Surface Finish Symbols. Drawing by Enidine. Courtesy of SolidWorks Corporation.

368
 Tolerancing

Tolerance Symbols of Form,

General Tolerance Symbols
Orientation, and Location
Symbol Characteristic Type of Tolerance

Flatness
M Maximum Material Condition
Straightness
Form
L Least Material Condition Roundness

Cylindricity
S Regardless of Feature Size
Profile of a Line
Profile
–A– Primary Datum Profile of a Surface

Angularity
–B– Secondary Datum
Perpendicularity Orientation
–C– Tertiary Datum Parallelism

Position

Feature Control Symbols Concentricity Location

Symmetry
/ 0.005
O M A B C
Circular Runout
Runout
Geometric Total Runout
Characteristic Symbol

Zone Descriptor
Arc Length
Feature Tolerance
X.XX Basic Dimension
Modifier
Conical Taper
Primary
Datum Reference Counterbore or Spotface
Secondary Countersink
Datum Reference
Deep or Depth
Tertiary
Datum Reference /
O Diameter

X.XX Dimension Not to Scale

2X Number of Times–Places

R Radius

(X.XX) Reference Dimension

/
SO Spherical Diameter

SR Spherical Radius

Slope

Square

n FIGURE 52 n Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing Symbols Available in AutoCAD 2002. Courtesy of Autodesk, Inc.

369
 Tolerancing

KEY WORDS
TOLERANCE PERPENDICULAR LIMITS CONCENTRIC
ALLOWANCE RUNOUT INTERFERENCE FIT CIRCULARITY
BASIC-HOLE SYSTEM CYLINDRICITY BASIC-SHAFT SYSTEM GEOMETRIC DIMENSIONING
CLEARANCE FIT CONTROL AND TOLERANCING
BILATERAL TOLERANCE
TRANSITION FIT FUNCTION
(GDT)
MAXIMUM MATERIAL
UNILATERAL TOLERANCE LIMIT DIMENSION CONDITION
GEOMETRIC TOLERANCING NOMINAL SIZE PARALLEL

CHAPTER SUMMARY
n Tolerance dimensioning describes the minimum and n Mating parts with negative allowances are classified as
maximum limits for a size or location of a feature. having an interference fit or force fit.
n There are several ways of dimensioning tolerances, n Mating parts are designed around a nominal size and
including limit dimensions, unilateral tolerances, bilateral class of fit. All other tolerances are calculated from these
tolerances, and geometric tolerancing. two values.
n Basic-hole tolerance systems are the most commonly n High-quality parts are often dimensioned with geometric
used tolerance system because they assume the hole is tolerancing to ensure that the size, shape, and relative
nominal size and adjust the shaft to accommodate the tol- geometric characteristics are properly defined.
erance. n GDT has become an essential part of today’s manufac-
n The amount of space between two mating parts at maxi- turing industry. GDT is not only a design language, but an
mum material condition is called the allowance. inspection language as well.
n Mating parts with large allowances are classified as hav-
ing a clearance fit or running and sliding fit.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What do the two numbers of a limit dimension mean? 6. List five classes of fit.
2. Draw three different geometric tolerances that refer- 7. Can one part have an allowance? Why?
ence a datum. Label the information in each box. 8. Can two parts have a tolerance? Why?
3. Why is the basic-hole system more common than the 9. Give an example of how GDT could be used as both a
basic-shaft system? design and inspection tool.
4. Give five examples of nominal sizes in everyday life. 10. List the five steps required to apply GDT to the
What is the purpose of a nominal size? design process.
5. Give an example of two parts that would require a run-
ning and sliding fit. A force fit.

370
Threads, Fasteners, and Springs

OBJECTIVES OVERVIEW
After studying the material in this chapter, you The concept of the screw thread seems to have occurred first to
should be able to: Archimedes, the third-century B.C. mathematician who wrote
1. Define and label the parts of a screw briefly on spirals and invented or designed several simple devices
thread. applying the screw principle. By the first century B.C., the screw was
2. Identify various screw thread forms. a familiar element but was crudely cut from wood or filed by hand
3. Draw detailed, schematic, and simplified on a metal shaft. Nothing more was heard of the screw thread until
threads in section and elevation. the fifteenth century.
4. Define typical thread specifications. Leonardo da Vinci understood the screw principle, and he cre-
ated sketches showing how to cut screw threads by machine. In the
5. Identify various fasteners and describe
their use.
sixteenth century, screws appeared in German watches and were
used to fasten suits of armor. In 1569, the screw-cutting lathe was
6. Draw various screw head types.
invented by the Frenchman Besson, but this method of screw pro-
7. Draw springs in elevation using break duction did not take hold for another century and a half; nuts and
conventions.
bolts continued to be made largely by hand. In the eighteenth centu-
ry, screw manufacturing started in England during the Industrial
Revolution.
Threads and fasteners are the principal fastening devices used
for assembling component parts. The shape of the helical thread is
called the thread form. The metric thread form is the international
standard, although the unified thread form is common in the United
States. Other thread forms are used in specific applications. CAD
drawing programs often use software that automatically depicts
threads. The thread specification is a special leader note that defines
the type of thread or fastener. This is an instruction for the shop
technician so the correct type of thread is created during the manu-
facturing process. To speed production time and reduce costs, many
new types of fasteners are created every year. Existing fasteners are
also modified to improve their insertion in mass production.

From Chapter 13 of Engineering Graphics, Eighth Edition, Frederick E. Giesecke,

Alva Mitchell, Henry Cecil Spencer, Ivan Leroy Hill, Robert Olin Loving, John
Thomas Dygdon, James E. Novak. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Published by Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.
 Threads, Fasteners, and Springs

1 n STANDARDIZED SCREW THREADS 2 n SCREW THREAD TERMS

In early times, there was no such thing as standardiza- The following definitions apply to screw threads in
tion. Nuts made by one manufacturer would not fit the general (Fig. 1). For additional information regard-
bolts of another. In 1841 Sir Joseph Whitworth started ing specific Unified and metric screw thread terms and
crusading for a standard screw thread, and soon the definitions, refer to the following standards:
Whitworth thread was accepted throughout England.
ANSI/ASME B1.1–1989
In 1864 the United States adopted a thread pro-
posed by William Sellers of Philadelphia, but the Sellers ANSI/ASME B1.7M–1984 (R1992)
nuts would not screw onto a Whitworth bolt, or vice ANSI/ASME B1.13M–1983 (R1989)
versa. In 1935 the American Standard thread, with the ANSI/ASME Y14.6–1978 (R1993)
same 60° V form of the old Sellers thread, was adopted ANSI/ASME Y14.6aM–1981 (R1993).
in the United States. Still there was no standardization
among countries. In peacetime it was a nuisance; in SCREW THREAD A ridge of uniform section in the form
World War I it was a serious inconvenience; and in of a helix on the external or internal surface of
World War II the obstacle was so great that the Allies a cylinder.
decided to do something about it. Talks began among
EXTERNAL THREAD A thread on the outside of a mem-
the Americans, British, and Canadians, and in 1948 an
ber, as on a shaft.
agreement was reached on the unification of American
and British screw threads.The new thread was called the INTERNAL THREAD A thread on the inside of a member,
Unified screw thread, and it represents a compromise as in a hole.
between the American Standard and Whitworth sys-
tems, allowing complete interchangeability of threads in MAJOR DIAMETER The largest diameter of a screw
three countries. thread (applies to both internal and external threads).
In 1946 an International Organization for Standard- MINOR DIAMETER The smallest diameter of a screw
ization (ISO) committee was formed to establish a single thread (applies to both internal and external threads).
international system of metric screw threads. Conse-
quently, through the cooperative efforts of the Industrial PITCH The distance from a point on a screw thread to
Fasteners Institute (IFI), several committees of the a corresponding point on the next thread measured
American National Standards Institute, and the ISO rep- parallel to the axis. The pitch P is equal to 1 divided by
resentatives, a metric fastener standard was prepared. the number of threads per inch.
Today screw threads are vital to our industrial life. PITCH DIAMETER The diameter of an imaginary cylin-
They are designed for hundreds of different purposes; der passing through the threads to make equal the
the three basic applications are (1) to hold parts widths of the threads and the widths of the spaces cut
together, (2) to adjust parts with reference to each by the cylinder.
other, and (3) to transmit power.
LEAD The distance a screw thread advances axially in
one turn.

n FIGURE 1 n Screw Thread Nomenclature.

(a) Springs. (b) Screws and Fasteners. From Machine Design: An
Integrated Approach by Robert Norton, © 1996. Reprinted by permission of
Prentice-Hall, Inc.

(a) (b)

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 Threads, Fasteners, and Springs

ANGLE OF THREAD The angle included between the The Unified thread is the standard thread agreed
sides of the thread measured in a plane through the upon by the United States, Canada, and Great Britain
axis of the screw. in 1948, and has replaced the American National form.
CREST The top surface joining the two sides of a thread. The crest of the external thread may be flat or round-
ed, and the root is rounded; otherwise, the thread form
ROOT The bottom surface joining the sides of two is essentially the same as the American National.
adjacent threads. The metric thread is the standard screw thread
SIDE The surface of the thread that connects the crest agreed upon for international screw thread fasteners.
with the root. The crest and root are flat, but the external thread is
AXIS OF SCREW The longitudinal center line through often rounded if formed by a rolling process. The form
the screw. is similar to the American National and Unified
threads but with less depth of thread.
DEPTH OF THREAD The distance between the crest and The square thread is theoretically the ideal thread
the root of the thread measured normal to the axis. for power transmission, since its face is nearly at right
FORM OF THREAD The cross section of thread cut by a angles to the axis, but due to the difficulty of cutting it
plane containing the axis. with dies and because of other inherent disadvantages
SERIES OF THREAD Standard number of threads per (such as the fact that split nuts will not readily disen-
inch for various diameters. gage), the square thread has been displaced to a large
extent by the Acme thread. The square thread is not
standardized.
3 n SCREW THREAD FORMS The Acme thread is a modification of the square
Various forms of threads are used to hold parts together, thread and has largely replaced it. It is stronger than
to adjust parts with reference to each other, or to transmit the square thread, is easier to cut, and has the advan-
power (Fig. 2). The 60° Sharp-V thread was originally tage of easy disengagement from a split nut, as on the
called the United States Standard thread, or the Sellers lead screw of a lathe.
thread. For purposes of certain adjustments, the Sharp-V The standard worm thread (not shown) is similar to
thread is useful with the increased friction resulting from the Acme thread but is deeper. It is used on shafts to
the full thread face. It is also used on brass pipe work. carry power to worm wheels.
The American National thread with flattened roots The Whitworth thread was the British standard and
and crests is a stronger thread. This form replaced the has been replaced by the Unified thread. Its uses corre-
Sharp-V thread for general use. spond to those of the American National thread.

n FIGURE 2 n Screw Thread Forms.

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 Threads, Fasteners, and Springs

n FIGURE 3 n Pitch of Threads.

The knuckle thread is usually rolled from sheet 1

If there are, say, 16 threads per inch, the pitch is only 16 –
metal but is sometimes cast; in modified forms it is used (.063), and the threads are relatively small, similar to
in electric bulbs and sockets, bottle tops, etc. those in Fig. 3b.
The buttress thread is designed to transmit power The pitch or the number of threads per inch can be
in one direction only and is used in large guns, in jacks, measured with a scale (Fig. 3c) or with a thread-pitch
and in other mechanisms having similar high-strength gage (Fig. 3d).
requirements.

5 n RIGHT-HAND AND LEFT-HAND THREADS

4 n THREAD PITCH
A right-hand thread is one that advances into a nut when
The pitch of any thread form is the distance parallel to turned clockwise, and a left-hand thread is one that
the axis between corresponding points on adjacent advances into a nut when turned counterclockwise (Fig.
threads (Figs. 1a–3). For metric threads, this dis- 4). A thread is always considered to be right-handed
tance is specified in millimeters. (RH) unless otherwise specified. A left-hand thread is
The pitch for a metric thread that is included with always labeled LH on a drawing (see Fig. 18a).
the major diameter in the thread designation deter-
mines the size of the thread—for example, M10 * 1.5,
as shown in Fig. 3b. See also §21. 6 n SINGLE AND MULTIPLE THREADS
For threads dimensioned in inches, the pitch is A single thread, as the name implies, is composed of one
equal to 1 divided by the number of threads per inch. ridge, and the lead is therefore equal to the pitch. Multi-
The thread tables give the number of threads per inch ple threads are composed of two or more ridges running
for each standard diameter. Thus, a Unified coarse side by side. As shown in Figs. 5a to 5c, the slope
thread of 1– diameter has eight threads per inch, and line is the hypotenuse of a right triangle whose short side
the pitch P equals 18 – (.125). equals .5P for single threads, P for double threads, 1.5P
If a thread has only four threads per inch, the pitch for triple threads, and so on. This applies to all forms of
and the threads themselves are quite large (Fig. 3a). threads. In double threads, the lead is twice the pitch; in
triple threads, the lead is three times the pitch, and so on.

n FIGURE 4 n Right-Hand and Left-Hand Threads.

374
 Threads, Fasteners, and Springs

n FIGURE 5 n Multiple Threads.

On a drawing of a single or triple thread, a root is oppo- The detailed representation is a close approxima-
site a crest; in the case of a double or quadruple thread, a tion of the exact appearance of a screw thread.The true
root is drawn opposite a root. Therefore, in one turn, a projection of the helical curves of a screw thread (see
double thread advances twice as far as a single thread, Fig. 1) presents a pleasing appearance, but this does
and a triple thread advances three times as far. RH dou- not compensate for the laborious task of plotting the
ble square and RH triple Acme threads are shown in helices. Consequently, the true projection is rarely used
Figs. 5d and 5e, respectively. in practice.
Multiple threads are used wherever quick motion, When the diameter of the thread on the drawing is
but not great power, is desired, as on fountain pens, more than 1– or 25 mm, a pleasing drawing may be made
toothpaste caps, valve stems, etc. The threads on a valve by the detailed representation method, in which the true
stem are frequently multiple threads, to impart quick profiles of the threads (any form of thread) are drawn;
action in opening and closing the valve. Multiple threads but the helical curves are replaced by straight lines (Fig.
on a shaft can be recognized and counted by observing 6).* Whether the crests or roots are flat or rounded,
the number of thread endings on the end of the screw. they are represented by single lines and not double lines,
as in Fig. 1; consequently, American National and
7 n THREAD SYMBOLS Unified threads are drawn in exactly the same way.
There are three methods of representing screw threads
on drawings—the schematic, simplified, and detailed 8 n EXTERNAL THREAD SYMBOLS
methods. For clarity of representation and where good
judgment dictates, schematic, simplified, and detailed Simplified external thread symbols are shown in Figs.
thread symbols may be combined on a single drawing. 7a and 7b. The threaded portions are indicated by
Two sets of thread symbols, the schematic and the hidden lines parallel to the axis at the approximate
more common simplified, are used to represent the depth of the thread, whether in section or in elevation.
threads of small diameter, under approximately 1– or
25-mm diameter on the drawing. The symbols are the *A thread 42 mm or 1 58 – diameter, if drawn half size, would be less
same for all forms of threads, such as metric, Unified, than 25 mm or 1– diameter on the drawing and hence would be too
square, and Acme. small for this method of representation.

n FIGURE 6 n Detailed Metric, American National, and Unified Threads.

375
 Threads, Fasteners, and Springs

n FIGURE 7 n External Thread Symbols.

[Use the schematic depth of thread in the table in Fig. 9 n INTERNAL THREAD SYMBOLS
9a to draw these lines (Fig. 7d)]. Internal thread symbols are shown in Fig. 8. Note that
When the schematic form is shown in section (Fig. the only differences between the schematic and simpli-
7c), it is necessary to show the Vs; otherwise no fied internal thread symbols occur in the sectional views.
threads would be evident. However, it is not necessary The representation of the schematic thread in section in
to show the Vs to scale or according to the actual slope Figs. 8m, 8o, and 8p is exactly the same as the
of the crest lines. To draw the Vs, use the schematic external symbol in Fig. 7d. Hidden threads, by either
thread depth (Fig. 9a), and let the pitch be deter- method, are represented by pairs of hidden lines. The
mined by the 60° Vs. hidden dashes should be staggered, as shown.
Schematic threads in elevation (Fig. 7d) are In the case of blind tapped holes, the drill depth
indicated by alternate long and short lines at right normally is drawn at least three schematic pitches
angles to the center line, with the root lines being beyond the thread length, as shown in Figs. 8d, 8e,
preferably thicker than the crest lines. Although the 8n, and 8o. The symbols in Figs. 8f and 8p rep-
crest lines should theoretically be spaced according to resent the use of a bottoming tap, when the length of
actual pitch, the lines would often be very crowded and thread is the same as the depth of drill (see also §24).
tedious to draw, thus defeating the purpose of the sym-
bol, which is to save drafting time. In practice, the expe-
rienced drafter spaces the crest lines carefully by eye, 10 n DRAWING THREAD SYMBOLS
and then adds the heavy root lines spaced by eye Figure 9a shows a table of values of depth and pitch
halfway between the crest lines. In general, the spacing to use in drawing thread symbols. These values are
should be proportionate for all diameters. For conve- selected to produce a well-proportioned symbol and to
nience in drawing, proportions for the schematic sym- be convenient to set off with the scale. An experienced
bol are given in Fig. 9. drafter can carefully space the lines by eye, but a stu-

n FIGURE 8 n Internal Thread Symbols.

376
 Threads, Fasteners, and Springs

(a)

(b) (c) (d) (e)

(f) (g) (h)

(j) (k) (m) (n)

(o) (p) (q)

n FIGURE 9 n To Draw Thread Symbols—Simplified and Schematic.

dent should use the scale. Note that values of D and P SIMPLIFIED SYMBOLS The steps for drawing the sim-
are for the diameter on the drawing.Thus, a 112 – diameter plified symbols for an external thread in elevation
thread at half-scale would be 34 – diameter on the draw- and in section are shown in Figs. 9b to 9e. The
ing, and values of D and P for a 34 – major diameter would thread depth from the table is used for establishing
be used. Nominal diameters for decimal-inch or metric the pairs of hidden lines that represent the threads in
threads are treated in a similar manner. elevation and in section. No pitch measurement is

377
 Threads, Fasteners, and Springs

needed. The completed symbols are shown in Figs. the drafter merely draws the hole three thread pitches
9d and 9e. (schematic) beyond the thread length. The tap drill
The steps for drawing the simplified symbol for diameter is represented approximately, as shown, and
an internal thread in section are shown in Figs. 9f not to actual size. The completed schematic symbol for
to 9h. The simplified representation for the inter- an internal thread in elevation is shown (Fig. 9p).
nal thread in elevation is identical to that used for Pairs of hidden lines represent the threads, and the hid-
schematic representation, as the threads are indicated den-line dashes are staggered. The completed schemat-
by pairs of hidden lines (Fig. 9g). The simplified ic symbol for an internal thread in section is shown in
symbol for an internal thread in section is shown in Fig. 9q. The schematic internal thread in section is
Fig. 9h. The major diameter of the thread is repre- represented in the same manner as for the schematic
sented by hidden lines across the sectioned area. external thread.

SCHEMATIC SYMBOLS The steps for drawing the schematic

symbols for an external thread in elevation and in section 11 n DETAILED REPRESENTATION:
are shown in Figs. 9j to 9n. Note that when the pitch- METRIC, UNIFIED, AND AMERICAN
es P are set off in Fig. 9k, the final crest line for a full NATIONAL THREADS
pitch may fall beyond the actual thread length, as shown. The detailed representation for metric, Unified, and
The completed schematic symbol for an external thread in American National threads is the same, since the flats,
elevation is shown in Fig. 9m. The completed schematic if any, are disregarded. The steps in drawing these
symbol for an external thread in section is shown in Fig. threads are shown in Fig. 10.
9n. The schematic thread depth is used for drawing the
Vs, and the pitch is established by the 60° Vs. 1. Draw center line and lay out length and major
The steps for drawing the schematic symbols for an diameter (Fig. 10a).
internal thread in elevation and in section are shown in 2. Find the number of threads per inch in Appendix
Figs. 9o to 9q. Here again the symbol thread 15 for American National and Unified threads
length may be slightly longer than the actual given (Fig. 10b). This number depends on the major
thread length. If the tap drill depth is known or given, diameter of the thread, whether the thread is inter-
the drill is drawn to that depth, as shown. If the thread nal or external. Find P (pitch) by dividing 1 by the
note omits this information, as is often done in practice, number of threads per inch (§4). The pitch for

n FIGURE 10 n Detailed Representation—External Metric, Unified, and American National Threads.

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

378
 Threads, Fasteners, and Springs

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

n FIGURE 11 n Detailed Representation—Internal Metric, Unified, and American National Threads.

metric threads is given directly in the thread desig- upward to the right (Figs. 11d to 11f). Make all
nation. For example, the M14 * 2 thread has a final thread lines medium-thin but dark.
pitch of 2 mm. Establish the slope of the thread by
offsetting the slope line 21 Pfor single threads, P for
double threads, 112 P for triple threads, and so on. 12 n DETAILED REPRESENTATION
(These offsets are the same in terms of P for any OF SQUARE THREADS
form of thread.) For right-hand external threads, The steps in drawing the detailed representation of an
the slope line slopes upward to the left; for left- external square thread when the major diameter is
hand external threads, the slope line slopes upward over 1– or 25 mm (approx.) on the drawing are shown
to the right. If the number of threads per inch con- in Fig. 12.
forms to the scale, the pitch can be set off directly.
For example, eight threads per inch can easily be 1. Draw the center line, and lay out the length and
set off with the architects’ scale, and ten threads major diameter of the thread (Fig. 12a). Deter-
per inch with the engineers’ scale. Otherwise, use mine P by dividing 1 by the number of threads per
the bow dividers or use the parallel-line method inch. For a single RH thread, the lines slope upward
shown in Fig. 10b. to the left, and the slope line is offset as for all single
3. From the pitch points, draw crest lines parallel to threads of any form. On the upper line, set off
the slope line (Fig. 10c). These should be dark, spaces equal to P2 , as shown, using a scale if possible;
thin lines. Slide your triangle along a T-square (or otherwise, use the bow dividers or the parallel-line
another triangle) to make parallel lines. Draw two method to space the points.
Vs to establish the depth of thread, and draw guide 2. From the P2 points on the upper line, draw fairly
lines for the root of thread, as shown. thin lines (Fig. 12b). Draw guide lines for root
4. Draw 60° Vs finished weight (Fig. 10d). These of thread, making the depth P2 as shown.
Vs should stand vertically; that is, they should not 3. Draw parallel visible back edges of threads (Fig.
“lean” with the thread. 12c).
5. Draw root lines dark at once (Fig. 10e). Root 4. Draw parallel visible root lines (Fig. 12d). Note
lines will not be parallel to crest lines. Slide the trian- enlarged detail in Fig. 12g.
gle on the straightedge to make root lines parallel. 5. Accent the lines (Fig. 12e). All lines should be
6. When the end is chamfered (usually 45° with end thin and dark.
of shaft, sometimes 30°), the chamfer extends to the
thread depth (Fig. 10f). The chamfer creates a Note the end view of the shaft in Fig. 12f. The
new crest line, which is then drawn between the two root circle is hidden; no attempt is made to show the
new crest points. It is not parallel to the other crest true projection. If the end is chamfered, a solid circle
lines. In the final drawing, all thread lines should be would be drawn instead of the hidden circle.
approximately the same weight—thin, but dark. Figure 13 is an assembly drawing showing an
external square thread partly screwed into a nut. The
The corresponding internal detailed threads, in detail of the square thread at A is the same as shown in
section, are drawn as shown in Fig. 11. Notice that Fig. 12. But when the external and internal threads
for LH threads the lines slope upward to the left (Figs. are assembled, the thread in the nut overlaps and cov-
11a to 11c), while for RH threads the lines slope ers up half of the V, as shown at B.

379
 Threads, Fasteners, and Springs

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f) (g)

n FIGURE 12 n Detailed Representation—External Square Threads.

The internal thread construction is the same as in

Fig. 14. Note that the thread lines representing the
back half of the internal threads (since the thread is in
section) slope in the opposite direction from those on
the front side of the screw.
Steps in drawing a single internal square thread in
section are shown in Fig. 14. Note in Fig. 14b that a
crest is drawn opposite a root. This is the case for both
single and triple threads. For double or quadruple
threads, a crest is opposite a crest.Thus, the construction
in Figs. 14a and 14b is the same for any multiple of
thread. The differences appear in Fig. 14c, where the
threads and spaces are distinguished and outlined.
The same internal thread is shown in elevation
(external view) in Fig. 14e. The profiles of the threads
n FIGURE 13 n Square Threads in Assembly. are drawn in their normal position, but with hidden

n FIGURE 14 n Detailed Representation—Internal Square Threads.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

380
 Threads, Fasteners, and Springs

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e)

(f)

n FIGURE 15 n Detailed Representation—Acme Threads.

lines, and the sloping lines are omitted for simplicity.The a crest is opposite a root, while for double and
end view of the same internal thread is shown in Fig. quadruple threads, a crest is opposite a crest. Heavy
14f. Note that the hidden and solid circles are oppo- in tops and bottoms of threads.
site those for the end view of the shaft (see Fig. 12f). 5. Draw parallel crest lines, final weight at once
(Fig. 15e).
13 n DETAILED REPRESENTATION 6. Draw parallel root lines, final weight at once, and
OF ACME THREAD heavy in the thread profiles (Fig. 15f). All lines
should be thin and dark. Note that the internal
The steps in drawing the detailed representation of Acme
threads in the back of the nut slope in the opposite
threads when the major diameter is larger than 1– or 25
direction to the external threads on the front side
mm (approx.) on the drawing are shown in Fig. 15.
of the screw.
1. Draw the center line, and lay out the length and
End views of Acme threaded shafts and holes are
major diameter of the thread (Fig. 15a). Deter-
drawn exactly like those for the square thread (Figs.
mine P by dividing 1 by the number of threads per
12 and 14).
inch. Draw construction lines for the root diame-
ter, making the thread depth P2 . Draw construction
14 n USE OF PHANTOM LINES
lines halfway between crest and root guide lines.
2. On the intermediate construction lines, lay off P2 In representing objects having a series of identical fea-
spaces (Fig. 15b). Setting off spaces directly with tures, phantom lines may be used to save time (Fig. 16).
a scale is possible (for example, if P2 = 10
1
–, use the Threaded shafts and springs thus represented may be
engineers’ scale); otherwise, use bow dividers or shortened without the use of conventional breaks, but
the parallel-line method. must be correctly dimensioned. The use of phantom lines
is limited almost entirely to detailed drawings.
3. Through alternate points, draw construction lines
for sides of threads (draw 15° instead of 1412°) (Fig. n FIGURE 16 n Use of Phantom Lines.
15c).
4. Draw construction lines for other sides of threads
(Fig. 15d). Note that for single and triple threads,

381
 Threads, Fasteners, and Springs

15 n THREADS IN SECTION shafts and sleeves in machine construction. Des-

Detailed representations of large threads in section are ignated 12N (National form, 12 threads per inch).
shown in Figs. 6 and 10–15. As indicated by the 5. 16-pitch thread—All diameters have 16 threads per
note in Fig. 6b, the root lines and crest lines may be inch; used where necessary to have a fine thread
omitted in internal sectional views, if desired. regardless of diameter, as on adjusting collars and
External thread symbols are shown in section in bearing retaining nuts. Designated 16N (National
Fig. 7. Note that in the schematic symbol, the Vs form, 16 threads per inch).
must be drawn. Internal thread symbols in section are
shown in Fig. 8. 17 n UNIFIED EXTRA FINE THREADS
Threads in an assembly drawing are shown in Fig. The Unified extra fine thread series has many more
17. It is customary not to section a stud or a nut, or threads per inch for given diameters than any series of
any solid part, unless necessary to show some internal the American National or Unified. The form of thread
shapes (see §23). Note that when external and internal is the same as the American National. These small
threads are sectioned in assembly, the Vs are required threads are used in thin metal where the length of
to show the threaded connection. thread engagement is small, in cases where close
adjustment is required, and where vibration is great.
16 n AMERICAN NATIONAL THREAD They are designated UNEF (extra fine).
The old American National thread was adopted in 1935.
The form, or profile (Fig. 2b), is the same as the old 18 n AMERICAN NATIONAL THREAD FITS
Sellers profile, or U.S. Standard, and is known as the For general use, three classes of screw thread fits
National form. The methods of representation are the between mating threads (as between bolt and nut)
same as for the Unified and metric threads. As noted have been established by ANSI.
earlier, American National threads have been replaced These fits are produced by the application of toler-
by the Unified and metric threads. However, they may ances listed in the standard and are described as follows.
still be found on earlier drawings. Five series of threads
1. Class 1 fit—Recommended only for screw thread
were embraced in the old ANSI standards.
work where clearance between mating parts is
1. Coarse thread—A general-purpose thread for hold- essential for rapid assembly and where shake or
ing purposes. Designated NC (National Coarse). play is not objectionable.
2. Fine thread—A greater number of threads per 2. Class 2 fit—Represents a high quality of commer-
inch; used extensively in automotive and aircraft cial thread product and is recommended for the
construction. Designated NF (National Fine). great bulk of interchangeable screw thread work.
3. 8-pitch thread—All diameters have 8 threads per 3. Class 3 fit—Represents an exceptionally high quality
inch. Used on bolts for high-pressure pipe flanges, of commercially threaded product and is recom-
cylinder-head studs, and similar fasteners. Desig- mended only in cases where the high costs of precision
nated 8N (National form, 8 threads per inch). tools and continual checking are warranted.
4. 12-pitch thread—All diameters have 12 threads The class of fit desired on a thread is indicated in
per inch; used in boiler work and for thin nuts on the thread note, as shown in §21.

n FIGURE 17 n Threads in Assembly.

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 Threads, Fasteners, and Springs

19 n METRIC AND UNIFIED THREADS both the tolerance grade and position for the pitch
The preferred metric thread for commercial purposes diameter and the major diameter of the external
conforms to the International Organization for Stan- thread. A double designation of 5g6g indicates sepa-
dardization (ISO) publication basic profile M for met- rate tolerance grades for the pitch diameter and for the
ric threads. This M profile design is comparable to the major diameter of the external thread.
Unified inch profile, but the two are not interchange- The standard for Unified screw threads specifies
able. For commercial purposes, two series of metric tolerances and allowances defining the several classes
threads are preferred—coarse (general purpose) and of fit (degree of looseness or tightness) between mat-
fine—thus drastically reducing the number of previ- ing threads. In the symbols for fit, the letter A refers to
ously used thread series. the external threads and B to internal threads. There
The Unified thread constitutes the present Ameri- are three classes of fit each for external threads (1A,
can National standard. Some earlier American National 2A, 3A) and internal threads (1B, 2B, 3B). Classes 1A
threads are still included in the new standard. The stan- and 1B have generous tolerances, facilitating rapid
dard lists 11 different series of numbers of threads per assembly and disassembly. Classes 2A and 2B are used
inch for the various standard diameters, together with the in the normal production of screws, bolts, and nuts, as
selected combinations of special diameters and pitches. well as a variety of general applications. Classes 3A and
The 11 series are the coarse thread series (UNC or 3B provide for applications needing highly accurate
NC), recommended for general use corresponding to and close-fitting threads.
the old National coarse thread; the fine thread series
(UNF or NF), for general use in automotive and air- 21 n THREAD NOTES
craft work and in applications where a finer thread is
Thread notes for metric, Unified, and American
required; the extra fine series (UNF or NF), which is
National screw threads are shown in Fig. 18. These
the same as the SAE extra fine series, used particularly
same notes or symbols are used in correspondence, on
in aircraft and aeronautical equipment and generally
shop and storeroom records, and in specifications for
for threads in thin walls; and the eight series of 4, 6, 8,
parts, taps, dies, tools, and gages.
12, 16, 20, 28, and 32 threads with constant pitch. The
Metric screw threads are designated basically by
8UN or 8N, 12UN or 12N, and 16UN or 16N series are
the letter M metric profile followed by the nominal size
recommended for the uses corresponding to the old 8-,
(basic major diameter) and the pitch, both in millime-
12-, and 16-pitch American National threads. In addi-
ters and separated by the symbol *. For example, the
tion, there are three special thread series—UNS, NS,
basic thread note M10 * 1.5 is adequate for most
and UN—that involve special combinations of diame-
commercial purposes (Fig. 18b).
ter, pitch, and length of engagement.
If the generally understood tolerances need to be
specified, the tolerance class of 6H for the internal
thread or the tolerance class of 6g for the external
20 n METRIC AND UNIFIED THREAD FITS thread is added to the basic note (Fig. 18g). Where
For some specialized metric thread applications, the closer mating threads are desired, a tolerance of 6H for
tolerances and deviations are specified by tolerance the internal thread and tolerance classes of 5g6g for
grade, tolerance position, class, and length of engage- the external thread are added to the basic note.
ment. Two classes of metric thread fits are generally When the thread note refers to mating parts, a sin-
recognized. The first class of fits is for general-purpose gle basic note is adequate with the addition of the
applications and has a tolerance class of 6H for internal internal and external thread tolerance classes separat-
threads and a class of 6g for external threads. The sec- ed by the slash. The basic note for mating threads now
ond class of fits is used where closer fits are necessary becomes M10 * 1.5–6H/6g for the general-purpose
and has a tolerance class of 6H for internal threads and thread or M10 * 1.5–6H/5g6g for the close-fitting
a class of 5g6g for external threads. Metric thread tol- thread (Fig. 18h).
erance classes of 6H/6g are generally assumed if not For a left-hand thread, LH is added to the thread
otherwise designated and are used in applications com- note. (Absence of LH indicates an RH thread.)
parable to the 2A/2B inch classes of fits. If it is necessary to indicate the length of the thread
The single-tolerance designation of 6H refers to engagement, the letter S (short), N (normal), or L (long)
both the tolerance grade and position for the pitch is added to the thread note. For example, the single note
diameter and the minor diameter for an internal M10 * 1.5–6H/6g–N–LH combines the specifications
thread. The single-tolerance designation of 6g refers to for internal and external mating left-hand metric threads

383
 Threads, Fasteners, and Springs

■ FIGURE 18 ■ Thread Notes.

of 10-mm diameter and 1.5-mm pitch with general-pur- shown in Figs. 18b to 18f. Examples of 8-, 12-, and
pose tolerances and normal length of engagement. 16-pitch threads, not shown in the figure, are 2–8N–2,
A thread note for a blind tapped hole is shown in 2–12N–2, and 2–16N–2.A sample special thread desig-
Fig. 18a. In a complete note, the tap drill and depth nation is 112 –7N–LH.
should be given, though in practice they are often omit- General-purpose Acme threads are indicated by
ted and left to the shop. If the LH symbol is omitted, the the letter G, and centralizing Acme threads by the let-
thread is understood to be RH. If the thread is a multiple ter C.Typical thread notes are 134 –4 ACME-2G or 134 –6
thread, the word DOUBLE, TRIPLE, or QUADRUPLE ACME-4C.
should precede the thread depth; otherwise, the thread Thread notes for Unified threads are shown in Figs.
is understood to be single. Thread notes for holes are 18j and 18k. Unified thread notes are distinguished
preferably attached to the circular views of the holes, as from American National threads by the insertion of the
shown. letter U before the series letters, and by the letters A and
Thread notes for external threads are preferably B (for external or internal, respectively) after the numer-
given in the longitudinal view of the threaded shaft, as al designating the class of fit. If the letters LH are omitted,

384
 Threads, Fasteners, and Springs

n FIGURE 19 n American National Standard Taper Pipe

Thread [ANSI/ASME B1.20.1–1983 (R1992)].

the thread is understood to be RH. Some typical thread where D = basic outer diameter (O.D.) of pipe, E0 = pitch
notes are: diameter of thread at end of pipe, E1 = pitch diameters of
1 thread at large end of internal thread, L1 = normal engage-
4 –20 UNC–2A TRIPLE ment by hand,and n = number of threads per inch.
9
16 –18 UNF–2B
The ANSI also recommended two modified taper
134 –16 UN–2A pipe threads for (1) dryseal pressure-tight joints (.88–
per foot taper) and (2) rail fitting joints. The former is
used to provide a metal-to-metal joint, eliminating the
22 n AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARD need for a sealer, and is used in refrigeration, marine,
PIPE THREADS automotive, aircraft, and ordnance work. The latter is
The American National Standard for pipe threads, used to provide a rigid mechanical thread joint, as
originally known as the Briggs standard, was formulat- required in rail fitting joints.
ed by Robert Briggs in 1882. Two general types of pipe While taper pipe threads are recommended for
threads have been approved as American National general use, there are certain types of joints in which
Standard: taper pipe threads and straight pipe threads. straight pipe threads are used to advantage.The number
The profile of the taper pipe thread is illustrated in of threads per inch, the angle, and the depth of thread
Fig. 19. The taper of the standard tapered pipe are the same as on the taper pipe thread, but the threads
thread is 1 in 16 or .75– per foot measured on the diam- are cut parallel to the axis. Straight pipe threads are used
eter and along the axis. The angle between the sides of for pressure-tight joints for pipe couplings, fuel and oil
the thread is 60°. The depth of the sharp V is .8660p, line fittings, drain plugs, free-fitting mechanical joints
and the basic maximum depth of the truncated thread for fixtures, loose-fitting mechanical joints for locknuts,
is .800p, where p = pitch. The basic pitch diameters, E0 and loose-fitting mechanical joints for hose couplings.
and E1, and the basic length of the effective external Pipe threads are represented by detailed or symbol-
taper thread, L2, are determined by the formulas ic methods in a manner similar to the representation of
Unified and American National threads. The symbolic
E0 = D - 1.050D + 1.12
1
representation (schematic or simplified) is recommend-
n
ed for general use regardless of diameter (Fig. 20). The
E1 = E + .0625 L1 detailed method is recommended only when the threads
L2 = 1.80D + 6.82 ,
1 are large and when it is desired to show the profile of the
n thread, as, for example, in a sectional view of an assembly.

n FIGURE 20 n Conventional Pipe

Thread Representation.

385
 Threads, Fasteners, and Springs

Graphics
Spotlight Fastener Libraries
E NGINEERS S PEND T WENTY H OURS P ER M ONTH
R EDRAWING PARTS
Many engineers spend up to twenty hours each month
redrawing standard parts or parts they purchase from outside
vendors. They need to show how the parts fit in assembly or in
order to specify which part to use. Using a library of these
standard parts can save considerable time in creating engi-
neering drawings and specifications. Some vendors are will-
ing to provide free drawings for their parts in standard drawing
format. Many resources are available on the World Wide Web.
You can also purchase libraries of standard symbols.

T HOUSANDS OF PARTS A VAILABLE IN PART S PEC

One place you can go for standard fasteners and vendor
part drawings in Autodesk’s PartSpec software. PartSpec
is an application that runs with AutoCAD. You can use it to
search through a part database containing thousands of
(A)
parts on two CD-ROMs. The PartSpec window with stan-
dard fasteners selected is shown in Fig. A. you have a library or manufacturer selected, you can choose
As you see in the figure above, you can select from vari- from the list of products and the desired model for which
ous standard libraries and manufacturer databases. Once drawings are available in the PartSpec database. Figure B

(B)

386
 Threads, Fasteners, and Springs

shows a fillister head screw, model ANSI-fraction, size selected a part, you can get ordering information or manu-
1/4-20, is shown as the selection. The front view drawing facturer’s specifications in text format. Figure C shows
of the fillister head screw of that size is shown at the right Penn Engineering’s Self-Clinching Flush Head Stud.
of the dialog box. If you want to insert that view into your
current AutoCAD drawing you can pick on the icon
labeled Insert in the upper right. To select from other avail- S AVE T IME S EARCHING FOR M ATERIAL DATA
able views, you can pick on the T, F, B, L, R, Back, Sch, WITH M ATERIAL S PEC
and Sect. buttons for the view desired. Drawings provided PartSpec has a counterpart for specifying materials called
with PartSpec follow a set of standards to ensure their MaterialSpec. It is a searchable text database on CD-ROM
usability. containing materials from five categories: plastics, metals,
composites, ceramics, and military specifications (MIL5).
You can choose materials by type, manufacturer, part
MANUFACTURER DRAWINGS AND ORDERING INFORMATION name or number, description, property, or application.
Over twenty different manufactures are represented in the Add-on applications can provide a valuable resource for
PartSpec database. You can select a manufacturer from engineering. One of the biggest advantages of using CAD
the list available, and then pick a particular product and is that drawings can be re-used, re-scaled, or re-oriented
model or type in a part number or description used to for different purposes resulting in a valuable time savings.
search the database. You can also qualify the search by Remember the World Wide Web is also a valuable engi-
detailed information appropriate to the part. Once you have neering resource for drawings and material information.

(C)

387
 Threads, Fasteners, and Springs

n FIGURE 21 n Conventional Representation of Pipe Threads.

As shown in Fig. 20, it is not necessary to draw A stud (Fig. 22c) is a steel rod threaded on both
the taper on the threads unless there is some reason to ends. It is screwed into place with a pipe wrench or,
emphasize it, since the thread note indicates whether preferably, with a stud driver. As a rule, a stud is
the thread is straight or tapered. If it is desired to show passed through a clearance hole in one member and
the taper, it should be exaggerated, as shown in Fig. screwed into another member; a nut is used on the
1
21, where the taper is drawn 16 – per 1– on radius (or free end, as shown.
6.75– per 1¿ on diameter) instead of the actual taper of A machine screw (Fig. 32) is similar to the slot-
1
16 – on diameter. American National Standard taper ted-head cap screws but, in general, is smaller. It may
pipe threads are indicated by a note giving the nominal be used with or without a nut.
diameter followed by the letters NPT (National pipe A set screw (Fig. 33) is a screw with or without a
taper), as shown in Fig. 21. When straight pipe head that is screwed through one member and whose
threads are specified, the letters NPS (National pipe special point is forced against another member to pre-
straight) are used. In practice, the tap drill size is nor- vent relative motion between the two parts.
mally not given in the thread note. It is not customary to section bolts, nuts, screws,
and similar parts when drawn in assembly, as shown in
23 n BOLTS, STUDS, AND SCREWS Figs. 22 and 31, because they do not themselves
The term bolt is generally used to denote a “through require sectioning for clearness (see §23).
bolt” that has a head on one end, is passed through clear-
ance holes in two or more aligned parts, and is threaded 24 n TAPPED HOLES
on the other end to receive a nut to tighten and hold the
The bottom of a drilled hole is conical in shape, as
parts together (Fig. 22a; see also §§25 and 26).
formed by the point of the twist drill (Figs. 23a and
A hexagon head cap screw (Fig. 22b) is similar
23b). When an ordinary drill is used in connection
to a bolt except that it generally has greater length of
thread for when it is used without a nut; in such cases,
one of the members being held together is threaded to n FIGURE 23 n Drilled and Tapped Holes.
act as a nut. The cap screw is screwed on with a wrench.
Cap screws are not screwed into thin materials if
strength is desired (see §29).
n FIGURE 22 n Bolt, Cap Screw, and Stud.

388
 Threads, Fasteners, and Springs

When a bolt or a screw is passed through a clear-

ance hole in one member, the hole may be drilled 0.8
mm A 321
– B larger than the screw up to 38 – or 10 mm
diameter and 1.5 mm A 16 1
– B larger for larger diameters.
For more precise work, the clearance hole may be only
0.4 mm A 64 1
– B larger than the screw up to 38 – or 10 mm
diameter and 0.8 mm A 32 1
– B larger for larger diameters.
Closer fits may be specified for special conditions.
The clearance spaces on each side of a screw or
bolt need not be shown on a drawing unless it is neces-
sary to show that there is no thread engagement, in
which case the clearance spaces are drawn about 1.2
mm A 64 – B wide for clarity.
n FIGURE 24 n Tapped Holes. 3

with tapping, it is referred to as a tap drill. On drawings,

an angle of 30° is used to approximate the actual 31°. 25 n STANDARD BOLTS AND NUTS
The thread length is the length of full or perfect American National Standard bolts and nuts,* metric
threads. The tap drill depth is the depth of the cylindrical and inch series, are produced in hexagon form, while
portion of the hole and does not include the cone point. the square form is only produced in the inch series (Fig.
The portion A of the drill depth shown beyond the threads 25). Square heads and nuts are chamfered at 30°,
in Figs. 23c and 23d includes the several imperfect and hexagon heads and nuts are chamfered at 15–30°.
threads produced by the chamfered end of the tap. This Both are drawn at 30° for simplicity.
distance A varies according to drill size and whether a plug
tap (see Fig. 19h) or a bottoming tap is used to finish the BOLT TYPES Bolts are grouped according to use:
hole. For drawing purposes, when the tap drill depth is not regular bolts for general service, and heavy bolts for
specified, the distance A may be drawn equal to three heavier service or easier wrenching. Square bolts come
schematic thread pitches (see Fig. 9). only in the regular type; hexagon bolts, screws, and nuts
A tapped hole finished with a bottoming tap is and square nuts are standard in both types.
drawn as shown in Fig. 23e. Blind bottoming holes Metric hexagon bolts are grouped according to use:
should be avoided wherever possible. A better proce- regular and heavy bolts and nuts for general service
dure is to cut a relief with its diameter slightly greater and high-strength bolts and nuts for structural bolting.
than the major diameter of the thread (Fig. 23f). FINISH Square bolts and nuts, hexagon bolts, and hexa-
One of the chief causes of tap breakage is insufficient gon flat nuts are unfinished. Unfinished bolts and nuts
tap drill depth, in which the tap is forced against a bed of are not machined on any surface except for the threads.
chips in the bottom of the hole. Therefore, the drafter Traditionally, hexagon bolts and hexagon nuts have
should never draw a blind hole when a through hole of not been available as unfinished, semifinished, or finished.
much greater length can be used.When a blind hole is nec-
*The ANSI standards cover several bolts and nuts. For complete
essary, however, the tap drill depth should be generous.
details, see the standards.
It is good practice to give the tap drill size in the thread
note (see §21).
n FIGURE 25 n Standard Bolts and Nuts. Courtesy of Cordova Bolt
The thread length in a tapped hole depends on the
Inc., Buena Park, CA.
major diameter and the material being tapped. In Fig.
24, the minimum engagement length X, when both
parts are steel, is equal to the diameter D of the thread.
When a steel screw is screwed into cast iron, brass, or
bronze, X = 112 D; when it is screwed into aluminum,
zinc, or plastic, X = 2D.
Since the tapped thread length contains only full
threads, it is necessary to make this length only one or
two pitches beyond the end of the engaging screw. In
simplified or schematic representation, the threads are
omitted in the bottoms of tapped holes to show the
ends of the screws clearly (Fig. 24).

389
 Threads, Fasteners, and Springs

According to the latest standards, hexagon cap screws exact formula proportions or close approximations for
and finished hexagon bolts have been consolidated into drawing purposes, are as follows.
a single product—hex cap screws—thus eliminating the Regular hexagon and square bolts and nuts:
regular semifinished hexagon bolt classification. Heavy
W = 112 D H = 23 D T = 78 D,
semifinished hexagon bolts and heavy finished hexagon
bolts also have been combined into a single product where W = width across flats, H = head height, and
called heavy hex screws. Hexagon cap screws, heavy T = nut height.
hexagon screws, and all hexagon nuts, except hexagon Heavy hexagon bolts and nuts and square nuts:
W = 112 D + 18 – 1or + 3 mm2
flat nuts, are considered finished to some degree and are
characterized by a “washer face” machined or other-
wise formed on the bearing surface. The washer face is H = 23 D T = D
64 – thick A drawn 32 – B , and its diameter is equal to 1 2
1 1 1
The washer face is always included in the head or nut
times the body diameter D for the inch series. height for finished hexagon screw heads and nuts.
For nuts the bearing surface also may be a circular
surface produced by chamfering. Hexagon screws and THREADS Square and hex bolts, hex cap screws, and fin-
hexagon nuts have closer tolerances and may have a ished nuts in the inch series are usually Class 2 and may
more finished appearance but are not completely have coarse, fine, or 8-pitch threads. Unfinished nuts
machined. There is no difference in the drawing for the have coarse threads, Class 2B.
degree of finish on finished screws and nuts. THREAD LENGTHS
Metric bolts, cap screws, and nuts are produced in For bolts or screws up to 6–1150 mm2 in length:
the hexagon form (Fig. 25a). The hexagon heads and
nuts are chamfered at 15–30°. Both are drawn at 30° Thread length = 2D + 14 –1or + 6 mm2
for simplicity. For bolts or screws over 6– in length,
PROPORTIONS Sizes based on diameter D of the bolt Thread length = 2D + 12 –1or + 12 mm2
body (including metric) (Fig. 26), which are either

n FIGURE 26 n Bolt Proportions (Regular).

390
 Threads, Fasteners, and Springs

Fasteners too short for these formulas are threaded as

close to the head as practicable. For drawing purposes, this
may be taken as approximately three pitches. The thread-
ed end may be rounded or chamfered, but is usually drawn
with a 45° chamfer from the thread depth (Fig. 26).

BOLT LENGTHS Lengths of bolts have not been stan-

dardized because of the endless variety required by
industry. Short bolts are typically available in standard
length increments of 14 – (6 mm), while long bolts come
in increments of 12 to 1– (12 to 25 mm).

26 n DRAWING STANDARD BOLTS

In practice, standard bolts and nuts are not shown in
detail drawings unless they are to be altered, but they
appear so frequently on assembly drawings that a suit-
able but rapid method of drawing them must be used.
Time-saving templates are available, or they may be n FIGURE 27 n Bolts “Across Flats.”
drawn from exact dimensions taken from tables if
accuracy is important, as in figuring clearances. How-
shown in both figures. The heights should not be deter-
ever, in the great majority of cases the conventional
mined by arithmetic.
representation, in which proportions based on the 1
The 64 – (0.4 mm) washer face has a diameter equal
body diameter are used, will be sufficient, and a con-
to the distance across flats of the bolt head or nut. It
siderable amount of time may be saved. Three typical
appears only on the metric and finished hexagon
bolts illustrating the use of these proportions for the
screws or nuts, and the washer face thickness is drawn
regular bolts are shown in Fig. 26. 1 1
at 32 – (1 mm) for clearness. The 32 – (1 mm) is included
Although the curves produced by the chamfer on
in the head or nut height.
the bolt heads and nuts are hyperbolas, in practice
Threads should be drawn in simplified or schemat-
these curves are always represented approximately by
ic form for body diameters of 1– (25 mm) or less on the
means of circular arcs (Fig. 26).
drawing (Fig. 9b or 9d) and by detailed represen-
Generally, bolt heads and nuts should be drawn
tation for larger diameters (§§7 and 8). The threaded
“across corners” in all views, regardless of projection.
end of the screw should be chamfered at 45° from the
This conventional violation of projection is used to
schematic thread depth (Fig. 9a).
prevent confusion between the square and hexagon
On drawings of small bolts or nuts under approxi-
heads and nuts and to show actual clearances. Only
mately 12 – diameter (12 mm), where the chamfer is
when there is a special reason should bolt heads and
hardly noticeable, the chamfer on the head or nut may
nuts be drawn across flats. In such cases, the conven-
be omitted in the longitudinal view.
tional proportions are used (Fig. 27).
Many styles of templates are available for saving
Steps in drawing hexagon bolts, cap screws, and
time in drawing bolt heads and nuts.
nuts are illustrated in Fig. 28, and those for
square bolts and nuts in Fig. 29. Before drawing a
bolt, the diameter of the bolt, the length (from the 27 n SPECIFICATIONS FOR BOLTS AND NUTS
underside of the bearing surface to the tip), the style
In specifying bolts in parts lists, in correspondence, or
of head (square or hexagon), and the type (regular
elsewhere, the following information must be cov-
or heavy), as well as the finish, must be known.
ered in order.
If only the longitudinal view of a bolt is needed, it is
necessary to draw only the lower half of the top views in 1. Nominal size of bolt body.
Figs. 28 and 29 with light construction lines to project 2. Thread specification or thread note (see §21).
the corners of the hexagon or square to the front view.
3. Length of bolt.
These construction lines may then be erased if desired.
The head and nut heights can be spaced off with the 4. Finish of bolt.
dividers on the shaft diameter and then transferred as 5. Style of head.
6. Name.

391
 Threads, Fasteners, and Springs

n FIGURE 28 n Steps in Drawing Finished Hexagon Head Bolt (Cap Screw) and Hexagon Nut.

n FIGURE 29 n Steps in Drawing Square-Head Bolt and Square Nut.

392
 Threads, Fasteners, and Springs

EXAMPLE (Complete Decimal-Inch) 28 n LOCKNUTS AND LOCKING DEVICES

.75–10 UNC-2A * 2.50 HEXAGON CAP SCREW Many types of special nuts and devices to prevent
nuts from unscrewing are available, some of the most
EXAMPLE (Abbreviated Decimal-Inch) common of which are illustrated in Fig. 30. The
.75 * 2.50 HEX CAP SCR American National Standard jam nuts (Figs. 30a
and 30b) are the same as the hexagon or hexagon
EXAMPLE (Metric)
flat nuts, except that they are thinner. The application
M8 * 1.25–40, HEX CAP SCR shown in Fig. 30b, where the larger nut is on top
and is screwed on more tightly, is recommended. They
Nuts may be specified as follows.
are the same distance across flats as the correspond-
EXAMPLE (Complete) ing hexagon nuts A 112 D or 112 D + 18 – B . They are slight-
5 ly over 12 D in thickness but are drawn 12 D for
8 –11 UNC–2B SQUARE NUT
simplicity. They are available with or without the
EXAMPLE (Abbreviated) washer face in the regular and heavy types. The tops
5 of all are flat and chamfered at 30°, and the finished
8 SQ NUT
forms have either a washer face or a chamfered bear-
EXAMPLE (Metric) ing surface.
The lock washer, shown in Fig. 30c, and the cot-
M8 * 1.25 HEX NUT
ter pin, shown in Figs. 30e, 30g, and 30h, are very
For either bolts or nuts, the words REGULAR or common. The set screw (Fig. 30f) is often made to
GENERAL PURPOSE are assumed if omitted from the speci- press against a plug of softer material, such as brass,
fication. If the heavy series is intended, the word HEAVY which in turn presses against the threads without
should appear as the first word in the name of the fasten- deforming them. For use with cotter pins, a hex slotted
er. Likewise, HIGH STRENGTH STRUCTURAL should be indi- nut (Fig. 30g) and a hex castle nut (Fig. 30h), as well as
cated for such metric fasteners. However, the number of a hex thick slotted nut and a heavy hex thick slotted
the specific ISO standard is often included in the metric nut, are recommended.
specifications—for example, HEXAGON NUT ISO 4032 Similar metric locknuts and locking devices are
M12 * 1.75. Similarly, finish need not be mentioned if available. See fastener catalogs for details.
the fastener or nut is correctly named (see §25).

n FIGURE 30 n Locknuts and Locking Devices.

393
 Threads, Fasteners, and Springs

29 n STANDARD CAP SCREWS drawings are almost exact reproductions and are easy
Five types of American National Standard cap screws to draw. The hexagonal head cap screw is drawn in the
are shown in Fig. 31. The first four of these have manner shown in Fig. 28. The points are drawn
standard heads, while the socket head cap screws (Fig. chamfered at 45° from the schematic thread depth.
31e) have several different shapes of round heads For correct representation of tapped holes, see §24.
and sockets. Cap screws are regularly produced in fin- In an assembly section, it is customary not to sec-
ished form and are used on machine tools and other tion screws, bolts, shafts, or other solid parts whose cen-
machines for which accuracy and appearance are ter lines lie in the cutting plane. Such parts in
important. The hexagon head cap screw and hex socket themselves do not require sectioning and are, there-
head cap screw in several forms are available in metric. fore, shown “in the round” (Fig. 31).
Cap screws ordinarily pass through a clearance hole Note that screwdriver slots are drawn at 45° in the
in one member and screw into another (§23). The clear- circular views of the heads, without regard to true pro-
ance hole need not be shown on the drawing when the jection, and that threads in the bottom of the tapped
presence of the unthreaded clearance hole is obvious. holes are omitted so that the ends of the screws may be
Cap screws are inferior to studs if frequent clearly seen. A typical cap screw note is as follows:
removal is necessary; hence, they are used on machines EXAMPLE (Complete)
requiring few adjustments. The slotted or socket-type 3
–16 UNC-2A * 2 12 HEXAGON HEAD CAP SCREW
8
heads are best under crowded conditions.
The actual standard dimensions may be used in EXAMPLE (Abbreviated)
3
drawing the cap screws whenever exact sizes are neces- 8 * 212 HEX HD CAP SCR
sary, but this is seldom the case. In Fig. 31 the dimen-
sions are given in terms of body diameter D, and they EXAMPLE (Metric)
closely conform to the actual dimensions. The resulting M20 * 2.5 * 80 HEX HD CAP SCR

n FIGURE 31 n Standard Cap Screws.

Hexagon Head Screws Coarse, Fine, or 8-Thread Series, 2A. Thread length = 2D + 14 – up to 6– long and 2D + 12 – if over
6– long. For screws too short for formula, threads extend to within 212 threads of the head for diameters up to 1–. Screw
lengths not standardized.
Slotted Head Screws Coarse, Fine, or 8-Thread Series, 2A. Thread length = 2D + 14 –. Screw lengths not standardized. For
screws too short for formula, threads extend to within 212 threads of the head.
Hexagon Socket Screws Coarse or Fine Threads, 3A. Coarse thread length = 2D + 12 – where this would be over 12 L; oth-
erwise thread length = 12 L. Fine thread length = 112 D + 12 – where this would be over 38 L; otherwise thread length = 38 L.
Increments in screw lengths = 18 – for screws 14 – to 1– long, 14 – for screws 1– to 3– long, and 12 – for screws 312 – to 6– long.

394
 Threads, Fasteners, and Springs

n FIGURE 32 n Standard Machine Screws.

30 n STANDARD MACHINE SCREWS Note that the threads in the bottom of the tapped
Machine screws are similar to cap screws but are in holes are omitted so that the ends of the screws will be
general smaller (.060– to .750– dia). There are eight clearly seen. Observe also that it is conventional prac-
ANSI-approved forms of heads. The hexagonal head tice to draw the screwdriver slots at 45° in the circular
may be slotted if desired. All others are available view without regard to true projection.
in either slotted or recessed-head forms. Standard A typical machine screw note is as follows:
machine screws are regularly produced with a natural- EXAMPLE (Complete)
ly bright finish, not heat treated, and are regularly sup-
No. 10 (.1900)–32 NF-3 * 58 FILLISTER HEAD
plied with plain-sheared ends, not chamfered.
MACHINE SCREW
Machine screws are particularly adapted to screw-
ing into thin materials, and all the smaller-numbered EXAMPLE (Abbreviated)
No. 10 1.19002 *
screws are threaded nearly to the head. They are used 5
8 FILL HD MACH SCR
extensively in firearms, jigs, fixtures, and dies. Machine
screw nuts are used mainly on the round head, pan head, EXAMPLE (Metric)
and flat head types and are usually hexagonal in form. M8 * 1.25 * 30 SLOTTED PAN HEAD
Exact dimensions of machine screws are seldom MACHINE SCREW
needed for drawing purposes. The four most common
types of machine screws are shown in Fig. 32, in which
proportions based on diameter D conform closely to 31 n STANDARD SET SCREWS
the actual dimensions and produce almost exact draw- The function of set screws (Fig. 33) is to prevent rel-
ings. Clearance holes and counterbores should be ative motion, usually rotary, between two parts, such as
made slightly larger than the screws, as explained in the movement of the hub of a pulley on a shaft. A set
§24. screw is screwed into one part so that its point bears
firmly against another part. If the point of the set screw
is cupped (Fig. 33e), or if a flat is milled on the shaft

n FIGURE 33 n American National Standard Set Screws.

395
 Threads, Fasteners, and Springs

(Fig. 33a), the screw will hold much more firmly. 32 n AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARD
Obviously, set screws are not efficient when the load is WOOD SCREWS
heavy or is suddenly applied. Usually they are manu- Wood screws with three types of heads—flat, round,
factured of steel and case hardened. and oval—have been standardized (Fig. 34). The
The American National Standard square head set dimensions shown closely approximate the actual
screw and slotted headless set screw are shown in Figs. dimensions and are more than sufficiently accurate for
33a and 33b. Two American National Standard use on drawings.
socket set screws are illustrated in Figs. 33c and 33d. The Phillips-style recessed head is also available
American National Standard set screw points are shown on several types of fasteners as well as wood screws.
in Figs. 33e to 33k. Headless set screws have come Three styles of cross recesses have been standardized
into greater use because the projecting head of headed set by the ANSI. A special screwdriver is used, as shown in
screws has caused many industrial casualties; this has Fig. 35q, and results in rapid assembly without dam-
resulted in legislation prohibiting their use in many states. age to the head.
Most of the dimensions in Fig. 33 are American
National Standard formula dimensions, and the result-
ing drawings are almost exact representations. 33 n MISCELLANEOUS FASTENERS
Metric hexagon socket headless set screws with the Many other types of fasteners have been devised for
full range of points are available and are represented in specialized uses. Some of the more common types are
the same manner as shown in Fig. 33. Nominal diam- shown in Fig. 35. A number of these are American
eters of metric hex socket set screws are 1.6, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, National Standard round-head bolts, including car-
5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, and 24 mm. riage, button head, step, and countersunk bolts.
Square head set screws have coarse, fine, or 8-pitch Helical coil threaded inserts (Fig. 35p) are
threads, Class 2A, but are usually furnished with coarse shaped like a spring except that the cross section of the
threads since the square head set screw is generally used wire conforms to threads on the screw and in the hole.
on the rougher grades of work. Slotted headless and These are made of phosphor bronze or stainless steel,
socket set screws have coarse or fine threads, Class 3A. and they provide a hard, smooth protective lining for
Nominal diameters of set screws range from num- tapped threads in soft metals and plastics.
ber 0 up through 2–; set screw lengths are standardized
1
in increments of 32 – to 1– depending on the overall 34 n KEYS
length of the set screw.
Keys are used to prevent relative movement between
Metric set screw length increments range from 0.5
shafts and wheels, couplings, cranks, and similar machine
to 4 mm, again depending on overall screw length.
parts attached to or supported by shafts (Fig. 36).
Set screws are specified as follows.
For heavy-duty functions, rectangular keys (flat or
EXAMPLE (Complete) square) are suitable, and sometimes two rectangular keys
3 are necessary for one connection. For even stronger con-
UNC2-A * 43 SQUARE
8 – 16 nections, interlocking splines may be machined on the
HEAD FLAT POINT SET SCREW
shaft and in the hole (see Fig. 9).
EXAMPLE (Abbreviated) A square key is shown in Fig. 36a and a flat key
3
in Fig. 36b. The widths of keys generally used are
8- * 114 SQ HD FL PT SS about one fourth the shaft diameter. In either case, one
7 3
16 * 4 HEX SOC CUP PT SS half the key is sunk into the shaft. The depth of the key-
1 4
4 – 20 UNC-2A * 8 SLOT. HDLS CONE PT SS way or the keyseat is measured on the side—not the
center (Fig. 36a). Square and flat keys may have the
EXAMPLE (Metric)
top surface tapered 18 – per foot, in which case they
M10 * 1.5 * 12 HEX SOCKET HEAD SET SCREW become square taper or flat taper keys.

n FIGURE 34 n American National

Standard Wood Screws.

396
 Threads, Fasteners, and Springs

n FIGURE 35 n Miscellaneous Bolts and Screws.

n FIGURE 36 n Square and Flat Keys.

A rectangular key that prevents rotary motion but The Pratt & Whitney key (P & W) (Fig. 36d) is
permits relative longitudinal motion is a feather key rectangular in shape, with semicylindrical ends. Two
and is usually provided with gib heads, or otherwise thirds of the height of the P & W key is sunk into the
fastened so it cannot slip out of the keyway. A gib head shaft keyseat.
key is shown in Fig. 36c. It is exactly the same as the The Woodruff key is semicircular in shape (Fig.
square taper or flat taper key except that a gib head, 37). The key fits into a semicircular key slot cut with
which provides for easy removal, is added. Square and a Woodruff cutter, as shown, and the top of the key fits
flat keys are made from cold-finished stock and are not into a plain rectangular keyway. Sizes of keys for given
machined. shaft diameters are not standardized, but for average

n FIGURE 37 n Woodruff Keys and

Key-Slot Cutter.

397
 Threads, Fasteners, and Springs

n FIGURE 38 n Taper Pin.

conditions it will be found satisfactory to select a key The clevis pin is used in a clevis and is held in
whose diameter is approximately equal to the shaft place by a cotter pin.
diameter.
A keyseat is in a shaft; a keyway is in the hub or 36 n RIVETS
surrounding part.
Rivets are regarded as permanent fastenings as distin-
Typical specifications for keys are as follows:
guished from removable fastenings, such as bolts and
1
4 * 112 SQ KEY screws. Rivets are generally used to hold sheet metal or
No. 204 WOODRUFF KEY rolled steel shapes together and are made of wrought
1 1 1 iron, carbon steel, copper, or occasionally other metals.
4 * 16 * 12 FLAT KEY To fasten two pieces of metal together, holes are
No. 10 P & W KEY punched, drilled, or punched and then reamed, slightly
See manufacturers’ catalogs for specifications for larger in diameter than the shank of the rivet. Rivet
metric counterparts. diameters in practice are made from d = 1.2 1t to
d = 1.4 1t, where d is the rivet diameter and t is the
metal thickness. The larger size is used for steel and
35 n MACHINE PINS single-riveted joints, and the smaller may be used for
Machine pins include taper pins, straight pins, dowel multiple-riveted joints. In structural work it is com-
pins, clevis pins, and cotter pins. For light work, the taper mon practice to make the hole 1.6 mm A 16 1
– B larger
pin is effective for fastening hubs or collars to shafts (Fig. than the rivet.
38) in which the hole through the collar and shaft is When the red-hot rivet is inserted, a “dolly bar,”
drilled and reamed when the parts are assembled. For having a depression the shape of the driven head, is
slightly heavier duty, the taper pin may be used parallel held against the head. A riveting machine is then used
to the shaft as for square keys. to drive the rivet and to form the head on the plain
Dowel pins are cylindrical or conical in shape and end. This action causes the rivet to swell and fill the
are used for a variety of purposes, chief of which is to hole tightly.
keep two parts in a fixed position or to preserve align- Large rivets or heavy hex structural bolts were com-
ment. The dowel pin is most commonly used and is rec- monly used in structural work of bridges and buildings
ommended where accurate alignment is essential. and in ship and boiler construction. Although not used
Dowel pins are usually made of steel and are hardened in modern construction, an engineer could be involved
and ground in a centerless grinder. in updating existing structures using rivets. They are
shown in their exact formula proportions in Fig. 39.
The button head (Fig. 39a) and countersunk head
(Fig. 39e) types are the rivets most commonly used in

n FIGURE 39 n Standard Large Rivets.

398
 Threads, Fasteners, and Springs

n FIGURE 40 n Common Riveted Joints.

structural work. The button head and cone head are are called shop rivets, and those driven on the job are
commonly used in tank and boiler construction. called field rivets. However, heavy steel bolts are common-
Typical riveted joints are illustrated in Fig. 40. ly used on the job for structural work. Solid black circles
Notice that the longitudinal view of each rivet shows the are used to represent field rivets, and other standard sym-
shank of the rivet with both heads made with circular bols are used to show other features, as shown in Fig. 41.
arcs, and the circular view of each rivet is represented by For light work, small rivets are used. American
only the outside circle of the head. In structural drafting, National Standard small solid rivets are illustrated with
where there may be many such circles to draw, the drop dimensions showing their standard proportions in Fig.
spring bow is a convenient instrument. 42 [ANSI/ASME B18.1.1–1972 (R1995)]. Included in
Since many engineering structures are too large to be the same standard are tinners’, coppers’, and belt rivets.
built in the shop, they are built in the largest units possible Metric rivets are also available. Dimensions for large riv-
and then are transported to the desired location. Trusses ets can be found in ANSI/ASME B18.1.2–1972 (R1995).
are common examples of this.The rivets driven in the shop See manufacturers’ catalogs for additional details.

n FIGURE 41 n Conventional Rivet Symbols.

n FIGURE 42 n American National

Standard Small Solid Rivet Proportions.

399
 Threads, Fasteners, and Springs

37 n SPRINGS
A spring is a mechanical device designed to store energy
when deflected and to return the equivalent amount of
energy when released [ANSI Y13.13M–1981 (R1992)].
Springs are commonly made of spring steel, which may be
music wire, hard-drawn wire, or oil-tempered wire. Other
n FIGURE 43 n Blind Rivets (a) Before Installation, and (b) materials used for compression springs include stainless
Installed. steel, beryllium copper, and phosphor bronze. In addition,
compression springs made of urethane plastic are used in
Blind rivets, commonly known as Pop Rivets™ applications where conventional springs would be affect-
(Fig. 43), are often used for fastening together thin ed by corrosion, vibration, or acoustic or magnetic forces.
sheet-metal assemblies. Blind rivets are hollow and are Springs are classified as helical springs (Fig. 44) or flat
installed with manual or power-operated rivet guns springs (Fig. 48). Helical springs may be cylindrical or
which grip a center pin or mandrel, pulling the head conical but are usually the former.
into the body and expanding the rivet against the sheet There are three types of helical springs: compression
metal. They are available in aluminum, steel, stainless springs, which offer resistance to a compressive force
steel, and plastic. As with any fastener, the designer (Fig. 45); extension springs, which offer resistance to a
should be careful to choose an appropriate material to pulling force (Fig. 46); and torsion springs, which offer
avoid corrosive action between dissimilar metals. resistance to a torque or twisting force (Fig. 47).

n FIGURE 44 n Helical Springs.

n FIGURE 45 n Compression Springs.

400
 Threads, Fasteners, and Springs

n FIGURE 46 n Extension Spring Drawing.

On working drawings, true projections of helical

springs are never drawn because of the labor involved.
Instead, as in the drawing of screw threads, the detailed
and schematic methods are used, where straight lines
replace helical curves (Fig. 44).
The elevation view of the square-wire spring is
similar to the square thread with the core of the shaft n FIGURE 48 n Flat Spring.
removed (Fig. 12). Standard section lining is used if
the areas in section are large, as in Figs. 44a and
44b. If these areas are small, the sectioned areas Many companies use standard printed spring
may be made solid black (Fig. 44c). In cases where a drawings with a printed form to be filled in by the
complete picture of the spring is not necessary, phan- drafter, providing the necessary information, plus load
tom lines may be used to save time in drawing the coils at a specified deflected length, the load rate, finish, type
(Fig. 44d). If the drawing of the spring is too small of service, and other data.
to be represented by the outlines of the wire, it may be An extension spring may have any one of many types
drawn by the schematic method, in which single lines of ends, and it is therefore necessary to draw the spring or
are used (Figs. 44e and 44f). at least the ends and a few adjacent coils (Fig. 46). Note
Compression springs have plain ends (Fig. 45a) the use of phantom lines to show the continuity of coils.
or squared (closed) ends (Fig. 45b). The ends may be Printed forms are used when a given form of spring is
ground (Fig. 45c) or both squared and ground (Fig. produced with differences in verbal specification only.
45d). Required dimensions are indicated in the fig- A typical torsion spring drawing is shown in Fig.
ure. When required, RH or LH is specified. 47. Here also printed forms are used when there is
sufficient uniformity in product to permit a common
representation.
A typical flat spring drawing is shown in Fig. 48.
n FIGURE 47 n Torsion Spring Drawing.
Other types of flat springs are power springs (or flat
coil springs), Belleville springs (like spring washers),
and leaf springs (commonly used in automobiles).

38 n DRAWING HELICAL SPRINGS

The construction for a schematic elevation view of a
compression spring having six total coils is shown in
Fig. 49a. Since the ends are closed, or squared, two of
the six coils are “dead” coils, leaving only four full pitch-
es to be set off along the top of the spring, as shown.
If there are 612 total coils (Fig. 49b), the P2 spac-
ings will be on opposite sides of the spring. The con-
struction of an extension spring with six active coils
and loop ends is shown in Fig. 49c.

401
 Threads, Fasteners, and Springs

n FIGURE 49 n Schematic Spring Representation. Courtesy of SDRC, Milford, OH.

Figure 50 shows the steps in drawing a sectional 39 n COMPUTER GRAPHICS

view and an elevation view of a compression spring by
detailed representation.The given spring is shown picto- Standard representations of threaded fasteners and
rially in Fig. 50a. In Fig. 50b, a cutting plane has springs, in both detailed and schematic forms, are avail-
passed through the center line of the spring, and the able in CAD symbol libraries. Use of computer graphics
front portion of the spring has been removed. In Fig. frees the drafter from the need to draw timeconsuming
50c, the cutting plane has been removed. Steps in repetitive features by hand and also make it easy to mod-
constructing the spring through several stages to obtain ify drawings if required.
the sectional view are shown in Figs. 50d to 50f. In 3D modeling, thread is not usually represented
The corresponding elevation view is shown in Fig. because it can be difficult to create and computer inten-
50g. sive to view and edit. Instead the nominal diameter of a
If there is a fractional number of coils, such as threaded shaft or hole is usually created along with nota-
512 coils in Fig. 50h, note that the half-rounds of tion calling out the thread. Sometimes the depth of the
sectional wire are placed on opposite sides of the thread is shown in the 3D drawing, to call attention to the
spring. thread and to help in determining fits and clearances.

n FIGURE 50 n Steps in Detailed Representation of Spring.

402
 Threads, Fasteners, and Springs

n FIGURE 51 n Examples of Fastener Symbols Available for Use with AutoCAD in SPOCAD’s Autofasteners Library. Courtesy SPOCAD.

KEY WORDS
THREAD FORM PHANTOM LINES PITCH CAP SCREWS
MINOR DIAMETER MACHINE SCREWS THREAD ANGLE SET SCREWS
EXTERNAL THREAD KEYS ROOT PINS
LEAD HELIX UNIFIED THREAD FORM BOLTS
CREST STUDS SCHEMATIC THREAD SPRINGS
CLASS OF FIT RIVETS REPRESENTATION NUTS
METRIC THREAD FORM MAJOR DIAMETER SIMPLIFIED THREAD
MULTIPLE LEAD INTERNAL THREAD REPRESENTATION

CHAPTER SUMMARY
n There are many types of thread forms; however, metric n The nut and bolt is still the most common type of fasten-
and Unified are the most common. er. Many new types of fasteners are being created to
n The method of showing threads on a drawing is called the streamline the production process.
thread representation. The three types of thread repre- n Keys and pins are special fasteners that attach a pulley to
sentation are detailed, schematic, and simplified. a shaft.
n The major diameter, pitch, and form are the most impor- n The screw head determines what kind of tool will be nec-
tant parts of a thread specification. essary to install the fastener.
n Thread specifications are a special type of leader note.
The thread specification tells the manufacturing techni-
cian what kind of thread needs to be created.

403
 Threads, Fasteners, and Springs

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Draw a typical screw thread and label the parts of the 5. Why is the simplified thread representation the most
thread. commonly used drawing style?
2. Sketch a long spring and show how phantom lines are 6. List five fasteners that do not have any threads.
used to represent the middle part of the spring. 7. Write out a metric thread specification and a Unified
3. Draw several types of screw heads. thread specification and label each part of the specification.
4. List five types of screws. 8. Which type of thread form is used on a light bulb?

THREAD AND FASTENER PROBLEMS

Students are expected to make use of the information in this required. However, several problems are included here for
chapter and in various manufacturers’ catalogs in connec- specific assignment in this area (Figs. 52 to 59). All are
tion with the working drawings later in your studies, to be drawn on tracing paper or detail paper, size B or A3
where many different kinds of threads and fasteners are sheet.

n FIGURE 52 n Draw specified detailed threads arranged as shown. Using Layout B-3 or A3-3, omit all dimensions and notes given in
inclined letters. Letter only the thread notes and the title strip.

404
 Threads, Fasteners, and Springs

n FIGURE 53 n Draw specified detailed threads, arranged as shown. Using Layout B-3 or A3-3, omit all dimensions and notes given in
inclined letters. Letter only the thread notes and the title strip.

n FIGURE 54 n Draw specified thread symbols, arranged as shown. Draw simplified or schematic symbols, as assigned by instructor. Using
Layout B-5 or A3-5, omit all dimensions and notes given in inclined letters. Letter only the drill and thread notes, the titles of the views, and the
title strip.

405
 Threads, Fasteners, and Springs

■ FIGURE 55 ■ Draw fasteners, arranged as shown. Using Layout B-3 or A3-3, at (a) draw 78 –9 UNC-2A * 4 Hex Cap Screw, at (b) draw
1 18 – 7 UNC-2A * 4 14 Sq Hd Bolt, at (c) draw 38 – 16 UNC-2A
* 1 12 Flat Hd Cap Screw, at (d) draw 16
7
–14 UNC-2A * 1 Fill Hd Cap Screw, at (e) draw
1
2 * 1 Headless Slotted Set Screw, at (f) draw front view ofNo. 1010 Woodruff Key. Draw simplified or schematic thread symbols as assigned.
Letter titles under each figure as shown.

0.312 0.625 0.437 0.625

0.437

0.189

1.562 1.562
1.250 1.250
.75 .75

■ FIGURE 56 ■ Male Plain Rod End. Referring to Fig. 30, ■ FIGURE 57 ■ Male Studded Rod End. Referring to Fig. 30,
redraw this diagram adding a finished castle nut to the threads. redraw this diagram adding a finished slotted nut to the threads.

406
 Threads, Fasteners, and Springs

0.312 0.625 0.437 0.625

0.437
0.189

1.562 1.562
1.250 1.250
.75 .75

n FIGURE 58 n Male Plain Rod End. Referring to Fig. 30, n FIGURE 59 n Male Studded Rod End. Referring to Fig. 30,
redraw this diagram adding a regular unfinished jam nut to the redraw this diagram adding an ESNA stop nut.
threads.

407
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Design and Working Drawings

From Chapter 14 of Engineering Graphics, Eighth Edition, Frederick E. Giesecke,

Alva Mitchell, Henry Cecil Spencer, Ivan Leroy Hill, Robert Olin Loving, John
Thomas Dygdon, James E. Novak. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Published by Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.
 Design and Working Drawings

OVERVIEW OBJECTIVES
The many products, systems, and services that enrich our standard of After studying the material in this chapter, you
living are largely the result of the design activities of engineers. It is should be able to:
principally this design activity that distinguishes engineering from sci- 1. Define the different types of design.
ence and research; the engineer is a designer, a creator, or a “builder.” 2. Define engineering design and examine
The design process is an exciting and challenging effort, and the how the proper objectives and motiva-
engineer-designer relies heavily on graphics as a means to create, tion can turn any one into a good
record, analyze, and communicate to other design concepts or ideas. designer.
The ability to communicate verbally, symbolically, and graphically 3. Discuss the different sources for design
is essential. ideas for both the individual designer as
The design team progresses through five stages in the design well as a design team.
process. To be a successful member of the design team, every mem- 4. Describe the stages of the design
ber must understand the process and know how to fulfill his or her process.
role. Various types of drawings are required at each stage of the 5. Discuss solid modeling, parametric
design process. CAD can help the drafter create drawings, but it modeling, prototyping, and rapid
takes a skilled drafter to know which drawings are required at each prototyping.
design stage. Much of the design process is refinement of existing 6. Use a case study to illustrate each
products. Refinement creates improved products, lowers cost, and stage of the design process.
increases profit for the company that manufacturers the product. 7. Identify the elements of a detail drawing
Models are an important part of the design process. Some models and create a simple detail drawing.
are created to scale in a model shop. Other models are generated by 8. List the common elements of a title
the computer and printed or displayed in virtual reality. All models block and record strip.
allow interaction with the design to further improve the design.
9. Create a typical drawing sequence of
Revising a drawing is an important part of the design process. Revi- numbers.
sions must be tracked, identified, logged, and saved for future refer-
10. Describe the process for revising
ence. Both paper and electronic storage is an important part of the
drawings.
drafter’s responsibility on the design team. Assembly and working
11. List the parts of an assembly drawing.
drawings show how multiple parts fit together. They describe the end
result of creating individual pieces that must fit together to work. 12. Describe the special requirements of a
patent drawing.

410
 Design and Working Drawings

1 ■ “DESIGN” DEFINED 2 ■ “ENGINEERING DESIGN” DEFINED

Design is a process, a series of linked steps with stated Engineering design is also a process. This process is
objectives. It is a way of conceiving and creating new used to solve society’s needs, desires, and problems
ideas and then communicating those ideas to others in through the application of scientific principles, expe-
a way that can be easily understood. This is accom- rience, and creativity. Some people are creative and
plished most efficiently through the use of graphics. are naturally gifted at design, but everyone can
Design can be used to reflect personal expressions or become a designer if they learn to use the proper
to enhance product development. This reflection of tools and techniques involved with the design
personal expression is most often referred to as process. Becoming a designer is much like learning to
aesthetic design while the enhancement of product play a musical instrument; some people are better at
development is considered functional design. Aesthet- it than others, but everyone can learn to play if they
ics and function can work hand in hand to create a learn the steps involved.
product that is not only appealing to the senses, but ful- Two key elements to any successful design plan is
fills specific product demands. A well-designed auto- gaining the proper motivation and stating the
mobile is a good example of how aesthetics and objectives to the plan. Design is the single most impor-
function can work together. (See Fig. 1.) tant activity practiced by engineers. Design separates
There are two general types of design: empirical engineering from the rest of the sciences in that it is
design, sometimes referred to as conceptual design, and the application of scientific principles to create solu-
scientific design. In scientific design, use is made of the tions. Your motivation in any design plan should be to
principles of physics, mathematics, chemistry, mechan- create the most efficient solution to any given prob-
ics, and other sciences in the new or revised design of lem. The objective statement will provide a framework
devices, structures, or systems intended to function within which any engineering design problem can be
under specific conditions. In empirical design, much addressed in a methodical manner. Proper planning
use is made of the information in handbooks, which in and scheduling are also key to successful designs plans.
turn has been learned by experience. Nearly all techni- Setting a deadline for the completion of each design
cal design is a combination of scientific and empirical phase is imperative. We will the discuss the steps in the
design. Therefore, a competent designer has both ade- design process at length in §4.
quate engineering and scientific knowledge and access
to the many handbooks related to the field.
3 ■ DESIGN CONCEPTS—SOURCES
FOR NEW IDEAS
INDIVIDUAL CREATIVITY TECHNIQUES New ideas or design
concepts usually begin in the mind of a single individ-
ual—the designer. But how does one go about devel-
oping new ideas? There is an old saying in the
engineering industry:

“Good design is to borrow. Genius design is to

steal.”

Unlike your other courses of study where plagiarism is

considered bad and should be subject to punishment,
copying good ideas is highly advisable in design. Stu-
dents are urged to copy not only from existing prod-
ucts and classmates, but they should study catalogs,
manufacturers’ patents, and nature.
Look through industry catalogs and handbooks
for existing designs. Think of ways in which these exist-
■ FIGURE 1 ■ Aesthetic and Functional Design Combine to Give ing designs can be used or modified to work in your
this Sports Car not only a Look of Elegance, but of Speed. Although design plan. Manipulate them through freehand
Pleasing to the Eye, this Car Is the Superb Product of Aerodynamic sketches or through the use of computer software
and Mechanical Engineering. Reprinted with permission from Bavarian Autosport. (CAD).

411
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 2 ■ Pictorial Patent Drawing of a Bicycle Fishing

Rod Holder.

STUDY PATENT DRAWINGS (See Fig. 2) A patent is issued

by the U.S. government granting the holder the “right to
exclude others from making, using or selling” a specific
product.The patent process was first developed as a way
of disclosing technical advances by granting a period of
protection for a limited amount of time (a patent is
issued for 17 years). The U.S. Patent and Trademark
Office has extremely strict regulations as to the presen-
■ FIGURE 3 ■ Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM). Used to
tation of materials (i.e., no freehand sketches are accept-
Accurately Measure a Part for Reverse Engineering or Quality Control.
ed and all patent drawings must be made with drafting
instruments or by a process which will make them easily STUDYING THE NATURAL WORLD Noting how other creatures
reproducible). You cannot use or copy any existing interact with their surroundings can provide a wealth of
patents, but they can be a great source of ideas. The U.S. information and creativity. Such things as bee hives or spi-
Patent Office, therefore, can be a valuable resource in ders’ webs are masterpieces of structural design. A hum-
quest for design ideas.A discussion of how to apply for a mingbird’s wings are aerodynamic wonders. (See Figs.
patent for a new design appears in §26. 4 and 5.) Study them and expand on their designs.
Use all computer hardware and software available
EXAMINE MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS Dismantle them, eval- to you. Animation and CAD programs have become
uate them, and study how their parts are designed to numerous in recent years. Although you may not have
work together. This is referred to as reverse engineering. the resources to invest in numerous new software pro-
Sophisticated reverse engineering involves evaluating a grams, be sure to make use of those readily available at
product using a machine called a coordinate measuring your school. Even programs such as Adobe Illustrator®
machine (CMM). (See Fig. 3.) The machine is an
electromechanical device containing a probe on one end. ■ FIGURE 4 ■ Studying Designs in Nature, such as this Spider’s
The probe measures the object and then places all of the Web, Can Provide the Designer with New Information and Ideas.
pertinent information into a CAD database where it can Courtesy of Peter Arnold, Inc.
be manipulated. Although you may not have access to
such a complicated machine, examine manufactured
products that are available to you. Think of ways to
improve or change these existing designs. Where could
they be improved? What would you do differently?
Study a product that is no longer performing to the
manufacturer’s existing or upgraded standards, referred to
as functional decomposition. How could you expand/
change the design to guarantee better performance? What
could you do to expand the life of the product? How could
you make it more efficient, more cost effective, etc.?

412
 Design and Working Drawings

ucts were determined in a haphazard manner. Hence,

nearly all successful companies support a well-orga-
nized design effort, and the vitality of the company
depends, to a large extent, on the planned output of its
designers and design teams. Groups play an important
role in the creative design process.
The two most commonly used group creativity tech-
niques are brainstorming and storyboarding. Brain-
storming occurs when a group of individuals come to
together to discuss new ideas. A brainstorming session
can stimulate, enlighten, and motivate designers to look
at their product designs in a different light based upon
input from other team members. The most important
rule to follow during a brainstorming session is that no
■ FIGURE 5 ■ The Wings of a Hummingbird are Aerodynamic
criticism of others’ work should be tolerated. Criticism
Wonders. Study of such Designs in Nature Can be Enlightening to any
only serves to stymie the creative process. A second rule
Designer. Courtesy of Photo Researchers, Inc.
for any good brainstorming session is to come prepared
or Photoshop® can help in your search for new ways of with as many new ideas as possible. This is not the time
viewing and conceiving objects. to be conservative; be open to presenting new ideas.
Excellent resources for engineering and design are Storyboarding is a technique often used by design-
available on the World Wide Web. Search for terms like ers to graphically illustrate the progression of their
design, engineering, technology, or for more specific designs, as well as the manufacturing process required to
terms, depending on your interests. The following Web create a final product. Storyboards are rough sketches,
sites are useful for engineering design: usually created freehand by the designer. Storyboards
are a valuable tool in any brainstorming session as they
• http://www.yahoo.com/headlines/ can be used as a base to be built on creatively by group
Yahoo’s site for the latest technology news and a members during the session. These freehand sketches
one-week archive should be rough so that they can be updated, revised, or
• http: //www.techweb.com/ modified based on input from team members.
TechWeb site from CMP media Reintegration of the ideas generated during the brain-
• http://www.uspto.gov/ storming session into an individual’s design is of utmost
U.S. Patent Office on-line search site importance. Once the design team has settled on a specif-
ic design, it is imperative that the individual designer
Using the techniques discussed above and listed in incorporate this input into his/her design. (See Fig. 6.)
Fig. 6, the designer should have a few ideas as to
■ FIGURE 6 ■ Individual and Group Creativity Techniques.
where to begin. In order to capture, preserve, and devel-
op these ideas, the designer makes liberal use of freehand
sketches of views and pictorials. These sketches are INDIVIDUAL CREATIVITY TECHNIQUES INCLUDE:
revised or redrawn as the concept is developed. All Studying Industry Catalogs/Handbooks
sketches should be preserved for reference and dated as Examining Manufactured Items
a record of the development of the design. Studying Patent Drawings
Conducting Reverse Engineering
GROUP CREATIVITY TECHNIQUES At some point in the Examining Functional Decomposition
development of the idea, you will probably find it to Studying the Natural World
your advantage to pool your ideas with those of others Using Software Products
and begin working in a team effort; such a team may
Utilizing Design, Engineering, and Technology
include others familiar with problems of materials, pro- Web Sites
duction, marketing, and so on. In industry, the project
becomes a team effort long before the product is pro- GROUP CREATIVITY TECHNIQUES INCLUDE:
duced and marketed. Obviously, the design process is Brainstorming
not a haphazard operation of an inventor working in a Storyboarding
garage or basement, although it might well begin in Reintegration
that manner. Industry could not long survive if its prod-

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 Design and Working Drawings

Since it is important for you to be able to work

effectively with others in a group or team, you must be
able to express yourself clearly and concisely. Do not
underestimate the importance of your communication
skills, your ability to express your ideas verbally (writ-
ten and spoken), symbolically (equations, formulas,
etc.), and graphically.
These graphical skills include the ability to present
information and ideas clearly and effectively in the
form of sketches, drawings, graphs, and so on. This text-
book is dedicated to helping you develop your commu-
nication skills in graphics.

4 ■ THE DESIGN PROCESS

Design is the ability to combine ideas, scientific princi-
ples, resources, and often existing products into a solu-
tion of a problem. This ability to solve problems in
design is the result of an organized and orderly
approach to the problem known as the design process.
The design process leading to manufacturing,
assembly, marketing, service, and the many activities
necessary for a successful product is composed of sev-
eral easily recognized phases. Although many industri-
al groups may identify them in their own particular
way, a convenient procedure for the design of a new or
improved product is in five stages as follows:

1. Identification of problem, need, or “customer.”

2. Concepts and ideas.
3. Compromise solutions.
4. Models and/or prototypes.
5. Production and/or working drawings. ■ FIGURE 7 ■ Stages of the Design Process.
Ideally, the design moves through the stages as
shown in Fig. 7, but if a particular stage proves
unsatisfactory, it may be necessary to return to a previ- should be driven by its end users. Determine if the
ous stage and repeat the procedure as indicated by the design should be geared toward a single, very specific
dashed-line paths. This repetitive procedure is often user, a specific purchaser or purchasers, a manufactur-
referred to as looping. er or group of manufacturers, or to the general public.
A part to be used in the space shuttle, for example,
5 ■ STAGE 1—IDENTIFICATION would not need to be designed or manufactured for
OF THE PROBLEM AND THE CUSTOMER operation by the general public. It has a limited mar-
The design activity begins with the recognition of a ket and customer base. But a design for a new home
problem and/or the determination of a need or want for gym, which requires the user to complete the final
a product, service, or system and the economic feasibil- assembly, should take into account a wide range of
ity of fulfilling this need. users and mechanical abilities. It is important that the
The designer not only must identify the problem designer identify the end user before beginning the
or need but also the customer. Who will be affected or design process.
influenced by the design? The creation of any new It is also important to determine if the product to be
design and the related design process ultimately designed must meet with any government standards/

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 Design and Working Drawings

regulations or adhere to any professional organizations’

standards or codes before starting the design process.
Any design process will involve compromises such
that all of the designer’s original requirements cannot
be met. Government standards may limit the use of
certain materials, for example, and the design may have
to take a different form than that originally conceived
by the designer. Materials or manufacturing processes
may become too costly, resources may become unavail-
able, etc. It is important for the designer to approach
the design process knowing that compromises may
have to be made. Prioritize the design requirements. It ■ FIGURE 9 ■ Airport Transit System. Courtesy of Port Authority of NY/NJ.
is a good idea to break the design requirements into
four categories: essential, important, desirable, or bene-
ficial. If the designer has the requirements broken into system design, Fig. 9, meets the need of moving peo-
these categories before implementing the design, deci- ple efficiently between the terminal areas. The system is
sion making as to what to change and when will capable of moving 3300 people every 10 minutes.
become easier when the need arises. The Lunar Roving Vehicle, Fig. 10, is a solution
Engineering design problems may range from the to a need in the space program to explore larger areas
simple and inexpensive container opener such as the of the lunar surface. This vehicle is the end result of a
pull tab (Fig. 8) commonly used on beverage cans to great deal of design work associated with the support
the more complex problems associated with the needs systems and the related hardware.
of air and ground travel, space exploration, environ- At the problem identification stage, either the
mental control, and so forth. Although the product may designer recognizes that there does exist a need requiring
be very simple, such as the pull tab on a beverage can, a design solution or, perhaps more often, a directive is
the production tools and dies require considerable engi- received to that effect from management. No attempt is
neering and design effort.The airport automated transit made at this time to set goals or criteria for the solution.

■ FIGURE 8 ■ Pull-Tab Can Opener. John Schultz—PAR/NYC. ■ FIGURE 10 ■ Lunar Roving Vehicle. Courtesy of NASA.

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 Design and Working Drawings

Information concerning the identified problem 7 ■ STAGE 3—COMPROMISE SOLUTIONS

becomes the basis for a problem proposal, which may Various features of the many conceptual ideas generat-
be a paragraph or a multipage report presented for for- ed in the preceding stages are selected after careful con-
mal consideration. A proposal is a plan for action that sideration and combined into one or more promising
will be followed to solve the problem. The proposal, if compromise solutions. At this point the best solution is
approved, becomes an agreement to follow the plan. In evaluated in detail, and attempts are made to simplify it
the classroom, the agreement is made between you and so that it performs efficiently and is easy to manufacture,
your instructor on the identification of the problem repair, and even dispose of when its lifetime is over.
and your proposed plan of action. Refined design sketches are often followed by a
Following approval of the proposal, further aspects study of suitable materials and of motion problems that
of the problem are explored. Available information may be involved. What source of power is to be used—
related to the problem is collected, and parameters or manual, electric motor, or what? What type of motion is
guidelines for time, cost, function, and so on are needed? Is it necessary to translate rotary motion into
defined within which you will work. For example: What linear motion or vice versa? Many of these problems
is the design expected to do? What is the estimated cost are solved graphically using schematic drawings in
limit? What is the market potential? What can it be which various parts are shown in skeleton form. For
sold for? When will the prototype be ready for testing? example, pulleys and gears are represented by circles,
When must production drawings be ready? When will an arm by a single line, and a path of motion by center-
production begin? When will the product be available lines. Certain basic calculations, such as those related to
on the market? velocity and acceleration, may also be made at this time.
The parameters of a design problem, including the Preliminary studies are followed by a design lay-
time schedule, are established at this stage. Nearly all out—usually an accurate CAD drawing, showing actual
designs represent a compromise, and the amount of sizes so that proportions and fits can be clearly visual-
time budgeted to a project is no exception. ized—or by a clearly dimensioned layout sketch. An
example is shown in Fig. 11. At this time all parts are
6 ■ STAGE 2—CONCEPTS AND IDEAS carefully designed for strength and function. Costs are
At this stage, many ideas are collected—reasonable constantly kept in mind, because no matter how well
and otherwise—for possible solutions to the problem. the device performs, it must sell at a profit; otherwise
The ideas are broad and unrestricted to permit the pos- the time and development costs will have been a loss.
sibility of new and unique solutions. The ideas may be During the layout process, experience provides a
from individuals, or they may come from group or sense of proportion, size, and fit that permits noncriti-
team brainstorming sessions where one suggestion cal features to be designed by eye or with the aid of
often generates many more ideas from the group. As empirical data. Stress analysis and detailed computa-
the ideas are elicited, they are recorded for future con- tion may be necessary in connection with high speeds,
sideration and refinement. No attempt is made to eval- heavy loads, or special requirements or conditions.
uate ideas at this stage. All notes and sketches are Figure 12 shows the layout of basic proportions
signed, dated, and retained for possible patent proof. of parts and how they fit together in an assembly draw-
The larger the collection of ideas, the greater are ing. Special attention is given to clearances of moving
the chances of finding one or more ideas suitable for parts, ease of assembly, and serviceability. Standard
further refinement. All sources of ideas, such as techni- parts are used wherever possible, because they are less
cal literature, reports, design and trade journals, patents, expensive than custom parts. Most companies maintain
and existing products are explored. Ideas can come some form of an engineering standards manual, which
from such sources as the Greenfield Village Museum in contains much of the empirical data and detailed infor-
Dearborn, Michigan; the Museum of Science and mation that is regarded as “company standard.” Mate-
Industry in Chicago; trade exhibitions; the World Wide rials and costs are carefully considered. Although
Web; large hardware and supply stores; and mail order functional considerations must come first, manufactur-
catalogs. Even the user of an existing product is an ing problems must be kept constantly in mind.
excellent source, because that person often has sugges-
tions for improvement. The potential user may be help- 8 ■ STAGE 4—MODELS AND PROTOTYPES
ful with specific reactions to the proposed solution. A model to scale is often constructed to study, analyze,
No attempt is made to evaluate ideas at this stage. and refine a design.To instruct the model-shop craftsper-
All notes and sketches are signed, dated, and retained son in the construction of the prototype or model, dimen-
for possible patent proof. sioned sketches or three dimensional computer models

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 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 11 ■ Design Layout.

are required. A full-size working model made to final If the prototype is unsatisfactory, it may be neces-
specifications, except possibly for materials, is known as a sary to return to a previous stage in the design process
prototype. The prototype is tested and modified where and repeat the procedures. It must be remembered that
necessary, and the results are noted in the revision of the time and expenses always limit the duration of this
sketches and working drawings. Figure 13 shows a looping. Eventually a decision must be reached for the
prototype of the magnetic levitation train. production model.

■ FIGURE 12 ■ Improved Design of Indicating Head. Courtesy of Ohaus Scale Corp. and Machine Design.

417
 Design and Working Drawings

SOLID OR 3D MODELING CAD systems that offer solid

modeling usually have options or commands for creat-
ing complex solids using primitive shapes, including
boxes, prisms, cylinders, spheres, cones, tori, and some-
times wedges and pyramids. Figure 14 shows an
example of some solids generated using CAD. Many
CAD systems also have a primitive command which
creates any regular solid. If there is not a specific com-
mand to create the solid you want, you usually have the
option of creating new solid objects through processes
called extrusion and revolution (both generally
referred to as sweeping solids).
Extrusion is named for the manufacturing process
which forms material by forcing it through a shaped
opening. You can also think of extrusion as taking the
cross-sectional shape of the object and sweeping it
along a path to enclose a solid volume. Features which
have a continuous cross section along a straight axis
can be created using extrusion. Some CAD software
can only extrude shapes along a straight-line path,
while others can do straight or curved paths. Most
have the option to taper the extruded feature as it is
created. An example of an extruded solid model is
shown in Fig. 15.
Revolution is the process of forming a solid by
revolving the cross-sectional shape of the object along
a circular path to enclose a solid volume. Many objects
that cannot be created by extrusion can be created by
■ FIGURE 13 ■ A Prototype of the Magnetic Levitation Train Car revolution. A solid object created by revolving a shape
During a Test Run. by 270° is shown in Fig. 16.

■ FIGURE 14 ■ Examples of Solids Created with CAD. Courtesy of SolidWorks Corporation.

418
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 15 ■ Extruded Solid.

■ FIGURE 16 ■ Revolved Solid. ■ FIGURE 17 ■ Boolean Operators.

Complex solid models can be formed by joining support three Boolean operators: union (sometimes
primitives and solids formed by extrusion and revolution called addition), difference (sometimes called subtrac-
using Boolean operators. Boolean operators are named tion), and intersection. Venn diagrams are often used to
for 19th-century mathematician and logician, George show how sets are joined together using Boolean opera-
Boole. Most CAD programs that allow solid modeling tors. Figure 17 shows Venn diagrams for union, differ-

419
 Design and Working Drawings

ence, and intersection. Boolean operators can also be PARAMETRIC SOLID MODELING CAD systems, especially
used to join solids you create by extruding or revolving those allowing parametric solid modeling (where
other solids or solid primitives. design parameters control the model geometry), pro-
The union of solid A and solid B forms a single vide many benefits for shortening the design cycle
new solid that is their combined volume without any time. (In parametric design, the curve paths are con-
duplication where they have overlapped. Solid A dif- trolled by mathematical functions rather than a set of
ference solid B is similar to subtracting B from A. coordinates.) In this way, parametric solid modeling
The order of the operation does make a difference in allows concurrent design, where members of the design
the result (unlike union). For A difference B, any vol- team along with members from the company’s manu-
ume from solid B that overlaps solid A is eliminated facturing and marketing divisions can work together at
and the result forms a new solid. A intersect B results the same time to provide a total design solution. In
in a new solid where only the volume common both parametric models, constraints and parametric dimen-
to solid A and solid B is retained. You can use these sions control the model geometry. As the design
primitives, extrusion, revolution, and Boolean opera- changes, so can the constraints and dimensions; the
tors to create solid models for a variety of objects. model and drawings update automatically. Three-
Objects that cannot be created in this way are dimensional models can also be exported to rapid pro-
warped surfaces, such as those on the exteriors of totyping equipment and to direct manufacturing to
automobiles and airplanes. allow quick progress from design to product.]

■ FIGURE 18 ■ Solid Modeling Allows You to Quickly Get from Design to Product. Courtesy of Solid Concepts, Inc.

[[A 0881]]

420
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 19 ■ A Detail Drawing.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Examples of Solid Models: (a) Engine Subassembly. (Engine subassembly by UAMZ.) (b) Engine Assembled. (Airplane engine by Ingenieurbüro Hahn.)
(c) Bindings. (Binding system by Switch Manufacturing.) (d) Lamp Assembly. (Exhibition light designed by Bendis & Kieruff.) Courtesy of SolidWorks.

421
 Design and Working Drawings

RAPID PROTOTYPING While refining the design ideas, After the parts have been detailed, an assembly
engineers often work concurrently with manufacturing drawing is made, showing how all the parts go together
to determine the best ways to make and assemble the in the complete product.The assembly may be made by
necessary parts. After several cycles of refining, analyz- tracing the various details in place directly from the
ing, and synthesizing the best ideas, the final design is detail drawings, or the assembly may be traced from
ready to go into production. Rapid prototyping systems the original design layout, but if either is done, the
allow parts to quickly be generated directly from 3D value of the assembly for checking purposes, §25, will
models for mockup and testing. Rapid prototyping can be largely lost. The various types of assemblies are dis-
also be used in situations were prototypes are still cussed in §§20–25.
deemed necessary for various reasons (i.e., customer Finally, in order to protect the manufacturer, a
request). Many companies are designing their products patent drawing, which is often a form of assembly, is
with 3D design packages and then feeding the CAD prepared and filed with the U.S. patent office. patent
data into separate software programs that not only drawings are line shaded, often lettered in script, and
evaluate the design but also generate a separate set of otherwise follow rules of the patent office, §26.
data, which is then usable in a variety of ways. The new
data can be forwarded to a CNC mill, and a sample 10 ■ DESIGN OF A NEW PRODUCT
model can then be cut from the data. Data can also be An example of the design and development of a new
forwarded to rapid prototyping equipment using such product is that of IBM’s ThinkPad 701C subnotebook
technologies as stereolithography (SLA), selective laser computer, shown in Fig. 20.
sintering (SLS), ballistic particle manufacturing (BPM),
and laminated object manufacturing (LOM). STAGE 1 Problem Identification. When a company
SLA builds part from layers of laser-cured pho- wants to determine the feasibility of a new product, it
topolymer. The SLS process builds parts layer by solicits opinions and ideas from many sources, includ-
layer with a laser from powdered materials such as ing engineers, designers, drafters, managers, and poten-
nylon, polycarbonate, or a composite glass-nylon tial consumers. Price ranges and estimated sales are
material. Some rapid prototyping machines build also carefully explored.
objects by spraying molten particles of a thermoplas- In the case of the ThinkPad, IBM wanted to pro-
tic. The LOM process builds layer by layer from rolls duce a subnotebook-size computer with a full-size
of sheet goods similar to paper. (Refer to the follow- keyboard—that is, a keyboard with the same size keys
ing Graphics Spotlight for a good example of rapid and the same spacing between keys as in a desktop
prototyping in action.) computer. They also wanted the computer to have the
largest available display, but the end product had to
be thin, lightweight, and inexpensive enough to be
9 ■ STAGE 5—PRODUCTION OR WORKING competitive.
DRAWINGS
To produce or manufacture a product, a final set of
production or working drawings is made, checked,
and approved.
In industry the approved production design layouts ■ FIGURE 20 ■ IBM ThinkPad 701 C Subnotebook. Courtesy of
are turned over to the engineering department for the International Business Machines Corporation. Unauthorized use not permitted.
production drawings. The drafter, or detailers, “pick off”
the details from the layouts with the aid of the scale or
dividers. The necessary views are drawn for each part to
be made, and complete dimensions and notes are added
so that the drawings will describe these parts completely.
These working drawings of the individual parts are also
known as detail drawings, §11.
Unaltered standard parts do not require a detail draw-
ing but are shown conventionally on the assembly drawing
and listed with specifications in the parts list, §15.
A detail drawing of one of the parts from the design
layout of Fig. 11 is shown in Fig. 19. For details
concerning working drawings, see §§11–19.

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 Design and Working Drawings

STAGE 2 Concepts and Ideas. In order to fit a full-size

keyboard into a subnotebook case, a mechanical engi-
neer working on the project came up with the idea of
splitting the keyboard into two pieces that would inter-
lock when the computer case was open. The two pieces
could hang over the sides of the open case, thereby giv-
ing a little extra space for the relatively large keyboard.
To close the computer case, the two pieces of the key-
board would need to separate and slide inward into
new positions.
Once the idea of the split keyboard was accepted, ■ FIGURE 22 ■ IBM ThinkPad. Courtesy of International Business
Machines Corporation. Unauthorized use not permitted.
the team moved from rough sketches and mockups to
solid modeling.

STAGE 3 Compromise Solution. Using IBM’s CATIA

CAD/CAM software and an IBM RISC System/6000
workstation, the development team created a variety the ThinkPad computer, many of the prototypes exist-
of possible keyboard designs for the ThinkPad. This ed only as 3D computer images. For example, early
system enabled them to produce virtual prototypes prototype designs for the keyboard—in the form of
without building and rebuilding a series of actual 3D CATIA files—were given to the IBM unit that was
models. For example, they had to design a system to developing other elements of the computer so that all
move the two parts of the keyboard when the comput- the parts could be integrated into a functional whole.
er case was opened and closed. However, the keyboard
halves could not simply be moved by the case itself STAGE 5 Production. In the final stages of the design
because if the system jammed, forcing the case open process, completed CATIA models were sent to out-
would break the keyboard. One feature of the CATIA side vendors who used them to program numerically
software is a system that can identify areas of possible control (NC) tools that created the molds for parts of
physical interference between parts of a model. Thus, the computer. The same models created by the design
the team could see on a computer screen where solid process functioned throughout the various stages of
parts of the new computer might hit each other. the project. (See the Graphics Spotlight for a real-life
When the ThinkPad case is opened, the Track- example of a team using the design process.)
Write keyboard is driven into position by a spring-
loaded mechanism that moves the two halves of the
11 ■ WORKING DRAWINGS
keyboard asymmetrically. Closing the computer case
moves the two halves of the keyboard back into their Working drawings, which normally include assembly
storage position by way of an axial cam and resets the and details, are the specifications for the manufacture
spring (see Figs. 21 and 22). of a design. Therefore, they must be neatly made and
carefully checked. The working drawings of the indi-
STAGE 4 Prototypes. Although in the past prototypes vidual parts are also referred to as detail drawings,
referred to actual working models, in the production of §§ 12–19.

12 ■ NUMBER OF DETAILS PER SHEET

■ FIGURE 21 ■ IBM ThinkPad. Courtesy of International Business
Two general methods are followed in industry regard-
Machines Corporation. Unauthorized use not permitted.
ing the grouping of details on sheets. If the machine or
structure is small or composed of few parts, all the
details may be shown on one large sheet, Fig. 23.
When larger or more complicated mechanisms are
represented, the details may be drawn on several large
sheets, several details to the sheet, and the assembly is
drawn on a separate sheet. Most companies have now
adopted the practice of drawing only one detail per
sheet, however simple or small. The basic 8.50 * 11.00

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 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 23 ■ Blocking in the Views.

or 210 mm * 297 mm sheet is most commonly used 13 ■ TITLE AND RECORD STRIPS
for details, multiples of these sizes being used for larger The function of the title and record strip is to show, in
details or the assembly. an organized manner, all necessary information not
When several details are drawn on one sheet, care- given directly on the drawing with its dimensions and
ful consideration must be given to spacing. The drafter notes. Obviously, the type of title used depends on the
should determine the necessary views for each detail filing system in use, the processes of manufacture, and
and block in all views lightly before beginning to draw the requirements of the product. The following infor-
any view, as shown in Fig. 23. Ample space should be mation should generally be given in the title form:
allowed for dimensions and notes. A simple method to
space the views is to cut out rectangular scraps of paper
1. Name of the object represented.
roughly equal to the sizes of the views and to move
these around on the sheet until a suitable spacing is 2. Name and address of the manufacturer.
determined. The corner locations are then marked on 3. Name and address of the purchasing company,
the sheet, and the scraps of paper are discarded. if any.
The same scale should be used for all details on a
4. Signature of the drafter who made the drawing
single sheet, if possible. When this is not possible, the
and the date of completion.
scales for the dissimilar details should be clearly noted
under each. 5. Signature of the checker and the date of completion.

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 Design and Working Drawings

Graphics
Spotlight A Day at Ideo U
The rules for Cannonball Run, the final competition at Ideo roster of clients, which include a sizeable portion of the FOR-
University, are simple: To win, a team needs to: TUNE 500. Ideo began offering design workshops for its cus-
tomers and potential customers after many began clamoring
1. Build a device that will propel a steel “cannonball” farther
to know exactly how they came up with there designs. Since
than contraptions built by the three opposing teams.
then, companies ranging from NEC to Kodak to Steelcase
2. Make the ball signal the end of its journey by setting off have been sending employees to Ideo U.
a buzzer in the designated “cannonball catcher,” a
round target with the approximate circumference of a C AN C REATIVITY BE TAUGHT ?
coffee cup. “They say that genius is 99% perspiration and 1% inspira-
3. Use the provided material, which consists of a bundle tion,” says Dennis Boyle, the Ideo principal leading the Can-
of wooden dowels, a chunk of cushiony foam, a roll of nonball Run Workshop. Most companies have that 99. It’s the
electrical tape, a stack of index cards, some paint 1 that’s really hard, and that’s why our clients are asking us
sticks, a fistful of rubber bands, an extremely long to work with their people and not just their product.”
piece of black string, a mousetrap, and the tubes all To home in on that elusive 1, Ideo’s employees explain
this came in. the techniques they use to design products and then force
4. Complete a cannonball launcher within 90 minutes. participants to put them into practice. That’s where Cannon-
ball Run comes in.
Not the simplest of tasks, but then again, no one ever said
that learning creativity was easy. In fact, the compeition at B RAINSTORMING
Ideo U. consisted of one journalist and 15 engineers from The first step: brainstorming. Earlier that afternoon, Brendan
the networking giant Cisco Systems. At the beginning of the Boyle, head of Ideo’s toy-invention studio had explained
competition, they were all skeptical. Creativity couldn’t pos- brainstorming the Ideo way. Ideo takes its rules for brain-
sibly be taught, let alone at a one-day innovation and storming so seriously that they are printed on a large banner
design workshop. that runs across the top of the classroom’s whiteboards.
They are:
I DEO U. D ESIGN W ORKSHOPS • Defer judgment (otherwise you’ll interrupt the flow of
Ideo is the Silicon Valley firm that’s famous for designing
ideas);
products like Apple’s first mouse; a no-mess toothpaste
tube for Procter & Gamble’s Crest; and, most recently, the • Build on the ideas of others (it’s far more productive
Palm V, the silvery, wafer-thin, light-as-a feather addition to than hogging the glory of your own insights);
3Com’s blockbuster line of hand held organizers. • Stay focused on the topic (no tangents);
Founded in 1978 by Stanford design professor, David • One person at a time (so you don’t drown out that
Kelley, Ideo has designed more than 3,000 products for a quiet, brilliant mumbler in the corner);

This photo is intentionally omitted from this text.

(continues on next page)

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 Design and Working Drawings

This photo is intentionally omitted from this text.

• Go for quantity (when Ideo staffers brainstorm, they would guide the cannonball from their ramp to their can-
shoot for 150 ideas in 30 to 45 minutes); nonball catcher at the far end of the room. What’s more
• Encourage wild ideas (to paraphrase Einstein, “If the they were carefully folding up the sides of each card to
first idea doesn’t sound absurd, then there’s no hope make sure the ball didn’t get derailed on its way to the des-
for it”); and tination, Brilliant!
Teams 3 and 4 had gone with different designs that
• Be visual (sketch ideas to help people understand
don’t look nearly as impressive. So what did Team 2 do?
them).
They stole the idea. Suddenly, the competition was
Team 2 stuck to these rules and within a few minutes came reduced to which team, Team 1 or Team 2, would be able
up with 15–20 ideas for the launcher. to tape the index cards together faster.

R APID P ROTOTYPING U SING B RAINSTORMING AND R APID P ROTOTYPING

To narrow their ideas down, Team 2 used rapid prototyp-
T ECHNIQUES IN R EAL L IFE
ing, another Ideo technique. The idea behind rapid proto-
Of course, in real life, you can’t always glance across the
typing is that it’s easier to discuss a model of something,
room and steal your competitor’s ideas. But the Cannon-
no matter how primitive, than to talk about a bunch of
ball Run project drove home Ideo’s philosophy about
ideas. “If a picture is worth a thousand words,” says Ideo’s
brainstorming and rapid prototyping methods: They get
Steve Vassallo, “a prototype is worth ten thousand.”
you to stop dithering and start doing. What you can come
Rapid prototyping consists of three Rs: Rough, Rapid,
up with on the fly won’t be nearly as bad as you think—in
and Right. The first two Rs are fairly self-explanatory—
fact it’ll often be better that what you come up with work-
make your models rough and make them rapidly. In the
ing slowly and deliberately. Besides, coming up with
early stages perfecting a model is a waste of time. “You
something—anything—is often half the battle.
learn just as much from a model that’s wrong as you do
All 15 participants walked away from the experience
from one that’s right,” says Vassalo. Even the final R
with changed ideas of how to approach even the simplest
(Right), doesn’t mean that your model has to work. Instead
of projects. “I like how it showed that you don’t have to
it refers to building lots of small models that focus on spe-
spend tons of money to prototype. You can do a lot of trial-
cific problems. For Team 2’s Cannonball Run project, the
and-error modeling on your own without paying a lot of
three Rs worked.
money to go outside just to find something that doesn’t
After making a few rough models with the mousetrap,
work,” stated one Team 2 participant. Another teammate
they were certain that they could never fire the cannonball
added, “When I went to work the next day, I called an
through the air with any precision. That nudged them
emergency brainstorming session and set a goal of 100
towards a safer option—building a ramp that would guide
ideas in an hour. I thought maybe we’d get 50. We got
the ball from a table top to its target on the floor via two
103.” Would he recommend the workshop to his col-
guide rails made out of the wooden dowels. They got busy
leagues? “Oh man, are you kidding me? Absolutely!” But
building their device. Thirty minutes before deadline, they
they could be biased. After all, Team 2 won.
realized that one of the other teams were doing the exact
same thing, with one crucial difference: They were taping
together the index cards (the most useless looking of all Adapted from “Staying Smart. A Day at Innovation U,” by Ed Brown,
the provided materials) to create a 30-foot long track that Fortune, April 12, 1999, pp. 163–165.

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 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 24 ■ Title Strip.

■ FIGURE 25 ■ Title Strip.

6. Signature of the chief drafter, chief engineer, or ner of the sheet, Fig. 26, because drawings are often
other official, and the date of approval. filed in flat, horizontal drawers, and the title must be
7. Scale of the drawing. easily found. However, many filing systems are in use,
8. Number of the drawing. and the location of the title form is governed by the
system employed.
Other information may be given, such as material, Lettering should be single-stroke vertical or
quantity, heat treatment, finish, hardness, pattern num- inclined Gothic capitals. The items in the title form
ber, estimated weight, superseding and superseded should be lettered in accordance with their relative
drawing numbers, symbol of machine, and many other importance. The drawing number should receive the
items, depending on the plant organization and the greatest emphasis, closely followed by the name of the
peculiarities of the product. Some typical commercial object and the name of the company.The date, scale, and
titles are shown in Figs. 24, 25, and 26. See the drafter’s and checker’s names are important, but they do
inside back cover for traditional title forms and ANSI- not deserve prominence. Greater importance of items is
approved sheet sizes. indicated by heavier lettering, larger lettering, wider
The title form is usually placed along the bottom spacing of letters, or by a combination of these methods.
of the sheet, Fig. 24, or in the lower right-hand cor- See Table 1 for recommended letter heights.

■ FIGURE 26 ■ Identification of Details with Parts List.

427
 Design and Working Drawings

TABLE 1 ■ Recommendeda Minimum Letter Heights.

Minimum Letter Heights

Drawing
Use Freehand Instrumental Size
Drawing number in title block .312– A 16
5
B 7 mm .290– 7 mm Larger than
17– * 22–
.250– A 14 B 7 mm .240– 7 mm Up to and
including
17– * 22–
Drawing title .250– A 14 B 7 mm .240– 7 mm
Section and tabulation letters A B 7 mm
.250– 14 .240– 7 mm All
Zone letters and numerals in borders A B 5 mm
3
.188– 16 .175– 5 mm
Dimensions, tolerances, limits, notes, A B 3.5 mm
.125– 18 .120– 3.5 mm Up to and
subtitles for special views, tables, including
revisions, and zone letters for the 17– * 22–
body of the drawing .156– A 32
5
B 5 mm .140– 5 mm Larger than
17– * 22–
a
ANSI Y14.2M–1979 (R1987).

Many companies have adopted their own title 1982 (R1988)]. This list is often given on a separate
forms or those preferred by ANSI and have them sheet, but is frequently lettered directly on the drawing.
printed on standard-size sheets, so that the drafters The title strip alone is sufficient on detail drawings of
need merely fill in the blank spaces. only one part, Fig. 25, but a parts list is necessary on
Drawings constitute important and valuable infor- detail drawings of several parts, Fig. 26.
mation regarding the products of a manufacturer. Parts lists on machine drawings contain the part
Hence, carefully designed, well-kept, systematic files numbers or symbols, a descriptive title of each part, the
are generally maintained for the filing of drawings. number required, the material specified, and frequent-
ly other information, such as pattern numbers, stock
14 ■ DRAWING NUMBERS sizes of materials, and weights of parts.
Parts are listed in general order of size or impor-
Every drawing should be numbered. Some companies
tance. The main castings or forgings are listed first,
use serial numbers, such as 60412, or a number with a
parts cut from cold-rolled stock second, and standard
prefix or suffix letter to indicate the sheet size, as A60412
parts such as fasteners, bushings, and roller bearings
or 60412-A. The size A sheet would probably be the
third. If the parts list rests on top of the title box or
standard 8.50 * 11.00 or 9.00 * 12.00, and the B size a
strip, the order of the items should be from the bottom
multiple thereof. Many different numbering schemes
upward, Figs. 26 and 32, so that new items can be
are in use in which various parts of the drawing number
added later, if necessary. If the parts list is placed in the
indicate different things, such as model number of the
upper-right corner, the items should read downward.
machine and the general nature or use of the part. In
Each detail on the drawing may be identified with
general, it is best to use a simple numbering system and
the parts list by the use of a small circle containing the
not to load the number with too many indications.
part number, placed adjacent to the detail, as in Fig.
The drawing number should be lettered 7 mm (.2500)
26. One of the sizes in Fig. 27 will be found suit-
high in the lower-right and upper-left corners of the sheet.
able, depending on the size of the drawing.
Standard parts, whether purchased or company
15 ■ PARTS LISTS produced, are not drawn but are included in the parts
A bill of material, or parts list, consists of an itemized list. Bolts, screws, bearings, pins, keys, and so on are
list of the several parts of a structure shown on a detail identified by the part number from the assembly draw-
drawing or an assembly drawing [ANSI Y14.34M– ing and are specified by name and size or number.

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 Design and Working Drawings

18 ■ DRAWING REVISIONS
Changes on drawings are necessitated by changes in design,
changes in tools, desires of customers, or errors in design or
in production. In order that the sources of all changes of
■ FIGURE 27 ■ Identification Numbers. information on drawings may be understood, verified, and
accessible,an accurate record of all changes should be made
on the drawings. The record should show the character of
16 ■ ZONING
the change, by whom, when, and why made.
To facilitate locating an item on a large or complex The changes are made by erasures directly on the
drawing, regular ruled intervals are labeled along the original drawing or by means of erasure fluid on a repro-
margins, often in the right and lower margins only. The duction print.Additions are simply drawn in on the orig-
intervals on the horizontal margin are labeled from inal. The removal of information by crossing out is not
right to left with numerals, and the intervals on the ver- recommended. If a dimension is not noticeably affected
tical margin are labeled from bottom to top with letters. by a change, it may be underlined with a heavy line to
indicate that it is not to scale. In any case, prints of each
17 ■ CHECKING issue or microfilms are kept on file to show how the
The importance of accuracy in technical drawing can- drawing appeared before the revision. New prints are
not be overestimated. In commercial offices, errors issued to supersede old ones each time a change is made.
sometimes cause tremendous unnecessary expendi- If considerable change on a drawing is necessary, a
tures. The drafter’s signature on a drawing identifies new drawing may be made and the old one then stamped
who is responsible for the accuracy of the work. OBSOLETE and placed in the “obsolete” file. In the title
In small offices, checking is usually done by the block of the old drawing, the words “SUPERSEDED
designer or by one of the drafters. In large offices, expe- BY Á ” or “REPLACED BY Á ” are entered followed
rienced engineers are employed who devote a major by the number of the new drawing. On the new drawing,
part of their time to checking drawings. under “SUPERSEDES Á ” or “REPLACES Á ,” the
The pencil drawing, upon completion, is carefully number of the old drawing is entered.
checked and signed by the drafter who made it. The Various methods are used to reference the area on
drawing is then checked by the designer for function, a drawing where the change is made, with the entry in
economy, practicability, and so on. Corrections, if any, the revision block. The most common is to place num-
are then made by the original drafter. bers or letters in small circles near the places where the
The final checker should be able to discover all changes were made and to use the same numbers or
remaining errors, and, to be effective, the work must be letters in the revision block, Fig. 28. On zoned draw-
done in a systematic way. The checker should study the ings, §16, the zone of the correction would be shown in
drawing with particular attention to the following points. the revision block. In addition, the change should be
described briefly, and the date and the initials of the
1. Soundness of design, with reference to function, person making the change should be given.
strength, materials, economy, manufacturability,
serviceability, ease of assembly and repair, lubrica- ■ FIGURE 28 ■ Revisions.
tion, and so on.
2. Choice of views, partial views, auxiliary views, sec-
tion line work, lettering, and so on.
3. Dimensions, with special reference to repetition,
ambiguity,legibility,omissions,errors,and finish marks.
Special attention should be given to tolerances.
4. Standard parts. In the interest of economy, as
many parts as possible should be standard.
5. Notes, with special reference to clear wording and
legibility.
6. Clearances. Moving parts should be checked in all
possible positions to assure freedom of movement.
7. Title form information.

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 Design and Working Drawings

19 ■ SIMPLIFIED DRAFTING accepted generally by industry and in time find their

Drafting time is a considerable element of the total way into ANSI standards, the students should follow
cost of a product. Consequently, industry attempts to the ANSI standards as exemplified in this
reduce drawing costs by simplifying its drafting prac- book. Fundamentals should come first—shortcuts per-
tices, but without loss of clarity to the user. haps later.
The American National Standard Drafting
Manual, published by the American National Stan- 20 ■ ASSEMBLY DRAWINGS
dards Institute, incorporates the best and the most
An assembly drawing shows the assembled machine or
representative practices in this country, and the
structure, with all detail parts in their functional posi-
authors are in full accord with them. These stan-
tions. Assembly drawings vary in character according
dards advocate simplification in many ways, for
to use, as follows: (1) design assemblies, or layouts, dis-
example, partial views, half views, thread symbols,
cussed in §7, (2) general assemblies, (3) working draw-
piping symbols, and single-line spring drawings. Any
ing assemblies, (4) outline or installation assemblies,
line or lettering on a drawing that is not needed for
and (5) check assemblies.
clarity should be omitted.
A summary of practices to simplify drafting is as
follows. 21 ■ GENERAL ASSEMBLIES
A set of working drawings includes the detail drawings
1. Use word description in place of drawing wherever
of the individual parts and the assembly drawing of the
practicable.
assembled unit. The detail drawings of an automobile
2. Never draw an unnecessary view. Often a view can connecting rod are shown in Figs. 29 and 30, and
be eliminated by using abbreviations or symbols the corresponding assembly drawing is shown in Fig.
such as HEX, SQ, DIA, ¤, and CL. 31. Such an assembly, showing only one unit of a larg-
3. Draw partial views instead of full views wherever er machine, is often referred to as a subassembly.
possible. Draw half views of symmetrical parts. An example of a complete general assembly
4. Avoid elaborate, pictorial, or repetitive detail as appears in Fig. 32, which shows the assembly of a
much as possible. Use phantom lines to avoid hand grinder. Another example of a subassembly is
drawing repeated features. shown in Fig. 33.
5. List rather than draw, when possible, standard
1. Views. In selecting the views for an assembly draw-
parts such as bolts, nuts, keys, and pins.
ing, the purpose of the drawing must be kept in mind:
6. Omit unnecessary hidden lines. to show how the parts fit together in the assembly and
7. Use outline section lining in large sectioned areas to suggest the function of the entire unit, not to
wherever it can be done without loss of clarity. describe the shapes of the individual parts. The assem-
8. Omit unnecessary duplication of notes and bly worker receives the actual finished parts. If more
lettering. information is needed about a part that cannot be
9. Use symbolic representation wherever possible, obtained form the part itself, the detail drawing must
such as piping symbols and thread symbols. be checked. Thus, the assembly drawing purports to
10. Draw freehand, or mechanically plus freehand, show relationships of parts, not shapes. The view or
wherever practicable. views selected should be the minimum views or partial
views that will show how the parts fit together. In Fig.
11. Avoid hand lettering as much as possible. For
31, only one view is needed, while in Fig. 32, only
example, parts lists should be typed on a separate
two views are necessary.
sheet.
12. Use labor-saving devices wherever feasible, such 2. Sections. Since assemblies often have parts fitting
as templates and plastic overlays. into or overlapping other parts, hidden-line delin-
13. Use electronic devices or computer graphics sys- eation is usually out of the question. Hence, in
tems wherever feasible for design, drawing, and assemblies, sectioning can be used to great advan-
repetitive work. tage. For example, in Fig. 32, try to imagine the
right-side view drawn in elevation with interior parts
Some industries have attempted to simplify their represented by hidden lines. The result would be
drafting practices even more. Until these practices are completely unintelligible.

430
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 29 ■ Forging Drawing of Connecting Rod. Courtesy of Cadillac Motor Car Division.

Any kind of section may be used as needed. A bro- opening between the jaws of a vise. Or when machining
ken-cut section is shown in Fig. 32, a half section in is required in the assembly operation, the necessary
Fig. 33, and several removed sections are shown in dimensions and notes may be given on the assembly
Fig. 29. For general information on assembly sec- drawing.
tioning, see §22. For methods of drawing threads in
sections, see §16. 5. Identification. The methods of identification of parts
in an assembly are similar to those used in detail draw-
3. Hidden lines. As a result of the extensive use of sec- ings where several details are shown on one sheet, as in
tioning in assemblies, hidden lines are often not need- Fig. 26. Circles containing the part numbers are
ed. However, they should be used wherever necessary placed adjacent to the parts, with leaders terminated by
for clearness. arrowheads touching the parts as in Fig. 32. The cir-
cles shown in Fig. 27 are, with the addition of radial
4. Dimensions. As a rule, dimensions are not given on leaders, satisfactory for assembly drawings. Note, in Fig.
assembly drawings, since they are given completely on 32, that these circles are placed in orderly horizontal
the detail drawings. If dimensions are given, they are or vertical rows and not scattered over the sheet. Lead-
limited to some function of the object as a whole, such ers are never allowed to cross, and adjacent leaders are
as the maximum height of a jack, or the maximum parallel or nearly so.

431
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 30 ■ Detail Drawing of Connecting Rod. Courtesy of Cadillac Motor Car Division.

■ FIGURE 31 ■ Assembly Drawing of Connecting Rod. Courtesy of Cadillac Motor Car Division.

432
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 32 ■ Assembly Drawing of Grinder.

■ FIGURE 33 ■ Subassembly of Accessory Shaft Group.

433
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 34 ■ Section Lining

(Full Size).

The parts list includes the part numbers or sym-

bols, a descriptive title of each part, the number
required per machine or unit, the material specified,
and frequently other information, such as pattern num-
bers, stock sizes, weights, and so on. Frequently the
parts list is lettered or typed on a separate sheet.
Another method of identification is to letter the
part names, numbers required, and part numbers, at the
end of leaders as shown in Fig. 33. More commonly,
however, only the part numbers are given, together
with ANSI-approved straight-line leaders.
■ FIGURE 35 ■ Symbolic Section Lining.
6. Drawing revisions. Methods of recording changes are
the same as those for detail drawings, Fig. 29, for
example. See §18.

22 ■ ASSEMBLY SECTIONING
In assembly sections it is necessary not only to show the
cut surfaces but also to distinguish between adjacent
parts.This is done by drawing the section lines in oppos- ■ FIGURE 36 ■ Sectioning Thin Parts.
ing directions, as shown in Fig. 34. The first large
area, (a), is section-lined at 45°. The next large area, (b),
is section-lined at 45° in the opposite direction. Addi- tioned, or “in the round.” These include bolts, nuts, shafts,
tional areas are then section-lined at other angles, such keys, screws, pins, ball or roller bearings, gear teeth, spokes,
as 30° or 60° with horizontal, as shown at (c). If neces- and ribs among others. Many are shown in Fig. 37, and
sary, “odd” angles may be used. Note at (c) that in small similar examples are shown in Figs. 32 and 33.
areas it is necessary to space the section lines closer
together. The section lines in adjacent areas should not
meet at the visible lines separating the areas. 23 ■ WORKING DRAWING ASSEMBLY
For general use, the cast-iron general-purpose sec- A working drawing assembly, Fig. 38, is a combined
tion lining is recommended for assemblies.Wherever it is detail and assembly drawing. Such drawings are often used
desired to give a general indication of the materials used, in place of separate detail and assembly drawings when
symbolic section lining may be used, as in Fig. 35. the assembly is simple enough for all its parts to be shown
In sectioning relatively thin parts in assembly, such as clearly in the single drawing. In some cases, all but one or
gaskets and sheet-metal parts, section lining is ineffective, two parts can be drawn and dimensioned clearly in the
and such parts should be shown in solid black, Fig. 36. assembly drawing, in which event these parts are detailed
Often solid objects, or parts that themselves do not separately on the same sheet.This type of drawing is com-
require sectioning, lie in the path of the cutting plane. It is mon in valve drawings, locomotive subassemblies, aircraft
customary and standard practice to show such parts unsec- subassemblies, and drawings of jigs and fixtures.

434
 Design and Working Drawings

outline assembly, because it shows only the outlines

and the relationships of exterior surfaces. A typical
installation assembly is shown in Fig. 39. In air-
craft drafting, an installation drawing (assembly)
gives complete information for placing details or sub-
assemblies in their final positions in the airplane.

25 ■ CHECK ASSEMBLIES
After all detail drawings of a unit have been made, it
may be necessary to make a check assembly, especially
if a number of changes were made in the details. Such
an assembly is drawn accurately to scale in order to
check graphically the correctness of the details and
their relationship in assembly. After the check assem-
bly has served its purpose, it may be converted into a
general assembly drawing.
■ FIGURE 37 ■ Assembly Section. Courtesy of Hewitt-Robins, Inc.

26 ■ PATENT DRAWINGS
The patent application for a machine or device must
24 ■ INSTALLATION ASSEMBLIES include drawings to illustrate and explain the inven-
An assembly made specifically to show how to install tion. It is essential that all patent drawings be mechani-
or erect a machine or structure is an installation cally correct and constitute complete illustrations of
assembly. This type of drawing is also often called an every feature of the invention claimed. The strict

■ FIGURE 38 ■ Working Drawing Assembly of Drill Jig.

435
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 39 ■ Installation Assembly.

requirements of the U.S. Patent Office in this respect or elements, and they may be drawn to an enlarged
serve to facilitate the examination of applications and scale if necessary. The required signatures must be
the interpretation of patents issued thereon. A typical placed in the lower right-hand corner of the drawing,
patent drawing is shown in Fig. 40. either inside or outside the border line.
The drawings for patent applications are pictorial Patent drawings can also be created utilizing the
and explanatory in nature; hence, they are not detailed as same CAD database used to create the design docu-
are working drawings for production purposes. Center mentation. The U.S. Patent Office has some basic stan-
lines, dimensions, notes, and so forth are omitted. Views, dards. They allow three sheet sizes:
features, and parts, for example, are identified by num- • U.S. size, 8.5 inches by 14 inches
bers that refer to the descriptions and explanations given
• U.S. size, 8.5 inches by 13 inches
in the specification section of the patent application.
Patent drawings can be produced by hand or by a • International size, 210 mm by 297 mm
CAD system. If by hand, the patent drawings can be No borders are permitted on the sheets and mini-
made with India ink on heavy, smooth, white paper, mum margins must be maintained. No labels or drawing
exactly 10.00 * 15.00 with 1.00 borders on all sides. A lines may extend into the margin except for the specific
space of not less than 1.250 from the shorter border, identification required at the top of each sheet. All
which is the top of the drawing, is left blank for the sheets within a single application must be the same size.
heading of title, name, number, and other data to be All drawings must be submitted in black and
added by the Patent Office. white—no color drawings or photos. Either instrument
All lines must be solid black and suitable for or CAD drawings may be used. Sketches are acceptable
reproduction at a smaller size. Line shading is used for the application process, but formal drawings will
whenever it improves readability. have to be created if accepted. Lines must be crisp and
The drawings must contain as many figures as nec- sharp, so CAD drawings should be printed on a plotter
essary to show the invention clearly. There is no restric- or laser printer. Dot matrix printings are not acceptable.
tion on the number of sheets. The figures may be plan, Photocopies are accepted since three copies of each
elevation, section, pictorial, and detail views of portions drawing must be submitted. The drawings will not be

436
 Design and Working Drawings

194
(194')

206 218 208 220

210 212
(210') 214 (212')
(214') 216
(216')

■ FIGURE 40 ■ Pictorial Patent Drawing. Copy provided by USPTO from the CSIR Image Database on 11-30-2001.

437
 Design and Working Drawings

returned so it is not a good idea to send an original with patent claims. If standardized parts are used, they can
the initial patent application. be represented symbolically and do not have to be
While most engineering drawings are produced to drawn in detail.
show alignment on one sheet, patent drawings must show There is no limit to the number of drawings that
each separate view as one figure. Figures should be num- may be submitted. For more information, log on to the
bered consecutively (i.e., Fig. 1, Fig. 2, Fig. 3A, Fig. 3B, etc.). U.S. Patent and Trademark Office’s Web site at:
Specific dimensions and tolerances are often not http://www.uspto.gov.
required to patent the general design or innovation. Because of the strict requirements of the Patent
Exploded isometric or perspective drawings with refer- Office, applicants are advised to employ competent
ence numbers identifying the parts are preferred (i.e., drafters to make their drawings. To aid drafters in the
assembly drawings). preparation of drawings for submission in patent appli-
Center lines should be used to illustrate parts in cations, the Guide for Patent Draftsmen has been pre-
exploded views. The reference number for a part or pared by and can be obtained from the Superintendent
feature should remain the same in every diagram. The of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Wash-
drawing must show every feature that is listed in the ington, D.C. 20402.

Graphics An Inventor Unveils His Mysterious Personal

Spotlight Transportation Device
It is not a hovercraft, a helicopter backpack or a teleporta- zooming toward a reporter. “Think back,” he continued,
tion pod. effortlessly reversing course.
The mystery transportation device being developed by Tilt sensors monitor the rider’s center of gravity more
the award-winning inventor Dean Kamen—the subject of than 100 times a second, signaling to the electric motor
continuous fevered speculation since provocative clues and and wheels which way to turn and how fast.
predictions surfaced in media reports last January—is not Mr. Kamen says the much anticipated unveiling comes
hydrogen-powered, a favored theory in Internet discussions. now because he has had time to file for crucial patents on
Nor does it run on a superefficient Stirling engine (yet). the technology and is ready to test it publicly.
But if the public’s collective yearning for Jetsonian The United States Postal Service, the National Park Ser-
travel technology must remain unrequited this week, at vice and the City of Atlanta plan to begin limited field tests of
least the speculators will have their curiosity satisfied. the devices early next year. Amazon.com and several com-
Mr. Kamen plans to demonstrate today a two-wheeled panies that make parts for the Segway, including GE Plastics
battery-powered device designed for a single standing and Michelin North America, plan to use the devices to try to
rider. Its chief novelty lies in the uncanny effect, produced save money by reducing the time it takes employees to
by a finely tuned gyroscopic balancing mechanism, of move around corporate campuses and large warehouses.
intuiting where its rider wants to go—and going there. At an average speed of 8 miles an hour, or three times
The device, the Segway Human Transporter, better walking pace, Mr. Kamen says the Segway can go 15 miles
known by its former code-name, Ginger, can go up to 12 on a six-hour charge, for less than a dime’s worth of elec-
miles an hour and has no brakes. Its speed and direction tricity from a standard wall socket.
are controlled solely by the rider’s shifting weight and a It is easy to see how the transporter tickled technology
manual turning mechanism on one of the handlebars. industry luminaries like Steve Jobs, founder of Apple Com-
“You might ask, ‘How does it work?’ ” said Mr. Kamen, puter, and Jeff Bezos, chairman of Amazon.com, when Mr.
mounting one of the devices last week on a test track at Kamen showed them an early model of the Segway. John
his company’s headquarters in Manchester, N.H. “Think Doerr, a partner in the Silicon Valley venture capital firm
forward,” he said, inclining his head ever so slightly and Kleiner Perkins Caufield & Byers, has invested $38 million

438
 Design and Working Drawings

in Mr. Kamen’s efforts, the largest single investment in the “Nothing has happened at the level of the pedestrian
firm’s history. to improve transportation since we invented the sneaker,”
The names and positive pronouncements of all Mr. Kamen said. “We think if you could integrate the Seg-
three—Mr. Jobs reportedly said the device could be as way technology into cities it would be a universal win for
significant as the development of the personal comput- everybody.”
er—were invoked in a supposedly secret proposal for a That is a big if. The Segway is meant to be ridden on
book to be written by Mr. Kamen and Steve Kemper, a sidewalks, and many municipalities ban motorized
journalist. But excerpts of the proposal, which won a devices on sidewalks. The machines weigh 65 pounds,
$250,000 contract from Harvard Business School Press, and although they may be able to zip in and out of eleva-
were reported in January by Inside.com, which is now tors and offices, going up and down stairs is a different
defunct. matter. The device can be put in “follow mode,” which
The leaked proposal, which referred to the Segway helps propel it up and down, but there is still lifting to be
cryptically as “It,” set off a tidal wave of conjecture that led done. Each one comes with a computer encoded on-off
to several hundred media reports, tens of thousands of key protected by 64-bit software encryption to deter
Internet postings, and the question in the minds of some thieves or joyriders. But locking the machine to a parking
observers as to whether Mr. Kamen had set out a deliber- meter or lamppost is far more awkward than doing the
ate strategy to whip up public interest in his creation. same with a bicycle.
Mr. Kamen says he was mortified by the leak and that Then there is the price. When the first models are
his reason for maintaining his silence in the face of so expected to be available to consumers in about a year,
much speculation was to protect his company’s intellectu- they will cost about $3,000.
al property as it filed hundreds of patent claims. He sug- “I don’t want to sound like a Ginger-slammer,” said
gests the level of interest is a sign of the actual hunger for Paul Saffo, director of the Institute for the Future in Menlo
a transportation choice that fills the niche between walking Park, Calif., “but it’s about $2,000 too expensive and 40
and driving. pounds too heavy.”
The recipient last year of the National Medal of Tech- Even if some consumers are taken with the devices,
nology, awarded by President Bill Clinton, Mr. Kamen, 49, skeptics say the social resistance to them may pose an
has made millions of dollars creating medical devices even greater problem.
including the first insulin pump and the first portable kid- “The big question is: Will pedestrians consider them
ney dialysis machine. socially acceptable on the sidewalk?” said Sheila Lynch,
Typically, Mr. Kamen sticks to research and develop- executive director of the Northeast Advanced Vehicle Con-
ment with his company, DEKA Research and Develop- sortium, a nonprofit organization that sponsors alternative
ment, and licenses his inventions for others to market. But transportation projects. “I’ve seen a lot of promising trans-
for the Segway, which grew out of his work on a motorized portation innovations, and a lot of them aren’t around any-
wheelchair that can climb stairs (code-named Fred), Mr. more. I thought electric bikes would be a no-brainer, and
Kamen decided in early 2000 to form his own company to they’re not doing so well.”
produce and market it. Even though scooters are much cheaper and faster,
A college dropout, Mr. Kamen has collected a total of Mr. Kamen says that the Segway, which riders stand on
about $90 million for the start-up, Segway, with Credit facing forward, feet side by side, will have much broader
Suisse First Boston Private Equity and Kleiner Perkins as appeal than scooters, which require an ability to balance
the lead investors. He retains majority control of the com- and brave street traffic.
pany, whose headquarters are in a complex of former mills But Gary Bridge, Segway’s senior vice president for
about 10 minutes from his hexagonal-shaped home, which marketing, is acutely aware of the need to develop a code
has a machine shop in the basement and two helicopters of “Segway etiquette” before introducing the device to
in the garage. consumers. When Mr. Kamen invited a reporter to play on
The decision to start the company was based largely the Segway, Mr. Bridge reminded him. “We don’t play, we
on his personal attachment to the idea, Mr. Kamen said. ride.” “The last thing we want is to be seen as the snow-
Not one to shrink from sweeping statements, he argues board,” Mr. Bridge added.
that the Segway could cause cities to be redesigned, help To avoid such associations, the first field tests of the
wean the world from oil dependence, compress time and devices are set to take place over the next few months
space for pedestrians, and raise productivity for corpora- with government agencies and corporations. The United
tions and government agencies. States Postal Service, for instance, plans to try 20 units

(continues on next page)

439
 Design and Working Drawings

on mail routes in Concord, N.H., and Fort Myers, Fla., Ultimately, Mr. Dobbins said, other commuters may want
starting in January. The agency hopes the devices can to use the device in conjunction with public transportation.
reduce reliance on trucks and enable mail carriers to As for whether the Segway can ever hope to live up to
cover more ground. the hype of Ginger and It, innovation experts say it is too
And the City of Atlanta plans to use several dozen soon to tell.
starting in February in an effort to reduce emissions and “This seems like a machine that wants to serve
traffic congestion in its downtown area, where many humans, and maybe that’s his real breakthrough,” said
employees drive three or four miles to work. Arthur Molella, director of the Lemelson Center for the
“The idea of being able to extend somebody’s willing- Study of Invention and Innovation. “But in terms of a con-
ness to be on foot from a couple of blocks to four miles ceptual breakthrough, we’re going to see it as a break-
makes a lot of sense for us,” said Michael Dobbins, com- through only if a whole lot of people use it.”
missioner of planning development and neighborhood (See the accompanying Figures (A–J) for some of the
conservation for the City of Atlanta, who wrote Mr. Kamen figures Kamen submitted when applying for his patent.)
a letter after reading a newspaper article about “It” earlier
this year. Amy Harmon, The New York Times, December 3, 2001. Copyright 2001 The
New York Times Company.

(A)

440
 Design and Working Drawings

(B)
(E)

(C)
(F)

(D) (G)

(continues on next page)

441
 Design and Working Drawings

(J)
(H)

(I) (K)

Copy provided by USPTO from the CSIR Image Database on 01-02-2002

442
 Design and Working Drawings

KEY WORDS
STAGES OF DESIGN RECORD STRIPS REFINEMENT REVERSE

DESIGN REQUIREMENTS EXTRUSION REVOLUTION PARAMETRIC SOLID ENGINEERING

MODELS CHECKING AND PROOFING MODELING COORDINATE MEASURING

COMPUTER MACHINE
VIRTUAL REALITY FUNCTIONAL DESIGN
SIMULATION FUNCTIONAL
DETAIL DRAWING AESTHETIC DESIGN
WORKING DRAWING DECOMPOSITION
3D MODELING MOTIVATION
PROTOTYPE BRAINSTORMING
SOLID MODELING OBJECTIVES
RAPID PROTOTYPING STORYBOARDING
ASSEMBLY DRAWING CREATIVITY TECHNIQUES
TITLE BLOCKS REINTEGRATION
PRODUCTION DRAWINGS EXTRUDED SOLID
DRAWING NUMBERS REVOLVED SOLID
BOOLEAN OPERATORS CUSTOMER
PATENT DRAWINGS VENN DIAGRAMS
DIFFERENCE INTERSECTION CONCEPTS

CHAPTER SUMMARY
■ The design team moves through five stages during the ■ Models are an important way of testing the way parts are
design process. Each stage helps the team refine the assembled. Both scale models created in a model shop
design until it meets all product requirements. and computer-generated virtual reality models are used
■ The final drawings created during the design process by the design team to test their design.
include assembly drawings, working drawings, design ■ During the design process, all members of the team must
drawings, and patent drawings. understand their specific roles and how they relate and
■ There are many revisions to drawings during the design interact with the rest of the team. Effective teamwork is
process. The drafter must keep track of each version and an essential part of the design process.
what changes were made.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What are the special requirements of a patent drawing? 6. How is a detail drawing different from an assembly drawing?
2. What kinds of information are included in an assem- 7. Why are drawings numbered? Why is this numbering
bly drawing? so important?
3. Name three individual creativity techniques. Name two 8. Describe the drawing revision process. Why is it so
group creativity techniques. important to keep track of revisions?
4. Define SLA, SLS, BPM, and LOM and give an example 9. How are revised paper drawings stored? How are
of each used in a manufacturing setting. revised CAD drawings stored?
5. What are the five stages of the design process? Describe 10. What are the advantages of computer modeling? What
each stage. are the disadvantages?

DESIGN AND WORKING DRAWING PROBLEMS

DESIGN PROBLEMS
Prob. 1 Design new or improved playground, recre-
The following suggestions for project assignments are of ational, or sporting equipment. For example, a new child’s
a general and very broad nature, and it is expected that toy could be both recreational and educational.
they will help generate many ideas for specific design Prob. 2 Design new or improved health equipment.
projects. Much design work is undertaken to improve an For example, physically handicapped people need special
existing product or system by utilization of new materi- equipment.
als, new techniques, or new systems or procedures. In
addition to the design of the product itself, another large Prob. 3 Design security or safety devices. Fire, theft, or
amount of design work is essential for the tooling, pro- poisonous gases are a threat to life and property.
duction, and handling of the product. You are encour- Prob. 4 Design devices and/or systems for waste
aged to discuss with your instructor any ideas you may handling. Home and factory waste disposal needs serious
have for a project. consideration.

443
 Design and Working Drawings

Prob. 5 Design new or improved educational equip-

ment. Both teacher and student would welcome more effi-
cient educational aids.
Prob. 6 Design improvements in our land, sea, and air
transportation systems. Vehicles, controls, highways, and air-
ports need further refinement.
Prob. 7 Design new or improved devices or material
handling. A dispensing device for a powdered product is
an example.
Prob. 8 Improve the design of an existing device or system.
Prob. 9 Design or redesign devices for improved
portability.
Prob. 10 Design an airport luggage handling system
that will reduce damage to all types of baggage.
Prob. 11 Break up into design teams. See how many
different ideas each team can come up with for a new layout
of your classroom. Time limit is 20 minutes.
Prob. 12 Design a new or improved bike safety lock ■ FIGURE 41 ■ Table Bracket.
and chain. Integrate the locking devices into the bike’s Prob. 13: Make detail drawing using size B or A3 sheet.
frame, if possible.

Each solution to a design problem, whether prepared

Many problems, especially those of the assemblies, offer
by an individual student or formulated by a group, should
an excellent opportunity for you to exercise your ability to
be in the form of a report, which should be typed or care-
redesign or improve on the existing design. Due to the
fully lettered, assembled, and bound. It is suggested that
variations in sizes and in scales that may be used, you are
the report contain the following (or variations of the follow-
required to select the sheet sizes and scales, when these
ing, as specified by your instructor).
are not specified, subject to the approval of the instructor.
The statements for each problem are intentionally
1. A title sheet. The title of the design project should be brief, so that the instructor may amplify or vary the require-
placed in approximately the center of the sheet, and ments when making assignments. Use the preferred met-
your name or the names of those in the group in the ric system or the acceptable complete decimal-inch
lower right-hand corner. The symbol PL should follow system, as assigned. Either the preferred unidirectional or
the name of the project leader. acceptable aligned dimensioning may be assigned.
2. Table of contents with page numbers. It should be clearly understood that in problems pre-
3. Statement of the purpose of the project with appropri- sented in pictorial form, the placement of dimensions and
ate comments. finish marks cannot always be followed in the drawing. The
4. Preliminary design sketches, with comments on dimensions given are in most cases those needed to make
advantages and disadvantages of each, leading to the the parts, but due to the limitations of pictorial drawings
final selection of the best solution. All work should be they are not in all cases the dimensions that should be
signed and dated. shown on the working drawing. In the pictorial problems
the rough and finished surfaces are shown, but finish
5. An accurately made pictorial and/or assembly draw-
marks are usually omitted. You should add all necessary
ing(s), using traditional drawing methods or CAD as
finish marks and place all dimensions in the preferred
assigned, if more than one part is involved in the
places in the final drawings.
design.
Each problem should be preceded by a sketch, fully
6. Detail working drawings, freehand, mechanical, or CAD- dimensioned.
produced as assigned. The 8.5– * 11.0– sheet size is Since many of the problems in this chapter are of a
preferred for convenient insertion in the report. Larger general nature, they can also be solved on most CAD sys-
sizes may be bound in the report with appropriate folding. tems. If a system is available, the instructor may choose to
7. A bibliography or credit for important sources of infor- assign specific problems to be completed by this method.
mation, if applicable.

WORKING DRAWING PROBLEMS The problems in Figs.

41–108 are presented to give you practice in mak-
ing regular working drawings of the type used in industry.

444
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 42 ■ RH Tool Post.

Prob. 14: Make detail drawing using size B or A3 sheet. If assigned, convert dimensions to metric system.

■ FIGURE 43 ■ Drill Press Base.

Prob. 15: Make detail drawing using size C or A2 sheet. Use unidirectional metric or decimal-inch dimensions.

445
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 44 ■ Shifter Fork. ■ FIGURE 45 ■ Idler Arm.

Prob. 16: Make detail drawing using size B or A3 sheet. If Prob. 17: Make detail drawing using size B or A3 sheet.
assigned, convert dimensions to metric system.

■ FIGURE 46 ■ Drill Press Bracket.

Prob. 17: Make detail drawing using size C or A2 sheet. If assigned, convert dimensions to decimal inches or redesign the part with metric
dimensions.

446
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 47 ■ Dial Holder.

Prob. 19: Make detail drawing using size C or A2 sheet. If assigned, convert dimensions to decimal inches or redesign the part with metric
dimensions.

■ FIGURE 48 ■ Rack Slide.

Prob. 20: Make detail drawings half size on size B or A3 sheet. If assigned, convert dimensions to decimal inches or redesign the part with metric
dimensions.

447
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 49 ■ Automatic Stop Box.

Prob. 21: Make detail drawing half size on size B or A3 sheet. If assigned, redesign the part with metric dimensions.

■ FIGURE 50 ■ Conveyor Housing.

Prob. 22: Make detail drawings half size on size C or A2 sheets. If assigned, convert dimensions to decimal inches or redesign the parts with
metric dimensions.

448
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 51 ■ Spindle Housing.

Prob. 23: Given: Front, left-side, and bottom views, and partial removed section.
Required: Front view in full section, top view, and right-side view in half section of A-A. Draw half size on size C or A2 sheet. If assigned,
dimension fully.

449
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 52 ■ Arbor Support Bracket.

Prob. 24: Given: Front and right-side views.
Required: Front, left-side, and bottom views, and a detail section A-A. Use American National Standard tables for indicated fits and if required
convert to metric values. If assigned, dimension in the metric or decimal-inch system.

■ FIGURE 53 ■ Pump Bracket for a Thread Milling Machine.

Prob. 25: Given: Front and left-side views.
Required: Front and right-side views, and top view in section on A-A. Draw full size on size B or A3 sheet. If assigned, dimension fully.

450
Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 54 ■ Support Base for Planer.

Prob. 26: Given: Front and top views.
Required: Front and top views, left-side view in
full section A-A, and removed section B-B.
Draw full size on size C or A2 sheet. If
assigned, dimension fully.

■ FIGURE 55 ■ Jaw
Base for Chuck Jaw.
Prob. 27: Given: Top,
right-side, and partial
auxiliary views. Required:
Top, left-side (beside top),
front, and partial auxiliary
views complete with
dimensions, if assigned.
Use metric or decimal-
inch dimensions. Use
American National
Standard tables for
indicated fits or convert
for metric values.

451
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 56 ■ Fixture Base for 60-Ton

Vertical Press.
Prob. 28: Given: Front and right-side views.
Required: Revolve front view 90° clockwise; then
add top and left-side views. Draw half size on size C
or A2 sheet. If assigned, complete with dimensions.

■ FIGURE 57 ■ Bracket.
Prob. 29: Given: Front, left-side, and bottom views, and partial removed section.
Required: Make detail drawing. Draw front, top, and right-side views, and removed sections A-A and B-B. Draw half size on size C or A2 sheet.
Draw section B-B full size. If assigned, complete with dimensions.

452
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 58 ■ Roller Rest Bracket for Automatic Screw Machine.

Prob. 30: Given: Front and left-side views.
Required: Revolve front view 90° clockwise; then add top and left-side views. Draw half size on size C or A2 sheet. If assigned, complete with
dimensions.

■ FIGURE 59 ■ Guide
Bracket for Gear Shaper.
Prob. 31: Given: Front and
right-side views.
Required: Front view, a partial
right-side view, and two partial
auxiliary views taken in direction
of arrows. Draw half size on size
C or A2 sheet. If assigned,
complete with unidirectional
dimensions.

453
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 60 ■ Rear Tool Post.

Prob. 32: Given: Front and left-side views.
Required: Take left-side view as new top view; add front and left-side views, approx. 215 mm apart, a primary auxiliary view, then a secondary
view taken so as to show true end view of 19-mm slot. Complete all views, except show only necessary hidden lines in auxiliary views. Draw full
size on size C or A2 sheet. If assigned, complete with dimensions.

■ FIGURE 61 ■ Bearing for a Worm Gear.

Prob. 33: Given: Front and right-side views.
Required: Front, top, and left-side views. Draw full size on size C or A2 sheet. If assigned, complete with dimensions.

454
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 62 ■ Caterpillar Tractor Piston.

Prob. 34: Make detail drawing full size on size C or A2 sheet. If assigned, use unidirectional decimal-inch system, converting all fractions to
two-place decimal dimensions, or convert all dimensions to metric.

455
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 63 ■ Generator Drive Housing.

Prob. 35: Given: Front and left-side views. Required: Front view, right-side view in full section, and top view in full section on A-A. Draw full size
on size C or A2 sheet. If assigned, complete with dimensions.

■ FIGURE 64 ■ Machinist’s Clamp.

Prob. 36: Draw details and assembly. If assigned, use unidirectional two-place decimal-inch dimensions or redesign for metric dimensions.

456
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 65 ■ Hand Rail Column.

Prob. 37: (1) Draw details. If assigned, complete with dimensions.
(2) Draw assembly.

■ FIGURE 66 ■ Drill Jig.

Prob. 38: (1) Draw details. If assigned, complete with dimensions.
(2) Draw assembly.

457
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 67 ■ Tool Post.

Prob 39: (1) Draw details. (2) Draw assembly. If assigned, use unidirectional two-place decimals for all fractional dimensions or redesign for
all metric dimensions.

458
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 68 ■ Belt Tightener.

Prob. 40: (1) Draw details. (2) Draw assembly. It is assumed that the parts are to be made in quantity and they are to be dimensioned for
interchangeability on the detail drawings. Design as follows.
a. Bushing fit in pulley: Locational interference fit.
b. Shaft fit in bushing; Free running fit.
c. Shaft fits in frame: Sliding fit.
d. Pin fit in frame: Free running fit.
e. Pulley hub length plus washers fit in frame: Allowance 0.13 and tolerances 0.10.
f. Make bushing 0.25 mm shorter than pulley hub.
g. Bracket fit in frame: Same as e above.

459
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 69 ■ Milling Jack. ■ FIGURE 70 ■ Connecting Bar.

Prob. 41: (1) Draw details. (2) Draw assembly. If assigned, convert Prob. 42: (1) Draw details. (2) Draw assembly. If assigned, convert
dimensions to metric or decimal-inch system. dimensions to metric or decimal-inch system.

460
Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 71 ■ Clamp Stop.

Prob. 43: (1) Draw details. (2) Draw assembly. If assigned, convert
dimensions to decimal-inch system or redesign for metric dimensions.

■ FIGURE 72 ■ Pillow Block Bearing.

Prob. 44: (1) Draw details. (2) Draw assembly. If assigned,
complete with dimensions.

461
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 73 ■ Centering Rest.

Prob. 45: (1) Draw details. (2) Draw assembly. If assigned, complete with dimensions.

462
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 74 ■ Pipe Vise.

Prob. 46: (1) Draw details. (2) Draw assembly. To obtain dimensions, take distances directly from figure with dividers; then set dividers on printed
scale and read measurements in millimeters or decimal inches as assigned. All threads are general-purpose metric threads or
Unified coarse threads except the American National Standard pipe threads on handle and handle caps.

463
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 75 ■ Tap Wrench.

Prob. 47: (1) Draw details. (2) Draw assembly. If assigned, use unidirectional two-place decimals for all fractional dimensions or redesign for
metric dimensions.

■ FIGURE 76 ■ Machinist’s Vise.

Prob. 48: (1) Draw details. (2) Draw assembly. If assigned, use unidirectional two-place decimals for all fractional dimensions or redesign for
metric dimensions.

464
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 77 ■ Screw Jack.

Prob. 49: (1) Draw details. See Fig. 21, showing “boxed-in” views on sheet layout C or A2. (2) Draw assembly. If
assigned, convert dimensions to decimal inches or redesign for metric dimensions.

465
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 78 ■ Stock Bracket for Cold Saw Machine.

Prob. 50: (1) Draw details. (2) Draw assembly. If assigned, use unidirectional decimal dimensions or redesign for metric dimensions.

466
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 79 ■ Front Circular Forming Cutter Holder.

Prob. 51: (1) Draw details. (2) Draw assembly. To obtain dimensions, take distances directly from figure with dividers and set dividers on
printed scale. Use metric or decimal-inch dimensions as assigned.

467
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 80 ■ Machine Vise.

Prob. 52: (1) Draw details. (2) Draw assembly. If assigned, convert dimensions to the decimal-inch system or redesign with metric dimensions.

468
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 81 ■ Grinder Vise.

Prob. 53: See Figs. 82 and 83.

469
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 82 ■ Grinder Vise.

Prob. 53, continued: (1) Draw details. (2) Draw assembly. See Figs. 81 and 83. If assigned, convert dimensions to decimal inches or
redesign with metric dimensions.

470
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 83 ■ Grinder Vise.

Prob. 53, continued: See Fig. 82 for instructions.

471
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 84 ■ Trolley.
Prob. 54: (1) Draw details, omitting parts 7–14. (2) Draw assembly. If assigned, convert dimensions to decimal inches or redesign for metric
dimensions.

472
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 85 ■ Arbor Press.

Prob. 55: (1) Draw details. (2) Draw assembly. If assigned, convert dimensions to decimal inches or redesign for metric dimensions.

473
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 86 ■ Forming Cutter Holder.

Prob. 56: (1) Draw details using decimal or metric dimensions. (2) Draw assembly. Above layout is half size. To obtain dimensions, take
distances directly from figure with dividers and double them. At left is shown the top view of the forming cutter holder in use on the lathe.

474
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 87 ■ Milling Fixture for Clutch Arm.

Prob. 57: (1) Draw details using the decimal-inch system or redesign for metric dimensions, if assigned, (2) Draw assembly.

475
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 88 ■ Drill Speeder.

Prob. 58: See Figs. 89 and 90.

476
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 89 ■ Drill Speeder.

Prob. 58, continued: (1) Draw details. (2) Draw assembly. See Fig. 88. If assigned, convert dimensions to decimal inches or redesign with
metric dimensions.

477
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 90 ■ Drill Speeder.

Prob. 58, continued: See Fig. 89 for instructions.

478
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 91 ■ Vertical Slide Tool.

Prob. 59: (1) Draw details. If assigned, convert dimensions to decimal inches or redesign for metric system. (2) Draw assembly. For part 2: Take
given top view as front view in the new drawing; then add top and right-side views. See also Fig. 92. If assigned, use unidirectional
dimensions.

479
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 92 ■ Vertical Slide Tool.

Prob. 59, continued: See Fig. 91 for instructions. For part 1: Take top view as front view in the new drawing; then add top and right-side views.

480
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 93 ■ Slide Tool. Prob. 60: Make assembly drawing. See Figs. 95–97.

■ FIGURE 94 ■ Prob. 61: Slide Tool Parts List.

481
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 95 ■ Slide Tool.

Prob. 61, continued: (1) Draw details using decimal-inch dimensions or redesign with metric dimensions, if assigned. (2) Draw assembly. See Fig.
93.

482
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 96 ■ Slide Tool.

Prob. 61, continued: See. Fig. 95 for instructions.

483
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 97 ■ Slide Tool. Prob. 61, continued: See Fig. 95 for instructions.

484
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 98 ■ “Any Angle” Tool Vise.

Prob. 62: (1) Draw details using decimal-inch dimensions or redesign with metric dimensions, if assigned. (2) Draw assembly. See also Fig. 99.

485
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 99 ■ “Any-Angle” Tool Vise.

Prob. 62, continued: See Fig. 98 for instructions.

486
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 100 ■ Fixture for Centering Connecting Rod.

Prob. 63: (1) Draw details using decimal-inch dimensions or redesign with metric dimensions, if assigned. (2) Draw assembly. See also Figs. 101 and 102.

487
488
Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 101 ■ Fixture for Centering Connecting Rod.

Prob. 63, continued: See Fig. 100 for instructions.
 Design and Working Drawings

■ FIGURE 102 ■ Fixture for Centering Connecting Rod.

Prob. 63, continued: See Fig. 100 for instructions.

489
 Design and Working Drawings

.25 2.875
.375

.25

3.00
2.00

.50
2.75

■ FIGURE 103 ■ Alignment Wheel. .25

Prob. 64: (1) Draw top and left-side 1.375

views. (2) Redesign with metric 3.00 1.50

dimensions. 6.00

.25

1.00 2.00

■ FIGURE 104 ■ Rubber Bushing.

Prob. 65: (1) Draw top and left-side views. (2) 1.50

Redesign with metric dimensions.

1 .81

1 .51
7.85

5.89
3.93

1 .96

2.25
8.84

17.67

■ FIGURE 105 ■ Problem 66: 8-Port Nylon Manifold. Draw bottom and left-side view. Redesign with metric dimensions.

490
 Design and Working Drawings

:2.00
:2.75

:1.00

2 X R0.75

R1.75 TYP
2.00

4.00

0.50
0.25

0.50

200

0.75

■ FIGURE 106 ■ Plastic Bushing. Given: Front and top view. (1) Draw all necessary views. (2) Redesign with metric dimensions and enlarge
size by 3.

7.3

2.6
9.7
0.2

3.6
1.7

0.80

8.5

■ FIGURE 107 ■ Beam Clamp. Front and side views. Redraft with metric dimensions and increase size by 2.

491
 Design and Working Drawings

72
0.38 0.73
.1 Typ

0.5
1.25

1.88

2.10
2.00

1.68

■ FIGURE 108 ■ Plastic Open Slot Wiring Duct. Front and side views.
Redraw with metric dimensions reducing the size by 3.

492
Drawing Reproduction, Control, and the Internet

OBJECTIVES OVERVIEW
After studying the material in this chapter, you An essential part of designers’ or drafters’ education is a thorough
should be able to: knowledge of reproduction techniques and processes and drawing
1. Describe blueprinting and digital storage. Specifically, they should be familiar with the various
engineering printing. processes available for the reproduction of drawings: blueprint,
2. Discuss the differences between diazo, xerography, etc.
Diazo-Moist and Diazo-Dry Processes. Because the average engineering drawing requires a consider-
3. Understand the differences between able economic investment, adequate control and protection of the
CD-ROM, Optical Disk Storage Systems, original drawing are mandatory. Such items as drawing numbers,
and other storage options. methods of filing, microfilming, security files, print making and dis-
4. Discuss how the processes of tribution, drawing changes, and retrieval of drawings are all impor-
Xerography and fax technology work. tant. A proper drawing-control system will enable those in charge of
drawings (1) to know the location and status of the drawing at all
5. Understand the importance of document
management and control. times; (2) to minimize the damage to original drawings from the
handling required for revisions, printing, and so on; and (3) to pro-
6. Discuss the differences between offset
vide distribution of prints to proper persons.
printing, photographic contact prints,
photostats, and line etching. Those organizations with computer-aided design (CAD) systems
often use computer storage of finished drawings. In addition, digitized
7. Understand how an electronic file can
drawing information about frequently required components and ele-
be used as both a communication and
storage device. ments, such as standard bolts, nuts, screws, pins, and piping valves, is
stored in the computer for recall and replacement on drawings as
8. Become familiar with the Internet and
needed. CAD systems of this type have obvious advantages for pro-
the World Wide Web and understand
how an engineer can use these tools to duction, storage, control, and recall of drawings. However, design doc-
expedite the product development umentation requirements generally dictate that all of the approved
process. drawing revisions be stored in a permanent record. Many companies
fail to properly store the design history of their drawings in a suitable
fashion. Because CAD drawings stored on a hard drive or tape can be
edited, they are not considered a permanent record. WORM (write
once read many) CD-ROM drives make a good permanent storage
medium for CAD drawing. Most small and medium-size companies
and a substantial number of large firms may not be able to justify the
acquisition of high-capacity permanent storage systems for their CAD
documents and thus will continue to use the conventional methods of
reproduction, storage, retrieval, and control of drawings described in
From Chapter 15 of Engineering Graphics, Eighth Edition, Frederick E. Giesecke,
Alva Mitchell, Henry Cecil Spencer, Ivan Leroy Hill, Robert Olin Loving, John
Thomas Dygdon, James E. Novak. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Published by Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.
 Drawing Reproduction, Control, and the Internet

this chapter. But technologies such as WORM 2 ■ REPRODUCTION OF DRAWINGS

CD-ROMs are becoming more compact and less After the drawings of a machine or structure have been
expensive, and as advancing technology makes such completed, it is usually necessary to supply copies to
systems more affordable, it is expected that many many different persons and firms. Obviously, therefore,
companies will make the change to storing their per- some means of exact, rapid, and economical reproduc-
tion must be used. Even when a drawing is plotted
manent drawings on a computer storage system.
from a CAD system, it is frequently faster to use a
CAD drawings stored in electronic archives can reproduction process to distribute the drawing. Plots
be easily reviewed, revised, catalogued, and repro- can be created on mylar, or on specialty papers that
duced through the use of a database.These electron- allow prints to be made directly from the plot. Large-
ic files also can be communicated and shared with format copy machines are also popular for creating dis-
all parties involved in the design and production tribution drawings of a print. Networks, groupware,
Internet and intranet, and modems are allowing many
process through the use of the Internet. E-mail and
workplaces to go to a paperless office, where drawings
Websites allow engineers and designers to quickly are distributed electronically (Fig. 1). However,
communicate and share their drawings with clients, when there is a need to take drawings into the field,
manufacturing staff, marketing teams, purchasing printing is still frequently required.
agents, and suppliers, thereby reducing costs and
expediting product development time.
3 ■ BLUEPRINT PROCESS AND DIGITAL
ENGINEERING PRINTING/COPYING
1 ■ STORAGE OF DRAWINGS Of the several processes in use for reproduction, the
Drawings may be stored flat in large flat-drawer files blueprint is the oldest process used for making prints of
or hung vertically in cabinets especially designed for large drawings. It is essentially a photographic process
the purpose. Exceptionally large drawings are often in which the original drawing is the negative.
rolled and stored in tubes in racks or cabinets. Prints The blueprint process, which was the common
are often folded and stored in standard office file method used for the reproduction of drawings for
cases. Proper control procedures will enable the user many years, has now been replaced to a large extent by
of the drawing to find it in the file, to return it to its other more convenient and efficient processes.
proper place, and to know where the drawing is High-speed digital engineering printers, such as the
when not in the file. one shown in Fig. 2, are most widely used in the engi-

■ FIGURE 1 ■ Intracompany and Intercompany Networking. From Computers, 4/E by Long/Long. © Copyright 1996. Reprinted by permission of Prentice-Hall, Inc.

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 Drawing Reproduction, Control, and the Internet

simply by using the appropriate paper in each case.These

prints, together with diazo-dry prints, §5, are still used
today, but recent improvements in digital printing have
made that the most common form of out-putting today.

5 ■ THE DIAZO-DRY PROCESS

The diazo-dry process is based on the sensitivity to light
of certain dyestuff intermediates that have the character-
istic of decomposing into colorless substances if exposed
to ultraviolet light, and of reacting with coupling compo-
■ FIGURE 2 ■ Digital Engineering Printer. Courtesy of Océ-USA, Inc.,
nents to form an azo dyestuff upon exposure to ammonia
Chicago, IL.
vapors.It is a contact method of reproduction,and depends
on the transmission of light through the original for the
reproduction of positive prints. The subject matter may
neering and manufacturing industry. Such printers can be pen or pencil lines, typewritten or printed matter, or
produce output from either CAD files, hard copy, or a mix- any opaque image. There is no negative step involved;
ture of both. These printers can also produce multi-media positives are used to obtain positive prints. Sensitized
products and digital sorting for automated set production. materials can be handled under normal illumination.
The diazo whiteprint method of reproduction con-
4 ■ DIAZO-MOIST PRINTS sists of two simple steps—exposure and dry develop-
A black-and-white print, composed of nearly black ment by means of ammonia vapors. Exposure is made
lines on a white background, may be made from ordi- in a printer equipped with a source of ultraviolet light,
nary pencil or ink tracings by exposure in the same a mercury vapor lamp, fluorescent lamp, or carbon arc.
manner as for blueprints, directly on special blackprint The light emitted by these light sources brings about a
paper, cloth, or film. photochemical decomposition of the light-sensitive
Exposure may be made in a blueprint machine or yellow coating of the paper except in those places
any machine using light in a similar way. However, the where the surface is protected by the opaque lines of
prints are not washed as in blueprinting, but must be the original. The exposed print is developed dry in a
fed through a special developer that dampens the coat- few seconds in a dry-developing machine by the alka-
ed side of the paper with a developing solution. line medium produced by ammonia vapors.
Colored-line prints in red, brown, or blue lines on A popular combination printer (exposer) and
white backgrounds may be made on the same machine developer, Diazit Omnitrac printer, is shown in Fig. 3.

■ FIGURE 3 ■ Diazit Omnitrac EFP Model

Machine. Courtesy of Diazit Company, Inc.

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 Drawing Reproduction, Control, and the Internet

■ FIGURE 4 ■ Exposure and Development. Courtesy of Ozalid

Corporation.

The tracing and the sensitized paper are fed into the
machine, and when they emerge, the print is practically
dry and ready for use.
Another exposer and developer combined in one
machine is the Ozalid Whiteprinter.Two operations are
involved: (1) the tracing and the sensitized paper are
fed into the printer slot for exposure to light, as shown
in Fig. 4 (a), and (2) the paper is then fed through
the developer slot for exposure to ammonia vapors, as
shown at (b). If it is desired to remove the ammonia
odor completely, the print is then fed through the print-
er with the back of the sheet next to the warm glass sur- ■ FIGURE 5 ■ Xerox Engineering Document Systems. Courtesy of
rounding the light. the Xerox Corporation.

6 ■ XEROGRAPHY
Xerox prints are positive prints with black lines on a
white background (Fig. 5). A selenium-coated and the surface to produce the final print. Full-sized prints
electrostatically charged plate is used. A special cam- or reductions can be made inexpensively and quickly in
era is used to project the original onto the plate; hence, the fully automated Xerox or other similar copy
reduced or enlarged reproductions are possible. A neg- machines. The process is dry and sensitive to all types
atively charged plastic powder is spread across the of copy.The Xerox process is used also to produce mats
plate and adheres to the positively charged areas of the for the Multilith offset duplicating method, §12.
image. The powder is then transferred to paper by Recent application of xerography includes volume
means of a positive electric charge and is baked onto print making from original drawings or microfilms.

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Graphics Close Encounters: Creating the Basis for the Vehicle

Spotlight Technologies and Production Techniques of Tomorrow
The nine-member team working on the so-called “Side Door” well-coordinated processes at the plant there. Basically, the
project has been asked to do something unusual: build an idea is to come up with common, optimized process chains
armored version of the Mercedes-Benz A-Class with the lat- for the development and production of this variant.
est IT technology. The vehicle, for which there has hardly ever The Guard-A project isn’t real—unlike the problems
been any demand, is known as the “Guard-A.” It’s a tricky associated with its implementation. These include cooper-
task by anyone’s standards. The necessary changes to the ation between departments, detailed coordination, and the
design of the vehicle are to be made simultaneously by the impact that one alteration can have on the entire process.
various departments and suppliers following extensive dis- This is exactly what the team is practicing in role-play
cussions. (See Fig. A.) A further requirement is that the exercises. And their efforts are bearing fruit in the form of
Guard-A variant should be easy to integrate into A-Class new methods and possibilities for supporting interdiscipli-
production in Rastatt, Germany, without interfering with the nary functional groups.

(A)
(continues on next page)

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 Drawing Reproduction, Control, and the Internet

The participants in the project quickly realize that the Telecommunications technology and the Internet have
devil is in the details: The armored glass is thicker in a direc- virtually eliminated the physical separation of participants
tion that poses problems for the body-in-white designer. As in the production creation process. In the DECC lab, the
the electric window lift now has to be a little more bulky, the supplier company’s designer for the electronic window
designer needs to adjust the hole size for the bolt mountings. opener and the body-in-white designer are coordinating
And the mounting location favored by the simulation does not the placement of holes for the bolts that will support the
have enough space to accommodate installation of the electric motor by using real-time teleconferencing. This
Guard-A door components. Hundreds of questions now simulation technique makes it possible to eliminate poten-
require answers to ensure that everything runs smoothly later tial errors at the design stage-before the production
on. For this reason, the Ulm Research Center is equipped process actually begins. (See Figs. C and D.)
with a type of experimental laboratory for the development of The Digital Engineering Competence Center (DECC)
optimal IT-based process chains. (See Fig. B.) has been in operation since April 2001 and offers a forum

(B)

498
 Drawing Reproduction, Control, and the Internet

where process analysts and customers from vehicle • Which IT tools best support the product creation process?
design and production can work together to discover • What impact will changes made to products have?
faster and more economical manufacturing processes. • How can production be made cost-effective?
This role playing method enables many issues to be clari-
fied in advance such as: Courtesy of Daimler Chrysler AG.

(C) (D)

7 ■ FAX TECHNOLOGY In addition to drawings produced with the assis-

tance of a CAD program, conventional hand-produced
Telecopiers, also called facsimile or fax machines, can
drawings may be stored in computer memory through
receive or send documents (usually 812 – * 11– ) over
the use of digital scanning techniques or by manually
standard telephone lines in the office or in the field.After
digitizing the drawing. Also, color laser copiers can
the telephone circuit is established, the document is fed
reproduce drawings in four colors, with black lettering
into the sending machine.The copy is read and translated
(Fig. 6), and some are available with optional built-in
into signals for the receiving machine, which reproduces
computer processing unit and monitor, video player,
the document. A computer can send and receive docu-
and film projector to permit convenient viewing and
ments directly, generally as a raster or bitmap type image,
editing of drawings.
avoiding the need for a paper copy of the drawing.
9 ■ RECORDABLE CD-ROM STORAGE SYSTEMS
8 ■ DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING Recordable CD-ROM systems (Fig. 7) let you store
Modern digital techniques have made possible the digital information such as CAD drawings, digital audio
direct production of drawings on a laser printer from a and video, data, multimedia projects, and other digitally
variety of input sources, including computers and elec- stored records. Write-once-read-many (WORM) CD-
tronic video equipment. ROM storage devices provide excellent storage for

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 Drawing Reproduction, Control, and the Internet

■ FIGURE 6 ■ Internal Components of a Xerox Digital Color Production System. Courtesy of the Xerox Corporation.

CAD documentation. Once the CD has been written it

cannot be erased or re-written. The shelf life for storage
of the media is at least 100 years, so it qualifies as an
archival media for permanent storage. CDs are compact
and easy to store, and CD-ROM players are standard
equipment on many CAD systems. Another advantage
of CD-ROM systems is that they are random access
storage systems, so that you can go directly to the docu-
ment you wish to retrieve, unlike tape systems, which
must wind through all of the previous tape. Systems that
can automatically retrieve from a selection of multiple
CDs, called juke box systems, are available for quickly
retrieving documents in a network storage situation.

10 ■ OPTICAL DISK STORAGE SYSTEMS

■ FIGURE 7 ■ This Pinnacle Recordable CD-ROM System Is Optical disk storage systems, Fig. 8, use optical mag-
Priced for Market Sales to both the Consumer and Commercial netic media to store capacities up to 4.6 GB (gigabytes)
Customers. Courtesy of Pinnacle Micro, Inc. on a single removable disk. They are rewritable media.

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image and transfers it to the paper. The prints are

excellent positive reproductions.

13 ■ PHOTOGRAPHIC CONTACT PRINTS

Either transparent or opaque drawings may be repro-
duced the same size as the original by means of
contact printing. The original is pressed tightly against
a sheet of special photographic paper, either by
mechanical spring pressure or by means of suction as
in the “vacuum printer.” The paper is exposed by the
action of the transmitted or reflected light, and the
print is developed in the manner of a photograph in a
dark or semi-dark room.
Excellent duplicate tracings can be made on paper,
on film, and on either opaque map cloth or transparent
tracing cloth through this process. Poor pencil drawings
or tracings can be duplicated and improved by intensi-
■ FIGURE 8 ■ An Affordable Pinnacle Optical Hard Drive and
fying the lines so as to be much better than the original.
Disk. Courtesy of Pinnacle Micro, Inc.
Pencil drawings can be transformed into “ink-line”
tracings. Also, by this process, a reproduction can be
made directly from an existing print.
This means that they are not suitable for archival stor-
age of permanent records. 14 ■ PHOTOSTATS
The Visual Graphics Total Camera II, Fig. 9, is
11 ■ DOCUMENT MANAGEMENT SOFTWARE essentially a highly specialized camera. It is a com-
pletely modular daylight graphic reproduction sys-
Specialized software is available to help manage tem that includes a precision black-and-white stat
document revision history, approval, storage, file camera with self-contained lighting, automatic focus-
naming, and other issues of managing digital docu- ing and processing, and programmable memory and
mentation, such as that produced by CAD systems. microprocessor control. Various plug-in modular
Automanager WorkflowTM® is one such software components are also available for special-purpose
package. In order to have an effective document photo reproductions, such as enlargements or reduc-
management system, a lot of planning and setup tions, line or halftone stats, offset plates, reverses,
needs to be done to ensure success. A software pack-
age alone will not provide instant success in manag-
ing the large number of files and meeting legal ■ FIGURE 9 ■ Visual Graphics Total Camera II. Courtesy of Visual
requirements for document storage. It requires Graphics Corporation.
setup time, training, and on-going effort to make it
effective. If you are unsure how long different docu-
ments must be retained, ARMA (the American
Records Management Association) is a good place
to go for information.

12 ■ OFFSET PRINTING
The Photolith, Multilith, and Planograph methods are
generally known as offset printing. A camera is used to
reproduce the original, enlarged or reduced if neces-
sary, upon an aluminum or zinc sheet. This master plate
is then mounted on a rotary drum that revolves in con-
tact with a rubber roller that picks up the ink from the

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 Drawing Reproduction, Control, and the Internet

dropouts, color prints and film transparencies, and ner in a matter of seconds, thereby eliminating the need
other special effects for a multitude of applications. for phone conversations, mailings, or overnight courier
A photostat print may be the same size or larger or deliveries. E-mails also provide the user with written
smaller than the original, while photographic contact documentation of all correspondence, which can be
prints, §13, must be the same size. The original may be read, saved, or forwarded on to other users. Electronic
transparent or opaque. It is simply fastened in place, files may be attached to E-mails and sent to numerous
the camera is adjusted to obtain the desired type and people at once. This allows the user to communicate
size of print, and the print is made, developed, and and share files with amazing speed. E-mail attachments
dried in the machine (no darkroom is required). For are limited to a specific file size, based on the restric-
black-and-white stats, the result is a negative print with tions of the Internet provider (IP).
white lines on a near-black background. A positive Websites offer users instant access to the enormous
print having near-black lines on a white background is amount of information available on the Web. Through
made by photostating the negative print. an Internet provider (IP), such as America Online, MSN,
Earthlink, ATT, etc., just to name a few, the user gains
15 ■ LINE ETCHING access to all of the information placed on the Web. The
users can also create their own Website, placing any
Line etching is a photographic method of reproduc- information or files they would want to share with the
tion. The drawing, in black lines on white paper or on Internet community or colleagues. Many engineering
tracing cloth or film, is placed in a frame behind a glass firms create their own Websites and post electronic files
and photographed. This photographic negative is then and images they wish to be viewed by clients, colleagues,
mounted on a pane of glass and is printed on a sheet of and vendors. Such sites are usually password-protected
planished zinc or copper. After the print has been spe- (i.e., the user must provide a login name and password
cially treated to render the lines acid resistant, the plate before gaining access to the site). Many Websites are
is washed in a nitric acid solution, which eats away the interactive (i.e., they respond to the user’s commands).
metal between the lines, leaving them standing above Product designs can be communicated, shared, and
the surface of the plate, like type. The plate is then interpreted quickly and easily through the Internet.
mounted upon a hardwood base, which can be used in This tremendous communication and design review
any printing press, as are blocks of type. tool helps shorten the design review process and helps
eliminate productivity barriers such as incomplete
16 ■ CONTROL MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS, data, slow fax machines, and overnight packages.
ELECTRONIC FILES, AND THE INTERNET
Most engineering firms use some kind of CAD program,
such as AutoCAD, Pro/E, or SolidWorks, to produce the 17 ■ MICROFILM, MICROFICHE, AND
majority of their drawings. These drawings are created
COMPUTER-OUTPUT MICROFILM
and then saved as an electronic file. Unlike hard-copy Although electronic files have replaced the use of
diagrams, these electronic files can be manipulated, microfilm and microfiches, for the most part, some are
revised, and resaved on to various storage devices and still in use as data storage tools.
systems. As we discussed in §9, §10, there are numerous A microfilm is a photographic image of informa-
storage options available such as CD-ROMs, optical tion, records, or drawings that is stored on film at a
disks, jaz disks, zip disks, etc. greatly reduced scale.
Saved electronic files are then categorized and A microfiche is a cardlike film containing many
downloaded into an electronic archive. Archived files rows of images or records or drawings. Card sizes used
can then be controlled and managed through a for storage are 3" * 5", 4" * 6", and 5" * 8". A typi-
database. In this way, these files can be maintained, cal 4" * 6" microfiche will contain the equivalent of
retrieved, reviewed, and revised whenever the need 270 pages of information. The individual cards may be
arises using this type of control management system. viewed on a reader and, if desired, a full-size copy may
One of the main advantages of using electronic files be made by using a reader-printer.
is that they can be shared easily with clients, designers, Computer-output microfilm (COM) refers to a
manufacturing staff, marketing management, purchas- process used to produce drawings and records on
ing agents, and suppliers through E-mail or via the microfilm, with the aid of a computer. A COM unit will
Internet. E-mail (electronic mail) has become the most produce a microfilm from database information con-
widely used electronic tool of the 21st century. It con- verted to an image on a high-resolution screen that is
nects the user to the Internet and the World Wide Web. then photographed. The main advantages of COM are
E-mail can be sent around the world or around the cor- storage capability and speed.

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 Drawing Reproduction, Control, and the Internet

Graphics
Spotlight Communicating Your Drawings Electronically
Today, more and more offices are moving towards a totally number of recipients to mark up and measure via E-mail.
electronic workplace. This means communicating with co- The recipients do not need to purchase eDrawing Profes-
workers, clients, and vendors through the use of computers sional themselves. The user can embed eDrawings Viewer
and electronic files. Previously, drawings would have been ren- into the eDrawing files allowing recipients the ability to
dered by hand, copied, rolled up into shipping tubes, and then view, mark up, and measure the drawings automatically.
hand delivered or shipped to co-workers, clients, or vendors. Recipients can create, edit, and save reviews by redlining
Modern offices no longer want to deal with hard-copy 2D or 3D data and adding written comments; measure
diagrams, as they are bulky, costly to ship, take time to geometry in part, assembly, and drawing files when dimen-
reach their destination, and can be damaged easily. Using sions are omitted from the drawing; explode assemblies by
electronic data to communicate designs saves time, dragging and dropping assembly components with the
money, and space. Most designers and clients are comput- cursor; and move a cross-sectioning plane through a part
er savvy and would prefer to look at designs “on-screen” as or assembly to see design details hidden from view.
opposed to hard copy. Most computer users also want to eDrawings also permits SolidWorks and AutoCAD
be able to view designs as more than just static objects. integration by allowing the user to generate eDrawings
Communicating electronically to multiple users can instantly from within the SolidWorks or AutoCAD software
pose challenges, though. Compatibility of files, hardware programs.
and software requirements, and varying Internet providers Getting design information to your vendors, suppliers,
can cause communication problems. manufacturers, and co-workers is a large part of the chal-
A new technology from SolidWorks called eDrawings lenge of collaboration. Communication problems often can
answers many of these needs. eDrawings Professional delay a project. eDrawings offers better communication,
allows the user to share and interpret 2D and 3D product smaller file size, and fewer interpretation mistakes by elimi-
design data. With this new technology, the user can create nating common communication barriers, such as requiring
review-enabled documents and send them to an unlimited everyone in the review process to purchase additional

Shade the model behind the drawing views to aid in interpreting drawing views.

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 Drawing Reproduction, Control, and the Internet

software tools. eDrawings makes the files size as small of and immediately view, and keeps the information familiar
possible. It makes the information easier to understand, by making it easier to understand. This new technology
aids interpretation to reduce the chance of costly mistakes, gives the user the capabilities needed to overcome many of
provides the file in a format that anyone could easily receive the common barriers to effective design communications.

Review-Enabled eDrawings. eDrawings Professional enables anyone with the free eDrawings
application to collaborate on design projects with you.

Open SolidWorks parts, assemblies, and drawings files directly in eDrawings 2.0.

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Drawing Reproduction, Control, and the Internet

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 Drawing Reproduction, Control, and the Internet

KEYWORDS
BLUEPRINT OFFSET PRINTING CONTROL MANAGEMENT PASSWORD-PROTECTED

DIAZO MICROFILM SYSTEM LOGIN NAME

OPTICAL DISK STORAGE MICROFICHE E-MAIL PASSWORD

WORK PHOTOSTAT E-MAIL ATTACHMENTS WEBSITES

XEROGRAPHY ELECTRONIC FILE INTERNET WORLD WIDE WEB

DIGITAL IMAGING DATABASE INTERNET PROVIDER

CHAPTER SUMMARY
■ Technical drawings are detailed and often very expensive ■ Microfilm and Microfiche methods store information on
to create. It is important to understand how to reproduce a greatly reduced scale and allow for large numbers of
and manage them safely. drawings to be stored in a small space.
■ Past Management systems involved physically filing ■ Digital printers have become the most widely used out-
drawings. Most new systems now archive and distribute put devices in the engineering industry.
electronically. ■ CAD files can be used as both storage and communica-
■ The blueprint, Diazo-Moist and Diazo-Dry processes of tion tools.
reproduction are older but still used in many companies. ■ A database can be used to maintain an electronic archive
■ Xerography, Fax Technology and Digital Image Process- of CAD files.
ing are processes now commonly used which allow great ■ The Internet and World Wide Web are tools that can help
flexibility in control of the drawing. expedite the product development process.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. How do the Diazo-Dry and the Diazo-Moist processes 6. What are some advantages to using digital printers ver-
differ? sus other output devices?
2. What are some of the benefits and the dangers of using 7. How can CAD files be catalogued for future use?
an electronic system to transfer and archive drawings? 8. List at least three ways in which you can use the Internet
3. Explain how CD-ROMs are used in the field of Techni- to communicate to other people involved in the product
cal Drawing. development or design process?
4. Explain how the Xerography process works. 9. What is a Website and how can an engineer or designer
5. Describe how your class archives and manages its use this technology to his/her advantage?
drawings?

506
Axonometric Projection

OBJECTIVES OVERVIEW
After studying the material in this chapter, you Multiview drawing makes it possible to represent accurately the
should be able to: most complex forms of a design by showing a series of exterior
1. Describe the differences between multi- views and sections. This type of representation has two limitations,
view projection, axonometric projection, however: Its execution requires a thorough understanding of the
oblique projection, and perspective. principles of multiview projection, and its reading requires a defi-
2. Sketch examples of an isometric cube, a nite exercise of the constructive imagination. Although multiview
dimetric cube, and a trimetric cube. drawings are common in most technical drawings, they do not show
3. List the advantages of multiview projec- length, width, and height in a single view.
tion, axonometric projection, oblique For communication of design ideas, it is often necessary to pre-
projection, and perspective. pare accurate and scientifically correct drawings that can be easily
4. Create an isometric drawing given a understood by persons without technical training. Axonometric
multiview drawing. projection rotates the object with respect to the observer so that all
5. Measure along each isometric axis. three dimensions can be seen in one view, approximately as they
6. Draw inclined and oblique surfaces in appear to an observer. These projections are often called pictorial
isometric. drawings [ANSI/ASME Y14.4M–1989 (R1994)] because they look
7. Draw angles, ellipses, and irregular more like a picture than multiview drawings. Since pictorial draw-
curves in isometric. ing shows only the appearance of an object, it is not satisfactory for
completely describing complex or detailed forms.
Various types of pictorial drawing are used extensively in cata-
logs, sales literature, and technical work to supplement and amplify
multiview drawings. For example, pictorial drawing is used in
Patent Office drawings; in piping diagrams; in machine, structural,
and architectural designs; and in furniture design.
The most common axonometric projection is isometric, which
means “equal measure.” When a cube is drawn in isometric, the axes
are equally spaced (120° apart). Though not as photorealistic as
perspective drawings, isometric drawings are much easier to draw.
CAD software is particularly effective at creating isometric draw-
ings, which are often called 3D models. Dimetric and trimetric are
more realistic than isometric but are much harder to draw and are
therefore used less frequently in engineering work.

From Chapter 16 of Engineering Graphics, Eighth Edition, Frederick E. Giesecke,

Alva Mitchell, Henry Cecil Spencer, Ivan Leroy Hill, Robert Olin Loving, John
Thomas Dygdon, James E. Novak. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Published by Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.
 Axonometric Projection

1 ■ METHODS OF PROJECTION visual rays extend form the observer’s eye, or station
The four principal types of projection are illustrated in point (SP), to all points of the object to form a “cone of
Fig. 1, and all except the regular multiview projection rays”.
(Fig. 1a) are pictorial types since they show several
sides of the object in a single view. In all cases, the views,
or projections, are formed by the piercing points in the 2 ■ TYPES OF AXONOMETRIC PROJECTION
plane of projection of an infinite number of visual rays The distinguishing feature of axonometric projection,
of projectors. as compared to multiview projection, is the inclined
In both multiview projection and axonometric pro- position of the object with respect to the plane of pro-
jection (Fig. 1b), the observer is considered to be at jection. Since the principal edges and surfaces of the
infinity, and the visual rays are parallel to each other object are inclined to the plane of projection, the
and perpendicular to the plane of projection.Therefore, lengths of the lines, the sizes of the angles, and the gen-
both are classified as orthographic projections. eral proportions of the object vary with the infinite
In oblique projection (Fig. 1c), the observer is number of possible positions in which the object may
considered to be at infinity, and the visual rays are par- be placed with respect to the plane of projection. Three
allel to each other but oblique to the plane of projec- of these are shown in Fig. 2.
tion. In these cases the edges of the cube are inclined to
In perspective (Fig. 1d), the observer is consid- the plane of projection and are therefore foreshort-
ered to be at a finite distance from the object, and the ened. The degree of foreshortening of

■ FIGURE 1 ■ Four Types of Projection.

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 Axonometric Projection

■ FIGURE 2 ■ Axonometric Projections.

any line depends on its angle with the plane of projec- isometric projection (again, isometric means “equal
tion; the greater the angle, the greater the foreshorten- measure”), it is necessary to place the object so that its
ing. If the degree of foreshortening is determined for principal edges, or axes, make equal angles with the
each of the three edges of the cube that meet at one plane of projection and are therefore foreshortened
corner, scales can be easily constructed for measuring equally. In this position the edges of a cube would be
along these edges or any other edges parallel to them projected equally and would make equal angles with
(see Figs. 41a and 46). each other (120°), as shown in Fig. 2a.
It is customary to consider three edges of the cube Figure 3a shows a multiview drawing of a cube.
that meet at the corner nearest the observer as the In Fig. 3b, the cube is shown revolved through 45°
axonometric axes. In Fig. 1b, the axonometric axes, about an imaginary vertical axis. Now an auxiliary view
or simply the axes, are OA, OB, and OC. As shown in in the direction of the arrow will show the cube diago-
Fig. 2, axonometric projections are classified as (a) nal ZW as a point, and the cube appears as a true iso-
isometric projection, (b) dimetric projection, and (c) metric projection. The cube may be further revolved
trimetric projection, depending on the number of (Fig. 3c). This time the cube is titled forward about
scales of reduction required. an imaginary horizontal axis until the three edges OX,
OY, and OZ make equal angles with the frontal plane
of projection and are therefore foreshortened equally.
ISOMETRIC PROJECTION Here again, a diagonal of the cube, in this case OT,
appears as a point in the isometric view. The front view
3 ■ THE ISOMETRIC METHOD thus obtained is a true isometric projection. In this pro-
OF PROJECTION jection the 12 edges of the cube make angles of about
An isometric projection as one in which all angles 35°16¿ with the frontal plane of projection. The lengths
between the axonometric axes are equal. To produce an of their projections are equal to the lengths of the

■ FIGURE 3 ■ Isometric Projection.

509
 Axonometric Projection

edges multiplied by 223, or by 0.816, approximately. 5 ■ ISOMETRIC DRAWING

Thus the projected lengths are about 80% of the true When a drawing is prepared with an isometric scale, or
lengths, or still more roughly, about three fourths of the when the object is actually projected on a plane of pro-
true lengths. The projections of the axes OX, OY, and jection, it is an isometric projection (Fig. 5a). When a
OZ make angles of 120° with each other and are called drawing is prepared with an ordinary scale, it is an
the isometric axes. Any line parallel to one of these is isometric drawing (Fig. 5b). The isometric drawing is
called a nonisometric line. The angles in the isometric about 25% larger than the isometric projection, but the
projection of the cube are either 120° or 60°, and all are pictorial value is obviously the same in both.
projections of 90° angles. In an isometric projection of Since the isometric projection is foreshortened and
a cube, the faces of the cube, and any planes parallel to an isometric drawing is full-scale size, it is usually
them, are called isometric planes. advantageous to make an isometric drawing rather
than an isometric projection. The drawing is much eas-
4 ■ THE ISOMETRIC SCALE ier to execute and, for all practical purposes, is just as
A correct isometric projection may be drawn with the satisfactory as the isometric projection.
use of a special isometric scale, prepared on a strip of
paper or cardboard (Fig. 4). All distances in the iso-
metric scale are 223 times true size, or approximately 6 ■ MAKING AN ISOMETRIC DRAWING
80% of true size. The use of the isometric scale is illus-
The construction of an isometric drawing of an object
trated in Fig. 5a. A scale of 9– = 1¿ –0, or 34-size scale
composed only of normal surfaces is illustrated
(or metric equivalent), could be used to approximate
in Fig. 6. Notice that all measurements are made
the isometric scale.
parallel to the main edges of the enclosing box—that is,
parallel to the isometric axes. No measurement along a
■ FIGURE 4 ■ Isometric Scale. diagonal (nonisometric line) on any surface or through
the object can be set off directly with the scale. The
object may be drawn in the same position by beginning
at the corner Y, or any other corner, instead of at the
corner X.
The construction of an isometric drawing of an
object composed partly of inclined surfaces (and
oblique edges) is shown in Fig. 7. Notice that inclined
surfaces are located by offset, or coordinate, measure-
ments along the isometric lines. For example, dimen-
sions E and F are set off to locate the inclined surface M,
and dimensions A and B are used to locate surface N.

■ FIGURE 5 ■ Isometric and Ordinary Scales.

510
 Axonometric Projection

■ FIGURE 6 ■ Isometric Drawing of Normal Surfaces.

■ FIGURE 7 ■ Inclined Surfaces in Isometric.

7 ■ OBLIQUE SURFACES IN ISOMETRIC 8 ■ OTHER POSITIONS

Oblique surfaces in isometric may be drawn by estab- OF THE ISOMETRIC AXES
lishing the intersections of the oblique surface with the The isometric axes may be placed in any desired posi-
isometric planes. For example, in Fig. 8a, the oblique tion according to the requirements of the problem (Fig.
plane is known to contain points A, B, and C. To estab- 9), but the angle between the axes must remain 120°.
lish the plane (Fig. 8b), line AB is extended to X and The choice of the directions of the axes is determined by
Y, points that are in the same isometric planes as C. the position from which the object is usually viewed
Lines XC and YC locate points E and F. Finally, AD and (Fig. 10), or by the position that best describes the
ED are drawn, using the rule of parallelism of lines. The shape of the object. If possible, both requirements
completed drawing is shown in Fig. 8c. should be met.

511
 Axonometric Projection

■ FIGURE 8 ■ Oblique Surfaces in Isometric.

■ FIGURE 9 ■ Positions of Isometric Axes.

If the object is characterized by considerable after the main block has been drawn, the offset lines
length, the long axis may be placed horizontally for CA and BA in the multiview drawing are drawn full size
best effect (Fig. 11). in the isometric drawing, thus locating corner A of the
small block or rectangular recess. These measurements
are called offset measurements, and since they are paral-
9 ■ OFFSET LOCATION MEASUREMENTS lel to certain edges of the main block in the multiview
The method of locating one point with respect to anoth- drawings, they will be parallel, respectively, to the same
er is illustrated in Figs. 12 and 13. In each case, edges in the isometric drawings.

■ FIGURE 12 ■ Offset Location Measurements.

■ FIGURE 10 ■ An Object Naturally Viewed from Below.

■ FIGURE 13 ■ Offset Location Measurements.

■ FIGURE 11 ■ Long Axis Horizontal.

512
 Axonometric Projection

general, center lines should be used sparingly and omit-

ted in cases of doubt. The use of too many center lines
may produce a confusion of lines. Examples in which
center lines are not needed are shown in Figs. 10 and
11. Examples in which they are needed are seen in
Figs. 14 and 39a.

12 ■ BOX CONSTRUCTION
Objects of rectangular shape may be more easily
drawn by means of box construction, which consists
■ FIGURE 14 ■ Use of Hidden Lines. simply in imagining the object to be enclosed in a rec-
tangular box whose sides coincide with the main faces
of the object. For example, the object shown in two
10 ■ HIDDEN LINES views (Fig. 15) is imagined to be enclosed in a con-
The use of hidden lines in isometric drawing is gov- struction box. This box is then drawn lightly with con-
erned by the same rule as in all other types of projec- struction lines (Fig. 15I), the irregular features are
tion: Hidden lines are omitted unless they are needed to then constructed (Fig. 15II), and finally, the required
make the drawing clear. Figure 14 shows a case in lines are made heavy (Fig. 15III).
which hidden lines are needed because a projecting
part cannot be clearly shown without them. 13 ■ NONISOMETRIC LINES
Since the only lines of an object that are drawn true
11 ■ CENTER LINES length in an isometric drawing are the isometric axes or
The use of center lines in isometric drawing is governed lines parallel to them, nonisometric lines cannot be set
by the same rules as in the multiview drawing: Center off directly with the scale. For example, in Fig. 16a,
lines are drawn if they are needed to indicate symmetry the inclined lines BA and CA are shown in their true
or if they are needed for dimensioning (Fig. 14). In lengths (54 mm) in the top view, but since they are not

■ FIGURE 15 ■ Box Construction.

■ FIGURE 16 ■ Nonisometric Lines (Metric Dimensions).

513
 Axonometric Projection

■ FIGURE 17 ■ Angles in Isometric.

parallel to the isometric axes, they are not true length will not be projected true size. For example, in the mul-
in the isometric. Such lines are drawn in isometric by tiview drawing in Fig. 17a, none of the three 60°
means of box construction and offset measurements. angles will be 60° in the isometric drawing. To realize
First, as shown in Fig. 16b, the measurements 44 mm, this fact, measure each angle in the isometric in Fig.
18 mm, and 22 mm can be set off directly since they are 17II with the protractor and note the number of
made along isometric lines. The nonisometric 54 mm degrees compared to the true 60°. No two angles are
dimension cannot be set off directly, but if one half of the same; two are smaller and one is larger than 60°.
the given top view is constructed full size to scale (Fig. As shown in Fig. 17I, the enclosing box can be
16I), the dimension X can be determined. This drawn from the given dimensions, except for dimen-
dimension is parallel to an isometric axis and can be sion X, which is not given. To find dimension X, draw
transferred with dividers to the isometric (Fig. 16II). triangle BDA from the top view full size, as shown in
The dimensions 24 mm and 9 mm are parallel to iso- Fig. 17b. Transfer dimension X to the isometric in (I)
metric lines and can be set off directly (Fig. 16III). to complete the enclosing box.
To realize the fact that nonisometric lines will not be To locate point A in Fig. 17II, dimension Y must
true length in the isometric drawing, set your dividers on be used, but this is not given in the top view (Fig. 17a).
BA in (II) and then compare with BA on the given top Dimension Y is found by the same construction (Fig.
view in Fig. 16a. Do the same for line CA. It will be 17b) and then transferred to the isometric, as shown.
seen that BA is shorter and CA is longer in the isometric The completed isometric is shown in Fig. 17III, where
than the corresponding lines in the given views. point E is located by using dimension K, as shown.
A regular protractor cannot be used to set off
14 ■ ANGLES IN ISOMETRIC angles in isometric. Angular measurements must be
Angles project true size only when converted to linear measurements along isometric lines.
the plane of the angle is parallel to the plane of projec- Figure 18a shows two views of an object to be
tion. An angle may project larger or smaller than true drawn in isometric. Point A can easily be located in
size, depending on its position. Since in isometric the
various surfaces of the object are usually inclined to *Isometric protractors for setting off angles on isometric surfaces are
the plane of projection, it follows that angles generally available from drafting supplies dealers.

■ FIGURE 18 ■ Angle in Isometric.

514
 Axonometric Projection

■ FIGURE 19 ■ Irregular Object in Isometric.

the isometric by measuring .88– down from point O However, it is not necessary to draw the complete
(Fig. 18I). However, in the given drawing, the loca- construction box. If only the bottom of the box is
tion of point B depends on the 30° angle, and to locate drawn (Fig. 19b), the triangular base can be con-
B in the isometric linear dimension X must be known. structed as before. The orthographic projection of the
This distance can be found graphically by drawing the vertex O¿ on the base can then be located by offsets
right triangle BOA attached to the isometric, as O¿A and O¿B, as shown, and from this point, the verti-
shown. The distance X is then transferred to the iso- cal line O¿O can be erected, using measurement C.
metric with the compass or dividers (Fig. 18II). An irregular object may be drawn by means of a
Actually, the triangle could be attached in several dif- series of sections.The edge views of a series of imaginary
ferent positions. One of these is shown in Fig. 18III. cutting planes are shown in the top and front views of
When angles are given in degrees, it is necessary to the multiview drawing in Fig. 20a. In Fig. 20I, the
convert the angular measurements into linear mea- various sections are constructed in isometric, and in Fig.
surements. This is best done by drawing a right triangle 20II, the object is completed by drawing lines through
separately, as in Fig. 17b, or attached to the isometric the corners of the sections. In the isometric in Fig. 20I,
(Fig. 18). all height dimensions are taken from the front view in
Fig. 20a, and all depth dimensions from the top view.

15 ■ IRREGULAR OBJECTS
If the general shape of an object does not conform 16 ■ CURVES IN ISOMETRIC
somewhat to a rectangular pattern (Fig. 19), it may Curves may be drawn in isometric by means of a series
be drawn using the box construction discussed previ- of offset measurements similar to those discussed in
ously (Fig. 19a). Various points of the triangular base §9. In Fig. 21 any desired number of points, such
are located by means of offsets a and b along the edges as A, B, and C, are selected at random along the curve
of the bottom of the construction box. The vertex is in the given top view in Fig. 21a. Enough points
located by means of offsets OA and OB on the top of should be chosen to fix accurately the path of the
the construction box. curve; the more points used, the greater the accuracy.

■ FIGURE 20 ■ Use of Sections in Isometric.

515
 Axonometric Projection

■ FIGURE 21 ■ Curves in Isometric.

Offset grid lines are then drawn from each point paral- be constructed by the method of offsets (§16). As
lel to the isometric axes. shown in Fig. 22a, draw parallel lines spaced at ran-
Offset measurements a and b are laid off in the iso- dom across the circle; then transfer these lines to the
metric to locate point A on the curve (Fig. 21I). Points B, isometric with the aid of the dividers (Fig. 22b). To
C, and D are located in a similar manner (Fig. 21II). A locate points in the lower ellipse, transfer points of the
light freehand curve is sketched smoothly through the upper ellipse down a distance equal to the height d of
points (Fig. 21III). Points A¿, B¿, C¿, and D¿ are located the block and draw the ellipse, part of which will be
directly under points A, B, C, and D by drawing vertical hidden, through these points. Draw the final ellipses
lines downward, making all equal to dimension c, the with the aid of the irregular curve.
height of the block (Fig. 21IV). A light freehand curve is A variation of the method of offsets, which pro-
then drawn through the points. The final curve is heavied vides eight points on the ellipse, is illustrated in Figs.
in with the aid of the irregular curve, and all straight lines 22c and 22d. If more points are desired, parallel l
are darkened to complete the isometric (Fig. 21V). ines, as in Fig. 22a, can be added. As shown in Fig.
22c, circumscribe a square around the given circle,
and draw diagonals. Through the points of intersection
17 ■ TRUE ELLIPSES IN ISOMETRIC of the diagonals and the circle, draw another square, as
If a circle lies in a plane that is not parallel shown. Draw this construction in the isometric, as
to the plane of projection, the circle will be pro- shown in Fig. 22d, transferring distances a and b
jected as a true ellipse. The ellipse can with the dividers.

■ FIGURE 22 ■ True Isometric Ellipse Construction.

516
 Axonometric Projection

A similar method that provides 12 points on the by the method of offsets, as shown in Fig. 22. The
ellipse is shown in Fig. 22e. The given circle is divid- inclined ellipse is constructed by locating a number of
ed into 12 equal parts, using the 30° * 60° triangle. points on the ellipse in the isometric and drawing the
Lines parallel to the sides of the square are drawn final curve by means of the irregular curve.
through these points. The entire construction is then Measurements a, b, c, and so on are parallel to an
drawn in isometric, and the ellipse is drawn through the isometric axis and can be set off in the isometric on
points of intersection. each side of the center line X–X (Fig. 23I). Measure-
When the center lines shown in the top view in Fig. ments e, f, g, and so on are not parallel to any isomet-
22a are drawn in isometric (Fig. 22b), they ric axis and cannot be set off directly in isometric.
become the conjugate diameters of the ellipse. The However, when these measurements are projected to
ellipse can then be constructed on the conjugate diam- the front view and down to the base (Fig. 23a), they
eters. can then be set off along the lower edge of the con-
When the 45° diagonals (Fig. 22c) are drawn in struction box, as shown in (I). The completed isometric
isometric (Fig. 22d), they coincide with the major is shown in (II).
and minor axes of the ellipse, respectively. Note that The ellipse may also be drawn with the aid of an
the minor axis is equal in length to the sides of the appropriate ellipse template selected to fit the major and
inscribed square in Fig. 22c. minor axes established along X–X and Y–Y, respectively.
Remember the rule: The major axis of the ellipse is
always at right angles to the center line of the cylinder,
and the minor axis is at right angles to the major axis
and coincides with the center line.
18 ■ APPROXIMATE FOUR-CENTER ELLIPSE
Accurate ellipses may be drawn with the aid of An approximate ellipse is sufficiently accurate for near-
ellipse guides (§21) or with a special ellipsograph. ly all isometric drawings. The method commonly used,
If the curve lies in a nonisometric plane, not all off- called the four-center ellipse, is illustrated in Figs. 24 to
set measurements can be applied directly. For example, 26. It can be used only for ellipses in isometric planes.
in Fig. 23a, the elliptical face shown in the auxiliary To apply this method (Fig. 24), draw, or conceive
view lies in an inclined nonisometric plane. The cylin- to be drawn, a square around the given circle in the
der is enclosed in a construction box, and the box is multiview drawing; then do the following:
then drawn in isometric (Fig. 23I). The base is drawn
I. Draw the isometric of the square, which is an equi-
lateral parallelogram whose sides are equal to the
diameter of the circle (Fig. 24I).

■ FIGURE 23 ■ Ellipse in Inclined Plane.

517
 Axonometric Projection

■ FIGURE 24 ■ Steps in Drawing Four-Center Ellipse.

■ FIGURE 25 ■ Isometric Drawing of a Bearing.

II. Erect perpendicular bisectors to each side, using study of which shows that all diagonals are horizontal
the 30° * 60° triangle (Fig. 24II). These per- or 60° with horizontal; hence, the entire construction is
pendiculars will intersect at four points, which will made with the T-square and 30° * 60° triangle.
be centers for the four circular arcs. Actually, the four-center ellipse deviates consider-
III. Draw the two large arcs, with radius R, from the ably from the true ellipse. As shown in Fig. 27a, the
intersections of the perpendiculars in the two clos- four-center ellipse is somewhat shorter and “fatter”
est corners of the parallelogram (Fig. 24III). than the true ellipse. In constructions where tangencies
IV. Draw the two small arcs, with radius r, from the in- or intersections with the four-center ellipse occur in the
tersections of the perpendiculars within the paral- zones of error, the four-center ellipse is unsatisfactory
lelogram, to complete the ellipse (Fig. 24IV). As (Figs. 27b and 27c).
a check on the accurate location of these centers, a
long diagonal of the parallelogram may be drawn, ■ FIGURE 26 ■ Four-Center Ellipses.
as shown. The midpoints of the sides of the paral-
lelogram are points of tangency for the four arcs.

A typical drawing with cylindrical shapes is illus-

trated in Fig. 25. Note that the centers of the larger
ellipse cannot be used for the smaller ellipse, though
the ellipses represent concentric circles. Each ellipse
has its own parallelogram and its own centers. Observe
also that the centers of the lower ellipse are obtained
by projecting the centers of the upper large ellipse
down a distance equal to the height of the cylinder.
The construction of the four-center ellipse on the
three visible faces of a cube is shown in Fig. 26, a

518
 Axonometric Projection

■ FIGURE 27 ■ Faults of Four-Center Ellipse.

For a much closer approximation to the true I. Draw the isometric center lines (Fig. 29I). From
ellipse, the Orth four-center ellipse (Fig. 28), which the center, draw a construction circle equal to the
requires only one more step than the regular four- actual diameter of the hole or cylinder.The circle will
center ellipse, will be found sufficiently accurate for intersect the center lines at four points A, B, C, and D.
almost any problem. II. From the two intersection points on one center
When it is more convenient to start with the iso- line, erect perpendiculars to the other center line
metric center lines of a hole or cylinder in drawing the (Fig. 29II); then from the two intersection
ellipse, rather than the enclosing parallelogram, the points on the other center line, erect perpendicu-
alternate four-center ellipse is recommended (Fig. lars to the first center line.
29). A completely constructed ellipse is shown in III. With the intersections of the perpendiculars as
Fig. 29a, and the steps followed are shown in Figs. centers, draw two small arcs and two large arcs
29I to 29III. (Fig. 29III).

■ FIGURE 28 ■ Orth Four-Center Ellipse. Courtesy of Professor H. D. Orth.

■ FIGURE 29 ■ Alternate Four-Center Ellipse.

519
 Axonometric Projection

NOTE The preceding steps are exactly the same as for

the regular four-center ellipse of Fig. 24 except
for the use of the isometric center lines instead of
the enclosing parallelogram.

19 ■ SCREW THREADS IN ISOMETRIC

Parallel partial ellipses spaced equal to the symbolic
thread pitch are used to represent the crests only of a
screw thread in isometric (Fig. 30). The ellipses may be
drawn by the four-center method of §18, or with the
ellipse template, which is much more convenient.

20 ■ ARCS IN ISOMETRICS
The four-center ellipse construction is used in drawing
circular arcs in isometric. Figure 31a shows the com-
plete construction. However, it is not necessary to draw
the complete constructions for arcs, as shown in Figs.
31b and 31c. In each case the radius R is set off
from the construction corner; then at each point, per- ■ FIGURE 32 ■ Instrumaster Isometric Template.
pendiculars to the lines are erected, and their intersec-
tion is the center of the arc. Note that the R distances
are equal in Figs. 31b and 31c, but that the actual
radii used are quite different.
If a truer elliptic arc is required, the Orth construc- 21 ■ ELLIPSE TEMPLATES
tion (Fig. 28) can be used, or a true elliptic arc may
One of the principal time-consuming elements in picto-
be drawn by the method of offsets (§17) or with the
rial drawing is the construction of ellipses. A wide vari-
aid of an ellipse template (§21).
ety of ellipse templates is available for ellipses of
various sizes and proportions. They are not available in
every possible size, of course, and it may be necessary
■ FIGURE 30 ■ Screw Threads in Isometric. to “use the fudge factor,” such as leaning the pencil or
pen when inscribing the ellipse, or shifting the template
slightly for drawing each quadrant of the ellipse.
The design of the ellipse template in Fig. 32
combines the angles, scales, and ellipses on the same
instrument. The ellipses are provided with markings to
coincide with the isometric center lines of the holes—a
convenient feature in isometric drawing.

■ FIGURE 31 ■ Arcs in Isometric.

22 ■ INTERSECTIONS
To draw the elliptical intersection of a cylindrical hole
in an oblique plane in isometric (Fig. 33a), draw the
ellipse in the isometric plane on top of the construc-
tion box (Fig. 33b); then project points down to the
oblique plane as shown. It will be seen that the con-
struction for each point forms a trapezoid, which is
produced by a slicing plane parallel to a lateral surface
of the block.
To draw the curve of intersection between two
cylinders (Fig. 34), pass a series of imaginary cutting
planes through the cylinders parallel to their axes, as

520
 Axonometric Projection

■ FIGURE 33 ■ Oblique Plane and Cylinder. ■ FIGURE 34 ■ Intersection of Cylinders.

shown. Each plane will cut elements on both cylinders In Fig. 35a, two views of a sphere enclosed in a
that intersect at points on the curve of intersection construction cube are shown. The cube is drawn in (I)
(Fig. 33b). As many points should be plotted as nec- together with the isometric of a great circle that lies in
essary to assure a smooth curve. For most accurate a plane parallel to one face of the cube. Actually, the
work, the ends of the cylinders should be drawn by the ellipse need not be drawn, for only the points on the
Orth construction, with ellipse guides, or by one of the diagonal located by measurements a are needed. These
true-ellipse constructions. points establish the ends of the major axis from which
the radius R of the sphere is determined. The resulting
23 ■ THE SPHERE IN ISOMETRIC drawing shown in (II) is an isometric drawing, and its
The isometric drawing of any curved surface if evident- diameter is, therefore, 232 times the actual diameter of
ly the envelope of all lines that can be drawn on that the sphere. The isometric projection of the sphere is
surface. For the sphere, the great circles (circles cut by simply a circle whose diameter is equal to the true
any plane through the center) may be selected as the diameter of the sphere, as shown in (III).
lines on the surface. Since all great circles, except those
that are perpendicular or parallel to the plane of pro- 24 ■ ISOMETRIC SECTIONING
jection, are shown as ellipses having equal major axes, In drawing objects characterized by open or irregular inte-
it follows that their envelope is a circle whose diameter rior shapes, isometric sectioning is as appropriate as in
is the major axis of the ellipses. multiview drawing. An isometric full section is shown in

■ FIGURE 35 ■ Isometric of a Sphere.

521
 Axonometric Projection

the direction should be changed if at this angle the lines

would be parallel to a prominent visible line bounding the
cut surface, or to other adjacent lines of the drawing.

25 ■ ISOMETRIC DIMENSIONING
Isometric dimensions are similar to ordinary dimensions
used on multiview drawings but are expressed in pictor-
ial form. Two methods of dimensioning are approved by
ANSI—namely, the pictorial plane (aligned) system and
the unidirectional system (Fig. 38). Note that vertical
■ FIGURE 36 ■ Isometric Full Section. lettering is used for either system of dimensioning.
Inclined lettering is not recommended for pictorial
dimensioning. The method of drawing numerals and
arrowheads for the two systems is shown in Figs. 38a
and 38b. For the 64-mm dimension in the aligned sys-
tem in Fig. 38a, the extension lines, dimension lines,
and lettering are all drawn in the isometric plane of one
face of the object. The “horizontal” guide lines for the
lettering are drawn parallel to the dimension line, and
the “vertical” guide lines are drawn parallel to the exten-
sion lines. The barbs of the arrowheads should line up
parallel to the extension lines.
■ FIGURE 37 ■ Isometric Half Section. For the 64-mm dimension in the unidirectional sys-
tem (Fig. 38b), the extension lines and dimension lines
are all drawn in the isometric plane of one face of the
Fig. 36. In such cases it is usually best to draw the cut object, and the barbs of the arrowheads should line up par-
surface first and then to draw the portion of the object that allel to the extension lines, as in Fig. 38a. However, the
lies behind the cutting plane. lettering for the dimensions is vertical and reads from the
An isometric half section is shown in Fig. 37. The bottom of the drawing. This simpler system of dimension-
simplest procedure in this case is to make an isometric ing is often used on pictorials for production purposes.
drawing of the entire object and then the cut surfaces. As shown in Fig. 38c, the vertical guide lines for
Since only a quarter of the object is removed in a half the letters should not be perpendicular to the dimen-
section, the resulting pictorial drawing is more useful sion lines. The example in Fig. 38c is incorrect
than full sections in describing both exterior and interi- because the 64-mm and 32-mm dimensions are let-
or shapes together. tered neither in the plane of corresponding dimension
Isometric broken-out sections are also sometimes and extension lines nor in a vertical position to read
used. from the bottom of the drawing. The 20-mm dimension
Section lining in isometric drawing is similar to that in is awkward to read because of its position.
multiview drawing. Section lining at an angle of 60° with Correct practice in isometric dimensioning using
horizontal (Figs. 36 and 37) is recommended, but the aligned system of dimensioning is shown in Fig.
39a. Incorrect practice is shown in Fig. 39b, where

■ FIGURE 38 ■ Numerals and Arrowheads in Isometric (Metric Dimensions).

522
 Axonometric Projection

■ FIGURE 39 ■ Correct and Incorrect Isometric Dimensioning (Aligned System).

the 3.125 dimension runs to a wrong extension line at 26 ■ EXPLODED ASSEMBLIES

the right, and consequently the dimension does not lie Exploded assemblies are often used in design presenta-
in an isometric plane. Near the left side, a number of tions, catalogs, sales literature, and in the shop to show
lines cross one another unnecessarily and terminate on all the parts of an assembly and how they fit together.
the wrong lines. The upper .5 drill hole is located from They may be drawn by any of the pictorial methods,
the edge of the cylinder when it should be dimensioned including isometric (Fig. 40).
from its center line. Study these two drawings carefully
to discover additional mistakes in Fig. 39b.
The dimensioning methods described apply equal-
ly to fractional, decimal, and metric dimensions. 27 ■ PIPING DIAGRAMS
Isometric and oblique drawings are well suited for rep-
resentation of piping layouts, as well as for all other
structural work to be represented pictorially.

■ FIGURE 40 ■ Exploded Assembly of Sunglasses. Courtesy of SolidWorks Corporation.

523
 Axonometric Projection

DIMETRIC PROJECTION If the triangle POS is revolved about the line PS as

an axis into the plane of projection, it will be shown in its
28 ■ THE DIMETRIC METHOD
true size and shape as PO¿S. If regular full-size scales are
OF PROJECTION
marked along the lines O¿P and O¿S, and the triangle is
A dimetric projection is an axonometric projection of counterrevolved to its original position, the dimetric
an object so placed that two of its axes make equal scales may be laid off on the axes OP and OS, as shown.
angles with the plane of projection and the third axis To avoid the preparation of special scales, use can
makes either a smaller or a greater angle. Hence, the be made of available scales on the architects’ scale by
two axes making equal angles with the plane of projec- assuming the scales and calculating the positions of the
tion are foreshortened equally, while the third axis is axes, as follows:
foreshortened in a different ratio. 2 2 4
Generally, the object is so placed that one axis will 42h v - v
cos a = - ,
be projected in a vertical position. However, if the rela- 2hv
tive positions of the axes have been determined, the where a is one of the two equal angles between the
projection may be drawn in any revolved position, as in projections of the axes, h is one of the two equal scales,
isometric drawing (see §8). and v is the third scale. Examples are shown in the
The angles between the projection of the axes upper row of Fig. 42, in which the assumed scales,
must not be confused with the angles which the axes shown encircled, are taken from the architects’ scale.
themselves make with the plane projection. One of these three positions of the axes will be found
The positions of the axes may be assumed such suitable for almost any practical drawing.
that any two angles between the axes are equal and The Instrumaster Dimetric Template (Fig. 41b)
over 90°, and the scales are determined graphically, as has angles of approximately 11° and 39° with horizontal,
shown in Fig. 41a, in which OP, OL, and OS are the which provides a picture similar to that in Fig. 42III.
projections of the axes or converging edges of a cube. In addition, the template has ellipses corresponding to
In this case, angle POS = angle LOS. Lines PL, LS, and the axes and accurate scales along the edges. For other
SP are the lines of intersection of the plane of projec- information on drawing of ellipses, see §32.
tion with the three visible faces of the cube. From The Instrumaster Dimetric Graph paper (Fig.
descriptive geometry we know that since line LO is per- 41c) can be used to sketch in dimetrics as easily as to
pendicular to the plane POS, in space, its projection LO sketch isometrics on isometric paper. The grid lines
is perpendicular to PS, the intersection of the plane slope in conformity to the angles on the Dimetric Tem-
POS and the plane of projection. Similarly, OP is per- plate in Fig. 41b, and when printed on vellum, the
pendicular to SL, and OS is perpendicular to PL. grid lines do not reproduce on prints.

■ FIGURE 41 ■ Dimetric Projection.

524
 Axonometric Projection

■ FIGURE 42 ■ Angles of Axes Determined by Assumed Scales.

29 ■ APPROXIMATE DIMETRIC DRAWING curve is shown in the figure. Other methods for draw-
Approximate dimetric drawings, which closely resem- ing ellipses are the same as in trimetric drawing §32.
ble true dimetrics, can be constructed by substituting The steps in making a dimetric sketch, using a
for the true angles shown in the upper half of Fig. 42 position similar to that in Fig. 42V, are shown in
angles that can be obtained with the ordinary triangles Fig. 44. The two angles are equal. Angles of about
and compass, as shown in the lower half of the figure. 20° with the horizontal will produce the most pleas-
The resulting drawings will be sufficiently accurate for ing effect.
all practical purposes. An exploded approximate dimetric drawing of a
The procedure in preparing an approximate planter filling conveyor is shown in Fig. 45. The dimet-
dimetric drawing, using the position in Fig. 42VI, is ric axes used are those in Fig. 42IV. Pictorials such as
shown in Fig. 43. The offset method of drawing a this are often used in service manuals.

■ FIGURE 43 ■ Steps in Dimetric Drawing.

525
 Axonometric Projection

■ FIGURE 44 ■ Steps in Dimetric Sketching.

■ FIGURE 45 ■ Exploded Dimetric of Planter Filling Conveyor. Courtesy of Spudnik Equipment Company, Inc.

526
 Axonometric Projection

TRIMETRIC PROJECTION haps six or seven such guides, using angles for a variety
of positions of the axes, would be sufficient for all prac-
30 ■ THE TRIMETRIC METHOD
tical requirements.
OF PROJECTION
A trimetric projection is an axonometric projection of
an object so placed that no two axes make equal angles 32 ■ TRIMETRIC ELLIPSES
with the plane of projection. In other words, each of the The trimetric center lines of a hole, or on the end of a
three axes and the lines parallel to them, respectively, cylinder, become the conjugate diameters of the ellipse
have different ratios of foreshortening when projected when drawn in trimetric. The ellipse may be drawn on
to the plane of projection. If the three axes are the conjugate diameters, or the major and minor axes
assumed in any position on paper such that none of the may be determined from the conjugate diameters
angles is less than 90°, and if neither an isometric nor a or with the aid of an ellipse template.
dimetric position is deliberately arranged, the result One advantage of trimetric projection is the infi-
will be a trimetric projection. nite number of positions of the object available. The
angles and scales can be handled without too much
31 ■ TRIMETRIC SCALES difficulty, as shown in §31. However, the infinite
variety of ellipses has been a discouraging factor.
Since the three axes are foreshortened differently, In drawing any axonometric ellipse, keep the fol-
three different trimetric scales must be prepared and lowing in mind:
used. The scales are determined as shown in Fig.
46a, the method being the same as explained for the 1. On the drawing, the major axis is always perpen-
dimetric scales in §28. As shown, any two of the dicular to the center line, or axis, of the cylinder.
three triangular faces can be revolved into the plane of
2. The minor axis is always perpendicular to the
projection to show the true lengths of the three axes. In
major axis; that is, on the paper it coincides with
the revolved position, the regular scale is used to set off
the axis of the cylinder.
inches or fractions thereof. When the axes have been
counterrevolved to their original positions, the scales 3. The length of the major axis is equal to the actual
will be correctly foreshortened, as shown.These dimen- diameter of the cylinder.
sions should be transferred to the edges of three thin
cards and marked OX, OZ, and OY for easy reference.
A special trimetric angle may be prepared from *Plastic templates of this type are available from drafting supplies
Bristol Board or plastic, as shown in Fig. 46b. Per- dealers.

■ FIGURE 46 ■ Trimetric Scales.

527
 Axonometric Projection

Graphics
Spotlight 3D Pictorials Aid Designers of Future Electric Cars
They rode on rockets to the moon and proved they can oxygen to form water vapor. DaimlerChrysler is trying to
generate enough electricity to power an automobile. But lead the industry in fuel cells by forming joint ventures with
fuel-cells are still years away from widespread use in the Ford Motor Co. and Ballard Powers Systems, Inc. of Van-
automobile industry. couver, British Columbia, a supplier of fuel-cell stacks. The
Standing in their path are high costs and the problems goal is to be the first to manufacture complete fuel-cell
of a complex technology. Together, these forces ensure powertrains for sale in the world market.
large numbers of fuel-cell-powered vehicles will not hit The task is daunting. At DaimlerChrysler’s fuel-cell
showroom floors for a decade or more. development center near Stuttgart, Germany, 900 techni-
“There’s a lot of serious work going into it, and there’s cal people are devoted exclusively to fuel-cell research.
a lot of potential there,” says Bernard Robertson, Daimler- Necar 4, the fourth generation of the center’s New Electric
Chrysler’s vice president of engineering technologies. “It’s Car series of fuel-cell concepts, was unveiled to the public
just that the challenges are pretty formidable.” in March 1999. Necar is technically impressive because it
crams the entire fuel-cell system in a 6-inch-deep space
F UEL C ELLS P OSE T HORNY P ROBLEMS FOR under the floor, but also illustrates the shortcomings of
D ESIGN T EAM current fuel-cell technology.
A fuel cell uses sophisticated membranes to strip electrons DaimlerChrysler officials admit the vehicle is over-
from hydrogen atoms, creating a charge imbalance and weight by more than 600 pounds and is astronomically
electrical current. The cell recombines the hydrogen with expensive. A mass-produced fuel-cell system would cost

3D pictorial of Necar 4 fuel-cell-powered car. Such 3D images aid designers in overcoming current design problems.

528
 Axonometric Projection

$30,000 using today’s technology, although Necar 4’s equipment capable of mass producing such a product at a
hand-built engine is estimated to have cost $350,000. reasonable cost.
Gasoline engines typically cost $3,000. Specialized hard- Since making even one model of such a cell or vehicle
ware is what drives the fuel cell’s costs. The largest is cost restrictive, the design teams have turned to com-
expense is the row of electricity-conducting bipolar plates puter-design and computer-manufacturing software pro-
in the fuel-cell stack. These plates, made from ultra-hard grams for help. 3D pictorials let them see not only how
carbon-graphite, have dozens of intricate channels that they can better design the fuel cell for each vehicle, but
must be individually cut by computer-controlled machine what is needed in the way of retooling for mass production
tools. For maximum efficiency, the channels must be of such cells. By keeping costs down, engineers are hope-
machined to the high tolerance usually reserved for jet ful that they will be able to design and develop an efficient
engine turbines. electric car by the year 2004. Retooling of assembly lines
could take a few years longer, but DaimlerChrysler is con-
CAD H ELPS D ESIGNER S EE P OSSIBILITIES fident that they will have an efficient, reliable, fuel-cell pow-
With all of this precision machining involved, the engineers ered vehicle on the world market within the next decade.
at DaimlerChrsyler have been assigned two separate tasks:
(1) develop a fuel cell that is small and light enough to meet Adapted from “Fuel Cells Still Pose Thorny Problems,” by Aaron Robinson,
size and weight restrictions; and (2) develop manufacturing “Automotive News.” March 29, 1999.

Thus we know at once the directions of both the If an ellipse template is not available, an approximate
major and minor axes, and the length of the major axis. four-center ellipse will be found satisfactory in most
We do not know the length of the minor axis. If we can cases.
find it, we can easily construct the ellipse with the aid
of an ellipse template or any of a number of ellipse
constructions mentioned earlier.
In Fig. 47a, center O is located as desired, and
horizontal and vertical construction lines that will con-
tain the major and minor axes are drawn through O.
■ FIGURE 47 ■ Ellipses in Trimetric. Method (b) courtesy of Professor
Note that the major axis will be on the horizontal line
H. E. Grant.
perpendicular to the axis of the hole, and the minor
axis will be perpendicular to it, or vertical.
Set the compass for the actual radius of the hole and
draw the semicircle, as shown, to establish the ends A
and B of the major axis. Draw AF and BF parallel to the
axonometric edges WX and YX, respectively, to locate F,
which lies on the ellipse. Draw a vertical line through F
to intersect the semicircle at F¿ and join F¿ to B¿, as
shown. From D¿, where the minor axis, extended, inter-
sects the semicircle, draw D¿E and ED parallel to F¿B and
BF, respectively. Point D is one end of the minor axis.
From center O, strike arc DC to locate C, the other end
of the minor axis. On these axes, a true ellipse can be
constructed, or drawn with the aid of an ellipse template.

529
 Axonometric Projection

In constructions where the enclosing parallelo- To understand this method, let us assume that the
gram for an ellipse is available or easily constructed, axonometric projection of a rectangular object is
the major and minor axes can be readily determined, as given, and it is necessary to find the three orthograph-
shown in Fig. 47b. The directions of both axes and ic projections: the top view, front view, and side view
the length of the major axis are known. Extend the (Fig. 48).
axes to intersect the sides of the parallelogram at L and Assume that the object is placed so that its princi-
M, and join the points with a straight line. From one pal edges coincide with the coordinate axes, and
end N of the major axis, draw a line NP parallel to LM. assume that the plane of projection (the plane on
The point P is one end of the minor axis. To find one which the axonometric projection is drawn) intersects
end T of the minor axis of the smaller ellipse, it is only the three coordinate planes in the triangle ABC. From
necessary to draw RT parallel to LM or NP. descriptive geometry, we know that lines BC, CA, and
The method of constructing an ellipse on an AB will be perpendicular, respectively, to axes OX, OY,
oblique plane in trimetric is similar to that shown for and OZ. Any one of the three points A, B, or C may be
isometric in Fig. 33. assumed anywhere on one of the axes, and the triangle
ABC may be drawn.
To find the true size and shape of the top view,
33 ■ AXONOMETRIC PROJECTION BY revolve the triangular portion of the horizontal plane
THE METHOD OF INTERSECTIONS AOC, which is in front of the plane of projection,
Instead of constructing axonometric projections with about its base CA, into the plane of projection. In this
the aid of specially prepared scales, as explained in the case, the triangle is revolved inward to the plane of pro-
preceding paragraphs, an axonometric projection can be jection through the smallest angle made with it. The tri-
obtained directly by projection from two orthographic angle will then be shown in its true size and shape, and
views of the object. This method, called the method of the top view of the object can be drawn in the triangle
intersections, was developed by Profs. L. Eckhart and T. by projection from the axonometric projection, as
Schmid of the Vienna College of Engineering and was shown, since all width dimensions remain the same. In
published in 1937. the figure, the base CA of the triangle has been moved

■ FIGURE 48 ■ Views from an Axonometric Projection.

530
 Axonometric Projection

■ FIGURE 49 ■ Axonometric Projection.

upward to C¿A¿ so that the revolved position of the tri- parallel to it, must be used as the baseline of the
angle will not overlap its projection. side view. The direction of the projecting lines must
In the same manner, the true sizes and shapes of be parallel to the projection of the unrevolved
the front view and side view can be found, as shown. X-axis, as shown.
It is evident that if the three orthographic projec- Draw the front-view baseline at a convenient loca-
tions, or in most cases any two of them, are given in tion, but parallel to O¿X, and with it as the base, draw
their relative positions, as shown in Fig. 48, the direc- the front view of the object. Draw the side-view base-
tions of the projections could be reversed so that the line also at a convenient location, but parallel to O–C,
intersections of the projecting lines would determine and with it as the base, draw the side view of the object,
the required axonometric projection. as shown. From the corners of the front view, draw pro-
To draw an axonometric projection by the method jecting lines parallel to OZ, and from the corners of the
of intersections, it is helpful to make a sketch of the side view, draw projecting lines parallel to OX. The
desired general appearance of the projection (Fig. intersections of these two sets of projecting lines deter-
49). Even if the object is a complicated one, this mine the desired axonometric projection. It will be an
sketch need not be complete, but only an enclosing isometric, a dimetric, or a trimetric projection, depend-
box. Draw the projections of the coordinate axes OX, ing on the form of the sketch used as the basis for the
OY, and OZ parallel to the principal edges of the projections §2. If the sketch is drawn so that the
object, as shown in the sketch, and the three coordinate three angles formed by the three coordinate axes are
planes with the plane of projection. equal, the resulting projection will be an isometric pro-
Revolve the triangle ABO about its base AB as the jection; if two of the three angles are equal, the result-
axis into the plane of projection. Line OA will revolve ing projection will be a dimetric projection; and if no
to O¿A, and this line, or one parallel to it, must be used two of the three angles are equal, the resulting projec-
as the baseline of the front view of the object. The pro- tion will be a trimetric projection.
jecting lines from the front view to the axonometric To place the desired projection on a specific loca-
must be drawn parallel to the projection of the unre- tion on the drawing (Fig. 49), select the desired pro-
volved Z-axis, as indicated in the figure. jection P of the point 1, for example, and draw two pro-
Similarly, revolve the triangle COB about its jecting lines PR ands PS to intersect the two baselines
base CB as the axis into the plane of projection. and thereby to determine the locations of the two
Line CO will revolve to CO–, and this line, or one views on their baselines.

531
 Axonometric Projection

■ FIGURE 50 ■ Axonometric Projection.

Another example of this method of axonometric point A is found simply by drawing the projecting lines
projection is shown in Fig. 50. In this case, it was from the two views. The major and minor axes may be
deemed necessary only to draw a sketch of the plan or easily found by projecting in this manner or by methods
base of the object in the desired position, as shown. The shown in Fig. 47; the true ellipse may be drawn with the
axes are then drawn with OX and OZ parallel, respective- aid of an ellipse template.An approximate ellipse is satis-
ly, to the sides of the sketch plan, and the remaining axis factory for most drawings and may be used.
OY is assumed in a vertical position. The triangles COB
and AOB are revolved, and the two baselines are drawn
parallel to O–C and O¿A, as shown. Point P, the lower 34 ■ USING CAD
front corner of the axonometric drawing, is then chosen Pictorial drawings of all sorts can be created using 3D
at a convenient place, and projecting lines are drawn CAD. To create pictorials using 2D CAD, you would
toward the baselines parallel to axes OX and OZ to locate use similar projection techniques to those presented in
the positions of the views on the baselines. The views are this chapter.The advantage of 3D CAD is that once you
drawn on the baselines or cut apart from another draw- make a 3D model of a part or assembly you can change
ing and fastened in place with drafting tape. the viewing direction at any time for orthographic, iso-
To draw the elliptical projection of the circle, assume metric, or perspective views. You can also apply differ-
any points, such as A, on the circle in both front and side ent materials to the drawing objects and shade them to
views. Note that point A is the same altitude d above the produce a high degree of realism in the pictorial view.
baseline in both views. The axonometric projection of

532
 Axonometric Projection

■ FIGURE 51 ■ Orthographic to Isometric Conversion. The Auto-trol Orthographic to Axonometric Package (OTAP) system
can be used to convert an orthographic drawing to axonometric. Courtesy of Auto-trol Technology Corporation.

■ FIGURE 52 ■ Isometric Assembly Drawing Produced by Using ■ FIGURE 53 ■ 3D Pictorial Drawing of Goggles. Courtesy of
the Computervision Designer System. Courtesy of Computervision Corporation, SolidWorks Corporation.
a subsidiary of Prime Computer, Inc.

533
 Axonometric Projection

KEY WORDS
AXONOMETRIC PLANE OF PROJECTION ISOMETRIC FINITE

DIMETRIC INCLINED SURFACE TRIMETRIC OBLIQUE

PERSPECTIVE ISOMETRIC AXES INFINITY BOX CONSTRUCTION

LINE OF SIGHT FOUR-CENTER ELLIPSE VISUAL RAYS

CHAPTER SUMMARY
■ Axonometric projection is a method of creating a pictorial adjacent views, usually the top, front, and right side view,
representation of an object. It shows all three dimensions can all be seen at the same time.
of length, width, and height in one view. ■ Inclined surfaces and oblique surfaces must be determined
■ Isometric is the easiest of the axonometric projections to by plotting the endpoints of each edge of the surface.
draw and is therefore the most common pictorial draw- ■ Angles, irregular curves, and ellipses require special con-
ing. Isometric drawings created with CAD are often struction techniques for accurate representation.
called 3D models. ■ A common method of drawing an object in isometric is
■ The spaces between the axes of an isometric drawing by creating an isometric box and drawing the features of
each are 120°. Isometric axes are drawn at 30° to the the object within the box.
horizontal and vertical. ■ Unlike perspective drawing, in which parallel lines con-
■ The only lines on an isometric drawing that are to scale verge on a vanishing point, parallel lines are drawn paral-
are parallel to the three isometric axes. lel in axonometric drawings.
■ An axonometric drawing is created by rotating an object
about imaginary vertical and horizontal axes until three

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Why is isometric drawing more common than perspec- 6. Which type of projection places the observer at a finite
tive drawing in engineering work? distance from the object? Which types place the observ-
2. What are the differences between axonometric projec- er at an infinite distance?
tion and perspective? 7. Why is isometric easier to draw than dimetric or trimetric?
3. What type of projection is used when creating a 3D 8. Is the four-circle ellipse a true ellipse or an approximation?
model with CAD? 9. Is an ellipse in CAD a four-circle ellipse or a true
4. At what angles are the isometric axes drawn? conic section?
5. What are the three views that are typically shown in an
isometric drawing?

AXONOMETRIC PROBLEMS
Figures 54–62 consist of problems to be drawn Since many of the problems in this chapter are of a gener-
axonometrically. The earlier isometric sketches may be al nature, they can also be solved on most computer graphics
drawn on isometric paper and later sketches should systems. If a system is available, the instructor may choose to
be made on plain drawing paper. On drawings to be exe- assign specific problems to be completed by this method.
cuted with instruments, show all construction lines
required in the solutions.

534
 Axonometric Projection

1 KEY PLATE

2 BASE 3 STRAP

4 BRACKET

5 CUTTER BLOCK

6 BRACKET 7 HOUSE MODEL

8 GUIDE BLOCK 9 FINGER

■ FIGURE 54 ■ (1) Make freehand isometric sketches. (2) Make isometric drawings with instruments on Layout
A-2 or A4-2 (adjusted). (3) Make dimetric drawings with instruments, using Layout A-2 or A4-2 (adjusted), and position
assigned from Fig. 42. (4) Make trimetric drawings, using instruments, with axes chosen to show the objects to
best advantage. If dimensions are required, study §25.

535
 Axonometric Projection

2 TAILSTOCK CLAMP
1 ANGLE
BEARING

4 WEDGE

3 TABLE SUPPORT
5 INTERSECTION

7 INTERSECTION

8 HEX CAP
6 CONTROL BLOCK

9 BOOK END 10 LOCATOR 11 TRIP ARM

■ FIGURE 55 ■ (1) Make freehand isometric sketches. (2) Make isometric drawings with instruments on
Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted). (3) Make dimetric drawings with instruments, using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted),
and position assigned from Fig. 42. (4) Make trimetric drawings, using instruments, with axes chosen to show
the objects to best advantage. If dimensions are required, study §25.

536
 Axonometric Projection

1 2 3

4 5 6

7 8 9

10 11 12

■ FIGURE 56 ■ (1) Make isometric freehand sketches. (2) Make isometric drawings with instruments, using
Size A or A4 sheet or Size B or A3 sheet, as assigned. (3) Make dimetric drawings with instruments, using Size A or A4
sheet or Size B or A3 sheet, as assigned, and position assigned from Fig. 42. (4) Make trimetric drawings, using
instruments, with axes chosen to show the objects to best advantage. If dimensions are required, study §25.

537
 Axonometric Projection

8
7

9 10

11 12 13

■ FIGURE 57 ■ (1) Make isometric freehand sketches. (2) Make isometric drawings with instruments, using
Size A or A4 sheet or Size B or A3 sheet, as assigned. (3) Make dimetric drawings with instruments, using Size A
or A4 sheet or Size B or A3 sheet, as assigned, and position assigned from Fig. 42. (4) Make trimetric drawings,
using instruments, with axes chosen to show the objects to best advantage. If dimensions are required, study
§25.

538
 Axonometric Projection

1
2

6 7

10 11

■ FIGURE 58 ■ (1) Make isometric freehand sketches. (2) Make isometric drawings with instruments, using
Size A or A4 sheet or Size B or A3 sheet, as assigned. (3) Make dimetric drawings with instruments, using Size A
or A4 sheet or Size B or A3 sheet, as assigned, and position assigned from Fig. 42. (4) Make trimetric drawings,
using instruments, with axes chosen to show the objects to best advantage. If dimensions are required, study
§25.

539
 Axonometric Projection

.625

THREAD .094
.500 .250
.3 1 2

■ FIGURE 59 ■ Nylon Collar Nut. (1) Make isometric freehand sketch. (2) Make
isometric drawing with instruments, using Size A or A4 sheet or Size B or A3 sheet, as
assigned.

.200 .325 .59

R.30 .940
.795
1.97

.510

.50 D
.550

■ FIGURE 60 ■ Plastic T-Handle Plated Steel Stud. (1) Make dimetric drawing with instruments, using
Size A or A4 sheet as assigned. (2) Make trimetric drawing, using instruments. Use Size A or A4 sheet as
assigned.

540
 Axonometric Projection

56 25 2 X :15
2 X R19

19
38

■ FIGURE 61 ■ Mounting Plate. (1) Make isometric freehand sketch. (2) Make isometric drawings
with instruments on Layout A-2 or A4-2 (adjusted).

1.50 RAD

.75 RAD
2.50
5.00

2.50
1.25
.25

4.25
3.75

■ FIGURE 62 ■ Hanger. (1) Make isometric freehand

sketch. (2) Make isometric drawings with instruments on
Layouts A-2 or A4-2 (adjusted).

541
This page intentionally left blank
Oblique Projection

From Chapter 17 of Engineering Graphics, Eighth Edition, Frederick E. Giesecke,

Alva Mitchell, Henry Cecil Spencer, Ivan Leroy Hill, Robert Olin Loving, John
Thomas Dygdon, James E. Novak. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Published by Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.
 Oblique Projection

OVERVIEW OBJECTIVES
If an observer is considered to be stationed at an infinite distance After studying the material in this chapter, you
from an object and looking toward the object so that the projectors should be able to:
are parallel to each other and oblique to the plane of projection, the 1. Describe how an oblique projection is
resulting drawing is an oblique projection. As a rule, the object is created.
placed with one of its principal faces parallel to the plane of projec- 2. List the advantages of oblique projection.
tion. 3. Draw cavalier and cabinet oblique draw-
Oblique projection provides an easy method for drawing circu- ings.
lar features that are parallel to the plane of projection. Axonometric 4. Know how to place circles when creat-
circles are tedious constructions using paper and pencil. With ing an oblique drawing.
oblique projection, the front view is the same as the front view in a 5. Describe why CAD software does not
multiview drawing. Circles and angles parallel to the projection automatically create oblique drawings.
plane are true size and shape and are therefore easy to construct.
Oblique projection is not as photorealistic as axonometric projec-
tion. Depth is distorted and must be compensated for to approxi-
mate a realistic appearance for the object. There is little reason to
create oblique drawing with CAD since isometric drawings are cre-
ated automatically once a 3D model is created. While circles in the
front view are easy to draw, they are very difficult to create in the
top or side views. Therefore, oblique is primarily used on manually
constructed drawings, where the majority of circles appear in the
front view. Sometimes an object is rotated to position circles in the
front view.

544
 Oblique Projection

■ FIGURE 1 ■ Comparison of Oblique and

Orthographic Projections.

1 ■ OBLIQUE AND OTHER PROJECTIONS not parallel to the plane of projection will not project in
COMPARED true size and shape. For example, surface ABFE on the
object (a square) projects as a parallelogram A¿B¿F¿E¿ in
A comparison of oblique projection and orthographic the oblique projection.
projection is shown in Fig. 1. In the oblique projection, In axonometric projection, circles on the object
the front face A¿B¿C¿D¿ is identical with the front view, nearly always lie in the surfaces inclined to the plane of
or orthographic projection, A ¡B ¡C ¡D ¡. Thus, if an projection and project as ellipses. In oblique projec-
object is placed with one of its faces parallel to the plane tion, the object may be positioned so that those sur-
of projection, that face will be projected true size and faces are parallel to the plane of projection, in which
shape in oblique projection as well as in orthographic or case the circles will project as true circles and can be
multiview projection. This is why oblique is preferable to easily drawn with the compass.
axonometric projection in the pictorial representation of A comparison of the oblique and orthographic
certain objects. Note that surfaces of the object that are projections of a cylindrical object is shown in Fig. 2.

■ FIGURE 2 ■ Circles Parallel to Plane of

Projection.

545
 Oblique Projection

In both cases, the circular shapes project as true circles.

Note that although an observer looking in the direction
of the oblique arrow sees these shapes as ellipses, the
drawing, or projection, represents not what is seen but
what is projected on the plane of projection. This curi-
ous situation is peculiar to oblique projection.
Observe that the axis AB of the cylinder projects as
a point A ¡B ¡ in the orthographic projection, since the
line of sight is parallel to AB. But in the oblique projec-
tion, the axis projects as a line A¿B¿. The more nearly
the direction of sight approaches the perpendicular
with respect to the plane of projection—that is, the larg-
er the angle between the projectors and the plane—the
closer the oblique projection moves toward the ortho-
graphic projection, and the shorter A¿B¿ becomes.

2 ■ DIRECTIONS OF PROJECTORS ■ FIGURE 4 ■ Directions and Projections.

In Fig. 3, the projectors make an angle of 45° with

the plane of projection; hence, the line CD¿, which is What angle do these lines make on paper with respect
perpendicular to the plane, projects true length at to horizontal?
C¿D¿. If the projectors make a greater angle with the In Fig. 4, the line AO is perpendicular to the
plane of projection, the oblique projection is shorter, plane of projection, and all the projectors make angles of
and if the projectors make a smaller angle with the 45° with it; therefore, all the oblique projections BO,
plane of projection, the oblique projection is longer. CO, DO, and so on are equal in length to the line AO. It
Theoretically, CD¿ could project in any length from can be seen from the figure that the projectors may be
zero to infinity. However, the line AB is parallel to the selected in any one of an infinite number of directions
plane and will project in true length regardless of the and yet maintain any desired angle with the plane of
angle the projectors make with the plane of projection. projection. It is also evident that the directions of the
In Fig. 1, the lines AE, BF, CG, and DH are per- projections BO, CO, DO, and so on are independent of
pendicular to the plane of projection and project as the angles the projectors make with the plane of projec-
parallel inclined lines A¿E, B¿F, C¿G, and D¿H¿ in the tion. Ordinarily, this inclination of the projection is 45°
oblique projection. These lines on the drawing are (CO in the figure), 30°, or 60° with horizontal since
called the receding lines. As we have seen, they may be these angles may be easily drawn with the triangles.
any length, from zero to infinity, depending on the
direction of the line of sight. Our next concern is this: 3 ■ ANGLES OF RECEDING LINES
The receding lines may be drawn at any convenient
■ FIGURE 3 ■ Lengths of Projections. angle. Some typical drawings with the receding lines in
various directions are shown in Fig. 5. The angle that
should be used in an oblique drawing depends on the
shape of the object and the location of its significant
features. For example, in Fig. 6a a large angle was
used to obtain a better view of the rectangular recess
on the top, while in Fig. 6b a small angle was chosen
to show a similar feature on the side.

4 ■ LENGTH OF RECEDING LINES

Since the eye is accustomed to seeing objects with all
receding parallel lines appearing to converge, an oblique
projection presents an unnatural appearance, with more
or less serious distortion depending on the object shown.
For example, the object shown in Fig. 7a is a cube, and
the receding lines are full length, but the receding lines

546
 Oblique Projection

n FIGURE 5 n Variation in Direction of

Receding Axis.

oblique projection: Objects characterized by great length

should not be drawn in oblique with the long dimension
perpendicular to the plane of projection.
The appearance of distortion may be reduced by
decreasing the length of the receding lines (remem-
ber, we established in §2 that they could be any
length). In Fig. 7 a cube is shown in five oblique
drawings with varying degrees of foreshortening of
the receding lines. The range of scales chosen is suffi-
n FIGURE 6 n Angle of Receding Axis. cient for almost all problems, and most of the scales
are available on the architects’, engineers’, or metric
appear to be too long and to diverge toward the rear of scales.
the block. A striking example of the unnatural appear- When the receding lines are true length—that is,
ance of an oblique drawing when compared with the nat- when the projectors make an angle of 45° with the
ural appearance of a perspective is shown in Fig. 8. plane of projection—the oblique drawing is called a
This example points up one of the chief limitations of cavalier projection (Fig. 7a). Cavalier projections

n FIGURE 7 n Foreshortening of
Receding Lines.

n FIGURE 8 n Unnatural Appearance

of Oblique Drawing.

547
 Oblique Projection

■ FIGURE 9 ■ Comparison of Cavalier and Cabinet Projections.

■ FIGURE 10 ■ Essential Contours Parallel to

Plane of Projection.

originated in the drawing of medieval fortifications and shapes and must be plotted as free curves or in the
were made on horizontal planes of projection. On form of ellipses.
these fortifications the central portion was higher than The longest dimension of an object should general-
the rest, and it was called cavalier because of its domi- ly be placed parallel to the plane of projection, as
nating and commanding position. shown in Fig. 11.
When the receding lines are drawn to half size
(Fig. 7d), the drawing is commonly known as a ■ FIGURE 11 ■ Long Axis Parallel to Plane of Projection.
cabinet projection. The term is attributed to the early
use of this type of oblique drawing in the furniture
industries. A comparison of cavalier projection and
cabinet projection is shown in Fig. 9.

5 ■ CHOICE OF POSITION
The face of an object showing the essential contours
should generally be placed parallel to the plane of
projection (Fig. 10). If this is done, distortion will
be kept to a minimum and labor reduced. For exam-
ple, in Figs. 10a and 10c, the circles and circular
arcs are shown in their true shapes and may be quick-
ly drawn with the compass, while in Figs. 10b and
10d these curves are not shown in their true

548
 Oblique Projection

■ FIGURE 12 ■ Steps in Oblique Drawing—Box Construction.

6 ■ STEPS IN OBLIQUE DRAWING Block in the various shapes in detail (II), and
heavy in all final lines (III).
The steps in drawing a cavalier drawing of a rectangu- Many objects most adaptable to oblique represen-
lar object are shown in Fig. 12. Begin by drawing the tation are composed of cylindrical shapes built on axes
axes OX and OY perpendicular to each other and the or center lines. In such cases, the oblique drawing is
receding axis OZ at any desired angle with horizontal best constructed on the projected center lines, as shown
(Fig. 12I). On these axes, construct an enclosing box, in Fig. 13. The object is positioned so that the circles
using the overall dimension of the object. shown in the given top view are parallel to the plane of

■ FIGURE 13 ■ Steps in Oblique Drawing—Skeleton Construction.

549
 Oblique Projection

projection and, hence, can be readily drawn with the

compass to their true shapes. The general procedure is
to draw the center-line skeleton, as shown in (I) and
(II), and then to build the drawing on these center
lines. It is very important to construct all points of tan-
gency, as shown in (IV), especially if the drawing is to
be inked. The final cavalier drawing is shown in (V).

7 n FOUR-CENTER ELLIPSE
It is not always possible to place an object so that all
its significant contours are parallel to the plane of
projection. For example, the object shown in Fig.
14a has two sets of circular contours in different
planes, and both cannot be placed parallel to the
plane of projection.
In the oblique drawing in Fig. 14b, the regular
four-center method was used to construct ellipses rep-
resenting circular curves not parallel to the plane of
projection. This method can be used only in cavalier
drawing, in which case the enclosing parallelogram is
equilateral—that is, the receding axis is drawn to full n FIGURE 14 n Circles and Arcs Not Parallel to Plane of
scale. The method is the same as in the isometric: Erect Projection.
perpendicular bisectors to the four sides of the parallel-
ogram; their intersections will be centers for the four
circular arcs. If the angle of the receding lines is other be drawn easily with the 30° * 60° triangle and the T-
than 30° with horizontal, as in this case, the centers of square, parallel rule, or drafting machine without
the two large arcs will not fall in the corners of the par- the necessity of first finding the midpoints of the
allelogram. sides. A more convenient method is the alternate
The regular four-center method is not convenient four-center ellipse drawn on the two center lines, as
in oblique drawing unless the receding lines make 30° shown in Fig. 15. This is the same method as used in
with horizontal so that the perpendicular bisectors may isometric, but in oblique drawing it varies slightly in

n FIGURE 15 n Alternate Four-Center Ellipse.

550
 Oblique Projection

■ FIGURE 16 ■ Use of Offset Measurements.

appearance according to the different angles of the of methods since the four-center ellipse cannot be
receding lines. used. A method of drawing ellipses in a cabinet draw-
First, draw the two center lines. Then, from the cen- ing of a cube is shown in Fig. 16d.
ter, draw a construction circle equal in diameter to the As shown in Fig. 17, a free curve may be drawn
actual hole or cylinder. The circle will intersect each in oblique by means of offset measurements. This fig-
center line at two points. From the two points on one ure also illustrates a case in which hidden lines are used
center line, erect perpendiculars to the other center to make the drawing clearer.
line. Then, from the two points on the other center line, The use of offset measurements in drawing an
erect perpendiculars to the first center line. From the ellipse in a plane inclined to the plane of projection is
intersections of the perpendiculars, draw four circular shown in Fig. 18. In Fig. 18a, a number of parallel
arcs, as shown. lines are drawn to represent imaginary cutting planes.
It must be remembered that the four-center ellipse Each plane will cut a rectangular surface between the
can be inscribed only in an equilateral parallelogram; front end of the cylinder and the inclined surface.
hence, it cannot be used in any oblique drawing in These rectangles are drawn in oblique, as shown in
which the receding axis is foreshortened. Its use is lim- Fig. 18b, and the curve is drawn through corner
ited, therefore, to cavalier drawing. points, as indicated. The final cavalier drawing is
shown in Fig. 18c.

8 ■ OFFSET MEASUREMENTS
Circles, circular arcs, and other curved or irregular
lines may be drawn by means of offset measurements, ■ FIGURE 17 ■ Use of Offset Measurements.
as shown in Fig. 16. The offsets are first drawn on
the multiview drawing of the curve (Fig. 16a), and
these are transferred to the oblique drawing (Fig.
16b). In this case, the receding axis is full scale, and
therefore all offsets can be drawn full scale. The four-
center ellipse could be used, but the method here is
more accurate. The final curve is drawn with the aid of
the irregular curve.
If the oblique drawing is a cabinet drawing (Fig.
16c) or any oblique drawing in which the receding
axis is drawn to a reduced scale, the offset measure-
ments parallel to the receding axis must be drawn to
the same reduced scale. In this case, there is no choice

551
 Oblique Projection

■ FIGURE 18 ■ Use of Offset Measurements.

■ FIGURE 19 ■ Angles in Oblique Projection.

9 ■ ANGLES IN OBLIQUE PROJECTION oblique half section is shown in Fig. 20. Oblique full
If an angle that is specified in degrees lies in a receding sections, in which the plane passes completely
plane, it is necessary to convert the angle into linear through the object, are seldom used because they do
measurements to draw the angle in oblique. For exam- not show enough of the exterior shapes. In general,
ple, in Fig. 19a, an angle of 30° is given. To draw the all the types of isometric drawing may be applied
angle in oblique, we need to know dimensions AB and equally to oblique drawing.
BC. The distance AB is given as 32 mm and can be set
off directly in the cavalier drawing (Fig. 19b). Dis-
tance BC is not known, but can easily be found by con-
structing the right triangle ABC (Fig. 19c) from the
given dimensions in the top view in Fig. 19a. The ■ FIGURE 20 ■ Oblique Half Section.
length BC is then transferred with dividers to the cava-
lier drawing, as shown.
In cabinet drawing, it must be remembered that all
receding dimensions must be reduced to half size.Thus, in
the cabinet drawing in Fig. 19d, the distance BC must
be half the side BC of the right triangle in Fig. 19e.

10 ■ OBLIQUE SECTIONS
Sections are often useful in oblique drawing, espe-
cially in the representation of interior shapes. An

552
 Oblique Projection

the bottom of the drawing (Fig. 22b). This simpler

system is often used on pictorials for production pur-
poses. Vertical lettering should be used for all picto-
rial dimensioning.
Dimensions should be placed outside the outlines
of the drawing except when greater clarity or direct-
ness of application results from placing the dimensions
directly on the view. The dimensioning methods
described apply equally to fractional, decimal, and met-
ric dimensions.
n FIGURE 21 n Screw Threads in Oblique.

13 n OBLIQUE SKETCHING
11 n SCREW THREADS IN OBLIQUE Ordinary graph paper is very useful in oblique sketch-
Parallel partial circles spaced equal to the symbolic ing. The height and width proportions can be easily
thread pitch are used to represent the crests only of a controlled by simply counting the squares. A very
screw thread in a cavalier oblique (Fig. 21). For cabinet pleasing depth proportion can be obtained by sketch-
oblique the space would be one half of the symbolic ing the receding lines at 45° diagonally through the
pitch. If the thread is so positioned to require ellipses, squares and through half as many squares as the actu-
they may be drawn by the four-center method of §7. al depth would indicate.

12 n OBLIQUE DIMENSIONING 14 n COMPUTER GRAPHICS

An oblique drawing may be dimensioned in a manner Using computer graphics, the drafter can easily create
similar to isometric drawing (Fig. 22). The general prin- an oblique drawing that will provide the desired
ciples of dimensioning must be followed. As shown in amount of foreshortening along the receding axis as
Fig. 22, all dimension lines extension lines, and arrow- well as the preferred direction of the axis. CAD pro-
heads must lie in the planes of the object to which they grams also permit curves and circular features, which
apply. The dimension figures also will lie in the plane are not parallel to the frontal plane, to be readily
when the aligned dimensioning system is used (Fig. 22a). shown on the drawing. Oblique sections (§10) and
For the unidirectional system of dimensioning, all repetitive features such as screw threads (§11) may
dimension figures are set horizontal and read from be quickly and accurately depicted.

n FIGURE 22 n Oblique Dimensioning.

553
 Oblique Projection

Graphics High Technology is First Mate

Spotlight in the Race for America’s Cup*
A klaxon sounds and the sleek hull of the racing yacht tralians kept the keel secret until the last moment to prevent
begins knifing through cool, calm waters at increasing speed. competitors from trying to copy it.
The bow heaves as it pushes through the flat water, raising a Getting the fastest boat requires working within the
wave as it moves faster and sending ripples fanning from the strictures of tight rules governing the overall design of this
waterline. People riding along feel the breeze in their faces as class of vessels. From 1958 to 1987, sailors competed for
the hull glides at speeds of up to 14 knots, but the motion and the America’s Cup in 12-Meter Class yachts. But in 1989, a
sensations last only a few seconds. This dash by a 25-foot- multinational group of yacht designers developed rules for
long scale model covers only about 800 feet and takes place a new international America’s Cup Class, which first
in a huge water tank, not the open ocean. But it nonetheless appeared in the 1992 competition.
signals a beginning of the next race for the America’s Cup, The new America’s Cup boats are lighter, faster, narrow-
the world’s most prestigious sailing competition. er and longer and carry more sail than their predecessors,
Challengers hoping to capture the America’s Cup from with canoe-like bodies made of carbon fiber material instead
New Zealand in 2000 have already begun extensive research of aluminum. The design is based on a mathematical formu-
and testing directed toward designing and building the la that balances a boat’s waterline length, sail area and dis-
fastest sailboats in their class. Months, even years, before placement so that adding significantly to one dimension
construction begins on the boats, teams of naval architects, requires decreasing others. Generally an America’s Cup con-
designers, computer scientists, model builders and engi- tender is about 75 feet long, supports a mast that stands 115
neers engage in a technological competition to create feet off the water, has a keel 14 feet deep and weighs 45,000
machines that can complete a two-hour race a few minutes to 48,000 pounds. More than 40,000 pounds are in a lead
or seconds ahead of rivals. It is this competition that brings ballast bulb at the base of the keel.
yacht builders to the David Taylor Model Basin at the Naval Registering to challenge Team New Zealand, who gained
Surface Warfare Center. Here, where the Navy tows and the prize in 1995 sailing Black Magic, 16 yacht clubs and syn-
tests models of its future destroyers, frigates and other war- dicates from 10 nations, including 5 from the United States,
ships in the world’s largest towing tanks, John K. Marshall, have so far paid their $200,000 entry fees. Experts estimate
president of the New York Yacht Club, watches as fiberglass that 10 or 12 of these groups will raise enough money to build
models of different racing hulls go through their paces. at least one boat and that perhaps 4 or 5 of the competitors
“This is our surface warfare, so perharps it’s appropriate will muster the talent and expertise to produce first-rate ves-
that we are here,” said Mr. Marshall, director of the Young sels with a chance of winning. The competitors are to assem-
America campaign, a $40 million effort by the New York Yacht ble in the harbor off Auckland in October 1999 and begin a
Club to build the boat that wins the right to challenge Team series of match races to determine the best boat to be named
New Zealand for the oldest trophy in international sport. the official challenger for the America’s Cup. The winning
“Sailing is a sport, an athletic competition for which boat will then race Team New Zealand’s best new yacht in a
people must train and develop their skills,” Mr. Marshall best-of-seven series held in February and March of 2000 in
said. “But the America’s Cup is also a technology compe- the Hauraki Gulf, northeast of Auckland.
tition and it’s always been that way.” With such intense competition, any weight reduction
“If your boat is as fast, you can win with sailing skill,” or change in hull shape, sail design, or the placement of
said Bob Billingham of America One, the group organizing components, like the keel or rudder, that results in even a 1
the entry for the St. Francis Yacht Club of San Francisco. percent increase in performance is significant.
“But you can’t win with a slower boat.” Increasingly, the teams rely on computer simulation and
So team worldwide labored to refine their designs, jeal- the ability to test many design ideas in the cyberseas of a
ously guarding studies of hull shapes, sails and even rigging mathematical model before building and trying them in the
hardware to deny the smallest secret to competitors. Yachts in real word. “Engineers use sophistcated software, known as
this class are so closely matched that no advantage is insignif- computational fluid dynamics programs” said John Kuhn, a
icant. Veterans remember when an Australian challenger in naval architect at Science Applications International Corpora-
1983 snatched the cup from the United States for the first time tion in San Diego, a technical firm supporting the San Fran-
with help from a radical innovation, a winged keel. The Aus- cisco group. The programs simulate the fluid flow around

554
 Oblique Projection

hulls and appendages, like rudders, keels and ballast bulbs, Tom Schnackenberg, who heads the design team for the
or the movement of air around masts or sails. Results from New Zealand group, said that although computational and
the programs, which calculate pressure and drag, give engi- model testing made significant contributions to producing a
neers the information they need to design components that boat, only full-scale testing and analysis of a real vessel could
are then tested in tanks or wind tunnels. confirm its design performance. “In the real world”, Mr. Sck-
Information from these tests show the fluid dynamics nackenberg said, “we often find full-scale results at variance
programs then go into a larger computer simulation called a with predictions.” Team New Zealand plans to build at least
velocity prediction program, or VPP. This program combines one boat and use its older championship yachts in its prepa-
design specifications with environmental variables like wind, rations, said Alan Sefton, a spokesman for the group.
wave and temperature to make predictions on how fast a Many of the teams preparing new boats are paying extra
boat will sall in specific conditions. “A VPP integrates the attention to the sails and riggings, partly because of differ-
work of different people working on different parts of a boat ences in these areas that appeared in the last cup race, said
and predicts how an overall design will perform on water,” Mr. Kuhn of the San Francisco group. The mast and rigging on
said Mr. Kuhn, technical coordinator for the San Francisco Black Magic, the New Zealand boat, was set farther back than
group. “These programs are not perfect, but they help tell those on other races, and the New Zealanders displayed sails
you how basic elements contribute to a design.” with unusual shapes.
With each competition, said Duncan MacLane, tech- “Everyone in looking at sails and rigging because sail aero-
nology project manager for the New York group, the dynamics is one of the least understood elements of design,”
designers are seeing better matches between computer Mr. Kuhn said. “This is where we may be able to squeeze out
predictions and actual performance. Still, advice from some more performance”. He and other experts said any
naval architects and other experts like Bruce Farr, the prin- group that wished to seek the America’s Cup but had yet to
cipal designer for the New York group, remains crucial. start this kind of research and planning was probably out of
“There is still a lot of art in the design process,” Mr. MacLane luck. “The race,” Mr. Kuhn said, “has already begun.”
said, “with many of the improvements we are considering com-
ing from the intuition of designers. There is still a designer in front
of the computer screen dealing with the nuances, making very * Adapted from “High Technology is First Mate in the Race for America’s
subtle alignments in the design that produces a winner.” Cup,” by Warren E. Leary, New York Times, July 21, 1998.

Nikos Psychogios - Shutterstock

555
 Oblique Projection

KEY WORDS
OBLIQUE PROJECTION CAVALIER PROJECTORS CABINET
PLANE OF PROJECTION SKELETON CONSTRUCTION RECEDING LINES OFFSET MEASUREMENT

CHAPTER SUMMARY
n Oblique projection makes drawing circles in the projection n Oblique drawings of circular features are often created
plane easier than with other pictorial projection methods. by first drawing a skeleton of center lines.
n There are two commonly used types of oblique projec- n There is usually no reason for creating oblique drawings
tion: cavalier and cabinet. using CAD, since isometric drawings are easier to make
n Width and height are drawn true size and true shape in with CAD and appear more photorealistic.
oblique projection. The depth axis for cavalier (full n Oblique projection is a common sketching method
depth) is usually 30°, while the depth axis for cabinet because the front view is true size and true shape and eas-
(half depth) is usually 45°. ier to draw.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is the primary advantage of an oblique projection? 5. Why are oblique drawings seldom created with CAD
2. Which is the most photorealistic: isometric, perspective, software?
or oblique projection? Which is the least photorealistic? 6. What is the first thing that should be drawn when creat-
3. If a hockey puck were to be drawn using oblique projec- ing an oblique drawing?
tion, how should it be positioned to appear as a circle? 7. Describe how to plot an irregular curve in an oblique
4. Can an angle on an oblique drawing be measured in the drawing.
front view? In the right side view? In the top view?

OBLIQUE PROJECTION PROBLEMS

Many problems to be drawn in oblique—either cavalier or Since many of the problems in this chapter are of a
cabinet—are given in Figs. 23–28. They may be drawn general nature, they can also be solved on most computer
freehand using graph paper or plain drawing paper as graphics systems. If a system is available, the instructor
assigned by the instructor, or they may be drawn with may choose to assign specific problems to be completed
instruments. In the latter case, all construction lines should by this method.
be shown on the completed drawing.

556
 Oblique Projection

1 ROD GUIDE
3 FOLLOWER
2 ADJUSTABLE ARM

4 GUIDE ARM

6 GLAND

5 HOUSING CAP

7 CONTROL ARM

8 RACK

9 STEP CONE

11 WORKBENCH
10 ANGLE BEARING

n FIGURE 23 n (1) Make freehand oblique sketches. (2) Make oblique drawings with instruments, using Size A or A4 sheet, or Size B or A3
sheet, as assigned. If dimensions are required, study §12.

557
 Oblique Projection

2
1

5 HANGER

8 CLEVIS

9 10

n FIGURE 24 n Make oblique drawings with instruments, using Size A or A4 sheet, or Size B or A3 sheet, as assigned. If dimensions are
required, study §12.

558
 Oblique Projection

1 CLEVIS 2 ADJUSTABLE ORDER

3 TURRET LATHE STOCK REST 4 CLUTCH BRACKET

5 RAIL SUPPORT

n FIGURE 25 n Make oblique drawings with instruments, using Size A or A4 sheet, or Size B or A3 sheet, as assigned. If dimensions are
required, study §12.

559
 Oblique Projection

1 GUIDE 2 TERMINAL BLOCK

3 STACK BLOCK 4 SLIDE

5 ADAPTER PLATE 6 DRIVE SLEEVE

7 SAW GUIDE BLOCK 8 TRAVERSE STOP PISTON

9 OIL PUMP BODY 10 CUTTING OFF TOOL HOLDER

n FIGURE 26 n Make oblique drawings with instruments, using Size A or A4 sheet, or Size B or B3 sheet, as assigned. If dimensions are
required, study §12.

560
 Oblique Projection

5.3750

.3750
3.0625 1.2

5.3125
2.8750
.1875

.75 .50D

.25
.6250 3.1250
1.3125 1.3125

■ FIGURE 27 ■ Linear Actuator. Make oblique diagram with instruments using Size
A or A4 sheet.

5.3750

.3750
3.0625 1.2
5.3125
2.8750

.1875

.75 .50D

.25
.6250 3.1250
1.3125 1.3125

■ FIGURE 28 ■ Linear Actuator. Convert to metric and make oblique diagram with
instruments.

561
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Perspective

From Chapter 18 of Engineering Graphics, Eighth Edition, Frederick E. Giesecke,

Alva Mitchell, Henry Cecil Spencer, Ivan Leroy Hill, Robert Olin Loving, John
Thomas Dygdon, James E. Novak. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Published by Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.
 Perspective

OVERVIEW OBJECTIVES
Perspective, or central projection, excels over all other types of After studying the material in this chapter, you
projection in the pictorial representation of objects because it more should be able to:
closely approximates the view produced by the human eye (Fig. 1. Identify a drawing created using per-
1). Geometrically, an ordinary photograph is a perspective. spective projection.
While perspective is of major importance to architects, industrial 2. List the differences between perspective
designers, and illustrators, engineers at one time or another are also projection and axonometric projection.
certain to be concerned with the pictorial representation of objects 3. Create a drawing using multiview
and should understand the basic principles of perspective [see perspective.
ANSI/ASME Y14.4M–1989 (R1994)]. 4. Describe three types of perspective.
Unlike axonometric projection, which places the observer at an 5. Measure distances in perspective
infinite distance from the object, perspective projection defines the projection.
observer at a finite distance. This projection technique causes paral-
lel edges to converge at vanishing points, as in a photograph. This
technique duplicates the image produced by the human eye of the
real world. To accomplish this image accuracy, every point and edge
of an object must be projected from a multiview drawing.
The three types of perspective are one-point, two-point, and
three-point perspective. Perspective projection is complicated and
requires both theoretical understanding of projection and proficien-
cy in construction techniques. This complexity exceeds the capabili-
ties of many engineering CAD software programs for personal
computers. Advanced CAD software programs that run on faster
workstation computers can easily render perspective projection.

564
 Perspective

n FIGURE 1 n A CAD-produced
Perspective of an Airport. The material has been
reprinted with permission from and under the copyright of
Autodesk, Inc.

1 n GENERAL PRINCIPLES In Fig. 2, the observer is shown looking along a

boulevard and through an imaginary plane of projec-
A perspective involves four main elements: (1) the tion. This plane is called the picture plane, or PP. The
observer’s eye, (2) the object being viewed, (3) the position of the observer’s eye is called the station
plane of projection, and (4) the projectors from the point, or SP. The lines from SP to the various points in
observer’s eye to all points on the object. With rare the scene are the projectors, or more properly in per-
exceptions (see §6), the plane of projection is placed spective, visual rays. The points where the visual rays
between the observer and the object and the collective pierce PP are the perspectives of the respective points.
piercing points in the plane of projection of all the pro- Collectively, these piercing points form the perspective
jectors produce the perspective. of the object or the scene as viewed by the observer.
The perspective thus obtained is shown in Fig. 3.

n FIGURE 2 n Looking Through the Picture Plane.

n FIGURE 3 n A Perspective.

565
 Perspective

2 n MULTIVIEW PERSPECTIVE
A perspective can be drawn by the ordinary methods
of multiview projection, as shown in Fig. 4. The
upper portion of the drawing shows the top view of the
station point, the picture plane, the object, and the visu-
al rays. At the right are the right-side view of the same
station point, picture plane, object, and visual rays. In
the front view, the picture plane coincides with the
plane of the paper, and the perspective is drawn on it.
Note the method of projecting from the top view to the
side view, which conforms to the usual multiview meth-
ods.
To obtain the perspective of point 1, a visual ray is
drawn in the top view from SPT to point 1 on the
Parallel Railroad Tracks Seem to Converge in the Distance.Willard Clay: object. From the intersection 1¿ of this ray with the
Tony Stone Worldwide.
picture plane, a projection line is drawn downward
until it meets a similar projection line from the side
view. This intersection is the perspective of point 1,
and the perspectives of all other points are found in a
similar manner.
In Fig. 2, the perspective of lamp post 1–2 is
Observe that all parallel lines that are also parallel
shown at 1¿ –2¿, on the picture plane; the perspective of
to the picture plane (the vertical lines) remain parallel
lamp post 3–4 is shown at 3¿ –4¿, and so on. Each suc-
and do not converge, whereas the other two sets of par-
ceeding lamp post, as it is farther from the observer,
allel lines converge toward vanishing points. Because
will be projected smaller than the one preceding. A
the vanishing points are not needed in the multiview
lamp post at an infinite distance from the observer
construction of Fig. 4, they are not shown. But if the
would appear as a point on the picture plane. A lamp
converging lines were extended, it would be found that
post in front of the picture plane would be projected
they meet at two vanishing points (one for each set of
taller than it is, and a lamp post in the picture plane
parallel lines).
would be projected in true length. In the perspective
The perspective of any object may be constructed
(Fig. 3), the diminishing heights of the posts are
in this way, but if the object is placed at an angle with
apparent.
the picture plane, as is usually the case, the method is a
In Fig. 2, the line representing the horizon is the
bit cumbersome because of the necessity of construct-
edge view of the horizon plane, which is parallel to the
ing the side view in a revolved position. The revolved
ground plane and passes through SP. In Fig. 3, the
side view can be dispensed with, as shown in the fol-
horizon is the line of intersection of this plane with the
lowing section.
picture plane and represents the eye level of the
observer, or SP. Also, in Fig. 2, the ground plane is
the edge view of the ground on which the object usual-
ly rests. In Fig. 3, the ground line, or GL, is the inter- 3 n THE SETUP FOR A SIMPLE PERSPECTIVE
section of the ground plane with the picture plane. The construction of a perspective of a simple form is
In Fig. 3, it will be seen that lines that are parallel shown in Fig. 5. The upper portion of the drawing, as
to each other but not parallel to the picture plane, such in Fig. 4, shows the top views of SP, PP, and of the
as curb lines, sidewalk lines, and lines along the tops and object. The lines SP–1, SP–2, SP–3, and SP–4 are the
bottoms of the lamp posts, all converge toward a single top views of the visual rays.
point on the horizon. This point is called the vanishing In the side view, a departure from Fig. 4 is
point, or VP, of the lines. Thus, the first rule to learn in made, in that a revolved side view is not required. All
perspective is this: All parallel lines that are not parallel that is needed is any elevation view that will provide
to PP vanish at a single vanishing point, and if these lines the necessary elevation or height measurements. If
are parallel to the ground, the vanishing point will be on these dimensions are known, no view is required.
the horizon. Parallel lines that are also parallel to PP, The perspective itself is drawn in the front-view
such as the lamp posts, remain parallel and do not con- position, the picture plane being considered as the
verge toward a vanishing point. plane of the paper on which the perspective is drawn.

566
 Perspective

n FIGURE 4 n Multiview Method of Drawing Perspective.

The ground line is the edge view of the ground plane or 4 n DRAWING AN ANGULAR PERSPECTIVE
the intersection of the ground plane with the picture Since objects are defined principally by edges that are
plane. The horizon is a horizontal line in the picture straight lines, the drawing of a perspective resolves
plane that is the line of intersection of the horizon itself into drawing the perspective of a line. A drafter
plane with the picture plane. Since the horizon plane who can draw the perspective of a line can draw the
passes through the observer’s eye, or SP, the horizon is perspective of any object, no matter how complex.
drawn at the level of the eye—that is, at the distance To draw the perspective of any horizontal straight
above the ground line representing, to scale, the alti- line not parallel to PP—for example, the line 1–2 in
tude of the eye above the ground. Fig. 5—proceed as follows.
The center of vision, or CV, is the orthographic pro-
jection (or front view) of SP on the picture plane, and
since the horizon is at eye level, CV will always be on the I. Find the piercing point in PP of the line. In the top
horizon, except in three-point perspective (see §11). view, extend line 1–2 until it pierces PP at T; then
In Fig. 5, the top view of CV is CV¿, found by drop- project downward to the level of the line 1–2 pro-
ping a perpendicular from SP to PP.The front view CV is jected horizontally from the side view. The point S
found by projecting downward from CV¿ to the horizon. is the piercing point of the line.

567
 Perspective

n FIGURE 5 n Perspective of a Prism.

II. Find the vanishing point of the line. The vanishing PP, or by simply drawing the perspectives of the re-
point of a line is the piercing point in PP of a line maining horizontal edges of the object. In practice,
drawn through SP parallel to that line. Hence, the it is best to use both methods as a check on the ac-
vanishing point VPR of the line 1–2 is found by curacy of the construction. To locate the endpoints
drawing a line from SP parallel to that line and by projecting from the piercing points, draw visual
finding the top view of its piercing point O, and rays from SP to the points 1 and 2 on the object in
then projecting downward to the horizon. The line the top view. The top views of the piercing points
SP–O is actually a visual ray drawn toward the are X and Z. Since the perspectives of points 1 and
infinitely distant point on line 1–2 of the object, 2 must lie on the line S–VPR, project downward
extended, and the vanishing point is the intersec- from X and Z to locate points 1¿ and 2¿.
tion of this visual ray with the picture plane. The
After the perspectives of the horizontal edges have
vanishing point is, then, the perspective of the infi-
been drawn, the vertical edges and inclined edges can
nitely distant point on the line extended.
be drawn, as shown, to complete the perspective of the
III. Join the piercing point and the vanishing point with object. Note that vertical heights can be measured only
a straight line. The line S–VPR is the line joining in the picture plane. If the front vertical edge 1–5 of the
these two points, and it is the perspective of a line object was actually PP—that is, if the object was situat-
of infinite length containing the required perspec- ed with the front edge in PP—the vertical height could
tive of the line 1–2. be set off directly full size. If the vertical edge is behind
IV. Locate the endpoints of the perspective of the line. PP, a plane of the object, such as surface 1–2–5–6, can
The endpoints 1¿ and 2¿ can be found by projecting be extended forward until it intersects PP in line TQ.
down from the piercing points of the visual rays in The line TQ is called a measuring line, and the true

568
 Perspective

height SQ of line 1–5 can be set off with a scale or pro- In the perspective portion of Fig. 5, SP does not
jected from the side view as shown. appear because the station point is in front of the pic-
If a large drawing board is not available, one vanish- ture plane. However, the orthographic projection CV
ing point, such as VPR, may fall off the board. By using of SP in the picture plane does show the height of the
one vanishing point VPL and projecting down from the station point with respect to the ground plane. Since
piercing points in PP, vanishing point VPR may be elimi- the horizon is at eye level, it also shows the altitude of
nated. However, a valuable means of checking the accu- the station point. Therefore, in the perspective portion
racy of the construction will be lost. of the drawing, the horizon is drawn a distance above
the ground line at which it is desired to assume the sta-
5 n POSITION OF THE STATION POINT tion point. For most small and medium-size objects,
The center line of the cone of visual rays should be such as machine parts or furniture, the station point is
directed toward the approximate center, or center of best assumed slightly above the top of the object. Large
interest, of the object. In two-point perspective, the type objects, such as buildings, are usually viewed from a
shown in Fig. 5, the location of the station point (SP) station point about the altitude of the eye above the
in the plan view should be slightly to the left, not direct- ground, or about 5¿ –6–.
ly in front of the center of the object, and at such a dis-
tance that the object can be viewed at a glance without 6 n LOCATION OF THE PICTURE PLANE
turning the head. This is accomplished if a cone of rays In general, the picture plane is placed in front of the
with its vertex at SP and a vertical angle of about 30° object, as in Fig. 7b and Fig. 7c. However, it may
entirely closes the object, as shown in Fig. 6. be placed behind the object, as in Fig. 7a, and it may
even be placed behind SP, as in Fig. 7d, in which
event the perspective is reversed, as is the case of a cam-
era. Of course, the usual position of the picture plane is
between SP and the object. The perspectives in Fig. 7
differ in size but not in proportion. As in Figs. 7b and
7c, with the picture plane between SP and the object,
the farther that plane is from the object, the smaller the
perspective will be. This distance may be assumed,
therefore, with the thought of controlling the scale of
the perspective. In practice, however, the object is usual-
ly assumed with the front corner in the picture plane to
facilitate vertical measurements (see Fig. 12).

7 n POSITION OF THE OBJECT WITH RESPECT

TO THE HORIZON
To compare the elevation of the object with that of the
horizon is equivalent to referring it to the level of the
n FIGURE 6 n Distance from Station Point to Object. eye (SP) because the horizon is on a level with the eye,

n FIGURE 7 n Location of Picture Plane.

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 Perspective

9 n ONE-POINT PERSPECTIVE
In one-point perspective, the object is placed so that
two sets of its principal edges are parallel to PP and
the third set is perpendicular to PP. This third set of
parallel lines will converge toward a single vanishing
point in perspective, as shown.
In Fig. 9, the view shows the object with one face
parallel to the picture plane. If desired, this face could
be placed in the picture plane.The piercing points of the
eight edges perpendicular to PP are found by extending
them to PP and then projecting downward to the level
of the lines as projected across from the elevation view.
To find the VP of these lines, a visual ray is drawn
from SP parallel to them (the same as in step II of §4),
and it is found that the vanishing point of all lines per-
pendicular to PP is in CV. By connecting the eight
piercing points with the vanishing point CV, the indef-
inite perspectives of the eight edges are obtained.
To cut off on these lines the definite lengths of the
edges of the object, horizontal lines are drawn from the
ends of one of the edges in the top view and at any
n FIGURE 8 n Object and Horizon. desired angle with PP—45°, for example, as shown. The
piercing points and the vanishing point VPR of these
lines are found, and the perspectives of the lines are
drawn. The intersections of these with the perspectives
except in three-point perspective (see §11). The differ- of the corresponding edges of the object determine the
ences in effect produced by placing the object on, lengths of the receding edges. The perspective of the
above, or below the horizon are shown in Fig. 8. object may then be completed as shown.
If the object is placed above the horizon, it is
above the level of the eye, or above SP, and will
appear as seen from below. Likewise, if the object is n FIGURE 9 n One-Point Perspective.
below the horizon, it will appear as seen from above.

8 n THE THREE TYPES OF PERSPECTIVES

Perspective drawings are classified according to the
number of vanishing points required, which in turn
depends on the position of the object with respect to
the picture plane.
If the object is situated with one face parallel to the
plane of projection, only one vanishing point is
required, and the result is a one-point perspective, or
parallel perspective (§9).
If the object is situated at an angle with the picture
plane but with vertical edges parallel to the picture
plane, two vanishing points are required, and the result
is a two-point perspective, or an angular perspective.
This is the most common type of perspective drawing
and is the one described in §4 (see also §10).
If the object is situated so that no system of paral-
lel edges is parallel to the picture plane, three vanishing
points are necessary, and the result is a three-point per-
spective (see §11).

570
 Perspective

n FIGURE 10 n One-Point Perspective. Courtesy of Autodesk, Inc.

One of the most common uses of parallel perspec- n FIGURE 11 n One-Point Perspective.
tive is in the representation of interiors of buildings, as
illustrated in Fig. 10.
An adaptation of one-point perspective, which is
simple and effective in representing machine parts, is
shown in Fig. 11. The front surface of the cylinder is
placed in PP, and all circular shapes are parallel to PP;
hence, these shapes will be projected as circles and cir-
cular arcs in the perspective. SP is located in front and
to one side of the object, and the horizon is placed well
above the ground line. The single vanishing point is on
the horizon in CV.
The two circles and the keyway in the front surface
of the object will be drawn true shape because they lie
in PP. The circles are drawn with the compass on center
O¿. To locate R¿, the perspective center of the large arc,
draw visual ray SP–R; then, from its intersection X with
PP, project down to the center line of the large cylin-
der, as shown.
To find the radius T¿W¿ at the right end of the per-
spective, draw visual rays SP–T and SP–W, and from
their intersections with PP, project down to T¿ and W¿
on the horizontal center line of the hole.

571
 Perspective

10 n TWO-POINT PERSPECTIVE The perspective drawing of a small building is shown

in Fig. 12. It is common practice (1) to assume a verti-
In two-point perspective, the object is placed so that cal edge of an object in PP so that direct measurements
one set of parallel edges is vertical and has no vanish- may be made on it and (2) to place the object so that it
ing point, while the two other sets have vanishing faces make unequal angles with PP; for example, one
points. This is the most common type and is the method angle may be 30° and the other 60°. In practical work,
discussed in §4. It is suitable especially for representing complete multiview drawings are usually available, and
buildings in the architectural drawing, or large struc- the plane and elevation may be fastened in position, used
tures in civil engineering, such as dams or bridges. in the construction of the perspective, and later removed.

n FIGURE 12 n Perspective Drawing of a Small Building.

572
 Perspective

Since the front corner AB lies in PP, its perspective corner is placed at one side near CV, thus determining
A¿B¿ may be drawn full size by projecting downward how nearly the observer is assumed to be directly in
from the plan and across from the elevation. The front of this corner.
lengths of the receding lines from this corner are cut off In this method the perspective is drawn directly
by vertical lines SC¿ and RE¿ drawn from the intersec- from measurements and not projected from views. The
tions S and R, respectively, of the visual rays to these dimensions of the object are given by the three views,
points of the object. The perspectives of the tops of the and these will be set off on measuring lines GO, EO,
windows and the door are determined by the lines and OF (see §13). The measuring lines EO and OF are
A¿ –VPR and A¿ – VPL, and their widths and lateral drawn parallel to the vanishing trace PQ, and the mea-
spacings are determined by projecting downward from suring line GO is drawn parallel to RQ. These measur-
the intersections with PP of the respective visual rays. ing lines are actually the lines of intersection of
The bottom lines of the windows are determined by the principal surfaces of the object, extended, with PP.
lines V¿ –VPR and V¿ –VPL. Since these lines are in PP, true measurements of the
The perspective of the line containing the ridge of object can be set off along them.
the roof is found by joining N¿, the point where the Three measuring points M1, M2, and M3 are used in
ridge line pierces the picture plane, and VPR. The ridge conjunction with the measuring lines. To find M1,
ends O¿ and Q¿ are found by projecting downward revolve triangle CV–R–Q about RQ as an axis. Since it
from the intersections of the visual rays with PP, or by is a right triangle, it can be easily constructed true size
drawing the perspectives of any two lines intersecting at with the aid of a semicircle, as shown. With R as center
the points. The perspective of the roof is completed by and R–SP1 as radius, strike arc SP1 –M1, as shown. M1 is
joining the points O¿ and Q¿ to the end of the eaves. the measuring point for the measuring line GO. Mea-
suring points M2 and M3 are found in a similar manner.
Height dimensions, taken from the given views, are
11 n THREE-POINT PERSPECTIVE set off full size or to any desired scale, along measuring
In three-point perspective, the object is placed so that line GO, at points 3, 2, and 1. From these points, lines are
none of its principal edges is parallel to the picture plane drawn to M1, and heights on the perspective are the inter-
(PP); therefore, each of the three sets of parallel edges sections of these lines with the perspective front corner
will have a separate vanishing point (VP) (Fig. 13). OT of the object. Similarly, the true depth of the object is
The picture plane is assumed approximately perpendic- set off on measuring line EO from 0 to 5, and the true
ular to the center line of the cone of rays. width is set off on measuring line OF from 0 to 8. Inter-
In this figure, think of the paper as the picture mediate points can be constructed in a similar manner.
plane, with the object behind the paper and placed so
that all its edges make an angle with the picture plane.
If a point CV is chosen, it will be the orthographic 12 n THE PERSPECTIVE LINEAD
projection of your eye, or the station point, on the pic- AND TEMPLATE
ture plane. The vanishing points P, Q, and R are found The perspective linead consists of three straight-edged
by conceiving lines to be drawn from a station point blades that can be clamped to each other at any desired
in space parallel to the principal axes of the object angles (Fig. 14a). This instrument is convenient in
and finding their piercing points in the picture planes. drawing lines toward a vanishing point outside the lim-
It will be recalled that the basic rule for finding the its of the drawing.
vanishing point of a line in any type of perspective is Before starting such a drawing, a small-scale dia-
to draw a visual ray, or line, from the station point gram should be made in which the relative positions of
parallel to the edge of the object whose vanishing the object, PP, and SP are assumed, and the distances
point is required and finding the piercing point of this of the vanishing points from CV determined (Fig.
ray in the picture plane. Since the object is rectangu- 14b). Draw any line LL through a vanishing point as
lar, these lines to the vanishing points are at right shown; then on the full-size drawing, assume CV and
angles to each other in space exactly as the axes are in locate LL, as shown in Fig. 14a.
axonometric projection. The lines PQ, QR, and RP are To set the linead, clamp the blades in any convenient
perpendicular, respectively, to CV–R, CV–P, and position; set the edge of the long blade along the horizon;
CV–Q and are the vanishing traces, or horizon lines, and draw the lines BA and BC along the short blades.
of planes through SP parallel to the principal faces of Then set the edge of the long the blade along line LL, and
the object. draw the lines DE and DF to intersect the lines first drawn
The imaginary corner O is assumed in the picture at points G and H. Set pins at these points. If the linead is
plane and may coincide with CV; but as a rule the front moved so that the short blades touch the pins, all lines

573
 Perspective

n FIGURE 13 n Three-Point Perspective.

drawn along the edge of the long blade will pass through moved so that the head remains in contact with the tem-
VPL. This method is based on the principle that an angle plate, lines drawn along the edge of the blade will, if
inscribed in a circle is measured by half the arc it subtends. extended, pass through the inaccessible VP.
A perspective template (Fig. 15) of thin wood or If the edge of the blade does not pass through the
heavy cardboard, cut in the form of a circular arc, may center of the head, the lines drawn will be tangent to a
be used instead of a perspective linead. If the template circle whose center is at VP and whose radius is equal
is attached to the drawing board so that the inaccessible to the distance from the center of the head to the edge
VP is at the center of the circular arc and the T-square is of the blade.

574
 Perspective

n FIGURE 14 n Perspective Linead.

13 n MEASUREMENTS IN PERSPECTIVE
As explained in §1 all lines in PP are shown in their
true lengths, and all lines behind PP are foreshortened.
Let it be required to draw the perspective of a line
of telephone poles (Fig. 16). Let OB be the line of
intersection of PP with the vertical plane containing
the poles. In this line, the height AB of a pole is set off
directly to the scale desired, and the heights of the per-
spectives of all poles are determined by drawing lines
from A and B to VPR.
n FIGURE 15 n Perspective Template.

n FIGURE 16 n Measurement of Vertical

and Horizontal Lines.

575
 Perspective

n FIGURE 17 n Measurement of Inclined

Lines.

To locate the bottoms of the poles along the line about a vertical axis XO into PP, the line XE will be shown
B–VPR, set off along PP the distances 0–1, 1–2, 2–3, Á , in its true length and inclination at XY. This line XY may
equal to the distance from pole to pole; draw the lines be used as the measuring line for XE; it remains only to
1–1, 2–2, 3–3, Á , forming a series of isosceles triangles find the corresponding measuring point MP. The line YE
0–1–1, 0–2–2, 0–3–3, Á . The lines 1–1, 2–2, 3–3, Á , is the horizontal base of an isosceles triangle having its
are parallel to each other and, therefore, have a com- vertex at X, and a line drawn parallel to it through SP will
mon vanishing point MP, which is found in the usual determine MP, as described for Fig. 16.
manner by drawing from SP a line SP–T parallel to the
lines 1–1, 2–2, 3–3, Á , and finding its piercing point 14 n VANISHING POINTS
MP (measuring point) in PP. OF INCLINED LINES
Since the line SP–X is parallel to the line of poles The vanishing point of an inclined line is determined,
1–2–3, Á , the triangle SP–X–T is an isosceles triangle, as for all other lines, by finding the piercing point in PP
and T is the top view of MP. The point T may be deter- of a line drawn from SP parallel to the given line.
mined by setting off the distance X–T equal to SP–X or Fig. 18 shows the perspective of a small building.
simply by drawing the arc SP–T with center at X and The vanishing point of the inclined roof line C¿E¿ can be
radius SP–X. determined as follows: If a plane is conceived to be
Having the measuring point MP, find the piercing passed through the station point and parallel to the end
points in PP of the lines 1–1, 2–2, 3–3, Á , and draw of the house (plan view), it would intersect PP in the line
their perspectives as shown. Since these lines are hori- XY, through VPL, and perpendicular to the horizon. Since
zontal lines, their piercing points fall in a horizontal line the line drawn from SP parallel to C¿E¿ (in space) is in
BZ in PP, at the bottom of the drawing. Along BZ the the plane SP–X–Y, it will pierce PP at some point T in XY.
true distances between the poles are set off; hence, BZ is To find the point T, conceive the plane SP–X–Y revolved
called a measuring line. The intersections 1¿, 2¿, 3¿, Á , about the line XY as an axis into PP. The point SP will
of the perspectives of the lines 1–1, 2–2, 3–3, Á , with then fall on the horizon at a point shown by O in the top
the line B–VPR determine the spacing of the poles. view and by MR in the front view. From the point MR
It will be seen that only a few measurements may draw the revolved position of the line SP–T (now MR–T)
be made along the measuring line BZ within the limits of making an angle of 30° with the horizon and thus deter-
the drawing. For additional measurements, the diagonal mining the point T, which is the vanishing point of the line
method of spacing may be employed, as shown. Since all C¿E¿ and of all lines parallel to that line. The vanishing
diagonals from the bottom of each pole to the top of the point S of the line D¿E¿ is evidently in the line XY, because
succeeding pole are parallel, they have a common van- D¿E¿ is in the same vertical plane as the line C¿E¿. The
ishing point VPI, which may be found as explained in vanishing point S is as far below the horizon as T is above
§14. It is evident that the diagonal method exclusively the horizon, because the line E¿D¿ slopes downward at
may be used in the solution of this problem. the same angle at which the line C¿E¿ slopes upward.
The method of direct measurements may also be The perspectives of inclined lines can generally be
applied to lines inclined to PP and to the ground plane, as found without finding the vanishing points, by finding the
illustrated in Fig. 17 for the line XE, which pierces PP perspectives of the endpoints and joining them. The per-
at X. If the end of the house is conceived to be revolved spective of any point may be determined by finding the per-

576
 Perspective

n FIGURE 18 n Vanishing Points of Inclined Lines.

spectives of any two lines intersecting at the point. Obviously, horizontal lines R¿ –VPR and B¿ –VPL. The point C¿ is
it would be best to use horizontal lines, parallel, respective- already established, since it is in PP; but if it were not in PP,
ly, to systems of lines whose vanishing points are already it could be easily found in the same manner. The perspec-
available. For example, in Fig. 18, to find the perspective tive of the inclined line EC is, therefore, the line joining the
of the inclined line EC,the point E¿ is the intersection of the perspectives of the endpoints E¿ and C¿.

577
 Perspective

n FIGURE 19 n Circles in Perspective.

15 n CURVES AND CIRCLES IN PERSPECTIVE

If a circle is parallel to PP, its perspective is a circle. If
the circle is inclined to PP, its perspective may be any
one of the conic sections in which the base of the cone
is the given circle, the vertex is SP, and the cutting plane n FIGURE 20 n Curves in Perspective.
is PP. But since the center line of the cone of rays
should be approximately perpendicular to the picture
plane, the perspective will generally be an ellipse. The
ellipse may be constructed by means of lines intersect- 16 n THE PERSPECTIVE PLAN METHOD
ing the circle, as shown in Fig. 19. The radial lines in A perspective may be drawn by drawing first the per-
the elevation view at the left can be easily drawn with spective of the plan of the object (Fig. 21a), then the
the 45° and 30° * 60° triangles. A convenient method vertical lines (Fig. 21b), and finally the connecting
for determining the perspective of any plane curve is lines (Fig. 21c). However, in drawing complicated
shown in Fig. 20. structures, the superimposition of the perspective on

578
 Perspective

n FIGURE 23 n Perspective Plan Method.

n FIGURE 21 n Building upon the Perspective Plan.

When the perspective plan method is used, the
ordinary plan view can be omitted and measuring
points used to determine distances along horizontal
the perspective plan causes a confusion of lines. For edges in the perspective.
this reason, the perspective of the plan from which the
location of vertical lines is determined is drawn either
above or below its normal location. A suggestion of 17 n PERSPECTIVE DIAGRAM
the range of possible positions of the perspective plan The spacing of vanishing points and measuring points
is given in Fig. 22; use of the perspective plan below may be determined graphically or may be calculated. In
the perspective is shown in Fig. 23. Fig. 24 a simple diagram of the plan layout shows the
The chief advantages of the perspective plan position of the object, the picture plane, the station point,
method over the ordinary plan method are that the and the constructions for finding the vanishing points and
vertical lines of the perspective can be spaced more measuring points for the problem in Fig. 23. As indicat-
accurately and that a considerable portion of the con- ed in the figure, the complete plan need not be drawn.
structioncan be made above or below the perspective The diagram should be drawn to any small convenient
drawing, so that a confusion of lines on the required scale, and vanishing points and measuring points should
perspective is avoided. be set off in the perspective to the larger scale desired.
In practice, structures are usually considered in
one of a limited number of simple positions with refer-
ence to the picture plane, such as 30° * 60°, 45° * 45°,
and 20° * 70°. Therefore, a table of measurements for
n FIGURE 22 n Positions of Perspective Plan.
locating vanishing points and measuring points may be
easily prepared, to avoid the necessity of a special con-
struction for each drawing.

n FIGURE 24 n Perspective Diagram.

579
 Perspective

Graphics
Spotlight Virtual Resistance
Virtual reality systems allow one to enter an artificial world. the user. Such force-feedback systems allow fitting proce-
Until now, however, the virtual experience was limited to dures to be checked both visually and by touch in this
sight and sound. “Our goal, however, is to stimulate the manner; it is possible to investigate, for example, how eas-
other senses as well,” says Christian Bader, a VR specialist ily a screw can be loosened.
at DaimlerChrysler Researchs’ Virtual Reality Competence However, the researchers did not create the device
Center in the German city of Ulm. merely to serve as a 15,000 euro gimmick. “We want to
The first steps in this direction have already been taken develop force feedback systems that allow us to add the
by Bader. Instead of a mouse, he uses a kind of miniature sense of touch to fitting simulations,” Bader explains.
robot arm to guide the cursor on a special desktop com- With this type of technology, engineers and designers
puter. The effect can only be described as startling. If you can test their solid models for defects before they reach
move the control arm toward a sphere visible on the the product planning process.
screen, you will immediately feel a resistance as soon as
the cursor touches the surface of the sphere.
If the cursor controlled by the robot arm touches a bar-
rier on the screen, it meets with resistance, which is felt by Courtesy DaimlerChrysler AG.

580
 Perspective

n FIGURE 25 n Methods of Shading.

18 n SHADING Examples of line shading on pictorial drawings

The effect of light can be utilized advantageously in often used in industrial sales literature are shown in
describing the shapes of objects and in the finish and Figs. 25 to 27.
embellishment of such drawings as display drawings,
patent drawings, and industrial pictorial drawings.
Ordinary working drawings are not shaded. 19 n COMPUTER GRAPHICS
Since the purpose of an industrial pictorial draw- Perspective drawings, which provide pictorials most
ing is to show clearly the shape and not to be artistic, resembling photographs, are also the most time-con-
the shading should be simple and limited to producing suming types of pictorials to draw. CAD programs are
a clear picture. Some of the common types of shading available that will produce either wireframe (Fig. 28),
are shown in Fig. 25. Pencil or ink lines are drawn or solid perspective representations, with user selection
mechanically (Fig. 25a) or freehand (Fig. 25b). of viewing distance, focal point, z-axis convergence, and
Two methods of shading fillets and rounds are shown arc resolution scale. Historically, perspectives have seen
in Figs. 25c and 25d. Shading produced with pen far greater application in architectural than in engineer-
dots is shown in Fig. 25e, and pencil “tone” shading ing drawing. Now the availability of these computer
is shown in Fig. 25f. Pencil shading applied to pictor- graphics routines makes perspective drawing a viable
ial drawings on tracing paper may be reproduced with alternative for the drafter wishing to employ a pictorial
good results by making a whiteprint or a blueprint. representation of an object.

n FIGURE 26 n Surface Shading Applied to Pictorial Drawing of n FIGURE 27 n A Line-Shaded Drawing of an Adjustable
Display Case.
Support for Grinding. Courtesy of A. M. Byers Co.

581
 Perspective

n FIGURE 28 n Perspective Drawing

Produced by Using the Computervision
Designer System for Building and
Management (BDM). Courtesy of Computervision
Corporation, a subsidiary of Prime Computer, Inc.

n FIGURE 29 n Wireframe CAD Perspective of a Car. Courtesy of

Ford Motor Company.

582
 Perspective

KEY WORDS
PERSPECTIVE GROUND LINE (GL) OBSERVER’S POINT PICTURE PLANE (PP)
PROJECTION HORIZON OF VIEW STATION POINT (SP)
CENTER OF VISION (CV) VISUAL RAYS VANISHING POINT (VP) ANGULAR PERSPECTIVE

CHAPTER SUMMARY
n The most photorealistic projection is perspective. n Location and relationship between the vanishing points,
n There are three types of perspective projection: one-point, the picture plane, and the object determine the appear-
two-point, and three-point perspective. ance of the perspective view.
n In perspective projection, parallel edges converge to one n In one-point perspective, the object is placed so that two
or more vanishing points, which replicate the image of of the three primary axes of the object are parallel to the
objects as seen by the human eye. picture plane.
n Object edges are projected onto a picture plane via a n In two-point perspective, the object is placed so that only
straight line to the observer’s eye (station point). one of the three primary axes of the object are parallel to
the picture plane.
n Perspective projection requires two orthographic views
(usually top and right side) to construct the perspective n In three-point perspective, the object is placed so that
view. none of the three primary axes of the object are parallel
to the picture plane.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is the primary advantage of a perspective projection? 6. What is the relationship between the station point and
2. Why is perspective projection rarely used in engineering? the horizon?

3. What is the purpose of the picture plane? 7. What type of perspective is often used for rendering
interior spaces in architectural drawings?
4. What is the station point?
8. What tools are available to assist the drafter in creating
5. How does the distance between the station point and perspective drawings on paper?
the ground line affect the final perspective drawing?

PERSPECTIVE PROBLEMS
Layouts for perspective problems are given in Figs. Since many of the problems in this chapter are of a
30–33. Draw on a size B or A3 sheet of paper, vel- general nature, they can also be solved on most computer
lum, or film, with your name, date, class, and other infor- graphics systems. If a system is available, the instructor
mation lettered below the border as specified by the may choose to assign specific problems to be completed
instructor. Omit dimensions. by this method.
Draw problems from Fig. 34 on size B or A3 paper.
Determine the arrangement on the sheet to produce the
most effective perspective in each case. For problems in
Fig. 35, select both sheet size and scale.

583
 Perspective

n FIGURE 30 n Draw views and perspective. Omit dimensions. Use Size B or A3 sheet.

n FIGURE 31 n Draw views and perspective. Omit dimensions. Use Size B or A3 sheet.

584
 Perspective

n FIGURE 32 n Draw views and perspective. Omit dimensions. Use Size B or A3 sheet.

n FIGURE 33 n Draw front elevation, plan, and perspective. Omit dimensions. Scale: 18 – = 1¿. Use Size B or A3 sheet.

585
 Perspective

2 VISE BASE CASTING

1 TOOL BLOCK

3 SPECIAL CLIP

4 ROD GUIDE 5 SPECIAL CAM

n FIGURE 34 n Draw side or front elevation, plan, and perspective of assigned problem. Omit dimensions. Use Size B or A3 sheet.

586
 Perspective

1 2

n FIGURE 35 n Draw side or front elevation, plan, and perspective of assigned problem. Omit dimensions. Select sheet size and scale.

587
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Points, Lines, and Planes

From Chapter 19 of Engineering Graphics, Eighth Edition, Frederick E. Giesecke,

Alva Mitchell, Henry Cecil Spencer, Ivan Leroy Hill, Robert Olin Loving, John
Thomas Dygdon, James E. Novak. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Published by Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.
 Points, Lines, and Planes

OVERVIEW OBJECTIVES
The science of graphical representation and the solution of spatial After studying the material in this chapter, you
relationships of points, lines, and planes by means of projections are should be able to:
the concerns of descriptive geometry. 1. Correctly label points, lines, and planes
All of engineering graphics is based on the mathematical theory in space using standard descriptive
of descriptive geometry. Descriptive geometry uses a graphical geometry notation.
process for describing the relation of objects in space. Using 2. Determine whether lines in space inter-
descriptive geometry techniques, the true length, true size, true angle, sect by examining two views.
and intersection of lines and planes can be determined simply and 3. Draw the visibility of two non-intersect-
with graphical precision. Descriptive geometry using special nota- ing lines given two views.
tion, labeling, and various construction techniques that assist in 4. Draw the visibility of a line intersecting a
reading and writing solution to graphical problems. Many descrip- plane given two views.
tive geometry solutions to complex spatial problems are remark- 5. Define and draw a frontal, horizontal,
ably simple, especially when compared to the alternate and profile line in three views.
trigonometric solutions. The elements of the objects—points, lines, 6. Define and draw an inclined line in
and planes—now will be discussed and explained. three views.
During the latter part of the eighteenth century the French math- 7. Define and draw an oblique line in
ematician Gaspard Monge developed the principles of descriptive three views.
geometry to solve spatial problems related to military structures. In
8. Determine true length and true angle of
France and Germany, Monge’s descriptive geometry soon became a a line.
part of national education. In 1816 Claude Crozet introduced
9. Determine bearing and grade of a line.
descriptive geometry into the curriculum of the United States Mili-
tary Academy at West Point. In 1821 Crozet published his Treatise 10. Determine point view of a line by aux-
iliary view.
on Descriptive Geometry, the first important English work on
descriptive geometry published in this country. Since then descrip- 11. Draw the edge view of a plane by aux-
tive geometry has been taught in many engineering colleges, and iliary view.
today no study of engineering graphics is considered complete with- 12. Find the dihedral angle between two
out a detailed study of descriptive geometry. planes.
13. Draw the true size of an oblique plane
by revolution.
14. Find the piercing point of a line and a
plane.
15. Find the intersection of two planes.

590
 Points, Lines, and Planes

■ FIGURE 1 ■ Points, Lines, and Planes Individually Represented.

1 ■ BASIC GEOMETRIC ELEMENTS views of three connected points, or plane 1–2–3. Again,
note the projection lines between the views.
We start with the representation of a single point. In In order to describe an object, lay out a mecha-
Fig. 1 (a) the front, top, and right-side views of point nism, or begin the graphical solution of an engineering
1 are shown. The projections of the point are indicated problem, the relative positions of two or more points
by a small cross and the number 1. The folding line H/F must be specified. For example, in Fig. 2 (a), the rel-
is shown between the front and top views, and the ative positions of points 1 and 2 could be described as
folding line F/P is shown between the front and side follows: point 2 is 32 mm to the right of point 1, 12 mm
views. Thus the names of the views are indicated by the below (or lower than) point 1, and 16 mm behind (or to
letters H, F, and P (for horizontal, frontal, and profile the rear of) point 1.
planes of projection). As indicated by the dimensions When points 1 and 2 are connected, as at (b),
D, the distance of the top view to the H/F folding line is observe that the preceding specifications have placed
equal to the distance of the side view to the F/P folding point 2 at a definite distance from point 1 along line
line. 1–2 (more properly line segment 1–2, since line 1–2
In Fig. 1 (b) the front and top views, or projec- could be extended).
tions, of two connected points (line 1–2) are shown. When point 3 is introduced, as at (c), and is con-
Note the thin projection lines between the views. (Pro- nected to point 2, line 2–3 is established. Since lines
jection lines are usually drawn in pencil as very light 1–2 and 2–3 have point 2 in common, they are
construction lines.) At (c) are shown the front and top intersecting lines.

■ FIGURE 2 ■ Views of Points and Lines.

591
 Points, Lines, and Planes

point?” Since adjacent views of a point must be

aligned, §6.2, a vertical projection line is added at (b),
and, since this line connects 5 and 5¿, it is evident that
lines 1–2 and 3–4 are actually intersecting lines.
In Fig. 4 (a) another pair of lines, 1–2 and 3–4, is
shown. In this case apparent points of intersection 5
and 5¿ are not aligned with the projection lines
between views and hence do not represent views of the
same point. Therefore, these two lines do not intersect.
Such nonintersecting, nonparallel lines are called skew
lines. The relationship of these skew lines will now be
considered in more detail.
Since the lines do not intersect, one must be above
the other in the region of point 5. At (b) this region has
been assigned two numbers, 5 and 6, in the top view,
and it is arbitrarily decided that 5 is a point on line 1–2
and 6 is on line 3–4. These points are then projected to
the front view as shown. The direction of sight for the
top view is downward toward the front view of the pair
of points 5 and 6. It is observed that point 5 on line 1–2
is higher in space or nearer to the observer than is point
6 on line 3–4. Line 1–2 thus passes above line 3–4 close
to point 5.
In like manner, at (c), numbers 7 and 8 are
assigned to the apparent crossing point in the front
view and projected to the top view, with 8 assigned to
line 1–2 and 7 to line 3–4. It is now noted that the
■ FIGURE 3 ■ Intersecting Lines. direction of sight for a front view is upward (on the
paper) toward the top view. With this in mind, it is
observed that point 7, and therefore line 3–4, are
If line 2–3 of Fig. 2 (c) is altered to position 3–4, nearer to the observer (in the front view) than are
Fig. 3 (a), do we still have intersecting lines? The point 8 and line 1–2. Line 3–4 thus passes in front of
possible point in common could only be at 5 in the top line 1–2 in the vicinity of point 7.
view and 5¿ in the front view. The question then The foregoing is useful in determining the visibility
becomes “Are 5 and 5¿ in fact views of the same of nonintersecting members of a structure or of pipes

■ FIGURE 4 ■ Nonintersecting Lines.

592
 Points, Lines, and Planes

■ FIGURE 5 ■ Visibility of Nonintersecting Rods.

and tubes, Fig. 5. At (a) the views are incomplete This discussion has been in terms of front and top
because it has not been determined which of the two views, but it should be realized that the principle
rods is visible at the apparent crossover in each view. applies to any pair of adjacent views of the same struc-
Only the relative positions of the center lines need be ture. For example, study Figs. 4 and 5 with this
investigated. As before, concentration is limited tem- book held upside down. Observe that the top views
porarily to the apparent crossing point in the top view, become the front views and vice versa but that the visi-
with numbers 5 and 6 assigned to the region. Point 5 is bility is not altered.
projected to line 1–2 and point 6 to line 3–4 in the front Observe finally that any two adjacent views, Fig.
view, where it is discovered that point 5 is above point 6. 6, have this same fundamental relationship. The
Line 1–2 therefore passes above line 3–4 and rod 1–2 is direction of sight for either view is always directed
visible at the crossover in the top view, as shown at (b). toward the adjacent view. Hence at (a), in view B, it is
Rod 3–4 is, of course, hidden where it passes below rod observed that point 5 on edge 1–3 is the nearer of the
1–2 and is completed accordingly, as shown. two assigned points 5 and 6. Thus edge 1–3 is visible in
Attention is now directed to the apparent crossing view B, and it follows that edge 2–4 is hidden. Note that
in the front view, Fig. 5 (b), and numbers 7 and 8 are this procedure reveals nothing about the visibility of
assigned. Projected to the top view, these reveal that the interior lines of view A of the tetrahedron. At (b),
point 7 on line 3–4 is in front of point 8 on line 1–2. the positions of points 7 and 8 relative to the direction
Rod 3–4 is therefore visible in the front view and rod of sight for view A reveal that edge 1–3 is visible in
1–2 is hidden. The completed views are shown at (c). view A.

■ FIGURE 6 ■ Visibility of Nonintersecting Lines of a Tetrahedron.

593
 Points, Lines, and Planes

2 ■ INCLINED LINE AND ANGLE WITH that the angles formed with the planes of projection also
PLANE OF PROJECTION cannot be measured in the principal views.
By definition, an inclined line appears true length on The true length (TL) of hip rafter 1–2 was
the plane to which it is parallel. For convenience obtained by assuming a direction of sight perpendic-
or precision, inclined lines are frequently classified as ular to the front view of rafter 1–2 and constructing a
frontal, horizontal, or profile, Fig. 7. depth auxiliary view. In Fig. 8 (a) this construction
Observe that the true-length view of an inclined line is repeated with the remainder of the roof omitted.
is always in an inclined position, while the foreshortened At (b) a portion of the front wall of the building has
views are in either vertical or horizontal positions. been added, passing through point 2. Note that,
Note that additional information is available in because every point of the wall is at distance D from
the true-length views. The true angle between a line the folding line H/F in the top view, all points of the
and a plane may be measured when the line is true wall are at this same distance D from folding line F/1
length and the plane is in edge view in a single view. in the auxiliary view. The entire wall thus appears as a
For example, in Fig. 7 (a), the horizontal and pro- line (in edge view) in these views. Since line 1–2
file surfaces of the cube appear as lines (in edge view) appears true length in auxiliary view 1, the angle
in the front view, where edge 1–2 is true length. Thus between line 1–2 and the edge view of the front wall,
the angles between edge 1–2 and the horizontal plane ∠F, can be measured.
1∠H2 and between edge 1–2 and the profile plane In civil engineering, mining, and geology the most
1∠P2 may be measured in the front view. Similarly, important principal plane is the horizontal plane
∠F and ∠P for edge 1–3 are measured in the top because a map (of a relatively small area) is a horizon-
view, Fig. 7 (b), while ∠F and ∠H for edge 2–3 tal projection and thus corresponds to a top view. The
appear in the side view at (c). angle between a line, such as the center line of a high-
way, and a horizontal plane is a very important factor in
the engineering description of the highway. If the angle
3 ■ TRUE LENGTH OF OBLIQUE LINE 1∠H2 is measured in degrees, it is sometimes called the
AND ANGLE WITH PLANE OF PROJECTION slope of the highway. More commonly it is measured by
By definition, an oblique line does not appear true length the ratio between the horizontal and vertical displace-
in any principal view—front, top, or side. It follows ments and is called the grade. See §5.

■ FIGURE 7 ■ Frontal, Horizontal, and Profile Lines.

594
 Points, Lines, and Planes

■ FIGURE 8 ■ True Length of Line and Angle with Frontal Plane 1∠F2.

To measure the slope 1∠H2 of line 1–2 in Fig. 9 providing the working space is suitable, since the H/F
(a), a view must be obtained in which line 1–2 appears and H/1 folding lines represent edge views of the hor-
true length and a horizontal plane appears in edge izontal plane in the front view and in any height auxil-
view. Any horizontal plane appears in edge view in the iary view.
front view (parallel to the H/F folding line). Thus every To obtain ∠P of line 1–2 in Fig. 10 (a), a view
point of a particular horizontal plane is at distance H must be obtained in which line 1–2 appears true length
(height) from H/F and any height auxiliary view, §8.8, and a profile plane appears in edge view.
will show the horizontal plane in edge view. At (b) a At (b) side view P is constructed, which shows line
direction of sight perpendicular to the top view is cho- 1–2 as it appears projected on a profile plane. At (c)
sen to obtain a true-length view of line 1–2. The result- the direction of sight is established pperpendicular to
ing auxiliary view then shows the slope of line 1–2. the side view of line 1–2. The resulting auxiliary view
The observant student has probably noted that shows a true-length view of line 1–2 and any profile
the angle could just as well be measured with respect plane in edge view and parallel to folding line P/1. The
to folding line H/1 in the auxiliary view. There is actu- ∠P may then be measured with respect to the edge
ally no need to introduce a special horizontal plane, view of the profile plane, as indicated.

■ FIGURE 9 ■ True Length and Slope 1∠H2 of Line.

595
 Points, Lines, and Planes

■ FIGURE 10 ■ True Length and Angle with Profile Plane 1∠P2.

In summary, note that each of the angles ∠F, ∠H ■ FIGURE 11 ■ True Length and Angle with Horizontal Plane by
(slope), and ∠P is obtained by a separate auxiliary Revolution.
view, Figs. 8, 9, and 10, respectively; that is, an
auxiliary view can show no more than one of these
angles of an oblique line.

4 ■ TRUE LENGTH AND ANGLE WITH PLANE

OF PROJECTION BY REVOLUTION
The true length of a line may also be obtained by revo-
lution. In Fig. 11 a vertical axis of revolution is
employed to find the true length of line 1–2. The path
of revolution lies in a horizontal plane seen edgewise in
the front view, as indicated. As the line revolves, its
angle with horizontal 1∠H2 remains unchanged in
space. Thus in the true-length position this angle may
be measured as indicated.
Note that as line 1–2 revolves about the chosen
axis, its angles with the other two planes, frontal and
profile, continually change. Hence this particular revo-

596
 Points, Lines, and Planes

5 ■ BEARING AND GRADE

The position of a line in space, as is often found in
geology, mining, and navigation, is described by its
bearing and grade or by its bearing and slope. The
bearing of a line is the direction of a line on a map or
horizontal projection. Since for practical purposes a
limited area of the earth’s surface may be considered a
horizontal plane, a map is a top view of the area. Thus
the bearing of a line is measured in degrees with
respect to north or south in the top view of the line,
Fig. 14 (a).
It is customary to consider north as being toward
the top of the map unless information to the contrary is
given. Hence the small symbol showing the directions
of north, east, south, and west is not usually needed.
These are the directions assumed in the absence of the
symbol. Note that the bearing indicated, N 45° W, is
■ FIGURE 12 ■ True Length and Angle with Profile Plane by that of line 1–2 (from 1 toward 2). The conventional
Revolution. practice is to give either the abbreviation for north or
south first, chosen so that the angle is less than 90°, and
lution, Fig. 11, cannot be used to find the angle the then the angle, followed by the abbreviation for east or
line forms with these planes. west, as appropriate. For example: N 45° W, as shown
The axis of revolution in Fig. 12 is perpendicular in the figure.*
to a profile plane. Hence the angle revealed at the true- At (b) a true-length auxiliary view is added, pro-
length position is ∠P. jected from the top view. This is the auxiliary view
To determine ∠F for line 1–2, it is necessary to appropriate for measuring the slope of line 1–2 or ∠H.
establish the axis of revolution perpendicular to a However, in this case another method, known as grade,
frontal plane, Fig. 13. In practice, it is not necessary is used to measure the inclination. The grade is the
to show the axis of revolution, since the remaining con- ratio of the vertical displacement (rise) to the horizon-
struction makes the position of the axis obvious. Note tal displacement (run) expressed as a percentage.
that a separate revolution is needed for each angle of A construction line horizontal in space (parallel to
an oblique line with a projection plane. H/1) is drawn through a point of the line—point 1 in
this example.Along this horizontal line 100 units of any
appropriate scale are set off. In this instance the 1/20
■ FIGURE 13 ■ True Length and Angle with Frontal Plane by scale was used. At the 100th division a line is drawn
Revolution.
perpendicular to the folding line H/1 and extended to
intersect line 1–2 as shown. The length of this line, as
measured by the previously used scale, becomes a
numerical description of the inclination of line 1–2
expressed as -50%,† because
-50 units vertically
* 100 = -50%‡
100 units horizontally

This is the percent grade, or simply the grade, of line 1–2.

*Special cases are “Due north,” “Due south,” “Due east,” and “Due
west.”
†
It is common practice to designate a vertical distance as positive or
negative according to whether it is measured upward or downward,
respectively.
‡
The student familiar with trigonometry will recognize the ratio 50 :
100 as the tangent of ∠H.

597
 Points, Lines, and Planes

■ FIGURE 14 ■ Bearing and Percent Grade.

Another means of describing the bearing of a line

is by its azimuth bearing, Fig. 15. Here the total
clockwise angle from the base direction, usually north,
is given. Line 1–2 here has the same direction as line
1–2 of Fig. 14 (point 1 toward 2) so that the clock-
wise angle is 360° - 45° or 315°. If it is understood by
all concerned that north is the base direction, the N
may be omitted. Thus it is common for an aircraft pilot
to describe his or her flight direction as “a course of
315°.” On a drawing or map, however, it is best to
retain the N to avoid possible confusion.
Grade may also be obtained by revolution. In Fig.
16, since the top view is revolved, the axis of revolu-
tion (not shown) projects as a point coincident with the
top view of point 1. Hence the axis is vertical, and point ■ FIGURE 16 ■ Grade by Revolution.
2 moves horizontally to the front view to 2R. In the
true-length position, the grade of -45% can be mea-
sured as shown.
6 ■ POINT VIEW OF LINE
If a direction of sight for a view is parallel to a true-
length view of a line, that line will appear as a point in
the resulting view. In Fig. 17 (a) the vertical line 1–2
■ FIGURE 15 ■ Azimuth Bearing. appears as a point in the top view, since a vertical line is
true length in any height view.
At (b) line 3–4 appears true length in the front
view. A direction of sight is chosen, as indicated by
arrow 1, parallel to the true-length view. The resulting
auxiliary view 1 is a point view, since all points of line
3–4 are the same distance D from the folding lines.
In Fig. 17 (c) auxiliary view 1 is necessary to
show line 5–6 in true length. Direction of sight 2 is then
introduced parallel to the true-length view. The result-
ing view 2, which is a secondary auxiliary view, shows
the point view of line 5–6.

598
 Points, Lines, and Planes

■ FIGURE 17 ■ Point View of Line.

Figure 17 (c) illustrates an important use of by adding or deleting appropriate lines without chang-
point views: finding the shortest distance from a point ing the position of the plane. Most problem solutions
to a line. Since the shortest distance is measured along a involving planes require adding lines at one stage or
perpendicular from the point to the line, the perpendic- another, so that in practice the plane, regardless of its
ular will appear true length when the given line appears original representation, is in the end represented by
in point view. Observe point 7 in the illustration. An intersecting lines.
even more important use of the point view of a line is in
obtaining an edge view of a plane, § 9. 8 ■ POINTS AND LINES IN PLANES
One formal definition of a plane is that it is a surface
7 ■ REPRESENTATION OF PLANES such that a straight line joining any two points of the
Planes can be established or represented even more surface lies in the surface. It follows that two straight
simply, Fig. 18, by intersecting lines, (a), parallel lines, lines in the same plane must intersect, unless the
(b), three points not in a straight line, (c), or a line and lines are parallel. These concepts are used constantly
a point not on the line, (d). Careful study of Fig. 18 will in working with points and lines in planes.
reveal that the same plane 1–2–3 is represented in all Figure 19 (a) shows a typical elementary prob-
four examples. One method can be converted to another lem of this nature. The top view of a line 4–5 is given.
The problem is to find the front view of line 4–5 that lies
in plane 1–2–3. Since lines 4–5 and 1–2 are obviously
■ FIGURE 18 ■ Representation of a Plane.

599
 Points, Lines, and Planes

■ FIGURE 19 ■ Straight Line in a Plane.

not parallel, they must intersect at point 6 as shown at solve this problem. However, lines approaching parallel
(b). Point 6 is then located by projecting vertically to the to the projection lines between views should be avoided
front view of line 1–2. Line 4–5 extended (top view) as they may lead to significantly inaccurate results.
intersects line 2–3 at 7, which is projected to line 2–3 in A different solution of a similar problem—using
the front view. Line segment 4–5 in the front view then the principle of parallelism—is shown in Fig. 20 (c).
lies along a construction line through points 6 and 7, and Here lines drawn through point 1 or point 3 and given
points 4 and 5 are established by projection from the top point 4 lead to inconvenient intersections. If a line is
view as shown. drawn through point 4 in the front view parallel to line
A point may be placed in a plane by locating it on a 2–3 and intersecting line 1–2 at point 5 as shown, it will
line known to be in the plane. In Fig. 20 (a) we are not intersect line 2–3. Therefore, according to the prin-
given the front view of a point 4 in plane 1–2–3 and ciples stated at the beginning of this section, the line
desire to find the top view. At (b) a line is introduced must be parallel to line 2–3. Thus, after intersection
through points 3 and 4 and, when extended, intersects point 5 is projected to the top view, the new line
line 1–2 at point 5. Point 5 is projected to the top view, through point 5 is drawn parallel to the top view of line
establishing line 3–5 in that view. Point 4 is then project- 2–3, and point 4 is projected to it to complete the top
ed from the front view to the top view of line 3–5. Theo-
retically, any line could be drawn through point 4 to

■ FIGURE 20 ■ Point in a Plane.

600
 Points, Lines, and Planes

■ FIGURE 21 ■ Locus Problem.

view. Use of this parallelism principle requires mini- The intersection point of lines 4–5 and 6–7 is the
mum construction. required point P.The views of P at (b) are checked with
Another example of locating a point on a plane is a vertical projection line, as shown, to make sure that
shown in Fig. 21. Here it is desired to locate in plane they are views of the same point.
1–2–3 a point P that is 10 mm above point 2 and 12
mm behind point 3.
At (a) a horizontal line 10 mm above (higher 9 ■ EDGE VIEWS OF PLANES
than) point 2 is added to the front view of plane In order to get the edge view of a plane, we must get
1–2–3. Its intersection points 4 and 5 with lines 1–2 the point view of a line in the plane. For Fig.
and 2–3 are projected to the top view as shown. Any 22 (a) the edge view of plane 1–2–3 could be obtained
point along line 4–5 lies in plane 1–2–3 and is 10 mm by getting the true-length view and then the point view
above point 2. Line 4–5 is said to be the locus of such of any one of the three given lines of the plane. Since
points. these lines are all oblique lines, obtaining their point
At (b) a frontal line 12 mm behind (to the rear of) views would each entail two successive auxiliary views,
point 3 is added to the top view of the plane. Its front §6. It is easier to add a line that appears true length
view is obtained by projection of intersection points 6 in one of the principal views, thus eliminating the need
and 7. (Note the addition of line 1–3 to secure point 7.) of a second auxiliary view.
Line 6–7 is the locus of points in plane 1–2–3 that are At (b) line 2–4 is drawn parallel to the H/F folding
12 mm behind point 3. line (horizontal on the paper) in the top view. Thus it is

■ FIGURE 22 ■ Edge View of Plane.

601
 Points, Lines, and Planes

■ FIGURE 23 ■ Dihedral Angle with Oblique Line of Intersection.

a frontal line, §2, and its front view, obtained by pro- For example, let it be required to find the center of
jecting point 4 to the front view of line 1–3, is true the circle passing through points 1, 2, and 3 of Fig. 24.
length, as indicated. We proceed as at (b) with the edge view and true-size
Thus a true-length line in plane 1–2–3 has been views of plane 1–2–3. In auxiliary view 2, we locate cen-
established without drawing an auxiliary view, and we ter O for a circle through points 1, 2, and 3. If desired,
may now proceed as at (c) by assuming a direction of point O can be located in the divider distances D2 and
sight 1 parallel to the true-length view of 2–4.The result- D3 as shown.The circle, if drawn, would appear elliptical
ing auxiliary view is the desired edge view. Note that all in the front and top views.
points of the plane, not just a minimum two points, are The revolution method may also be applied to
actually projected to the auxiliary view. This provides a finding the true-size view of an oblique surface for geo-
convenient check on accuracy, since obviously the points metric construction. In Fig. 25, the problem is to bisect
must lie on a straight line in the auxiliary view. the plane angle 1–2–3. The true bisector of a plane
Edge views are useful as the first step in obtaining angle lies in the same plane as the angle, and only
the true-size view of an oblique plane, § 10. They are under special circumstances when the plane of the
also employed in showing dihedral angles. In Fig. 23 (a) angle is not in true size will a view of the bisector actu-
the line of intersection 1–2 between surfaces A and B is ally bisect the corresponding view of the angle.To solve
not shown true length in either view. Accordingly, at (b) this problem, the edge view of plane 1–2–3 is first con-
auxiliary view 1 is constructed, with the direction of sight structed at (a) and then is revolved until it is parallel to
1 perpendicular to line 1–2. At (c) secondary auxiliary folding line F/1. The revolved front view is then true
view 2 is then added, with direction of sight 2 parallel to size and angle 1R –2–3R is bisected as shown at (b). The
the true-length view of line 1–2. As a check, all points of revolution thus takes the place of a secondary auxiliary
the planes are located in the auxiliary views. When they view. This has the major advantage of compactness of
fall on the respective straight-line (edge) views of the construction, but the overlapping front views may in
surfaces A and B, confidence in accuracy is established. some cases be confusing.
The front and top views of the bisector are obtained
by selecting an additional point on the bisector in the
10 ■ TRUE-SIZE VIEWS OF OBLIQUE PLANES
Many problems of a more abstract nature are also
solved through obtaining true-size views of oblique
planes.

602
 Points, Lines, and Planes

■ FIGURE 24 ■ Center of Circle in Oblique Plane.

■ FIGURE 25 ■ True of Oblique Plane—Revolution Method.

true-size view and reversing the whole process— both; but this is permissible, since the abstract terms
counterrevolving. Point 4R on the true-length line line and plane do not imply any limits on their extent.
through point 3R is particularly convenient in this case There are two recommended methods for finding
because it will counterrevolve to the true-length line piercing points.
through point 3 and can then be projected to the top
view, bypassing the auxiliary view. If desired, however,
EDGE-VIEW METHOD All points of a plane are shown
the selected point can be projected to the revolved edge
along its edge view. These, of course, include the pierc-
view, counterrevolved to the original edge view, and then
ing point of any lines that happen to be present. In Fig.
returned to the front and top views by the usual methods.
26 (a) the frontal line through point 3 is introduced
to get a true-length line and thus the edge view of
plane 1–2–3. In this case it is necessary to extend line
11 ■ PIERCING POINTS 4–5 to find the piercing point (encircled). At (b) the
If a straight line is not parallel to a plane, it must inter- piercing point is projected first to the front view and
sect that plane in a single point called a piercing point. then to the top view. Note the use of divider distance
It may be necessary to extend the line, or plane, or D1, to check the accuracy of location of the top view.

603
 Points, Lines, and Planes

■ FIGURE 26 ■ Piercing Point—Edge-View Method.

This procedure, under some circumstances, is more used, as shown at (b). To contain line 4–5, the cutting
accurate than direct projection. plane must coincide with a view of the line. At (b) it
Note that a horizontal line could have been intro- was chosen to have plane A–A coincide with the top
duced into plane 1–2–3, thereby establishing a differ- view of 4–5. The line cut from plane 1–2–3 is line 6–7.
ent true-length line. This would have produced a Projected to the front view, line 6–7 locates the front
different edge view, but would not give a different view of the piercing point, which is then projected to
piercing point, as there is only one piercing point for a the top view.
particular straight line and plane.This procedure would Actually, there is no need for some of the lettering
not be considered a different method but merely an shown at (b). At (c) the symbol EV adequately identi-
alternative approach. fies the cutting plane, and the numbers 6 and 7 may be
omitted as being of little value other than for purposes
CUTTING-PLANE METHOD OR GIVEN-VIEW METHOD If a cut- of discussion.
ting plane A–A containing line 4–5 is introduced, Fig. Note that this illustration is similar to Fig. 26,
27 (a), it will cut line 6–7 from given plane 1–2–3. except that (1) the piercing point is within the line seg-
Lines 6–7 and 4–5, being in the same plane A–A, must ment 4–5 and (2) the plane is limited or completely
intersect at the piercing point (encircled). To make bounded. It is then feasible to consider the bounded
the method practical, an edge-view cutting plane is area to be opaque. The line then becomes hidden after

■ FIGURE 27 ■ Piercing Point—Cutting-Plane Method.

604
 Points, Lines, and Planes

points common to two intersecting planes may be

located by finding piercing points of lines of one plane
with the other plane, by the use of edge-view method
or the cutting-plane method of §11.

EDGE-VIEW METHOD In Fig. 29, two planes are given:

1–2–3 and 4–5–6. If the edge view of either plane is
constructed, the piercing points of the lines of the other
plane will lie along the edge view. At (a) a horizontal
line is introduced through point 3 of plane 1–2–3 in
order to secure a true-length line in the top view. (A
horizontal line in plane 4–5–6 or frontal lines in either
plane would serve just as well in this problem.) Auxil-
iary view 1 is then constructed with its direction of
■ FIGURE 28 ■ Piercing Point—Cutting-Plane Method
sight parallel to the true-length view of the line. The
(Alternative Solution).
completed auxiliary view 1 shows the edge view of
plane 1–2–3 and the piercing points of lines 4–5 and
it pierces the plane. The visibility displayed at (c) was
5–6 as indicated by the encircled points.
determined by the methods of §1, investigating in
At (b) the piercing points are projected to the top
each view any convenient point where line 4–5 crosses
view and then to the front view. (It is good practice to
one of the boundary lines of the plane.
check accuracy by divider distances, as indicated by
The problem in Fig. 27 is shown again in Fig.
dimension D1). Since the given planes are not com-
28, this time with the edge view of the cutting plane
pletely bounded, there is no reason to restrict the
introduced coincident with the front view of line 4–5.
drawn length of the segment of the line of intersection
Of course, the same answer is obtained, and it is a mat-
(LI). However, the views of the line of intersection
ter of personal choice and convenience as to which
should be compatible from view to view.
view is chosen for introduction of the edge-view cut-
Since the LI is common to both planes, it must
ting plane. For the convenience of the reader, always
intersect or be parallel to each line of both planes. As a
include the letters EV as shown when the problem solu-
check on accuracy, observe in this case that the LI inter-
tions involve such cutting planes.
sects line 1–2 at 7 and is parallel to line 2–3.

12 ■ INTERSECTIONS OF PLANES CUTTING-PLANE METHOD Because it requires no addi-

The intersection of two planes is a straight line contain- tional views, the cutting-plane method is frequently
ing all points common to the two planes. Since planes used to find the intersection of two planes, Fig. 30. At
are themselves represented by straight lines, §7, (a) it is arbitrarily decided to introduce an edge-view

■ FIGURE 29 ■ Intersection of Two Planes—Edge-View Method.

605
 Points, Lines, and Planes

cutting plane coinciding with the top view of line 5–6, and is therefore not on the “real” portion of the line of
with the intention of finding the piercing point of line intersection, which is drawn as a visible line only in the
5–6 in plane 1–2–3–4. The student should realize that area common to the views of both planes. The termina-
one could introduce cutting planes in either view coin- tion of this segment is at the point that is actually the
ciding with any of the lines of the planes. With so many piercing point of line 1–4 in plane 5–6–7. However, this
possibilities it is imperative that the choice be indicated result was not obvious at the start of the construction.
with proper use of the symbol EV, both to avoid confu- Visibility was determined by the method of §1. Usu-
sion on the student’s part and as a courtesy to the per- ally it is necessary to examine only one apparent cross-
son who must read the drawing. ing point in each view. After visibility is established in
In this case the introduced plane cuts line 8–9 from one such region, the spatial relations of the remaining
plane 1–2–3–4. Point 8 is on line 1–2 and point 9 is on lines of that view are evident, since each boundary line
line 2–3. Observe this carefully to avoid mistakes in in turn can change visibility only where it meets a pierc-
projecting to the front view. The front view of line 8–9 ing point or a boundary line of the other given plane.
intersects line 5–6 at the encircled piercing point
which, after projection to the top view, represents one SPECIAL CUTTING-PLANE METHOD The line of intersection
point common to the given planes. of two planes also may be found through the use of cut-
At (b) another piercing point is located by intro- ting planes that do not coincide with the views of given
ducing an edge-view cutting plane along line 5–7. The lines. Any plane cutting the two given planes, Fig. 31
line of intersection, LI, passes through the two piercing (a), cuts one line from each. Since these lines lie in the
points as shown. cutting plane as well as in the given planes, they will
In this illustration the given planes are bounded intersect at a point common to the given planes. A sec-
and can therefore be considered limited as at (c). The ond cutting plane will establish a second common
piercing point of line 5–7 falls outside plane 1–2–3–4 point, giving two points on the line of intersection. For

■ FIGURE 30 ■ Intersection of Two

Planes—Cutting-Plane Method.

606
 Points, Lines, and Planes

Graphics
Spotlight Potatoes and Productivity
D OCUMENTED P RODUCTIVITY I MPROVEMENT assembly, they turn off the parts they are not currently
Spudnik Equipment Company of Blackfoot, Idaho, uses working so that they are not loaded into RAM, in order to
Pro/ENGINEER software to design specialty potato han- make working in the large assemblies faster.
dling equipment. They design and manufacture trucks,
conveyors, pilers, and storage equipment to automate
Q UICK D ESIGN OF C USTOM M ACHINES
large scale potato storage and handling. They have only & D OCUMENTATION
used Pro/ENGINEER one year but are impressed with the Three entire machine designs have been completed at Spud-
capabilities to create and document equipment designs. nik since they purchased Pro/ENGINEER. One is for a
Drex Pincock, CAD Designer, says that in the previous five planter-filler, which loads seed potatoes into a planter. They
years using their previous CAD package, he was only able have also designed and built a pup conveyor. A pup convey-
to complete three sets of design documentation. Drex and or is a small 8 to 10 foot device that can hang off a larger con-
one other person have created three entire sets of design veyor or other equipment so more than one truck can unload
documentation in just six months since switching to potatoes at the same time. The third device is a portable elim-
Pro/ENGINEER. inator, which is used for either sorting out smaller potatoes
right at the time of unloading or for sorting out dirt and debris
W ELDMENTS AND S HEET M ETAL from the potatoes. Spudnik creates many custom machines
Many of their parts are created from stock metal welded for their customers and needs to quickly produce documen-
together, and from sheet metal. One of the benefits for Spud- tation for the custom machines. With Pro/ENGINEER, they
nik of using Pro/ENGINEER is its complete associativity. The can save time designing the custom machinery and produc-
part drawings are linked into the proper assembly drawings ing the necessary shop drawings to manufacture the equip-
so that if a part or stock size is changed, the assembly draw- ment. Then they go one step more and create exploded
ing automatically updates. Also since parametric solid mod- isometric and isometric drawings for the part books and cus-
eling is used to create the design for an entire part, the tomer manuals directly from their design database.
necessary drawings for custom machines can quickly be To get started using Pro/ENGINEER, all of the designers
generated by changing the dimension values. They also use went to one week of basic training. Then key personnel like
Pro/ENGINEER’s ability to automatically generate the flat Drex went to additional training on assembly modeling and
pattern for sheet metal layout from the 3D model to shorten advanced part modeling. Drex says that Pro/ENGINEER has a
the time to go from design to manufacturing. lot of features for modeling irregular surfaces that they do not
At Spudnik Pro/ENGINEER runs on a 275 MHz DEC really use because their parts are mainly manufactured from
Alphastation with 128 MB RAM. They use it to create very flat and bar stock. The key feature that they feel saves time in
large assemblies with parts such as weldments, sheet designing, manufacturing, and documenting their products is
metal, bearings, and rollers. When working in a large the associativity of the parts, drawings, and assemblies.

Courtesy of Spudnik Equipment Company, Inc.

607
 Points, Lines, and Planes

■ FIGURE 31 ■ Intersection of Two Planes—Special Cutting-Plane Method.

convenience, the edge-view cutting planes employed This method involves more construction than did
are usually drawn parallel to a regular coordinate the previous methods and can be confusing when the
plane, but this is not necessary. It is suggested that the given views occupy overlapping areas, as in Figs. 29
two planes be introduced in the same view for more and 30. This particular method is therefore recom-
control of the distance between the points secured. mended primarily for problems in which the given
At (b) horizontal plane EV1 cuts lines 9–4 and views of the planes are separated.
8–10 from the given planes. When these lines are pro-
jected to the top view, they intersect at point 11, which
is then one point on the required line of intersection. 13 ■ ANGLE BETWEEN LINE
The front view of point 11 is on line EV1 as shown. At AND OBLIQUE PLANE
(c) a second horizontal plane EV2 is introduced, cut- The true angle between a line and a plane of projection
ting lines 12–13 and 14–15, which intersect in the top (frontal, horizontal, or profile) is seen in the view in
view at point 16.After point 16 is projected to line EV2 which the given line is true length and the plane in ques-
the line of intersection 11–16 (LI) is drawn to any tion is in edge view, §3. This is a general principle that
desired length. Note carefully the parallelism of the applies to any plane: normal, inclined, or oblique.
lines in the top view at (c). This affords a convenient In Fig. 32 (a) two views of a plane 1–2–3 and a
and a very desirable check on accuracy. line 5–6 are given. One cannot expect a primary auxil-

■ FIGURE 32 ■ Angle Between Line and Plane—True-Size Method.

608
 Points, Lines, and Planes

iary view to show plane 1–2–3 in edge view and also from it. The true-size secondary auxiliary view 2 is then
line 5–6 in true length, for generally the directions of constructed in the customary manner.
sight for these two purposes will not be parallel. Note Any view projected from view 2 will show plane
that in Fig. 8 the direction of sight for the auxiliary 1–2–3 in edge view. Therefore to show the true angle
view is toward the front view, which shows the true-size between line 5–6 and the plane, direction of sight 3 is
view of all frontal planes. In Fig. 9 the direction of established at right angles to view 2 of line 5–6. View 3
sight is toward the top view, which shows the true-size then shows the required angle 1∠2. Because in this
view of all horizontal planes. In summary, any view pro- chain of views the edge view of the plane in view 3 is
jected from a true-size view of a plane shows an edge always parallel to folding line 2/3 (note divider dis-
view of that plane. tance D2), the construction can be simplified if desired
In Fig. 32 (a) frontal line 2–4 is added to given by omitting plane 1–2–3 from auxiliary views 2 and 3.
plane 1–2–3.We thus now have a true-length line in the The required angle is then measured between line 4–5
front view, and edge-view auxiliary view 1 is projected and the folding line 2/3.

KEY WORDS
FRONTAL PLANE OF GRADE HORIZONTAL PLANE OF LOCUS
PROJECTION PIERCING POINTS PROJECTION OBLIQUE
DIHEDRAL ANGLE EDGE VIEW FRONTAL LINE CUTTING PLANE
VISIBILITY PROFILE PLANE OF HORIZONTAL LINE
PROFILE LINE PROJECTION BEARING
REVOLUTION

CHAPTER SUMMARY
■ The basic geometric elements are represented using spe- ■ Bearing, slope, and grade are easily calculated using sim-
cial notation in descriptive geometry. Correct solutions ple descriptive geometry techniques.
for spatial problems include the correct labeling of the ■ Auxiliary view and revolution are two common solution
basic geometric elements. techniques for determining true length, true angle, true
■ Descriptive geometry is the basic for all engineering size, and the intersection between lines and planes.
graphics. The fundamental principles for all engineering ■ Finding the point view of a line and the edge view of a
drawing techniques are based on the theory of descrip- plane are common solution techniques for determine vis-
tive geometry. ibility of lines and planes.
■ Identifying, creating, and manipulating lines in each of ■ The intersection of a line with a plane (piercing point),
the three primary planes of projection are fundamental like many descriptive geometry problems, has several
techniques for solving descriptive geometry problems. methods for determining solutions.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Why were military applications the first applications for 8. What is a normal line?
descriptive geometry? 9. What is an oblique line?
2. Why are the principles of descriptive geometry so 10. How many views are required to determine true length
important that they are taught at engineering of a line using the revolution method? Using the auxil-
schools? iary view method?
3. How are the end points of lines labeled in descriptive 11. In which view is bearing measured?
geometry?
12. Grade can be measured in any view adjacent to which
4. What is meant by the visibility of two lines? primary view?
5. What is the name of the intersection of a line and a plane? 13. What is a dihedral angle?
6. What is the name for a line that is parallel to the frontal 14. What do the labels EV, TL, and TS mean?
plane of projection?
7. What is an inclined line?

609
 Points, Lines, and Planes

POINT, LINE, AND PLANE PROBLEMS

The problems in Figs. 33–44 cover points and lines, the point from the bottom edge of the problem area. The
intersecting and nonintersecting lines, visibility, true length third coordinate locates either the top view of the point
and angles with principal planes, auxiliary-view method from the bottom edge of the problem area or the side view
and revolution method, point views, points and lines in of the point from the left edge of the problem area. Inspec-
planes, dihedral angles, edge view and true size of planes, tion of the given problem layout will determine which
piercing points, intersection of planes, and angle between application to use.
line and oblique plane. Since many of the problems in this chapter are of a
Use Layout A–1 or A4–1 (adjusted) and divide the general nature, they can also be solved on most computer
working area into four equal areas for problems to be graphics systems. If a system is available, the instructor
assigned by the instructor. Some problems will require a may choose to assign specific problems to be completed
single problem area, and others will require two problem by this method.
areas (half the sheet). Data for the layout for each problem Additional problems, in convenient form for solution,
are given by a coordinate system. For example, in Fig. are available in Engineering Graphics Problems, Series 1,
33, Prob. 1, point 1 is located by the full-scale coordi- by Spencer, Hill, Loving, Dygdon, and Novak, designed to
nates, 22 mm, 38 mm, 75 mm. The first coordinate locates accompany this text and published by Prentice Hall/Pear-
the front view of the point from the left edge of the prob- son Education.
lem area. The second coordinate locates the front view of

610
 Points, Lines, and Planes

■ FIGURE 33 ■ Lay out and solve four problems per sheet as assigned. Use Layout A–1 or A4–1 (adjusted) divided into four equal areas.
1. Given point 1 (25, 38, 75), locate the front and top views of point 2, which is 50 mm to the right of point 1, 25 mm below point 1, and 30 mm
behind point 1.
2. Given point 1 (12, 25, 90), locate the front and side views of line 1–2 such that point 2 is 38 mm to the right of point 1, 45 mm above point 1,
and 25 mm in front of point 1. Add the top view of line 1–2.
3. Find the views of points 3, 4, and 5 on line 1 (12, 15, 115)–2 (90, 50, 70) that fit the following descriptions: point 3, 20 mm above point 1; point
4, 65 mm to the left of point 2; and point 5, 25 mm in front of point 1.
4. Triangle 1 (18, 12, 90)–2 (50, 12, 115)–3 (85, 12, 75) is the base of a pyramid. The vertex V is 8 mm behind point 1, 8 mm to the left of point
2, and 45 mm above point 3. Complete the front and top views of the pyramid.
5. Line 1 (12, 25, 75)–2 (48, 25, ?) is 43 mm long (2 behind 1). Line 1–3 is a 50 mm frontal line, and line 2–3 is a profile line. Find the true length
of line 2–3.
6. Line 1 (12, 60, ?)–2 (12, 25, 64) is 45 mm long. The front view of line 2–3 (50, 25, ?) is true length as indicated. Complete the front and side
views and add a top view of triangle 1–2–3.
7. Point 5 is on line 1 (12, 56, 106)–2 (38, 15, 74),18 mm below point 1. Point 6 is on line 3 (58, 15, 80)–4 (90, 50, 115). Line 5–6 is frontal. Find
the true length of line 5–6.
8. Line 2 (38, 50, 75)–3 (38, ?, 100) is 38 mm long. Line 3–1 (12, ?, 75) is horizontal. How long is line 1–2?

611
 Points, Lines, and Planes

■ FIGURE 34 ■ Lay out and solve problems as assigned. Use Layout A-1 or A4-1 (adjusted) divided into four equal areas.
1. Lines 1 (20, 50, 75)–2 (75, 15, 117) and 3 (48, ?, 112)–4 (82, 43, 58) are intersecting lines. Complete the front view.
2. Demonstrate that lines 1 (25, 12, 114)–2 (75, 48, 75) and 3 (25, 40, 75)–4 (75, 8, 100) do not intersect. Then move point 4 vertically in space
to a new position 4¿ such that line 3– 4¿ intersects line 1–2.
3. Lines 1 (25, 50, 114)–2 (84, 12, 64) and 3 (20, 12, 84)–4 (90, 40, 104) are the center lines of two nonintersecting cylindrical tubes, each of
which has a diameter of 200 mm. Scale: 1/20. Complete the views including correct visibility.
4. Rod 1 (12, 92, 90)–2 (43, 38, 58) has a diameter of 10 mm. Rod 3 (12, 25, 94)–4 (53, 96, 66) has a diameter of 12 mm. Complete the views
including correct visibility.
5. Points 1 (20, 38, 80), 2 (53, 58, 70), 3 (75, 46, 96), and 4 (90, 15, 115) are the vertices of a tetrahedron. Complete the given views with proper
visibility.
6. Points 1 (50, 65, 94), 2 (25, 38, 96), 3 (73, 35, 116), and 4 (50, 15, 75) are the vertices of a tetrahedron. Complete the given views with proper
visibility.
7. Points 1 (63, 17, 88), 2 (88, 15, 118), 3 (88, 50, 83), and 4 (55, 50, 75) are the vertices of a tetrahedron. Complete the given views and add a
left-side view, all with proper visibility.
8. Points 1 (5, 25, 98), 2 (35, 43, 118), 3 (48, 35, 116), and 4 (18, 18, 86) are corners of the base of a pyramid. Point V (18, 66, 78) is the vertex.
Complete the views and add a right-side view, including proper visibility.

612
 Points, Lines, and Planes

■ FIGURE 35 ■ Lay out and solve problems as assigned. Use Layout A-1 or A4-1 (adjusted) divided into four equal areas.
1. Find and measure the true length of line 1 (12, 46, 75)–2 (63, 12, 114) and the angle it forms with a horizontal plane 1∠H2.
2. Find and dimension the true length of and the angle formed by control cable 1 (38, 12, 114)–2 (80, 50, 75) and the frontal bulkhead. Scale: 1/10.
3. Measure the bearing and slope 1∠H2 of pipe center line 1 (38, 15, 114)–3 (88, 33, 83).
4. The center line of a segment of a highway runs from point 1 (88, 25, 110) through point 2 (56, ?,75) to a point 3. The line slopes downward from
point 1 at an angle of 15°. The length of segment 1–3 is 350 m. Scale: 1/5000. Find the top and front views of point 3.
5. Find and measure the true length of line 1 (12, 50, 110)–2 (38, 15, 80) and the true angle it forms with a profile plane 1∠P2.
6. Find and measure the bearing and percent grade of line 1 (12, 50, 88)–2 (50, 20, 70).
7. A tunnel bears N 40° W from point 1 (88, 38, 75) on a downgrade of 30 to point 2 at a distance of 230 m along the tunnel. Scale:1/4000. Find
the front and top views of tunnel 1–2.
8. If segments 1 (75, 45, 68)–2 (50, 30, 94) and 2–3 (20, ?, 86) of pipeline 1–2–3 have the same grade, find the front view of 2–3.

613
 Points, Lines, and Planes

■ FIGURE 36 ■ Lay out and solve four problems per sheet, as assigned. NOTE: Use revolution for these problems. Use Layout A-1 or A4-1
(adjusted) divided into four equal areas.
1. Find the true lengths of the tripod legs 0 (60, 50, 88)–1 (25, 12, 114), 0–2 (53, 25, 68), and 0–3 (80, 38, 114). Scale: 1/20.
2. Find and measure the true length and angles with H and F for line 1 (33, 25, 75)–2 (70, 50, 114).
3. Find the true length and angle with P of line 1 (58, 25, 100)–2 (88, 46, 75). Scale: 1/200.
4. An aircraft flies from position 1 (12, 50, 63) toward point 2 (50, 12, 100). If the craft is losing altitude at the rate of 500 m in each 1000 m (map
distance), at what altitude will it pass over point 2? Scale: 1/20 000. If the aircraft fails to pull out of the dive, show the front and top views of
the point of impact.
5. Pipe center line 1 (75, 38, 65)–2 (?, ?, ?) has an azimuth bearing of N 310°, a downgrade of 30%, and a true length of 240 m. Scale: 1/4000.
Find the front and top views of line 1–2.
6. Line 1 (25, 64, 75)–2 (?, ?, ?) has a bearing of N 40°E, is 60 mm in length, makes an angle of 30° with a horizontal plane, and slopes downward.
Complete the front and top views of 1–2.
7. Line 1 (50, 90, 88)–2(12, 50, ?) forms an angle of 35° with a frontal plane. The lines slopes forward. Complete the side view.
8. Line 1 (12, 50, 88)–2 (50, ?, 114) has a downward slope of 40°. Line 2–3 (70, ?, 74) has an upward slope of 20°. What is the slope of line 1–3?

614
 Points, Lines, and Planes

■ FIGURE 37 ■ Lay out and solve problems as assigned. Use Layout A-1 or A4-1 (adjusted) divided into four equal areas.
1. Find a point view of line 1 (25, 25, 63)–2 (63, 25, 86).
2. Find a point view of line 1 (12, 75, 88)–2 (38, 25, 63).
3. Find the true distance between parallel lines 1 (25, 50, 86)–2 (75, 25, 112) and 3 (38, 33, 75)–4 (88, ?, ?).
4. Find the clearance between 0.8 m diameter cylinder 1 (32, 30, 88)–2 (88, 12, 53) and 1.25 m diameter sphere 3 (75, 35, 83). Scale: 1/100.
5. Determine if point 1 (106, 10, 55) is nearer to line 2 (75, 7, 50)–3 (106, 28, 68) or to line 4 (94, 33, 70)–5 (142, 5, 53).

615
 Points, Lines, and Planes

■ FIGURE 38 ■ Lay out and solve problems as assigned. Use Layout A–1 or A4–1 (adjusted) divided into four equal areas.
1. Determine if either (or both) of points 4 (30, 48, 60) and 5 (53, 25, 88) lies in plane 1 (58, 15, 112)–2 (25, 35, 75)–3 (75, 50, 68).
2. Line 4 (12, ?, 88)–5 (88, 38, ?) lies in plane 1 (25, 25, 88)–2 (50, 50, 74)–3 (75, 20, 112). Complete the views of line 4–5.
3. Pentagon 4(63, 88, ?)–5(50, 63, ?)–6(63, 38, ?)–7(84, 63, ?)–8(63, 75, ?) lies in plane 1 (50, 102, 178)–2 (25, 50, 178)–3 (65, 25, 126).
Complete the side view of the pentagon.
4. Complete the front view including the opening in roof plane 5 (12, 12, 94)–6 (50, 50, 114)–7 (75, 50, ?)–8 (88, 12, 63) for vertical chimney 1
(43, 58, 90)–2 (48, 58, 104)–3 (73, 58, ?)–4 (68, 58, ?).
5. Plot the top view of the curve centered at 0 (46, 35, ?) and lying in plane 1 (12, 12, 100)–2 (38, 63, 75)–3 (88, 25, 114). The circular front view
of the curve has a diameter of 28 mm.
6. Find the front and side views of the center of the circle inscribed in triangle 1 (12, 53, ?)–2 (63, 63, 178)–3 (43, 12, 114). Also locate the views
of the points of tangency of the circle with the sides of the triangle. If assigned, plot the views of the circle.

616
 Points, Lines, and Planes

■ FIGURE 39 ■ Lay out and solve problems as assigned. Use Layout A-1 or A4-1 (adjusted) divided into four equal areas.
1. Find the true size of the dihedral angle formed by plane 1 (38, 50, 88)–2 (63, 15, 114)–3 (70, 40, 88) and plane 1–2–4(35, 7, 114).
2. Find the dihedral angles between the lateral faces of the prism. Bases 1(25, 40, 75)–2–3–4 and 5 (50, 7, 90)–6–7–8 are 25 mm square.
3. Determine the dihedral angle of clip angle 1 (134, 7, 119)–2 (126, 12, 94)–3 (147, 12, 104)–4 (165, 38, 147)–5 (?, 43, ?)–6 (?, 43, ?).
4. Plane 1 (40, 18, 152)–2 (70, 50, 178)–3 (45, 60, 175) and plane 1–2–4 (?, 30, 130) form a dihedral angle of 60°. Complete the views.

617
 Points, Lines, and Planes

■ FIGURE 40 ■ Lay out and solve problems as assigned. Use Layout A-1 or A4-1 (adjusted) divided into four equal areas.
1. Obtain an edge view of plane 1 (12, 12, 86)–2 (50, 38, 96)–3 (25, 38, 114).
2. Obtain an edge view of plane 1 (50, 38, 94)–2 (68, 50, 114)–3 (88, 20, 84).
3. Obtain an edge view of plane 1 (12, 38, 60)–2 (25, 62, 66)–3 (45, 50, 88)–4 (?, ?, ?).
4. Find the clearance between plane 1 (12, 38, 76)–2 (25, 25, 75)–3 (43, 50, 104) and 300 mm diameter sphere 4 (15, 50, 86) by obtaining an
edge view of plane 1–2–3. Scale: 1/20.
5. Obtain a true-size view of triangle 1 (25, 25, 100)–2 (50, 42, 78)–3 (73, 12, 118) and calculate its area. Scale: 1/1.
6. Trapezoid 1 (132, 15, 63)–2 (178, 15, 80)–3 (170, 40, 100)–4 (?, 40, ?) has an area of 175 m2. Complete the front and top views of the
trapezoid. Scale: 1/400.

618
 Points, Lines, and Planes

■ FIGURE 41 ■ Lay out and solve problems as assigned. Use Layout A-1 or A4-1 (adjusted) divided into four equal areas.
1. Find the front and side views of the center of the circle inscribed in triangle 1 (12, 50, 84)–2 (25, 12, 75)–3 (50, 25, 118). If assigned, find the
views of the points of tangency. Also, if assigned, plot the views of the circle.
2. Pipe center lines 1 (12, 38, 84)–2 (38, 12, 122) and 3 (30, 45, 63)–4 (50, ?, ?) are to be connected with a feeder branch, using 45° lateral fittings
(see Appendix 42). One fitting is to be located at the midpoint of pipe 1–2. Find the front and top views of the center line of the feeder branch.
3. Find the front and top views of the bisector of angle 1 (140, 43, 100)–2 (152, 12, 70)–3 (190, 20, 88).
4. Join point 1 (25, 15, 96) to line 2 (12, 25, 75)–3 (45, 45, 75) with a line forming an angle of 45° with line 1–2. Use revolution instead of a
secondary auxiliary view.
5. Structural member 1 (12, 25, 68)–2 (38, 58, 88) is connected to point 3 (20, 63, 63) with another structural member that is 1.8 m in length. Find
the front and side views of the center line of the connecting member. Use revolution instead of a secondary auxiliary view. Scale: 1/50.

619
 Points, Lines, and Planes

■ FIGURE 42 ■ Lay out and solve problems as assigned. Use Layout A–1 or A4–1 (adjusted) divided into four equal areas.
1. By the edge-view method, find the piercing point of line 1 (12, 50, 75)–2 (45, 32, 106) in plane 3 (35, 50, 106)–4 (12, 12, 88)–5 (40, 25, 80).
2. By the edge-view method, complete the views of bulkhead 1 (12, 38, 114)–2 (43, 55, 114)–3 (55, 33, 88)–4 (?, ?, ?) and intersecting cable 5
(33, 15, 112)–6 (40, 48, 86). Show visibility.
3. Find the piercing points of line 1 (25, 75, 127)–2 (46, 58, 75) with the surfaces of prism 3 (25, 63, 127)–4 (25, 58, 98)–5 (25, 45, 114)–6
(50, 90, 108)–7 (50, ?, ?)–8 (50, ?, ?). Omit that portion of line 1–2 within the prism.
4. By the cutting-plane method, find the piercing point of line 1 (12, 78, 55)–2 (28, 38, 114) with plane 3 (10, 50, 83)–4 (25, 88, 75)–5 (45, 35, 58).
Show visibility.
5. By the cutting-plane method, find the piercing points of line 1 (12, 45, 91)–2(88, 25, 106) with the surfaces of pyramid 3 (12, 15, 100)–4
(38, 15, 75)–5 (75, 15, 114)–6 (50, 63, 100). Omit that portion of line 1–2 within the pyramid, but show visibility otherwise.
6. Find the point at which light ray 1 (109, 86, 119)–2 (78, 78, 134) strikes mirror 3 (25, 75, 127)–4 (50, 100, 152)–5 (88, 63, 185)–6 (?, ?, ?).

620
 Points, Lines, and Planes

■ FIGURE 43 ■ Lay out and solve problems as assigned. Use Layout A-1 or A4-1 (adjusted) divided into four equal areas.
1. By the edge-view method, find the intersection of planes 1 (50, 12, 96)–2 (91, 25, 100)–3 (75, 45, 75) and 4 (66, 45, 106)–5 (94, 38, 83)–6
(55, 7, 78). Show complete visibility.
2. By the edge-view method, find the intersection of planes 1 (10, 53, 83)–2 (45, 63, 58)–3 (10, 25, 94) and 4 (17, 58, 96)–5 (35, 65, 91)–6
(35, ?, ?)–7 (17, 28, 68) Show complete visibility.
3. By the cutting-plane method, find the intersection of planes 1 (63, 17, 68)–2 (38, 58, 109)–3 (83, 50, 104) and 4 (66, 35, 109)–5 (23, 35, 86)–6
(68, 58, 81).
4. By the cutting-plane method, find the intersection of roof planes 1(25, 43, 88)–2 (60, 43, 114)–3 (86, 12, ?)–4 (25, 12, 58) and 5 (71, 38, ?)–6
(86, 38, 84)–7 (71, 17, 53)–8 (48, 17, 68) and complete the views.
5. By the special cutting-plane method, find the intersection of planes 1 (50, 50, 100)–2 (25, 12, 58)–3 (75, 25, 75) and 4 (114, 48, 99)–5
(190, 38, 73)–6 (142, 10, 58).
6. Find and measure the dihedral angle between planes 1 (25, 46, 68)–2 (33, 12, 100)–3 (63, 8, 117)–4 (?, ?, ?) and 5 (63, 35, 68)–6 (75, 17, 94)–7
(58, 17, ?)–8 (48, 35, 84).

621
 Points, Lines, and Planes

■ FIGURE 44 ■ Lay out and solve problems as assigned. Use Layout A–1 or A4–1 (adjusted) divided into four equal areas.
1. Find the angle between line 1 (48, 15, 68)–3 (48, 38, ?) and plane 2 (50, 10, 63)–3-4 (63, 10, 114).
2. Find the angle between cable 1 (147, 38, 112)–2 (180, 28, 91) and bulkhead 3 (152, 10, 100)–4 (190, 25, 100)–5 (177, 50, 75). Show visibility.
3. Find the angle between force vector 1 (35, 23, 106)–2 (45, 30, 86) and plane 3 (12, 15, 96)–4 (12, 50, 86)–5 (50, 38, 70).
4. Find the angle between lateral edge V (38, 23, 114)–1 (163, 35, 75) and base plane 1–2 (50, 12, 63)–3 (12, 12, 75)–4 (?, 35, ?) of the pyramid.

622
Parallelism and Perpendicularity

OBJECTIVES OVERVIEW
After studying the material in this chapter, you The parallelism of lines is a condition that is preserved in ortho-
should be able to: graphic projection. Parallel lines in space will be projected as paral-
1. Identify whether lines and planes are lel lines in any view. Although the parallel lines may appear as
parallel. points or coincide as a single line in a view, these special cases are
2. Construct a line parallel to a given line not regarded as exceptions to the rule.
in space. The perpendicularity relationship of a line to a plane includes all
3. Construct a line parallel to a given plane. lines in the plane through the foot of the perpendicular in addition to
4. Construct a line perpendicular to a any other lines in the plane. If two lines are perpendicular in space,
given line. they will appear perpendicular in any view that shows at least one of
5. Construct a plane perpendicular to a
the lines in true length, except if one of the lines appears as a point.
given line. Creating lines and planes parallel to given entities are common
construction techniques, especially when using CAD software. Lines
6. Construct a plane perpendicular to a
given plane.
that appear parallel or perpendicular in a given view may not actual-
ly be parallel or perpendicular in space. Lines and planes can be test-
ed for parallelism and perpendicularity using descriptive geometry
construction techniques. Parallel to an entity and perpendicular to an
entity are common construction techniques in CAD software. While
CAD can perform these constructions much faster than is possible
by hand, it is important that the principles behind the construction
techniques be understood to achieve desired results.

From Chapter 20 of Engineering Graphics, Eighth Edition, Frederick E. Giesecke,

Alva Mitchell, Henry Cecil Spencer, Ivan Leroy Hill, Robert Olin Loving, John
Thomas Dygdon, James E. Novak. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Published by Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.
 Parallelism and Perpendicularity

1 n PARALLEL LINES solved as in Fig. 4. Line 4–3¿ is drawn parallel to

In most situations it is valid to state that two lines line 2–3 in both views, and line 4–1¿ is drawn parallel
drawn parallel in two adjacent views are parallel in to line 1–2. Plane 3–4–1¿ is parallel to plane 1–2–3.
space, Fig. 1 (a). However, there is an important The lines 4–3¿ and 4–1¿ may be of any desired length.
exception: If the two adjacent views of two lines are The intersecting-line principle can also be used to
perpendicular to the folding line between them, the cheek for parallelism. In Fig. 5, line 6–1¿ was added
lines are parallel in the views, but the lines may or may in the top view of plane 4–5–6 and parallel to line 1–2
not be parallel in space, Fig. 1 (b), (c), and (d). of plane 1–2–3. When the front view of point 1¿ is locat-
Let us study further the case of Fig. 1 (c). When ed, line 6–1¿ is found to be parallel to line 1–2. Contin-
the top view is constructed, Fig. 2 (a), it becomes uing the investigation: In the top view of plane 4–5–6,
obvious that the lines are not parallel. line 4–3¿ is added parallel to line 2–3. When the front
If it is desired to make lines 1–2 and 3–4 parallel in view of line 4–3¿ is located, however, it is seen that it is
space, one given view may be left incomplete, for not parallel to the front view of line 2–3. Hence planes
example, the side view of line 3–4 at (b)—that is, one 1–2–3 and 4–5–6 are not parallel in space.
end point (point 4) is not immediately located. The top
view is then constructed, with the top view of line 3–4 3 n LINE PARALLEL TO PLANE
drawn parallel to line 1–2, point 4 being located by the
A line is parallel to a plane if it is parallel to a line in the
vertical projection line from its front view. Divider dis-
plane. To establish line 4–5¿ parallel to the plane
tance D1 is then used as shown at (c) to locate the side
1–2–3, Fig. 6, line 3–5 is arbitrarily selected and
view of point 4. Thus, when two or more lines in adja-
added to the plane 1–2–3. Line 4–5¿ is then drawn
cent views appear perpendicular to the folding line
parallel to line 3–5 in the plane. It is possible that line
between the views, the test for parallelism is the con-
4–5¿ is in plane 1–2–3 (if extended). Even if true, this
struction of a third view whose direction of sight is
is not considered an exception to the general principle.
other than parallel to the given views.

2 n PARALLEL PLANES 4 n PLANE PARALLEL TO LINE

Planes may be established parallel to each other by A plane is parallel to a line if it contains a line that is par-
drawing their edge views parallel, Fig. 3. Let it be allel to the given line. Thus, if plane 1–2–3 is parallel to
assumed, as at (a), that plane 1–2–3 and point 4 are line 4–5¿, Fig. 6, line 3–5 added to the plane 1–2–3
given, and it is desired to establish a plane 4–5–6 paral- and parallel to line 4–5 will be parallel to line 4–5¿ in all
lel to plane 1–2–3. First, the edge view of plane 1–2–3 views. This is the converse of the principle of §20.3. Log-
is constructed as shown. Then the edge view of the ically if line 4–5¿ in Fig. 6 is parallel to plane 1–2–3, it
other plane is drawn through point 4 parallel to the follows that plane 1–2–3 is parallel to line 4–5¿.
first edge view. Suppose we are given two parallel lines 1–2 and
Because no further information about points 5 and 3–4, Fig. 7. How many planes can be “passed
6 is given, points 5 and 6 are assumed at any random through” line 3–4 parallel to line 1–2? If any random
locations along the edge view of plane 4–5–6, as at (b). point 5 is added (not on 3–4), a plane 3–4–5 is estab-
However, it is known that to represent a plane in space, lished, §7. The plane is parallel to line 1–2 because it
three points must not be in a straight line, §7. contains line 3–4. Thus it is seen that an infinite num-
Accordingly, projection lines are drawn from points 5 ber of planes can be passed through one of two parallel
and 6 in the auxiliary view to the top view, and points 5 lines and parallel to the other.
and 6 are placed arbitrarily in the top view along the On the other hand, Fig. 8, let two skew lines 1–2
respective projection lines. The front views are then and 3–4 be given, and let it be required to pass a plane
located by projection from the top view and transfer of through line 3–4 and parallel to line 1–2. If a line is
distances such as D1. added, such as 4–2¿, parallel to line 1–2, plane 3–4 –2¿
A somewhat simpler and more commonly used pro- is parallel to line 1–2. Note that the added line could be
cedure for drawing parallel planes is shown in Fig. 4. made to intersect line 3–4 at any point, such as 5,
The method depends on this principle: If a pair of resulting in plane 3–5–2–. However, this is merely a
intersecting lines in one plane is parallel to a pair of revised representation of plane 3–4–2¿. It is evident,
intersecting lines in a second plane, the planes are paral- then, that through one of two skew lines only one plane
lel. Thus the preceding problem, Fig. 3 (a), is readily can be passed parallel to the other line.

624
 Parallelism and Perpendicularity

n FIGURE 1 n Parallel Views: Are the Lines Parallel in Space?

n FIGURE 2 n Construction of Parallel Horizontal Lines.

n FIGURE 3 n Parallel Planes by Parallel Edge Views.

n FIGURE 5 n Checking Parallelism of Planes with

n FIGURE 4 n Parallel Planes by Parallel Lines. Intersecting Lines.

625
 Parallelism and Perpendicularity

terms: A 90° angle appears in true size in any view

showing one leg true length, provided the other leg
does not appear as a point in the same view. Thus, in
Fig. 10, lines 2–3, 2–4, 2–5, and 2–6 are all perpendic-
ular to line 1–2, and they appear at 90° to the true-
length front view of line 1–2. Note that the 90° angle
is not observed in the top view where none of the
lines is true length.
In Fig. 11 each of the lines 2–3 and 2–4 is per-
pendicular to oblique line 1–2 because their true-
■ FIGURE 6 ■ Line Parallel to Plane.

■ FIGURE 9 ■ Plane Through Point Parallel to Skew Lines.

■ FIGURE 7 ■ Plane Parallel to Line.

■ FIGURE 8 ■ Plane Through One of Two Skew Lines and

■ FIGURE 10 ■ Lines Perpendicular to True-Length Line.
Parallel to the Other.

In Fig. 9, let skew lines 1–2 and 3–4 and point 5

be given, and let a plane be required through the point
and parallel to the skew lines. If line 5– 2¿ is drawn par-
allel to line 1–2, and line 5 –4¿ is drawn parallel to line
3–4, plane 2¿ –5–4¿ is parallel to both lines 1–2 and
3–4, even though nonintersecting lines 1–2 and 3–4 do
not represent a plane.

5 ■ PERPENDICULAR LINES
A 90° angle is projected in true size, even though it is
in an inclined plane, provided one leg of the angle is a ■ FIGURE 11 ■ True-Length Lines Perpendicular to Oblique
normal line. This principle can be restated in broader Line.

626
 Parallelism and Perpendicularity

length views are perpendicular to the corresponding directly—without the use of plane 3–2–4—merely by
views of line 1–2. (Note that line 2–3 is a frontal line drawing the true-length views of lines 3¿ –5 and 5–4¿,
and line 2–4 is a horizontal line, §2.) respectively, perpendicular to the corresponding views
of line 1–2, as indicated at (b).
Note that lines 3¿ –5 and 5–4¿ do not intersect line
6 n PLANE PERPENDICULAR TO LINE 1–2. (You may prove this for yourself by extending the
lines and checking vertical alignment of crossing
GIVEN-VIEW METHOD To establish a plane perpendicular points.) Thus, for present purposes, it is useful to regard
to a line, Fig. 12 (a), true-length lines are drawn per- the perpendicular true-length view position principle as
pendicular to given line 1–2 in the same manner as in indicating perpendicular lines, without regard to
Fig. 11. Now consider plane 3–2–4 in Fig. 12 (a). whether the lines intersect.
Since it is represented by intersecting lines, each of
which is perpendicular to line 1–2, the plane is perpen-
dicular to line 1–2.
APPLICATION OF
Then consider the case at (b) where a plane through GIVEN-VIEW METHOD
given point 5 and perpendicular to line 1–2 is desired. If Given: Views of a line 1–2 and a point 3, Fig. 13 (a).
plane 3¿ –5–4¿ is constructed parallel to plane 3–2–4 of Req’d: Find a line from point 3 perpendicular to and
part (a), plane 3¿ –5 –4¿ will also be perpendicular to intersecting line 1–2. Use only the given views.
line 1–2. However, plane 3¿ –5 –4¿ could be drawn Analysis and Procedure: If a horizontal line 3–4 is

n FIGURE 12 n Plane Perpendicular to Line—Given-View Method.

n FIGURE 13 n Plane Perpendicular to Line—Application.

627
 Parallelism and Perpendicularity

drawn through point 3 with its true-length view per- the projection line from view 1. Points 4 and 5 are
pendicular to the top view of 1–2 as at (b), it does not then located in the front view by the divider dis-
intersect line 1–2. Similarly, if a frontal line 3–5 is tances as indicated.
drawn perpendicular to line 1–2, it also does not inter-
sect line 1–2. Neither of these lines is the required line.
We conclude that the required line will not appear APPLICATION OF
perpendicular in the given views. However, 4–3–5 rep- AUXILIARY-VIEW METHOD
resents a plane perpendicular to line 1–2, and all lines Given: A right square prism Fig. 4.7 (6), has its axis
in the plane are perpendicular to line 1–2. Plane 4–3–5 along line 1–2 and one corner at point 3, Fig. 15 (a).
is the locus of all lines through point 3 perpendicular The other base is centered at point 4.
to line 1–2. The required line belongs to this locus or Req’d: Find the views of the prism.
family of lines. Analysis and Procedure: Auxiliary view 1 is added
By the cutting-plane method of §11, the pierc- showing axis 1–2 in true length. Because a right
ing point 8 of line 1–2 in plane 4–3–5 is found, Fig. prism is required, the bases must be perpendicular
13 (c). This is the only point on line 1–2 that to axis 1–2 and appear in view 1 in edge view and
is in the plane, and thus line 3–8 is the only possible perpendicular to axis 1–2. At (b) the point view of
solution to the problem. axis 1–2 is added. This view shows the true shape of
the square bases, and the size of the square is estab-
AUXILIARY-VIEW METHOD A plane also may be con- lished by the position of corner 3. Two perpendicu-
structed perpendicular to a line by drawing its edge lar diameters 3-6 and 5-7 are used to find the
view perpendicular to the true-length view of the vertices of the square.
line, Fig. 14. At (a) given line 1–2 and point 3 are The projection process is now reversed. The cor-
projected to the true-length auxiliary view, where ners are projected from view 2 to view 1, which is then
the edge view of the required plane is drawn completed. Next, the corners are projected to the top
through point 3 and perpendicular to the true-length view and located with divider distances such as D2.
view as indicated. If it is desired to represent the Observe that a square prism is composed of three sets
perpendicular plane in the top and front views, as at of parallel lines. Check the view for parallelism and
(b), any convenient pair of points, such as 4 and 5, is correct any errors before proceeding.
selected on the edge view. In the top view points 4 Finally, the front view is projected in similar fash-
and 5 may be placed at any desired locations along ion.Again, the construction work should be checked for
accurate parallelism before the views are completed.

n FIGURE 14 n Plane Perpendicular to Line—Auxiliary-View Method.

628
 Parallelism and Perpendicularity

n FIGURE 15 n Plane Perpendicular to Line—Application.

7 n LINE PERPENDICULAR TO PLANE space to lines 1–2 and 2–3, the 90° angles between the
A line perpendicular to a plane is perpendicular to all given lines 1–2 and 2–3 and the required line will not
lines in the plane. In practice, it is sufficient to state that appear in the given views because lines 1–2 and 2–3
a line is perpendicular to a plane if it is perpendicular to are not shown in true length.
at least two nonparallel lines in the plane. This line will If a frontal line is added to plane 1–2–3, as at (b),
also appear perpendicular (and in true length) to the its front view is true length, and the front view of the
edge view of the plane. Either principle may be used in required line will be perpendicular to the true-length
the construction of a line perpendicular to a plane. view of the frontal line as shown. It must be realized
It is desired to construct by the given-view method, that at this stage nothing has been determined about
Fig. 16, a line from point 4 perpendicular to plane the direction of the perpendicular in the top view. Nor
1–2–3. Since the plane is oblique, the perpendicular is the point at which the perpendicular strikes the
line will be oblique and will not appear in true length. plane—its piercing point—known. (Frequently the
Although the required line will be perpendicular in location of the piercing point is of no interest.)

n FIGURE 16 n Plane Perpendicular to Plane—Given-View Method.

629
 Parallelism and Perpendicularity

At (c) a horizontal line is added. The true-length

view of the horizontal line determines the direction of
the top view of the required perpendicular. Again, the
piercing point has not been determined, but two views
have been established and thus a space description of the
required perpendicular from point 4 with plane 1–2–3
has been constructed. Point 5 is arbitrarily selected as an
end point of the line, not necessarily in the plane.
If it is desired to terminate the perpendicular in
plane 1–2–3, it will be necessary to find the piercing
point by one of the methods of §11. At (d) the cutting-
plane method was used to minimize construction.

8 n PERPENDICULAR PLANES
If a line is perpendicular to a given plane, any plane con-
taining the line is perpendicular to the given plane. Since
an infinite number of planes can be passed through
such a perpendicular, it was chosen in Fig. 17 to
illustrate perpendicular planes by a more restricted
example: How to pass a plane through given line 4–5
and perpendicular to given plane 1–2–3.
At (a) a horizontal line is added to the plane. Since
a horizontal line appears true length in the top view, it
determines the direction of the required perpendicular
in that view (but, remember, not in the front view).
Point 5 is selected as being convenient for the origin of
the perpendicular.
At (b) a frontal line is added to plane 1–2–3 to
establish a true-length line in the front view, which is
needed to determine the direction of the front view of
the required perpendicular. It is assumed that the
piercing point of the perpendicular is of no interest
here. Accordingly, any arbitrary point, such as 6, is used
to terminate the perpendicular and complete the rep-
resentation of the required perpendicular plane 4–5–6.
n FIGURE 17 n Perpendicular Planes.
9 n COMMON PERPENDICULAR
BETWEEN SKEW LINES
The shortest distance, or clearance, between any two lines
is measured along a line perpendicular to both lines.
Study Fig. 18. Suppose line 5–6 to be perpendicular
to line 1–2, intersecting line 3–4 at 6. Now let line 5–6
move to position 5¿ —6¿, still perpendicular to line 1–2
and intersecting line 3–4 at point 6¿. Continue the
process of moving line 5–6 upward along line 1–2. Note
that it will gradually shorten until eventually it reaches
a minimum length and will begin to lengthen if moved
further. At its minimum length it will be perpendicular
to line 3–4 also. This is the common perpendicular rep-
resenting the shortest distance between the skew lines
1–2 and 3–4. Several procedures are available for locat-
ing the views of the common perpendicular in multi-
view projection, two of which will be discussed here. n FIGURE 18 n Common Perpendicular.

630
 Parallelism and Perpendicularity

POINT-VIEW METHOD If a point view of any given line In Fig. 20 (a) a line is drawn through point 2
is constructed, a line that is perpendicular to the parallel to line 3–4, thus establishing a plane contain-
given line will show in true length in the view show- ing line 1–2 and parallel to line 3–4, §4. The edge
ing the given line as a point. As noted in §6, a point view of the plane is then established in auxiliary view 1.
view of a line must be preceded by a true-length view In this view the shortest distance is measured as shown.
of the line. Accordingly, in Fig. 19 (a) line 3–4 is The shortest distance being obtained in only one addi-
arbitrarily chosen to be shown in true length and tional view is an advantage of the plane method over
view 1 is projected. As shown at (b), view 2 is then the point-view method.
constructed showing line 3–4 as a point. In this view, If, in addition, the views of the common perpendic-
any line perpendicular to line 3–4 (including the ular are required, a second auxiliary view is necessary
shortest connector) must appear in true length. Since and the total amount of construction is slightly more
the shortest connector is also perpendicular to line than in the point-view method. At (b) the second auxil-
1–2, it must appear at 90° to line 1–2 as shown, even iary view is constructed with its direction of sight paral-
though line 1–2 is not true length. If only the shortest lel to the shortest distance (or perpendicular to the
distance is required, it is measured in view 2 and the edge-view plane). In this view the shortest distance or
construction is complete. common perpendicular must appear as a point.This can
If, in addition, the views of the common perpendic- be only at the apparent crossing point 5, 6 of lines 1–2
ular are required, we proceed as shown at (b). Point 5 is and 3–4. This locates the common perpendicular, which
projected to line 1–2 in view 1. In this view the com- is then projected back to the other views as shown.
mon perpendicular is not true length. Line 3–4 is true
length, however, so line 5–6 is drawn perpendicular to 10 n SHORTEST HORIZONTAL LINE
line 3–4 in view 1 as shown. It is then routine to project CONNECTING SKEW LINES
line 5–6 to the top view and then to the front view.
Divider distances such as D2 and D3 are used to check Related to the preceding plane method is the problem
the accuracy of the construction. of finding the shortest line at zero slope or grade, the
shortest horizontal line connecting two skew lines.
In Fig. 21 (a) a plane is constructed containing line
PLANE METHOD If a plane containing one of two skew 1–2 and parallel to line 3–4.The edge view of the plane is
lines is parallel to the second line, the perpendicular constructed through the use of a horizontal line added to
distance from the second line to the plane is the short- the plane because in the auxiliary view 1 any horizontal
est distance between the two lines. connecting line will be parallel to folding line H/1.

n FIGURE 19 n Common Perpendicular—Point-View Method.

631
 Parallelism and Perpendicularity

n FIGURE 20 n Common Perpendicular—Plane Method.

n FIGURE 21 n Shortest Horizontal Line Connecting Two Skew Lines.

Auxiliary view 2 is then constructed at (b) with its construction is the same, Fig. 22 (a): A plane is
direction of sight parallel to folding line H/1.The short- passed through line 1–2 and parallel to line 3–4, and
est connector 5–6 appears in point view in view 2 at the an edge view of the plane is constructed, as shown, in
apparent crossing point of lines 1–2 and 3–4. It is then an auxiliary view adjacent to the top view.
projected back to the other views. At (b) projection lines for view 2 are drawn at the
prescribed slope angle with folding line H/1. In view 2,
the apparent crossing point 5,6 of lines 1–2 and 3–4 is
the point view of the shortest connector 5–6 at the
11 n SHORTEST HORIZONTAL LINE specified slope of 38°. The other views of line 5–6 are
CONNECTING SKEW LINES then completed by projection as before.
For a specified slope other than zero (horizontal), the It should be noted that the general procedure illus-
method of §10 requires only slight modification. In trated could be readily modified for other specifications,
this example, it is assumed that 38° is specified for the such as the shortest connecting line at a prescribed grade
slope of the connecting line. The first portion of the or the shortest frontal line connecting two skew lines.

632
 Parallelism and Perpendicularity

n FIGURE 22 n Shortest Line at Specified Slope Connecting Two Skew Lines.

Graphics
Spotlight CAD Design
CAD D ESIGN OF G EARS AND C AMS The first step in creating a cam is to choose whether
Once you know the design requirements for a particular you will design a circular cam or a linear cam. Figure A
gear or cam, a CAD software package can be used to shows a circular cam selected and follower diameter of .75.
automatically generate the drawing. It can be very time
consuming to create drawings of gears and cams by hand.
O NE P ICK S PECIFIES C AM M OTION
Once you have selected the type of cam and entered the
Using CAD frees the designer to spend more time on other
default radius and starting point for the motion, you use a
aspects of the design.
new dialog box shown in Figure B to define the various
motions for the cam. You can choose constant accelera-
A UTOMATIC D RAWING G ENERATION tion, cycloidal, harmonic double harmonic, dwell, modified
One program you can use to automatically generate draw- sine, modified trapezoid, polynomial, and uniform motions.
ings for gears and cams is Cimlogic™ Toolbox Power To define a motion, you just pick on the type of motion
Transmission software. It is designed to run with AutoCAD® desired, type In the ending radius (if appropriate) and the
and AutoCAD. Mechanical Desktop®. Toolbox Power number of degrees to perform this motion. Once you have
Transmission software lets you type the data defining the the dialog box filled out to draw the portion of the cam, just
motions for the cam or the details for the gear into user- pick on create. You can add additional motions for circular
friendly dialog boxes. cams up to 360° of travel.

(continued)

633
 Parallelism and Perpendicularity

D ISPLACEMENT D IAGRAM AND S UMMARY

C REATED FOR Y OU ated automatically, just by picking where to place the
The cam drawing shown in Figure C was created in min- information. Toolbox Power Transmission software also
utes using AutoCAD Mechanical Desktop and Toolbox will generate gear and spracket drawings in a similar fash-
Power Transmission software. You can select whether or ion. In addition, the regular toolbox software can be used
not to show the follower path (it is shown in the figure). The to automatically create fasteners, keys, seals, standard
displacement diagram and the cam summary were gener- symbols, and other useful items.

(A) (B)

(C)

634
 Parallelism and Perpendicularity

KEY WORDS
PARALLEL GIVEN VIEW METHOD VERTICAL LINES

HORIZONTAL COMMON PERPENDICULAR TRUE LENGTH

PROFILE LINES PERPENDICULAR SKEW

CHAPTER SUMMARY
n In all but one cäse, parallel lines that appear parallel in n A line is parallel to a plane if it is parallel to any line on
two adjacent views are parallel. The exception in the case the plane.
when the lines are perpendicular to the fold lines n A line is perpendicular to a plane if its measured angle is
between adjacent views. 90° with the plane when the line appears true length.
n Two planes are parallel when their edge views appear n The shortest distance between any two lines occurs on a
parallel. line that is perpendicular to both lines.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Do parallel lines always appear parallel in all views? 7. When using the auxiliary view method to create a line
2. If two planes appear in edge view, are they parallel? perpendicular to a plane, does the plane need to be in
What condition would make the planes parallel? edge view, or does the line need to be true length in the
auxiliary view?
3. Is the point view of a line that intersects a plane perpen-
dicular to the plane? What condition would make the 8. What is the name given to two lines that are not parallel
line perpendicular to the plane? and not intersecting?

4. Describe how to use intersecting lines to check for par- 9. When is the shortest distance between two skew lines
allelism between planes. NOT a line that is perpendicular to both given lines?

5. How is a true length line drawn on a plane?

6. Describe the given-view method for constructing a
plane perpendicular to a line.

PROBLEMS IN PARALLELISM AND PERPENDICULARITY

In Figs. 23–26 are problems covering parallel lines, bottom edge of the problem area. The third coordinate
lines parallel to a plane, plane parallel to a line, plane par- locates either the top view of the point from the bottom edge
allel to a plane or skew lines, perpendicular lines, lines per- of the problem area or the side view of the point from the left
pendicular to planes, common perpendicular, and shortest edge of the problem area. Inspection of the given problem
line at specified angle. layout will determine which application to use.
Use Layout A–1 or A4–1 (adjusted) and divide the work- Since many of the problems in this chapter are of a
ing area into four equal areas for problems to be assigned by general nature, they can also be solved on most computer
the instructor. Some problems will require a single problem graphics systems. If a system is available, the instructor
area, and others will require two problem areas or one half may choose to assign specific problems to be completed
sheet. Data for the layout for each problem are given by a by this method.
coordinate system using metric dimensions. For example, in Additional problems, in convenient form for solution,
Fig. 23, Prob. 1, point 6 is located by the full-scale coordi- are available in Engineering Graphics Problems, Series 1,
nates (35, 20, 50). The first coordinate locates the front view by Spencer, Hill, Loving, Dygdon, and Novak designed to
of the point from the left edge of the problem area. The sec- accompany this text and published by Prentice Hall/
ond coordinate locates the front view of the point from the Pearson Education.

635
 Parallelism and Perpendicularity

n FIGURE 23 n Lay out and solve problems as assigned. Use Layout A–1 or A4–1 (adjusted) divided into four equal areas.
1. Determine which, if any, of the lines 1 (12, 50, 88)–2 (38, 50, 58), 3 (12, 38, 96)–4 (43, 38, 55), or 5 (12, 20, 81)–6 (35, 20, 50) are parallel.
2. Draw a line 3 (25, 30, 71)–4, 25 mm in length and parallel to line 1 (12, 18, 73)–2 (12, 50, 112).
3. Complete the side view of line 1 (25, 112, 88)–2 (?, 75, 65) that is parallel to plane 3 (33, 75, 88)–4 (12, 38, 88)–5 (45, 12, 60).
4. Through point 1 (86, 25, 83) draw a line 1–2 parallel to planes 3 (50, 40, 112)–4 (15, 30, 94)–5 (63, 60, 84) and 6 (50, 20, 100)–7 (12, 43, 114)–8
(38, 50, 75).
5. Pass a plane through line 1 (12, 38, 70)–2 (35, 60, 58) parallel to line 3 (12, 25, 56)–4 (40, 25, 91). Add the top view.
6. By means of a horizontal line and a frontal line represent a plane containing point 1 (10, 20, 75) and parallel to plane 2 (91, 45, 70)–3 (50, 20, 81)–4
(70, 12, 114).
7. Pass a plane through point 1 (109, 38, 75) parallel to lines 2 (25, 50, 75)–3 (63, 15, 108) and 4 (85, 25, 84)–5 (85, 63, 107).

636
 Parallelism and Perpendicularity

n FIGURE 24 n Lay out and solve problems as assigned. Use Layout A–1 or A4–1 (adjusted) divided into four equal areas.
1. Find a line 1 (25, 38, 88)–2 that is parallel to plane 3 (127, 50, 66)–4 (178, 17, 94)–5 (137, 17, 104) and intersects line 6 (63, 43, 117)–7
(88, 12, 60).
2. Establish a line 1–2 that is parallel to line 3 (137, 33, 100)–4 (185, 45, 100) and intersects lines 5 (122, 50, 75)–6 (75, 63, 109) and 7 (58, 28, 114)–8
(25, 63, 81).
3. Line 1 (12, 20, 70)–2 (70, 20, 109) is the center line of a pipe. Connect this pipe to point 3 (63, 40, 60) with a 90° elbow (pipe fitting) at the
juncture on 1–2. Find the true length of the center line of the connecting pipe. Scale: 1/10.
4. Draw a 50 mm frontal line from point 1 (25, 45, 70) perpendicular to line 2 (38, 12, 115)–3 (88, 50, 70). Also draw a 50 mm horizontal line from
point 1 perpendicular to line 2–3. Use only the given views. (Note that these lines do not intersect line 2–3.)
5. Using only the given views, find a line 3 (68, 30, 78)–4 that is perpendicular to line 1 (12, 10, 75)–2 (45, 55, 106) and also intersects line 1–2.
6. Find the center of the smallest sphere that has its center on line 1 (5, 100, 96)–2 (38, 48, 50) and has point 3 (28, 88, 50) on its surface. Use
only the given views. If assigned, find the diameter of the sphere.

637
 Parallelism and Perpendicularity

n FIGURE 25 n Lay out and solve problems as assigned. Use Layout A–1 or A4–1 (adjusted) divided into four equal areas.
1. The axis of a right square pyramid lies along center line 1 (12, 63, 144)–2 (63, 25, 190). One corner of the base is at point 3 (66, 48, 175).
The vertex is at point V (25, –, –). Find the front and side views of the pyramid.
2. The axis of a right prism lies along center line 1 (38, 40, 75)–2 (75, 12, 114). One base is centered at O (48, –, –). The bases are equilateral
triangles inscribed in 36 mm diameter circles. The lowest side of each base is a horizontal line. The altitude of the prism is 35 mm. Complete
the views.
3. If an oblique cone is drawn with its vertex at V (94, 43, 84) and its base in plane 1 (50, 43, 100)–2 (88, 35, 116)–3 (75, 10, 63), what is its
altitude in millimeters? Use an auxiliary view to solve this problem. Show the front and top views of the altitude.
4. Find the shadow of point 1 (25, 50, 80) on plane 2 (38, 12, 114)–3 (57, 53, 122)–4 (84, 7, 68) if light rays are perpendicular to the plane.
5. An aircraft on a landing approach course of N 45° passes 300 m above point 1 (50, 7, 63). It is losing altitude at the rate of 200 m in 1000 m.
Point 2 (80, 20, 116) represents the peak of a hill. How close to point 2 does the aircraft pass? Scale: 1/10,000.

638
 Parallelism and Perpendicularity

n FIGURE 26 n Lay out and solve problems assigned. Use Layout A–1 or A4–1 (adjusted) divided into four equal areas.
1. Find the clearance between high-voltage lines 1 (25, 7, 88)–2 (78, 25, 84) and 3 (25, 43, 75)–4 (66, 12, 117). Show the views of a line
representing this clearance. Scale: 1/40.
2. Determine the bearing, grade, and length of the shortest shaft connecting tunnels 1 (120, 7, 104)–2 (170, 50, 65) and 3 (147, 18, 120)–4
(172, 7, 78), Scale: 1/80.
3. Ski slopes represented by lines 1 (25, 33, 88)–2 (75, 18, 84) and 3 (38, 28, 58)–4 (61, 7, 78) are to be connected by the shortest possible
horizontal path. Find the views and measure the length of this path. Scale: 1/4000.
4. Tunnel 1 (127, 15, 73)–2 (160, 38, 56) is to be connected to tunnel 3 (142, 35, 58)–4 (162, 20, 112) with the shortest tunnel at a downgrade of
10. Find the length and bearing of this connector. Scale: 1/2000.

639
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Intersections

From Chapter 21 of Engineering Graphics, Eighth Edition, Frederick E. Giesecke,

Alva Mitchell, Henry Cecil Spencer, Ivan Leroy Hill, Robert Olin Loving, John
Thomas Dygdon, James E. Novak. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Published by Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.
 Intersections

OVERVIEW OBJECTIVES
Intersections are common in building construction, sheet-metal work, After studying the material in this chapter, you
machine parts and structures, and the drafter or designer must know should be able to:
how to construct them. The intersection of a line and a surface is a 1. Define the term intersection.
point. Two surfaces will intersect in a line of intersection. The com- 2. Describe examples of intersections in
plete intersection between two solids is called a figure of intersection. the real world.
Although intersections may be of many different kinds, they all 3. Draw the intersection between a plane
involve some combinations of lines, planes, and solids. Accurate rep- and a prism.
resentation of the intersecting surfaces therefore becomes very impor- 4. Draw the intersection between a plane
tant since precision fit is necessary for function and appearance. and a pyramid.
Intersections can be defined as a locus of points that the sur- 5. Draw the intersection between a plane
faces of two solids share when their elements pierce one another. and a cylinder.
Intersections are an important design consideration in metal work
6. Draw the intersection between a plane
for aviation and automotive applications, plastics design, and gener- and a cone.
al consumer and industrial products design. Intersections are one of
7. Draw the intersection between any
the more complex spatial calculations that CAD software must
combination of prisms, cylinders, cones,
make. Surface modeling software uses the same engineering graph- and pyramids.
ics principles for intersection that drafters use on the drawing
board. All but the most sophisticated CAD software require the user
to understand the basic principles of intersection in order to solve
these problems on the computer. Typical intersection problems
involve planes that intersect with basic solid shapes, and solids that
intersect with other solids.

642
 Intersections

1 n SURFACES AND SOLIDS prism. Convex solids whose faces are all congruent reg-
A surface is a two-dimensional geometric entity hav- ular polygons are the regular polyhedra, which include
ing (theoretically) no thickness. It thus has area but the tetrahedron, cube, octahedron, dodecahedron, and
not volume. A surface may be generated by a moving icosahedron, known as the five Platonic solids.
line, straight or curved, called the generatrix. Any posi- Plane surfaces that bound polyhedra are faces of
tion of the generatrix is an element of the surface. the solids. Lines of intersection of faces are edges of
A ruled surface is generated by a moving straight the solids.
line. The surface generated may be a plane, a single- A solid generated by revolving a plane figure about
curved surface, or a warped surface. an axis in the plane of the figure is a solid of revolution.
A plane is a ruled surface generated by a straight Solids bounded by warped surfaces have no
line one point of which moves along another straight group name. A common example of such solids is the
line (the directrix), while the generatrix remains paral- screw thread.
lel to its original position. Many of the geometric solids In practice the term solid is frequently used for
are bounded by plane surfaces. convenience for any three-dimensional, closed form,
A single-curved surface is a developable ruled sur- even though it may be a hollow sheet-metal form such
face; that is, it can be unrolled to coincide with a plane. as a “tin” can or heating duct, and not solid at all.
A single-curved surface is generated by a straight line
one point of which moves along a plane-curve direc- INTERSECTIONS OF PLANES
trix, while the generatrix continues to pass through a AND SOLIDS
fixed point (the vertex) as for a cone, or remains paral-
lel to its original position as for a cylinder. 2 n INTERSECTIONS OF PLANES
A warped surface is a ruled surface that is not AND POLYHEDRA
developable, Fig. 1. These surfaces are generated by The principles involved in intersections of planes and
straight lines moving in various patterns, all character- solids have their practical application in the cutting of
ized by the principle that no two adjacent positions of openings in roof surfaces for flues and stacks or in wall
the generatrix lie in the same plane. Many exterior surfaces for pipes, chutes, and so on, and in the building
“streamlined” surfaces of automobiles or aircraft are of sheet-metal structures such as tanks and boilers.
warped surfaces. In these applications the problem is basically one
A double-curved surface may be generated only by of determining the views of the intersection of a plane
a curved line, and has no straight-line elements. Such a and one of the more common geometric solids. The
surface, generated by revolving a curved line about a intersection of a plane and a solid is the locus of the
straight line in the plane of the curve, is called a double- points of intersection (piercing points) of the elements
curved surface of revolution. Common examples are of the solid with the plane. For solids bounded by plane
the sphere, torus, and ellipsoid. surfaces, the intersection consists of successive seg-
Solids bounded by plane surfaces are polyhedra, ments of lines of intersection of the plane and the
the most common forms of which are the pyramid and plane surfaces of the solid.

n FIGURE 1 n Warped Surfaces.

643
 Intersections

n FIGURE 2 n Intersection of Plane and Vertical Prism.

For solids bounded by curved surfaces, it is neces- views of the edges of the prism. At (c) the piercing
sary to find the piercing points of several elements of points are located in the front view by means of divider
the solid with the plane and then to draw a smooth distances such as D1.
curve through these points. The curve of intersection
of a plane and a circular cone is a conic section. Fig. 3 For the plane and oblique prism of Fig.
3, it is chosen to obtain piercing points by the cut-
INTERSECTION OF PLANE AND PRISM Fig. 2 To deter- ting-plane method. An edgeview cutting plane is intro-
mine the intersection of the given plane 1–2–3 and the duced to coincide with a lateral edge of the prism, as
vertical prism, it is convenient to obtain the piercing shown in the top view at (b). It cuts a line 4–5 from
points of the parallel lateral edges of the prism by the plane 1–2–3. Line 4–5, after projection to the front
edge-view method. Since the top view of line 2–3 is view, locates the front view of point A, the piercing
true length, an edge view of plane 1–2–3 is construet- point of one lateral edge.
ed as at (b), with its direction of sight parallel to line In like fashion, (c), other edge-view cutting planes
2–3. The piercing points are 4, 5, 6, and 7. The top are introduced to find the remaining piercing points.
views of the piercing points coincide with the point Because the lateral edges of a prism are parallel, the

n FIGURE 3 n Intersection of Plane and Oblique Prism.

644
 Intersections

cutting planes in this case are parallel and cut parallel 3 n INTERSECTION OF PLANE
lines from plane 1–2–3. Hence it is only necessary to AND CURVED SURFACE
project points 6 and 7 to the front view and draw the PLANE AND RIGHT-CIRCULAR CYLINDER Fig. 5 To
respective lines parallel to line 4–5 to find the front establish the intersection of a plane and a circular
views of points B and C. cylinder, the cylinder is treated as a multisided prism
Joining points A, B, and C with straight lines in the through the introduction of an appropriate number of
proper order and visibility completes the front view of elements, as at (a). While theoretically these elements
the intersection. The top view is then completed by need not be equally spaced, the symmetrical arrange-
projecting points A, B, and C to their respective lateral ment shown tends both to simplify the construction of
edges in the top view and joining these points with the intersection and to facilitate development.
proper visibility as shown. Treated in this way, the construction becomes similar to
that of Fig. 2. The finished solution with proper visi-
INTERSECTION OF PLANE AND PYRAMID Fig. 4 bility is shown in Fig. 5 (b).
Because the plane 1–2–3–4 is limited—that is, it has
definite boundaries—some details of construction for PLANE AND INCLINED CYLINDER Fig. 6 The proce-
the intersection with the pyramid are different from dure illustrated here is similar to that of Fig. 5 except
the more general case illustrated in Fig. 3. for the different position of the cylinder. Again the
At (b) point A is found by the cutting-plane cylinder is treated as a multisided prism by dividing
method. When this method was applied to the other one of the bases into an appropriate number of equal
lateral edges of the pyramid (construction not shown), parts to establish the location of elements in the sur-
it was discovered that these piercing points are beyond face of the cylinder. An auxiliary view is then con-
the boundaries of plane 1–2–3–4 and are therefore structed showing the given plane ABC in edge view,
theoretical or imaginary. Further consideration leads Fig. 6 (a). The established elements are then project-
to the realization that we must find the piercing points ed to the top and auxiliary views. In the auxiliary view,
of certain edges or boundary lines of the plane with the the piercing points of the elements with plane ABC
lateral surfaces of the pyramid. coincide with the edge view.
Accordingly, at (c), edge-view cutting planes are At (b) the projections of points on elements 6 and
introduced coinciding with the front view of lines 2–3 10 to the front and top views are illustrated. Note the
and 1–4. The resulting piercing points B, C, D, and E, use of divider distance D1 to check the accuracy of
together with point A, permit the completion of the
intersection as shown.

n FIGURE 4 n Intersection of Limited Plane and Pyramid.

645
 Intersections

n FIGURE 5 n Intersection of Plane and Right-Circular Cylinder.

location of the points in the top view. This procedure is

repeated until all piercing points are located and
smooth curves are drawn through the points to com-
plete the views. Proper visibility is established by not-
ing the visibility of individual elements in each view.
Thus element 10 and the associated local portion of the
curve of intersection are invisible in the front view, but
visible in the top view. Element 6 is visible in the front
view. In the top view, the point on element 6 is impor-
tant in that it is the point at which the curve of intersec-
tion changes visibility and is tangent to element 6.

PLANE AND OBLIQUE CYLINDER Fig. 7 To determine

the curve of intersection of a plane and an oblique cylin-
der, the cylindrical surface is described in more detail by
the introduction of a large number of equally spaced ele-
ments, as shown at (a). (For simplicity only alternate ele-
ments are shown in the figure.) Since the elements are
parallel, introduction of edge-view cutting planes, coinci-
dent with the elements in one view, establishes a system
of parallel planes.These planes in turn cut a series of par-
allel lines from given plane ABC, as shown at (b), estab-
lishing piercing points of the elements in plane ABC.
Smooth curves drawn through the points, with proper
visibility, complete the views of the curve of intersection.

INCLINED PLANE AND OBLIQUE CONE Fig. 8 Equally

spaced elements are introduced at (a) to represent the
conical surface in more detail. Since given plane ABC
is in edge view, the piercing points of the elements are
apparent in the front view at (b), and their top views
n FIGURE 6 n Intersection of Plane and Inclined Cylinder. may be established by projection as shown.

646
 Intersections

n FIGURE 7 n Intersection of Plane and Oblique Cylinder.

n FIGURE 8 n Intersection of Inclined Plane and Oblique Cone.

647
 Intersections

n FIGURE 9 n Intersection of Oblique Plane

and Cone.

OBLIQUE PLANE AND CONE Fig. 9 This problem composed of curves, as shown in Figs. 5–8 and Figs.
could be solved by constructing an auxiliary view 12–23. The method generally consists of finding the
showing plane ABC in edge view similar to the proce- piercing points of elements of one solid in the surfaces of
dures shown in Figs. 5 and 6. However, a different the other. A smooth curve is then drawn through these
procedure is illustrated for this case. Note that a hori- points, with the aid of the irregular curve.
zontal cutting plane, shown at (a), cuts a straight line
1–2 from plane ABC and parallel to line BC. This cut- 5 n INTERSECTION OF TWO PRISMS
ting plane also cuts a horizontal circle from the cone. In Fig. 10, the points at which edges 1, 2, 3, and
Line 1–2 intersects the circle at two points (encircled) 4 of the inclined prism pierce the surfaces of the verti-
in the top view that are on the curve of intersection.
The points are then projected to the front view of the
cutting plane as shown.
The procedure is repeated at (b) by adding more cut-
ting planes until a sufficient number of points is obtained
to establish a smooth curve of intersection. Note the use
of special cutting planes marked EV in the top view to
secure critical points 3, 4, and 5 in the front view.

INTERSECTION OF SOLIDS
4 n PRINCIPLES OF INTERSECTIONS
An intersection of two solids is called a figure of inter-
section. Two plane surfaces intersect in a straight line;
hence, if two solids that are composed of plane surfaces
intersect, the figure of intersection will be composed of
straight lines, as shown in Figs. 10 and 11. The
general method consists in finding the piercing points
of the edges of one solid in the surfaces of the other
solid and joining these points with straight lines.
If curved surfaces intersect, or if curved surfaces and
plane surfaces intersect, the figure of intersection will be n FIGURE 10 n Intersection of Two Prisms.

648
 Intersections

cal prism are apparent in the top view and are project- prism parallel to the edges of the prism. Through all the
ed downward to the corresponding edges 1, 2, 3, and 4 piercing points in the side view, elements of the cone are
in the front view. The points at which edges B, C, and D drawn and are then located in the top and front views in
of the vertical prism pierce the surfaces of the inclined that order. The intersections of the elements of the cone
prism are found by application of the cutting-plane with the edges of the prism (and lines along the prism
method. In this example, frontal edgeview cutting drawn parallel thereto) are points of the intersection.
planes are introduced coincident with edges B, C, and The figures of intersection are drawn through these
D, respectively, in the top view. These cut lines in the points with the aid of the irregular curve.
surfaces of the inclined prism, which are projected to The elements 5, 4, 3, Á , in the side view of the
the front view, locating points 8 and 11, 7 and 13, and 6 cone may be regarded as the edge views of cutting
and 15, respectively. The intersection is completed by planes that cut these elements on the cone and edges
joining the piercing points in order with straight lines. or elements on the prism. Edges or elements that lie in
Note that in the final solution the figure of intersection the same cutting plane intersect at points on the figure
is a closed path. of intersection.
Another method of finding the figure of intersec-
6 n INTERSECTION OF PYRAMID tion is to pass a series of horizontal parallel planes
AND PRISM through the solids in the manner of Fig. 13. Each
plane cuts a cirele on the cone and straight lines on the
Fig. 11 As in §4 the intersection of a pyramid and prism, and their intersections are points on the figure
a prism is composed of segments of the lines of inter- of intersection. Since the prism is vertical, the cut lines
section of the plane surfaces. The piercing points of the on its surface coincide with the edge views of the verti-
edges of each solid in turn with the surfaces of the cal surfaces of the prism in the top view.
other solid are the end points of these segments. The
figure of intersection is completed by joining these 8 n INTERSECTIONS OF CIRCULAR
points in order. CYLINDERS AND CONES
INTERSECTIONS OF CIRCULAR CYLINDERS Fig. 14 To
7 n INTERSECTION OF PRISM determine the intersection of two circular cylinders, a
AND RIGHT CIRCULAR CONE series of elements is assumed on the horizontal cylin-
Fig. 12 Points in which the edges of the prism der and numbered 1, 2, 3, Á , in the
pierce the surface of the cone are shown in the side view
at A, C, and F. Intermediate points, such as B, D, E, and G,
are piercing points of lines on the lateral surface of the

n FIGURE 11 n Intersection of Pyramid and Prism.

649
 Intersections

n FIGURE 12 n Intersection of Prism and Cone.

side view. The elements are then established in the top 3, Á . When a sufficient number of points has been
and front views. The points of intersection of the ele- found to determine the figure of intersection, the curve
ments with the surface of the vertical cylinder are is drawn through the points with the aid of the irregu-
shown in the top view at A, B, C, Á , and these points lar curve.
may be found in the front view by projection to their This solution may be regarded as equivalent to
intersections with the corresponding elements 1, 2, passing a series of frontal cutting planes through the

n FIGURE 13 n Intersection of Prism and Cone. n FIGURE 14 n Intersection of Circular Cylinders.

650
 Intersections

n FIGURE 15 n Intersection of Circular Cylinders and Cones, Axes Intersecting and Nonintersecting.

two cylinders and parallel to the axes. The elements cut figure(s) of intersection. The curves are then drawn
from both cylinders intersect at points on the figure of through the points with the aid of the irregular curve.
intersection. Alternatively, a series of parallel horizontal planes
could be passed through the solids that will cut circles
INTERSECTION OF CIRCULAR CYLINDERS AND CONES Fig. from the cone and elements from the cylinder and inter-
15 In each example, (a) and (b), points in which sect at points on the figure of intersection. See Fig. 13.
elements of the cylinder intersect the surface of the This method has the disadvantage, particularly for Fig.
cone are shown in the side view at A, B, C, Á . These 15 (b), that critical points where the curve is tangent to
are point views of elements of the cylinder. A series of a cone or cylinder element are less precisely determined.
cutting planes containing these points and the vertex of
the cone will appear in edge view in the side view, and INTERSECTIONS OF CIRCULAR CYLINDERS AND CONES BY
will cut corresponding elements 1, 2, 3, Á , from the SPHERE METHOD If a large spherical ball rests on the
cone. When the elements of both solids are located in open end of a circular wastebasket, either cylindrical or
the top and front views, they intersect at points on the conical, Fig. 16 (a), it makes contact all around the

n FIGURE 16 n Spheres Cutting Circular Cylinders and Cones.

651
 Intersections

n FIGURE 17 n Intersection of Circular Cylinder and Cone by Sphere Method.

periphery or circular lip of the basket. In geometric vertical edge-view circles as shown. The circles inter-
terms, this means that a sphere (if large enough) cen- sect at points 1 and 2 on the figures of intersection of
tered on the axis of a circular cylinder or cone, (b) or (c), the cone and cylinder. Note that any sphere smaller
cuts circles from the solid. Moreover, where the axis of than the one shown would not contact the cone.
the solid appears in true length, the circles appear in At (b) a slightly larger sphere B is introduced,
edge view—as straight lines, as shown. A limiting case is again with its center at the intersection of the axes. This
shown at (c) where, for the particular chosen sphere cen- sphere intersects both the cone and the cylinder, cut-
ter, the sphere is just large enough to be tangent inter- ting two circles (in edge view) from each. These inter-
nally to the conical surface.The edge-view circle is thus a sect in four points, 3, 4, 5, and 6, as shown.
circle of tangency rather than a “cut” circle. This process is repeated until a sufficient number
The preceding concept is applicable to finding the of points is obtained, after which a smooth curve is
intersections of curved surfaces when all three of the drawn through the points.
following conditions are met. If a top view of the figure of intersection becomes
necessary, the horizontal circles cut by the spheres are
1. The forms must be circular (surfaces of revolution). easily located. In Fig. 18 cutting sphere A is shown
2. Their axes must intersect. again. The horizontal circle cut from the cone by
3. Both axes must appear true length in the same sphere A is projected to the top view, and the points
view. located by this sphere are projected upward to the cir-
cle in the top view. This process is repeated for other
cutting spheres until the points on the top view of the
While these conditions may appear to be exces-
figure of intersection are established. A smooth curve
sively restrictive, they are more often met than not
is then drawn through the points.
under practical considerations of design.
As an example, consider the circular cone and
cylinder of Fig. 17. Only the front view is absolutely 9 n INTERSECTION OF OBLIQUE
necessary, which is the advantage of the sphere CONE AND CYLINDER
method. Compare with Fig. 15 (a). When intersecting cylinders or cones are vertical, hori-
At Fig. 17 (a), a cutting sphere A is introduced zontal, or inclined, cutting planes are conveniently
with its center at the intersection of the cylinder and introduced in edge-view form to establish the figure of
cone axes. The radius selected for the sphere is such intersection. If one or both of the intersecting solids are
that the sphere is tangent internally to the cone and oblique—and in particular if the solids are not circu-
thus contacts the cone in the single horizontal circle lar—the introduction of edge-view cutting planes can
shown in edge view. The sphere cuts the cylinder in two be awkward.

652
 Intersections

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653
 Intersections

n FIGURE 18 n Constructing the Top View of a Curve of

Intersection.

To cut elements from a cone, a cutting plane must

(1) pass through the vertex and (2) cut or be tangent to n FIGURE 19 n Plane Cutting Elements from Cone and Cylinder.
the base. In Fig. 19 (a) such planes are represented
by intersecting lines. Any plane containing the line the cylinder, §4. From point P, the piercing point of
through the vertex of the cone, such as VP, passes line VP in the plane of the lower base of the cylinder,
through the vertex. This line intersects the extended lines are drawn tangent to and secant to the lower base.
base plane of the cone at point P. Line P–1, drawn tan- These are lines P–13 and P–12, respectively. Thus are
gent to the circular base at point 1, completes the rep- represented a tangent plane VP–13, with element of
resentation of a plane tangent to the cone. The element tangency 13– 13¿, and a plane VP–12, cutting elements
of tangency is line V–1. A line such as P–14, drawn 12–12¿ and 14–14¿ from the cylinder.
secant to the circular base, completes representation of To determine the figure of intersection of an
a plane VP–14, which cuts the base of the cone at oblique cone and cylinder, the methods shown in Fig.
points 6 and 14 and thus cuts elements V–6 and V–14 19 are combined as illustrated in Fig. 20. At (a)
from the cone. line VP is drawn through the vertex of the cone and
To cut elements from a cylinder, a cutting plane parallel to the cylinder. At point P, where line VP inter-
must (1) be parallel to the elements or axis (center sects the plane of the lower bases, line P–9 is drawn
line) and (2) cut or be tangent to the base. tangent to the base of the cone and secant to the base
In Fig. 19 (b) a line VP is drawn through a of the cylinder. Line P–13 is drawn tangent to the base
selected point V parallel to the elements of the cylin- of the cylinder and secant to the base of the cone.
der. Any plane containing this line will be parallel to Planes VP–9 and VP–13 are called limiting planes

654
 Intersections

n FIGURE 20 n Intersection of Oblique Cone and Cylinder.

because any plane outside of the space between them drawing the figure of intersection through the estab-
fails to cut at least one of the solids. The required figure lished points. The complete numbering system is shown
of intersection is thus limited to the narrow wedge of in the top view at (b) and (d).
space between the limiting planes. Each limiting plane
cuts one element from one solid and two elements NUMBERING SYSTEM The rules for the numbering sys-
from the other solid, so that each limiting plane secures tem are as follows.
two points on the figure of intersection.
At (b) several intermediate secant lines are added 1. Either base may be selected, and any tangent or
through point P. Each, together with line VP, repre- secant point in the base may be designated as point 1.
sents a cutting plane secant to both solids. At (c) plane 2. The points in the selected base are then num-
VP–15 is shown separately. Note that it cuts two ele- bered consecutively, either clockwise or countere-
ments from each solid: elements 3, 15 and 7, 11 from lockwise, except that the progression must not be
the cylinder, and elements 3, 7 and 11, 15 from the continued beyond a secant limiting plane.
cone. These in turn intersect at the four points 3, 7, 11, 3. When a secant limiting plane is reached, the direc-
and 15 on the figure of intersection. This system of tion is reversed, placing only one number at the
numbering is valuable in minimizing confusion while secant point. This process is continued until all

655
 Intersections

base points have two numbers, except for secant ed, can be mentally identified by the numbered points
points of limiting planes. between which they lie. Thus numbering of additional
4. On the other base, numbers 1 and 2 are assigned base points is unnecessary.
to the same lines as points 1 and 2 of the first base. The final curve is drawn through the points in
5. With the direction of progression thus established, numerical order with the aid of the irregular curve.
rules (2) and (3) are followed until all base points
of the second base have two numbers, except for 10 n INTERSECTION OF TWO
secant points of limiting planes. OBLIQUE CONES
As a final check, the pattern should be inspected to Fig. 21 The solution for the figure of intersection of
make certain the same numbers appear along each two oblique cones differs only in detail from the procedure
secant line. demonstrated in Fig. 20. Two observations of particular
Note that the system automatically assigns a single interest may be made concerning the determination of the
number to each point on the figure of intersection, Fig. intersection of the illustrated oblique cones.
20 (c). Moreover, in the final result, at (d), the points 1. The line through the two vertices is common to all
are connected in numerical order. In this case the curve cutting planes and determines, in the plane of the
is a single continuous curve from points 1 through 16 bases, point P from which the secant or tangent
and back to point 1. This situation always occurs when lines emanate.
one limiting plane is tangent to one base and the other
2. The two limiting planes are tangent to the same
to the second base.
cone base in this example.
VISIBILITY The visibility of the curve can change only Note that the numbering system on that base never
where the curve is tangent to an extreme or contour reverses direction but continues until every base point
element of one of the solids. Hence to determine the has two numbers. The rules of the numbering system,
visibility of the entire curve, it is necessary only to §9, cause it to divide naturally on the second base into
check one or two points on segments between such two separate groups of numbers, points 1 to 8 and points
tangency points. The visibility of a point is determined 9 to 16.The significance of this is that all elements of the
by the visibility of the individual elements that inter- first cone pierce the second cone, and there are two sep-
sect to locate that point. This must be checked for each arate figures of intersection. Other examples of double
view individually, since an element may be visible in and single figures of intersection are shown in Fig. 15.
one view and invisible in an adjacent view.
A point is visible in a view only if both intersecting
elements that determine the point are individually visible 11 n INTERSECTION OF TWO
in that view. Study Fig. 20 (c) carefully. Only the encir- OBLIQUE CYLINDERS
cled points are visible: point 15 in the top view and points Fig. 22 To find the figure of intersection for two
3, 7, 11, and 15 in the front view. This is determined by oblique cylinders, cutting planes are required that cut
observing the origin of each element at the base of its elements in both cylindrical surfaces. To do this, as
solid, with respect to the adjacent contour elements. shown at (a), an arbitrary point V is selected, and a
Note that elements 3, 7 and 11, 15 are contour ele- plane is passed through it and parallel to both cylinders.
ments of the cone in the front view and are thus points The plane thus established may or may not actually cut
at which the figure of intersection changes visibility, as the cylinders. What is important is that it is parallel to
shown at (d). all planes that do cut elements. Since the lines that cut
Also at (c) observe how the front views are established. the bases (the secant or tangent lines) are in this case
The front views of the elements are located for both solids, horizontal lines and lie in parallel cutting planes, they
their intersections establishing the front views of the points. are all parallel. Their direction is established by adding
It is advisable,for accuracy,to employ the vertical projection any convenient horizontal line HH to the plane through
lines between the views of the points only as an accuracy V as shown at (a). The secant lines are then drawn par-
check and not as a means of locating the points. [When the allel to the top view of line HH as shown at (b).The con-
views fail to align properly, it usually signifies that the origi- struction then proceeds as in previous examples.
nal construction at (a) was faulty.] Of interest here is the fact that the smaller cylin-
The construction is continued until all the num- der joins the larger cylinder but does not extend
bered points are located. Intermediate points, if need- through it, a common circumstance in duct work. Since

656
 Intersections

n FIGURE 21 n Intersection of Two Oblique Cones.

n FIGURE 22 n Intersection of Two Oblique Cylinders.

657
 Intersections

the two limiting planes are tangent to the same base, lines cutting the base of the cone must radiate from
there are theoretically two separate figures of inter- point X1 in the side view, while those cutting the base of
section. See §10. In this instance, the curve for the the cylinder must extend from point X2 in the top view.
second figure of the intersection is not plotted. In For any one cutting plane, corresponding lines from
applying the numbering system, only the first group of points X1 and X2 must intersect at the line of intersec-
numbers is employed. tion of the two base planes, which appears as point B-A
in the front view and as the line through A and B in the
top and side views.
12 n INTERSECTION OF CONE AND After trial constructions for the determination of
CYLINDER—BASES IN NONPARALLEL PLANES the limiting planes, it is found that line X1A, drawn tan-
Fig. 23 In Figs. 20–22 the bases of the solids gent to the base circle of the cone, locates point A such
are in the same plane. If they were not, but were in par- that in the top view line X2 A is secant to the base of the
allel planes, it would be necessary to extend or shorten cylinder.
one solid until it had a new base in the same plane as a Plane X1 AX2 is then one limiting plane for the con-
base of the second solid. Appropriate adjustments in struction. Similarly, plane X2 BX1 is the other limiting
lengths would be made in all views used for the deter- plane. Because the limiting planes are tangent to differ-
mination of the intersection. In Fig. 23, however, the ent bases, there will be only one continuous curve for
bases are in perpendicular planes. This does not alter the figure of intersection, §9.
the theoretical considerations, which are the same as in Intermediate cutting planes are now added. The
§8 but does introduce certain complications to the elements of the cone, as established in the side view,
original construction. are located in the top view by transfer of distances such
When a line is drawn through cone vertex V and as D1 . Their intersections with the corresponding ele-
parallel to the cylinder, it is observed that the line ments of the cylinder in the top view establish points
pierces the base planes of the solids in two separate on the figure of intersection as shown. In this example,
points: X1 for the cone and X2 for the cylinder. Hence the figure of intersection is not shown in the side view.

658
 Intersections

n FIGURE 23 n Intersection of Cone and Cylinder—Bases in Nonparallel Planes.

KEY WORDS
POLYHEDRA CUTTING PLANE OBLIQUE CYLINDER SURFACES
OBLIQUE PRISM CUTTING PLANE ELEMENTS INCLINED CONE SOLIDS
OBLIQUE CONE INTERSECTION LIMITING PLANES GENERATRIX
INCLINED PRISM WARPED SURFACE SECANT LINES SPHERE
CIRCLE OF TANGENCY INCLINED CYLINDER PIERCING POINTS PYRAMID

659
 Intersections

CHAPTER SUMMARY
n Piercing points are the basis for finding the intersection n Solving for the edge view of a plane is a common method
of a plane and a solid object. The cutting plane method is of identifying its intersection with a solid.
a common method for graphically determining the inter- n When two curved solids intersect, their intersection can
section of a plane and a prism. be broken down into several line intersection problems,
n Radial elements drawn on the surface of curved solids where elements drawn on each solid pierce the other
like cylinders and cones help define piercing points with a solid.
plane. n Visibility is an important part of solving any intersection
n Numbering all vertices and radial elements is essential problem.
for accurate graphical solutions.
n The intersection of a prism and another solid can be bro-
ken down into several sub-problems involving individual
planes of the prism that intersect the solid.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. List five warped surfaces. Which do not contain straight- 7. Why is it important to number elements when solving
line elements? intersection problems?
2. When solving for the intersection of a plane and a 8. Why are multiple cutting planes so useful in solving
prism, what is shown in edge view to solve the problem? complex intersection problems?
3. Which geometric solid has parallel elements: a cone or 9. Do cutting planes have to be parallel when solving
a cylinder? intersection problems?
4. Define an oblique cone. 10. Give seven examples of real-life objects that demon-
5. Can the elements of a pyramid ever be parallel? strate the intersection of geometric solids.
6. When looking down the axis of a cylinder, what is the
shape of its intersection with a pyramid?

INTERSECTION PROBLEMS
In Figs. 24–29 are problems covering intersection of the problem area. Inspection of the given problem layout
plane with prism, pyramid, cylinder, or cone and intersec- will determine which application to use.
tions of solids. If development is required, the development may be
Use Layout A–1 or A4–1 (adjusted) and divide the constructed on a second A–1 or A4–1 (adjusted) Layout or
working area into four equal areas for problems to be the entire problem may be drawn on one B–3 or A3–3 Lay-
assigned by the instructor. Some problems will require out. If assigned, dimensions may be included on the given
two problem areas or one half sheet, and others will views.
require a full sheet. Unless otherwise indicated, the data Since many of the problems in this chapter are of a
for the layout for each problem are given by a coordi- general nature, they can also be solved on most computer
nate system using metric dimensions. For example, in graphics systems. If a system is available, the instructor
Fig. 24, Prob. 1, point 2 is located by the full-scale may choose to assign specific problems to be completed
coordinates (45 mm, 40 mm, 83 mm). The first coordi- by this method.
nate locates the front view of the point from the left edge Additional problems, in convenient form for solution, are
of the problem area. The second coordinate locates the available in Engineering Graphics Problems, Series 1, by
front view of the point from the bottom edge of the prob- Spencer, Hill, Loving, Dygdon, and Novak, designed to
lem area. The third coordinate locates either the top accompany this text and published by Prentice Hall/Pearson
view of the point from the bottom edge of the problem Education.
area or the side view of the point from the left edge of

660
 Intersections

n FIGURE 24 n Lay out and solve problems as assigned. Use layout A–1 or A4–1 (adjusted) divided into four equal areas.
1. Find the views of the intersection of unlimited plane 1 (58, 12, 122)–2 (45, 40, 83)–3 (79, 40, 60) with the square prism having edge 4 (63, 7,
88)–5 (63, 45, 88).
2. Complete the views showing the intersection of bulkhead plate 1 (65, 10, 104)–2 (75, 5, 93)–3 (106, 25, 94)–4 (100, 45, 114) and the prismatic
duct with edge 5 (50, 35, 91)–6 (88, 5, 121).
3. Find the views of the intersection of unlimited plane 1 (10, 30, 124)–2 (43, 63, 124)–3 (86, 12, 175) with the pyramid having its vertex at V (63,
38, 127).
4. Find the views of the intersection of unlimited plane 1 (88, 45, 106)–2 (147, 35, 100)–3 (129, 20, 70) with the pyramid having edge A (165, 50,
88)–B (139, 12, 75).

661
 Intersections

n FIGURE 25 n Lay out and solve problems as assigned. Use layout A–1 or A4–1 (adjusted) divided into four equal areas.
1. Find the intersection of unlimited plane 1 (45, 70, 170)–2 (20, 25, 170)–3 (70, 8, 132) with the right-circular cylinder having axis X (63, 38,
134)–Y (63, 38, 177).
2. Show with complete visibility the intersection of wall section (limited plane) 1 (45, 7, 94)–2 (75, 63, 119)–3 (–,–,–)–4 (122, 7, 75) with pipe A
(75, 43, 75)–B (139, 25, 114).
3. Find the intersection of unlimted plane 1 (112, 48, 66)–2 (180, 48, 44)–3 (122, 10, 119) vith right-circular cone V (140, 50, 94)–O (140, 12,
94).
4. Find the intersection of unlimited plane 1 (78, 119, 96)–2 (5, 84, 198)–3 (66, 7, 145) vith the conical offset transition piece O (50, 88, 190)–P
(50, 25, 127).

662
 Intersections

n FIGURE 26 n Draw the given views of the assigned forms and complete the intersection. Use Layout A–1 or A4–1 (adjusted). Use Layout
B–3 or A3–3 if development is required.

663
 Intersections

n FIGURE 27 n Draw the given views of the assigned forms and complete the intersection. Use Layout A–1 or A4–1 (adjusted). Use Layout
B–3 or A3–3 if development is required.

664
 Intersections

n FIGURE 28 n Draw the given views of the assigned forms and complete the intersection. Use Layout A–1 or A4–1 (adjusted).
1. Complete the views of cone C (50, 25, 140)–V (127, 88, 224) and cylinder A (63, 88, 203)–B (114, 25, 140), including their figure of
intersection.
2. Find the intersection and complete the views of cones A (50, 50, 240)–B (114, 140, 165) and C (38, 122, 165)–D (140, 75, 240).
3. Find the intersection and complete the views of cylindrical tubes A (63, 88, 210)–B (100, 50, 160) and B–C (152, 88, 198).
4. Find the intersection in which conical funnel O (50, 75, 152)–V (152, 7, 127) joins cylindrical duct A (127, 75, 200)–B (88, 7, 88).

665
 Intersections

n FIGURE 29 n Draw the given views of the assigned forms and complete the intersection. Use Layout A–1 or A4–1 (adjusted).
1. Complete the views of pipes A (50, 33, 177)–B (127, 124, 150) and C (78, 106, 119)–D (127,38,215), including their figure of intersection.
2. Find the intersection of cylinder A (114, 50, 177)–B (152, 94, 215) and cone C (109, 96, 215)–D (152, 63, 172).

666
Developments

OBJECTIVES OVERVIEW
After studying the material in this chapter, The development of a surface is the construction of a pattern that
you should be able to: represents the unfolded or unrolled surface of a form. The resulting
1. Define the term development. plane figure gives the true size of each area of the form, so connect-
2. List examples of surface development ed that when it is folded, rolled, or fabricated, the desired form is
in the real world. obtained. Practical applications of developments occur in sheet-
3. Solve development problems for prisms metal work, stone cutting, pattern making, consumer packaging,
and cylinders using parallel line and package design. Containers, pipes, ducts, and other products are
techniques. often made of flat stock or sheet materials and are first laid out on
4. Create the development of cones and the flat sheets before the bending or rolling operations produce the
pyramids using radial line techniques. desired form.
5. Use triangulation to solve for transitions There are three basic types of sufaces development: parallel line,
between two geometric shapes. radial line, and triangulation. Each technique involves creating the
6. Create developments of two solids
true size of plane surfaces that are joined at shared edges or fold
that intersect. lines. When all the true size planes are joined together, the develop-
ment can be cut out and folded to form the three-dimensional
shape. Curved surfaces like cylinders and cones require the approx-
imation of small planes on the surface development by using paral-
lel or radial elements. Transition development uses small triangular
planes approximating small curved surfaces that form the transition
between two geometric solids. While development solution tech-
niques are simple on the drawing board, their CAD equivalents
require complex calculations. In order to effectively create a devel-
opment on many CAD programs the user must understand the
drawing techniques used on the traditional drawing board. Com-
puter cartography programs use many different types of surface
approximation techniques to represent the curved surface of the
Earth’s spheroid shape on the flat computer monitor screen.

From Chapter 22 of Engineering Graphics, Eighth Edition, Frederick E. Giesecke,

Alva Mitchell, Henry Cecil Spencer, Ivan Leroy Hill, Robert Olin Loving, John
Thomas Dygdon, James E. Novak. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Published by Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.
 Developments

1 n SURFACE DEVELOPMENT the theoretical development. The basic developments

A developable surface is one that may be unfolded or that follow are the foundation for such work.
unrolled to coincide with a plane surface. The devel- The designer must take into account stock sizes of
opment of a surface is the pattern of that surface laid materials and make the layouts for the most economi-
out on a plane surface, Fig. 1. cal use of material and labor. In preparing develop-
Single-curved surfaces and the surfaces of polyhe- ments, it is often best to locate the seam on the
dra can be developed. See §1. Warped surfaces and shortest edge (or in the center of the shortest panel).
double-curved surfaces can be developed only approx- Usually, bases are not necessary, but, if needed, they
imately, by dividing them into sections and substituting should be shown on the layout and attached at a long
for each section a developable surface, that is, a plane matching edge.
or a single-curved surface. If the material used is suffi- Except in certain activities involving relatively
ciently pliable, the flat sheets may be stretched, thin metals, such as aircraft and heating and venti-
pressed, stamped, spun, or otherwise forced to assume lating fabrication, it is customary to draw develop-
the desired shape. ment layouts with the inside surfaces up. In this
In sheet-metal layout, extra material must be pro- way, all bend lines and other markings are related
vided for laps or seams, Fig. 2. If the material is directly to inside measurements, which are the
heavy, the thickness may be a factor, and the compres- important dimensions for tanks and other vessels;
sion or stretching of metal in bends must be considered and the usual machines in fabricating shops are
in terms of a bend allowance. These are consid- designed for working with the developments with
erations that involve for the most part modifications of the markings up.

n FIGURE 1 n Development of
Surfaces.

n FIGURE 2 n Sheet-Metal Hems and Joints.

668
 Developments

PARALLEL-LINE 3 n DEVELOPMENT OF PRISMS

DEVELOPMENTS DEVELOPMENT OF RIGHT PRISM Fig. 3 The lower base
2 n PARALLEL-LINE DEVELOPMENTS 1–2–3–4 is a right section, and its true size appears in the
top view, (a). In the development, (b), base 1–2–3–4
Those common solids that are characterized by parallel unrolls into stretch-out line 1–1, its length being deter-
lateral edges or elements, such as prisms and cylinders, mined by setting off the successive widths of the faces
unroll into flat patterns in which this parallelism is 1–2, 2–3, Á , taken from the true-size top view. At the
retained, Fig. 1 (a) and (b). The methods for laying interval points along the stretch-out line perpendiculars
out these surfaces are based directly on this paral- are erected, and on each is set off the length of the
lelism. Perpendicularity is also involved, since the respective lateral edge taken from the front view. In the
perimeter of any section (cross section) of a prism or present arrangement, it is convenient to do this by pro-
cylinder taken at right angles to the lateral edges recti- jecting across from the front view, as shown. The points
fies into a straight line in the development. Such a line thus found are joined by straight lines to complete the
is called a stretch-out line, and all lateral edges or ele- development of the lateral surface.
ments in the development are perpendicular to it. In duct work it is not usually necessary to consider
The fundamental information needed in construct- bases, but, if desired, as for a model, the bases may be
ing a parallel-line development is obtained as follows. attached at longer edges, as shown.The result is the devel-
Select or introduce a right section and obtain its opment of the entire surface of the frustum of the prism.
true-size view. Its periphery is the length of the stretch-
out line, and the distances between the intermediate DEVELOPMENT OF OBLIQUE PRISM Fig. 4 In the given
edges or elements determine the intervals along the front and top views at (a), the lateral edges are not true
stretch-out line. The distances from the stretch-out line length, and the bases are not perpendicular to the lateral
to the end points of each edge or element are mea- edges. It is thus necessary to introduce a right section,
sured perpendicular to the right section in a view show- which is most convenient in a true-length view of the lat-
ing the edges or elements in true length. eral edges. Hence auxiliary view 1 is first constructed

n FIGURE 3 n Development of Right Prism.

669
 Developments

n FIGURE 4 n Development of Oblique Prism.

showing the lateral edges in true length. At any conve- in the top view. The true lengths of the lateral edges of
nient location in this view, cutting plane A–A is the oblique prism appear in the primary auxiliary
introduced perpendicular to the lateral edges. This view, and the true size of its right section is shown in
establishes right section 1–2–3–4, which will later unroll the secondary auxiliary view.
into the stretch-out line 1–1. First, however, it is neces- Lines parallel to the respective lateral edges are
sary to find the lengths of the sides 1–2, 2–3, Á (periph- drawn through the vertices of the intersection. These
ery), of the right section. Auxiliary view 2 is now added are then located in the developments in the same man-
for this purpose, showing the true size of the right sec- ner as the lateral edges. Point 5, located by distances Y
tion. (Note that auxiliary view 2 does not show the bases and Z on the oblique prism, is an example.
of the prism in true size.)
The development is now construeted at (b) in a 4 n DEVELOPMENT OF
manner similar to Fig. 3. RIGHT-CIRCULAR CYLINDER
Fig. 6 To construct the layout for a right-circular
1. The segments 1–2, 2–3, Á , are set off along the cylinder, an appropriate number of equally spaced ele-
selected stretch-out line 1–1, taking the lengths ments is introduced in the top view, which in this exam-
such as X from auxiliary view 2. ple is a true-size half-view of the lower base or right
2. At these points on the stretch-out line perpendicu- section of the cylinder. These elements are then project-
lars are erected, and the lengths of the edges, such as ed to the front view, where they appear true length.
Y measured from A–A in auxiliary view 1,are set off. The length of the stretch-out line 0–0 is the circumfer-
3. The end points of the edges are joined with ence of the complete right section. This length may be
straight lines to complete the development of the approximated by stepping off the chords 0–1, 1–2, Á , but
lateral surface. it is obtained more accurately by calculation, as indicated.
The stretch-out line 0–0 is then divided into the
DEVELOPMENT OF PRISMS WITH INTERSECTION Fig. 5 same number of equal parts as was the right section,
The figure of intersection of the prisms is found as in using the parallel-line method or with the bow dividers.
§5. The developments are constructed as explained With the cylinder elements located at these points, the
previously for Figs. 3 and 4. The true lengths of development is begun with the shortest element. The
the lateral edges of the vertical prism are shown in the true lengths of the elements are transferred by project-
front view, and the true size of its right section appears ing horizontally from the front view.

670
 Developments

n FIGURE 5 n Development of Two Prisms Oblique to Each Other.

n FIGURE 6 n Development of Right-Circular Cylinder.

671
 Developments

n FIGURE 7 n Development of Oblique Cylinder.

5 n DEVELOPMENT OF OBLIQUE at a common point or vertex. In their developments,

CIRCULAR CYLINDERS Fig. 1 (c) and (d), this feature is retained, so that
Fig. 7 The elements of the oblique circular cylinder the lateral edges or elements radiate from the vertex
connecting the two vertical duets do not appear in true in the development.
length in either the front or top view. Accordingly, auxil- After the various true lengths have been secured, a
iary view 1, showing the true lengths, is added. In this radial-line development is constructed, generally as a
view also, any right section, such as X–X, appears in edge series of triangles.
view.Auxiliary view 2 shows the true size of section X–X.
The development is constructed as explained in
§4. Since the development is symmetrical about either 7 n DEVELOPMENT OF PYRAMID
element 0 or element 8, either point is a satisfactory DEVELOPMENT OF RIGHT PYRAMID Fig. 8 The true
starting point for the construction, thus permitting the lengths of the lateral edges are found at (a) by revolu-
development to be only a half-development, as shown. tion. With point 0 in the development as center and line
Note that half-developments are so labeled and bound- 0–1R (distance Y) in the front view as radius, arc
ed by a center line at the element of symmetry. 1–2–3–4–1 is drawn, as shown at (b). The chords 1–2,
2–3, Á , are then inscribed with their true lengths equal,
RADIAL-LINE DEVELOPMENTS respectively, to the sides of the base, as obtained in the
top view. The lines 1–0, 2–0, Á , are drawn and the true
6 n RADIAL-LINE DEVELOPMENT length lines ODR (or 1R –DR), OA, OB, Á , respectively,
Pyramids and cones are characterized by the fact are set off.The development of the lateral surface is com-
that the lateral edges or elements of each intersect pleted by joining the points D, A, B, Á , by straight lines.

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 Developments

In sheet-metal work it is not usually necessary to DEVELOPMENT OF OBLIQUE PYRAMID Fig. 9 None of
include bases in the development. If desired, however, the four lateral surfaces of the pyramid is shown in
they may be attached to longer edges, as shown. true size and shape in the multiview drawing, (a). By
the revolution method, each edge is revolved
until it appears in true length in the front view, as

n FIGURE 8 n Development of Right Pyramid.

n FIGURE 9 n Development of Oblique Pyramid.

673
 Developments

shown. Thus, line 0–2 revolves to line O–2R ; line 0–3 Circumference = 2pR
revolves to line O–3R; and so on. These true lengths
Angle of sector = u
are transferred from the front view to the develop-
ment at (b) with the compass. The true lengths of the u
Length of arc of sector = * 2pS
edges of the bases are shown in the top view and are 360°
transferred directly to the development, completing
the triangular lateral faces. True lengths, such as line Therefore
O–AR, are then found and transferred.
u
2pR = * 2pS
360°
8 n DEVELOPMENT OF RIGHT-CIRCULAR CONE
Fig. 10 With the division of the base into a large or
number of parts (preferably equal), the development
of a cone becomes similar to the development of a mul- R
u = * 360°
tisided pyramid as described in §7. S
All elements of a right-circular cone are the same
length: the so-called slant height, S, as shown at (a). This may be simplified as shown at (a), by introduc-
Hence the development at (b) is a sector of a circle, with ing convenient lengths proportional to R and S.Any con-
radius S.The length of the arc of the sector is made equal venient 36 units of length are set off along the slant
to the circumference of the base. This construction is height. The corresponding horizontal distance (12 units
most accurately and easily performed by calculation. in this case) leads to the simple calculation shown at (b).

n FIGURE 10 n Development of Right-Circular Cone.

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 Developments

With the circle sector established at (b), the arc is curve 4¿ –5¿ (top view) is the true length of the curve of
divided into the same number of parts as the base of the base between elements 4 and 5. In practice the chord
the cone and the elements are drawn in the develop- distance R between these points is generally used to
ment. True-length lines VA, VC¿, VE¿, Á , obtained in approximate the curved distance. Relatively short
the front view, are then set off on the respective ele- chords should be used to obtain reasonable accuracy.
ments to locate points on the upper curve. After the conical surface has been developed, the
true lengths of the elements on the upper or imaginary
section of the cone are set off from the vertex A of the
9 n DEVELOPMENT OF OBLIQUE CONE development to secure points on the upper curve.
Fig. 11 The form connecting the two cylinders
(transition piece) is a frustum of an elliptical oblique TRIANGULATION
cone, the vertex of which may be found by extending the
contour elements to their intersection at point A. The 10 n TRIANGULATION
development is similar to that of Fig. 9. The sides of Triangulation is simply the process of dividing a surface
each narrow “triangle” are the true lengths of two suc- into a number of triangles and transferring them to a
cessive elements of the cone, and the base is the true development. The radial-line developments of §§6–9
length of the curve of the base of the cone between the are actually examples of triangulation. However,
two elements.This curve is not shown in its true length in because those constructions basically radiate from the
the given views. The plane of the base of the frustum is vertices of the pyramids and cones, it is generally pre-
therefore revolved until it is horizontal in order to find ferred to term them radial-line developments. In the
the distance from the foot of one element to the foot of sheet-metal industry, triangulation usually implies the
the next.When the plane of the base is thus revolved, the method of development applied to certain forms that
foot of any element, such as 5, revolves to 5¿ , and the are not pyramids or cones.

n FIGURE 11 n Development of Oblique Cone.

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 Developments

n FIGURE 12 n Transition Pieces.

The most common forms developed by triangula-

tion are transition pieces, Fig. 12. A transition piece
is one that connects two differently shaped, differently
sized, or skew-positioned openings. In most cases, tran-
sition pieces are composed of plane surfaces and coni-
cal surfaces, which are developed by the methods
applied to pyramids and cones.The oblique cone of Fig.
11 is also a transition piece. Sometimes such a piece
is a frustum of a pyramid, as in Fig. 8. Transition
pieces are extensively used in air-conditioning, heating,
ventilating, and similar constructions.

11 n DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSITION PIECE

CONNECTING TWO RECTANGULAR DUCTS
Fig. 13 In this case the lateral edges do not all inter-
sect at the same point to form a pyramid. It is convenient n FIGURE 13 n Development of Transition Piece Connecting
to develop some of the faces bv extending the sides to Two Rectangular Ducts.
form triangles, as shown for faces 1–2–6–5 and 3–4–8–7.
These are then developed by finding the true lengths of
the sides, as in §7. This procedure is somewhat inconve-
nient for faces 1–5–8–4 and 2–6–7–3. These are best containing them are not parallel, the lateral surface of
developed by triangulation, §10. Diagonals 4–5 and 3–6 the transition piece is a warped surface. It is theoretical-
are added to the faces to divide them into triangles. The ly nondevelopable, but it may be developed approxi-
true lengths of the diagonals, as well as the lateral edges, mately by considering it to be made of several plane
are then found and assembled as shown. triangles, as shown. The true lengths of the sides of the
As a cheek on the development, lines parallel on a triangles are found in a systematic manner so as to form
surface must also be parallel on the development; for true-length diagrams, as shown in Fig. 14.
example, line 8¿ –5¿ must be parallel to line 4¿ –1¿ on
the development. 13 n DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSITION
PIECE—SQUARE TO ROUND
12 n DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSITION PIECE Fig. 15 The development of the transition piece is
CONNECTING TWO CIRCULAR DUCTS made up of four plane triangular surfaces and portions
Fig. 14 Although the transition piece resembles a of four conical surfaces. The development is construct-
cone, close inspection reveals that the elements do not ed with procedures resembling a combination of those
intersect at a common vertex. The circular intersection used for Figs. 11 and 13. Curve 1–7 is revolved to
with the large vertical pipe is shown true size in the top position 1¿ –7¿ in a manner similar to Fig. 11. The
view, and the circular intersection with the small true-length diagrams are similar to those in Fig. 14.
inclined pipe is shown true size in the auxiliary view.
Since both intersections are true circles, and the planes

676
 Developments

14 n APPROXIMATE DEVELOPMENT faces are circumscribed about the sphere, the develop-
OF SPHERE ment will be larger. If the conical surfaces are partly
The surface of a sphere is not developable, §§1 and 2. within and partly without the sphere, as in (a), the
The spherical surface may be developed approximately resulting development more closely approximates the
by dividing it into small sections and substituting for spherical surface.
each section a segment of a developable surface, such
as that of a cone or a cylinder. POLYCYLINDRIC METHOD Fig. 16(b) The polycylin-
dric method, which is also known as the gore
POLYCONIC METHOD Fig. 16(a) Also known as the method, consists of cutting the sphere with meridian
zone method, the polyconic procedure is the basis for planes (planes containing the vertical axis). Cylindri-
most official United States maps. The sphere is divid- cal sections are then substituted for each spherical
ed by a series of horizontal planes, usually equally section. The cylindrical surfaces may be inscribed
spaced, and each zone is considered to be a frustum within the sphere, circumscribed about it, or located
of a right-circular cone. The development of the coni- partly within and partly without. The cylindrical sur-
cal surfaces, §8, becomes an approximate develop- faces are inscribed in the sphere in this example. The
ment of the spherical surface. If the conical surfaces development of the series of cylindrical surfaces,
are inscribed in the sphere, the development will be §4, is an approximate development of the spherical
smaller than the spherical surface. If the conical sur- surface.

n FIGURE 14 n Development of Transition Piece Connecting Two Circular Ducts.

677
 Developments

n FIGURE 15 n Development of Transition Piece—Square to Round.

n FIGURE 16 n Approximate Development of Sphere.

678
 Developments

Graphics Patents: A Computer Program that Provides

Spotlight Technical Help for Inventors*
Perhaps it was inevitable that someone would one day engineering properties, manipulating parts of those proper-
patent the act of inventing. Certainly the age of computer ties, or adding his own customized properties. The software
modeling and powerful, nimble technical software has itself will automatically combine engineering components in
made it possible for a group of inventors to now own what an effort to refine the invention or suggest new designs and
it calls an “invention that creates new inventions.” problem-solving techniques to the inventor.
The patented software program aims to allow every- The program is built around a data base of scientific and
day inventors to find out what would happen if they really engineering concepts and their effects. Using key words, an
tried to build a device or carry out a process they have in inventor can search through 6,500 entries and pull up full-
mind. It takes its inspiration from computer-aided design motion animation and a text description of each concept.
programs now commonly used by engineers and design- But first, the inventor must state an objective. The soft-
ers to try out and modify new ideas. ware then suggests engineering concepts that can make
Five inventors, all originally from the former Soviet that design objective a reality. Each suggestion is accom-
Union, designed the software, which enables a user to cre- panied by an explanation and illustration.
ate an engineering model of an invention idea, and then An inventor can connect the effects of two or more
test the model’s scientific properties. At each stage, the concepts to see what will happen, or he can simulate the
software offers descriptions and illustrations of the science results of changing parameters. He can click on a prompt
or engineering concept involved, chooses technical prop- that leads the software to offer other engineering or scien-
erties that will work in combination, and suggests alterna- tific facts that will improve the performance of his device or
tives to the mechanics or the method. process. The inventor can bookmark his most commonly
Theoretically, an inventor should not need a technical researched effects, and he can store the system’s sugges-
background, though the software is laden with physical, tions in his computer.
geometric and chemical laws, theorems, and hypotheses The software creates animated versions of the engi-
that only an engineer or scientist could love. neering effects, shows 5 to 10 seconds of full-motion
The inventors say their software goes beyond comput- video, describes the reactions, and gives any examples of
er-assisted design and into what they call in the patent similar technologies that already exist.
“concept engineering.” The purpose, they say, is to help The patent belongs to the Invention Machine Corpo-
designers and inventors come up with new ideas, evaluate ration. The company has already incorporated into its
and trouble-shoot them, and consider different engineer- computer-assisted design software, which can be exam-
ing approaches for realizing their plans. ined at www.invention-machine.com. The inventors,
“These systems serve to increase the designer’s Leonid Batchilo, of Arlington, Mass.; Valery Tsourikov of
inventive and creative abilities in solving engineering and Boston; Vitaly Glazunov of Moscow; and Alexandre
scientific operational or functional problems and, in the Kirkovski and Alexandre Korzoun, from Minsk, Belarus,
course of such problem solving, induce the designer to received patent 5,901,068.
invent new structural and functional concepts applicable Patents may be viewed on the Web at
to his/her design goals,” the inventors write in their patent. www.uspto.gov or may be ordered through the mail, by
The software enables a user to quickly understand the patent number, for $3 from the Patent and Trademark
technical results that are being sought, the structure and Office, Washington, D.C. 20231.
function of engineering devices, and how such devices
*
Adapted from “Patents—A Computer Program that Provides Technical
might produce those results if two or more are linked Help for Inventors without Scientific Training,” by Sabra Chartrand, New
together. The inventor can simulate the effect of combining York Times, May 17, 1999.

679
 Developments

KEY WORDS
SURFACE DEVELOPMENT STRETCH OUT LINE PATTERN HALF DEVELOPMENT

BEND ALLOWANCE TRANSITION PIECES PARALLEL-LINE SLANT HEIGHT

RADIAL-LINE DEVELOPMENT TRUE LENGTH DIAGRAM DEVELOPMENT GORE METHOD

MERIDIAN PLANES TRIANGULATION ZONE METHOD

CHAPTER SUMMARY
n Surface development is the process of creating the true-size into small approximations of planes that are drawn on a
shape of a geometric solid surface on a flat plane. The sur- flat surface to create the development.
face development, when cut out and folded together, forms n Spheres are the most difficult to approximate as a devel-
the three-dimensional solid from which it was derived. opment on a flat surface. Cartography professionals have
n Prisms, cylinders, pyramids, cones, and spheres each have developed many different approximation methods for
their own development techniques. All but the sphere, representing the surface of a sphere on a flat plane.
however, can be solved by parallel line development or n Transitions require the use of a triangulation technique to
radial line development techniques. approximate small triangular planes for the curved sur-
n All development involves creating true-size planes of the face between two geometric solids. Transitions are a com-
solid on the drawing surface. For prisms and pyramids, mon development problem for duct work used in the
these planes are all true size. For curved surfaces like sheet-metal industry.
cylinders and cones, the curved surfaces are broken up

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Which types of geometric solids would use the parallel 6. How many radial elements would you need to create on a
line development technique for creating a surface cone so its surface development was perfectly accurate?
development? 7. Are the triangles created on a transition development
2. Which types of geometric solids would use the radial true size or approximations of true size?
line development technique for creating a surface 8. When creating the surface development of a truncated
development? pyramid, which of the radial elements extend beyond
3. Are the plane surfaces on the development of a prism the actual surface boundaries of the pyramid?
and pyramid exactly true size? 9. Is the stretch-out line of a cylinder’s surface develop-
4. Are the plane surfaces on the development of a cylinder ment exact size or approximate?
and cone exactly true size? 10. Which development method of a sphere would have the
5. Which of the following solids has the most difficult and most accurate representation of the North Pole?
least accurate surface development: prism, cylinder,
pyramid, cone, or sphere?

DEVELOPMENT PROBLEMS
A variety of development problems is provided in graphics systems. If a system is available, the instructor
Figs. 17–22. These problems are designed to fit on may choose to assign specific problems to be completed
Layout B–3 or A3–3. Dimensions may be included on the by this method.
given views if assigned. The student is cautioned to take Additional problems, in convenient form for solution,
special pains to obtain accuracy on these drawings and to are available in Engineering Graphics Problems, Series 1,
draw smooth curves as required. by Spencer, Hill, Loving, Dygdon, and Novak, designed
Since many of the problems in this chapter are of a to accompany this text and published by Prentice Hall/
general nature, they can also be solved on most computer Pearson Education.

680
 Developments

n FIGURE 17 n Draw given views and develop lateral surface (Layout A3–3 or B–3).

n FIGURE 18 n Draw given views and develop lateral surface (Layout A3–3 or B–3).

n FIGURE 19 n Draw given views and develop lateral surface (Layout A3–3 or B–3).

681
 Developments

n FIGURE 20 n Draw given views and develop lateral surface (Layout A3–3 or B–3).

n FIGURE 21 n Draw given views and develop lateral surface (Layout A3–3 or B–3).

n FIGURE 22 n Draw given views and develop lateral surface (Layout A3–3 or B–3).

682
Line and Plane Tangencies

OBJECTIVES OVERVIEW
After studying the material in this chapter, you A plane tangent to a ruled surface such as a cone or cylinder con-
should be able to: tains only one straight-line element of that surface. A plane tangent
1. Describe the conditions that make a to a double-curved surface such as a sphere contains only one point
line or plane tangent to a three-dimen- in that surface. All lines tangent to a curved surface at a particular
sional surface. point or at points along the same straight-line element lie in a plane
2. Draw a plane through a point and tan- tangent at the point or element. A plane tangent to a ruled surface is
gent to a cone or cylinder. conveniently represented by two straight lines, one an element and
3. Draw a plane parallel to a line and tan- the other line tangent to the surface at a point on the element. For
gent to a cone or cylinder. double-curved surfaces the plane is represented by two straight
4. Draw a plane tangent to a sphere at a lines, both tangent at the same point on the double-curved surface.
given point on its surface. One of the most complex engineering graphics solutions is the
5. Draw a plane tangent to a sphere and plane tangent to a three-dimensional curved surface like a cone,
parallel to a line. cylinder, or sphere. While most CAD programs can quickly find the
6. Draw a plane tangent to a sphere and tangent point for plane geometry, solutions for three-dimensional
containing a given line not intersecting tangencies can only be handled by the most sophisticated CAD pro-
the sphere. gram. However, any drafter with a thorough understanding of engi-
7. Draw a line at a specified angle to one neering graphics theory can use a drawing board or simple CAD
or more principle planes of projection. program to solve complex tangency problems. Similar solutions can
be used to solve for true angles between oblique lines and the prin-
cipal planes of projection.

From Chapter 23 of Engineering Graphics, Eighth Edition, Frederick E. Giesecke,

Alva Mitchell, Henry Cecil Spencer, Ivan Leroy Hill, Robert Olin Loving, John
Thomas Dygdon, James E. Novak. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Published by Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.
 Line and Plane Tangencies

1 n LINE AND PLANE TANGENCIES tangent line and a line lying in the curved surface (a
Methods are based on the principle that a line tangent straight-line element). It is sometimes convenient to
to a circle is perpendicular to the radius drawn to the represent a tangent plane by a tangent edge view of the
point of tangency. Thus in Fig. 1 (a) line 1–2 is perpen- plane, Fig. 10 (b).
dicular to radius O–1 at point 1 and is tangent to the
circle O. If the assumption is made that line 1–2 and 2 n PLANES TANGENT TO CONES
circle O are in the plane of the paper, a plane geometry PLANE TANGENT TO A RIGHT-CIRCULAR CONE THROUGH POINT
construction suffices. ON SURFACE Fig. 2 Let the cone and the top view
At (b) is given a multiview (or three-dimensional) of point 1 on the surface of the cone be given as at (a).
drawing. Although the top view of line 3–4 appears to At (b) the element through point 1 is drawn in the
be tangent to the top view of the circle, line 3–4 is not top view, establishing point 2 on the circular base.
tangent to the circle in space because line 3–4 is not in Point 2 is then projected to the front view, and point 1
the plane of the circle, as is evident in the front view. By is projected to the now-established front view of the
contrast, line 5–6 lies in the plane of the circle and is element.
tangent in space to the given circle. If the view of element O–2 is nearly parallel to the
Because planes are easily represented by lines, projectors, more dependable accuracy may be secured
planes tangent to curved surfaces are often rep- through the use of revolution, as at (c).
resented by suitable pairs of tangent lines, or by one At (d) line 2–3 is drawn tangent to the circular
base by drawing its top view perpendicular to element

n FIGURE 1 n Line Tangencies.

n FIGURE 2 n Plane Tangent to Right-Circular Cone Through Point on Surface.

684
 Line and Plane Tangencies

n FIGURE 3 n Plane Tangent to Oblique Cone Through Point Outside Cone.

O–2 at point 2 and by drawing its front view coinciding At (c) point 2 is projected to the top view of line
with the edge view of the base. Plane 0–1–2–3 is the V–1, and from the top view of point 2 line 2–3 and
required tangent plane. 2–3¿ may be drawn tangent to the base circle as shown.
Either plane V–2–3 or V–2–3¿ meets the requirements
of the problem. In practice, it is usually evident which
PLANE TANGENT TO OBLIQUE CONE THROUGH POINT OUTSIDE
of two optional solutions is compatible with other fea-
ITS SURFACE Fig. 3 Let the cone and point be
tures of the design.
given as at (a).
Because all elements of a cone pass through its
vertex, a tangent plane, which must contain an ele- PLANE TANGENT TO CONE AND PARALLEL TO GIVEN LINE Fig.
ment, will contain the vertex also. Hence line V–1 lies 4 With the given cone and line 1–2 as shown at
in the tangent plane. Any line tangent to the base cir- (a), a line is drawn through vertex V of the cone, paral-
cle lies in the plane of the base, §1, and thus can lel to the given line and intersecting the plane of the
intersect line V–1 only at point 2, shown in the front base at point 3, as at (b), thus establishing a line in the
view at (b). required tangent plane.

n FIGURE 4 n Plane Tangent to Cone and Parallel to Given Line.

685
 Line and Plane Tangencies

At (c) point 3 is projected to the top view of the introduced as at (b). When point 2 is projected to the
line through V and parallel to line 1–2. From the top top view, it is observed that point 2 may fall at either
view of point 3 lines 3–4 and 3–4¿ may be drawn tan- position 2 or position 2¿. There are thus alternative
gent to the base circle as shown. Either plane V–3–4 or solutions, and point 1 may be at either of the locations
V–3–4¿ satisfies the requirements of the problem. 1 and 1¿, as shown. Addition of line 2–3 tangent to the
base of the cylinder at point 2 (or line 2¿ –3¿ at point
3 n PLANES TANGENT TO CYLINDERS 2¿ ) completes the representation of the required tan-
gent plane.
By definition, all elements of a cylinder are parallel to
each other and to the axis of the cylinder. It follows PLANE TANGENT TO CYLINDER THROUGH POINT OUTSIDE ITS SUR-
that any plane tangent to a cylinder, and thus contain- FACE Fig. 6 The cylinder and point 1 are given as
ing one element, is parallel to the remaining elements at (a). As previously noted, any plane tangent to a cylin-
and to the axis. der must be parallel to the elements. Hence a line 1–2
drawn through point 1 and parallel to the elements, as at
PLANE TANGENT TO CYLINDER THROUGH POINT ON SURFACE (b), must be common to all planes containing point 1
Fig. 5 With one view given of point 1 on the sur- and parallel to the elements. The representation of
face of an oblique cylinder as at (a), element 1–2 is a tangent plane is completed by the addition of a line
n FIGURE 5 n Plane Tangent to Cylinder Through Point Outside Surface.

n FIGURE 6 n Plane Tangent to Cylinder Through Point Outside Surface.

686
 Line and Plane Tangencies

tangent to one base of the cylinder. As observed earlier, (b), the direction of horizontal lines in planes parallel to
such a tangent line must lie in the same plane as the cho- plane 2–1–3, including the required plane, is also estab-
sen base—in this example the lower base, (c). Therefore lished.
the tangent line could intersect line 1–2 only at point 2 At (c) line 21 –41 is drawn parallel to the top view of
located in the front view at the intersection of the line 2–4 and tangent to either base—in this case the
(extended) edge view of the base plane with line 1–2. lower base—of the cylinder. The point of tangency is 5,
Observe that lines could be drawn from point 2 tangent and line 5–6 is the element of tangency. Construction of
to the lower base at either point 3 or point 3¿, so that the front view completes the representation of the
again there are alternative solutions, and in an applica- required tangent plane parallel to given line 1–2.
tion it would normally be apparent which solution is Since tangent line 21 –41 could have been drawn on
practical. the opposite side of the base, there is an alternative tan-
gent plane, which is not shown here.
PLANE TANGENT TO CYLINDER AND PARALLEL TO GIVEN LINE
OUTSIDE THE CYLINDER Fig. 7 Let the cylinder and 4 n PLANES TANGENT TO SPHERES
line 1–2 be given as at (a). A plane is constructed paral- A plane tangent to a double-curved surface, §1, con-
lel to a given line. However, at this stage it is not known tains one and only one point of that surface, since it fol-
which element will be the line of tangency. The tangent lows from the definition of such a surface that it contains
plane must be parallel to all elements of the cylinder as no straight-line elements. Hence planes tangent to dou-
well as to line 1–2. A plane can be constructed at any ble-curved surfaces are represented by appropriate
convenient location and parallel both to the elements combinations of lines tangent at the desired point or
and to line 1–2. The required tangent plane will then be points of tangency. Under suitable circumstances such a
parallel to this plane. tangent line may represent an edge view of the required
A convenient representation for this preliminary tangent plane. An example of this appears later in this
plane includes the given line 1–2, as at (b).With line 1–3 section.
drawn parallel to the cylinder as shown, plane 2–1–3 is The sphere is by far the most practical, hence
established parallel to the cylinder. most common, form of the double-curved surface. This
Any line tangent to either given cylinder base must discussion will be limited to spherical surfaces.
be a horizontal line, §1. Since all horizontal lines in the
same oblique plane are parallel to each other, it LINES TANGENT TO A SPHERE AT A GIVEN POINT ON ITS SUR-
follows that horizontal lines in parallel oblique planes are FACE Fig. 8 Let the front and top views of a
likewise parallel to each other. Thus, if the direction of hemisphere be given, as at (a), and let the top view of a
one such horizontal line is established, such as line 2–4 at point 1 on its surface be given also. The front view of

n FIGURE 7 n Plane Tangent to Cylinder and Parallel to Given Line Outside the Cylinder.

687
 Line and Plane Tangencies

n FIGURE 8 n Lines Tangent to Spherical Surface at a Point on the Surface.

point 1 can be located by passing a convenient cutting structed in the front view as shown, and point 1 is pro-
plane through the point and finding another view of jected to it. A line tangent to this circle is tangent to
the line (circle) of intersection. It follows that a “con- the spherical surface. At (c) line 1–2 is constructed
venient” cutting plane is one in such position that the tangent to the circle at point 1 by drawing the front
circle appears in one of the given views as a circle and view of the tangent line perpendicular to radius O–1
not as an ellipse. As an example, at (b) a frontal, edge- and then drawing the top view coincident with the
view plane is introduced. The circle is located and con- edge view of the cutting plane, §1.

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 Line and Plane Tangencies

At (d) point 1 is revolved, in the top view, to the face at point 1. Any two of these constitute intersecting
frontal plane through center O. This amounts to tangent lines and thus establish the plane tangent at
revolving the edge view of a vertical cutting plane point 1. As an example, tangent lines 1–2 and 1–4 are
(EV), as indicated. The revolved view of the circle of shown in Fig. 9. Plane 2–1–4 is one representation of
intersection coincides with the circular front view of the plane tangent to the spherical surface at point 1.
the sphere, and the revolved position 1R of point 1 is Incidentally, study reveals that this is simply the con-
projected to it. As shown at (e), line 1R –3 is now drawn struction of a plane perpendicular to radius O–1 at
tangent to this circle, intersecting the vertical center point 1 by the given-view method. Analogous to the
line of the sphere at point 3. Since this vertical center plane geometry description of a line tangent to a circle,
line is also the axis of revolution, point 3 will not move §1, a plane tangent to a sphere may be defined as a
as the cutting plane counterrevolves, as at (f). Line 1–3 plane perpendicular to the radius of the sphere drawn
is thus another line tangent to the spherical surface at to the point of tangency.
given point 1.
At (g) a horizontal cutting plane is introduced by
PLANE TANGENT TO A SPHERE AND CONTAINING A GIVEN LINE
first drawing the top view of the circle of intersection
THAT DOES NOT INTERSECT THE SPHERE Fig 10 Let
passing through the top view of point 1. This in turn
projects to the front view as shown, locating the edge of sphere O and line 1–2 be given in the front and top
the cutting plane, to which point 1 is projected. Line views, as at (a). If a point view of a line is constructed,
1–4, constructed tangent to the circle of intersection at any plane containing the line appears in edge view.
point 1, is also tangent to the spherical surface. Also any orthographic projection of a sphere shows the
Finally, at (h) and (i), line 1–5 is constructed tan- true diameter of the sphere. Hence in the given prob-
gent to the spherical surface in a variation of the lem, if a point view of line 1–2 is constructed, the
method shown at (d) to (f). An edge-view cutting plane required tangent plane will appear in edge view and
is introduced in the front view, through points 1 and O. tangent to the corresponding view of the sphere. Since
After it revolves to horizontal, the circle of intersection line 1–2 appears in true length in the top view at (a), its
coincides with the top view of the sphere, and line 1R –5 point view may be constructed in primary auxiliary
is drawn tangent to the cut circle of intersection. Coun- view 1 as shown.
terrevolution establishes the views of the tangent line At (h) alternative edge views of planes are drawn
1–5, as shown at (i). through point view 2, 1 and tangent to the sphere at
point 3 or point 3¿ as preferred. The front and top views
of point 3 or 3¿ are then projected as shown, completing
PLANE TANGENT TO A SPHERE AT A GIVEN POINT ON ITS SUR-
FACE Fig 9 In Fig. 8 four lines, 1–2, 1–3, 1–4,
the representation of the tangent plane. In practice,
other lines of the tangent plane could, and probably
and 1–5, were constructed tangent to the spherical sur-
would, be drawn to establish a recognizable configura-
n FIGURE 9 n Plane Tangent to Sphere at Given Point on its
tion. Theoretically, additional lines are not needed.
Surface.

5 n APPLICATIONS
OF RIGHT-CIRCULAR CONES
All elements of a right-circular cone form the same
angle with the base plane of the cone. This feature is
the basis for the constructions following.

PLANE CONTAINING AN OBLIQUE LINE AND MAKING A SPECIFIED

ANGLE WITH HORIZONTAL Fig. 11 Let line 1–2 be
given, as at (a), and let it be required to construct a
plane containing line 1–2 and forming an angle of 45°
(or 135°) with horizontal.
A plane tangent to a right-circular cone contains
one element and forms the same angle as does any ele-
ment with the base plane of the cone. Because the ver-
tex is common to all elements, it must lie in any

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 Line and Plane Tangencies

n FIGURE 10 n Plane Tangent to Sphere and Containing Line Outside Sphere.

n FIGURE 11 n Plane Containing Line and Forming Specified Angle with Horizontal.

tangent plane. Hence at (b) the vertex of a cone of As shown at (c), the foregoing construction could
suitable dimensions is placed at some chosen point 3 be somewhat simplified in detail, not in principle, by
along given line 1–2. In this case the required angle is placing the cone vertex at point 2 and the base plane at
45° with horizontal, so the cone is placed with its base the same elevation as point 1.
horizontal (axis vertical) and with its elements at 45°
with the base. This same construction is used for a LINE AT SPECIFIED ANGLES WITH GIVEN PLANES Fig. 12
specified angle of 135°, the supplement of 45°. Line If two right-circular cones with the same vertex inter-
1–2 pierces the extended edge view of the base plane sect, the common element or elements of the two cones
at point 4. See Fig. 3. Lines tangent to the base may form the same angles with the two base planes as do the
be drawn alternatively from point 4 to point 5 or from respective sets of elements. To simplify determining
point 4 to point 5¿. Either of the two resulting tangent which elements are common, the two cones should have
planes may be selected according to additional specifi- elements of the same length so that their base lines inter-
cations, if any. sect, as exemplified by points 1 and 2 in Fig. 12.

690
 Line and Plane Tangencies

plane. Note that the previously selected length S must

also be used for the elements of the second cone. This
selection results in the intersection of two base circles
at points 2 and 2¿. Thus the requirements of the prob-
lems are fulfilled by either line 1–2 or line 1 – 2¿. There
are additional alternative solutions. If we choose to
reverse either cone, we find two more solutions. At (c)
the cone with the 30° angle is drawn sloping upward
from point 1. The two additional solutions are lines 1–3
and 1–3¿.
Additional reversals of the cones produce line-
segment extensions of lines 1–2 and 1–2¿ or 1–3 and
1–3¿ —not additional alternative solutions.
It is important to realize that there are limitations
n FIGURE 12 n Line at Specified Angles with Two Given Planes. on the selection of the two angles. If their sum is
greater than 90°, the cones do not intersect, and there
is no solution. If the sum equals 90°, the cones are tan-
As an example of an application of the foregoing, gent and the element of tangency is the solution. (Two
Fig. 13, let it be required to construct a line 1–2, with such single-element solutions are possible.) Only
point 1 given, such that line 1–2 forms an angle of 30° when the sum of the required angles is less than 90° do
with a horizontal plane and an angle of 50° with a we have the four alternative possibilities shown in Fig.
frontal plane. At (a) a right-circular cone is constructed 13. For given planes that are not perpendicular,
with its vertex at point 1 and with its elements at 30° there are different but similar limitations dependent
with horizontal. The length S of the elements can be on the dihedral angle, between the two planes. In gen-
any convenient or specified length. eral, the sum of the required angles must be equal to
At (b) a second cone is introduced with its vertex or less than the dihedral angle between the given
at point 1 but with its elements at 50° with a frontal planes.

n FIGURE 13 n Line at Specified Angles with Horizontal and Frontal Planes.

691
 Line and Plane Tangencies

Graphics
Spotlight Creating Digital Terrain Models
3D CAD T ERRAIN F ROM S URFACE M ODEL TO C ONTOUR M AP
You can use CAD to create 3D models of terrain. These The surface models created with DTM are called Triangulat-
models can be created from point data, which contains the ed Irregular Networks or TINs because they are made up of
x and y coordinates, or northings and eastings, of a point, triangular shaped facets that describe the shape of the sur-
and their z coordinate or elevation. The 3D point informa- face (see Fig. B).
tion gathered from a survey can be used to define a CAD Once you have defined a TIN, you can use it to auto-
surface model representing the terrain. Stereophotogram- matically generate a contour map. You can digitize, edit,
metry can also be used to generate the 3D point informa- label, and smooth the contours. You can also get surface
tion needed to create CAD terrain models. There are a statistics such as average slope and total surface area,
number of CAD packages available which help you in cre- and can view the model based on elevation or slope. You
ating 3D surface models of terrain. One company which can generate multiple surface cross sections utilizing an
makes a full suite of civil software applications that run unlimited number of surfaces. This is extremely useful for
inside of AutoCAD® is Softdesk. planning road locations, or general site development.
Softdesk also has software for Advanced Design and
T ERRAIN M ODELS I NSIDE A UTO CAD Hydrology Tools which let you sample profiles and cross
Softdesk, Inc. provides Digital Terrain Modeling (DTM) sections automatically. You can also calculate volumes
software which you can use to do site analysis and terrain between surfaces utilizing Softdesk’s Earthworks™ mod-
modeling for sites, reservoirs, channels, roadways, land- ule, which is helpful for designing roadway drainages.
fills, slope analysis, and mining operations (see Fig. A).
Softdesk’s DTM runs inside AutoCAD software. The draw- F LY T HROUGH S ITE
ings it creates are standard AutoCAD drawings, which you The surface model describes the shape of the terrain.
can also edit and plot using just AutoCAD. One of the nice Once you have defined it, it can be used visually to create
features of DTM is that it can interpret a variety of data fly-throughs of the site. This can be very useful for pre-
including drawing or project points, AutoCAD points, 3D senting your design in a way that is friendly for managers
faces, and 3D entities such as contours to create a surface and decision makers. As well as improving visualization,
model. DTM™ also works with Softdesk’s COGO (Coordi- 3D fly-throughs involve the viewer in a way that static pre-
nate Geometry) module which you can use to import sur- sentations do not. The increased involvement in the
vey locations from data recorders, and to reduce survey design can help to provide increased understanding and
data. acceptance of the project.

(B) Courtesy of Softdesk, Inc.

(A) Courtesy of Softdesk, Inc.

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 Line and Plane Tangencies

KEY WORDS
TANGENCY DOUBLE-CURVED SURFACE RIGHT CONE SINGLE-CURVED SURFACE
RIGHT CYLINDER RADIAL ELEMENTS OBLIQUE CONE DIHEDRAL ANGLE
OBLIQUE CYLINDER APPARENT TANGENT POINT

CHAPTER SUMMARY
n In plane geometry, lines that appear to intersect with a tion techniques can be used to improve construction
curved figure at one point are considered tangent at that accuracy when solving problems with instruments on
point. In three-dimensional space, a line can appear to be paper.
tangent in one view, but in fact may not be tangent when n CAD programs that do not have automatic tangency
viewed from an alternate view. functions can still be used to solve complex tangency
n Radial elements are defined on cones and cylinders to problems by using the software as a super-accurate draft-
make the intersection of a tangent plane and the radial ing tool and employing descriptive geometry solution
element coplanar. Once the geometry is coplanar, the techniques.
simplified tangency rules of plane geometry apply. n A plane is tangent to a cylinder or cone at only one radial
n The process of constructing radial elements in one view element (line). A plane is tangent to a sphere at only one
and projecting onto an adjacent view is a common con- point.
struction technique. n All lines tangent to a curved surface at one point are con-
n When radial elements are nearly parallel to the plane of tained in the plane tangent to the curved surface at that
projection in which they are drawn, standard revolu- point.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is the difference between a true tangent point and cylinder to draw a line through the point and parallel to
an apparent tangent point? the center line of the cylinder?
2. How many lines are contained in the intersection of a 6. How many solutions are there for a plane tangent to a
tangent plane and the cone or cylinder with which it cylinder through a point outside the surface of the cylin-
is tangent? der? of a cone? of a sphere?
3. How many points are contained in the intersection of 7. Some television screens are called vertically flat. That is,
a tangent plane and the cone or cylinder with which it a straight edge held vertically against the screen would
is tangent? be coincident with a vertical element of the screen, but
4. What is the purpose of an edge-view (EV) cutting plane if held horizontal to the screen would be tangent at a
when solving for a line tangent to a sphere at a given single point. Is this type of television screen a single-
point on the sphere? curved surface or a double-curved surface?
5. Why is the first step when solving for a plane tangent to 8. Can two non-coincident planes be tangent to the same
a cylinder through a point outside the surface of the point on the cylinder? on a cone? on a sphere?

LINE AND PLANE TANGENCY PROBLEMS

In Figs. 14, 15, and 16 are problems involving point from the bottom edge of the problem area or the side
planes tangent to cones, cylinders, and spheres, and view of the point from the left edge of the problem area.
applications of right-circular cones. Inspection of the given problem layout will determine
Use Layout A–1 or A4–1 (adjusted) and divide the which application to use.
working area into four equal areas for problems to be Since many of the problems in this chapter are of a
assigned by the instructor. Some problems require two general nature, they can also be solved on most computer
problem areas or one-half sheet. Data for most problems graphics systems. If a system is available, the instructor
are given by a coordinate system using metric dimensions. may choose to assign specific problems to be completed
For example, in Fig. 14. Prob. 1, point O is located by by this method.
the full-scale coordinates (60 mm, 50 mm, 90 mm). The Additional problems, in convenient form for solution, are
first coordinate locates the front view from the left edge of available in Engineering Graphics Problems, Series 1, by
the problem area. The second coordinate locates the front Spencer, Hill, Loving, Dygdon, and Novak, designed to
view of the point from the bottom edge of the problem accompany this text and published by Prentice-Hall/Pearson
area. The third coordinate locates either the top view of the Education.

693
 Line and Plane Tangencies

n FIGURE 14 n Lay out and solve problems as assigned. Use Layout A–1 or A4–1 (adjusted) divided into four equal areas.
1. Point 1 (46, ?, 79) is on the surface of cone O (58, 30, 88)–C (58, 12, 88). Pass a plane tangent to the cone and containing point 1.
2. Pass a plane through point 1 (75, 40, 100) and tangent to cone V (38, 12, 63)–O (38, 12, 114).
3. Pass a plane through point 1 (18, 46, 100) and tangent to cone V (38, 12, 71)–O (69, 61, 94).
4. Pass a plane tangent to cone A (38, 50, 75)–C (68, 12, 94) and parallel to line 1 (12, 38, 104)–2 (25, 63, 75).
5. Pass a plane tangent to cylinder A (38, 10, 66)–B (71, 40, 96) and containing point 1 (43, ?, 75) on the surface of the cylinder.
6. Pass a plane through point 1 (20, 50, 100) and tangent to cylinder X (38, 25, 117)–Y (75, 50, 81).
7. Pass a plane tangent to cylinder M (127, 46, 100)–N (170, 10, 70) and parallel to line 1 (25, 25, 88)–2 (63, 50, 100).

694
 Line and Plane Tangencies

n FIGURE 15 n Lay out and solve problems as assigned. Use Layout A–1 or A4–1 (adjusted) divided into four equal areas.
1. Pass a plane tangent to sphere O (56, 12, 114) and containing point 1 (43, 38, ?) on the surface of the sphere.
2. Draw three lines tangent to sphere P (56, 12, 114) and containing point 1 (48, ?, 86) on the surface of the sphere.
3. Pass a plane tangent to sphere C (43, 30, 96) and containing line 1 (63, 43, 70)–2 (88, 18, 100). Show the point of tangency in all views.
4. Pass a plane through line 1 (38, 61, 94)–2 (75, 25, 107) and making an angle of 30° with a frontal plane.
5. Pass a plane through line 3 (38, 38, 94)–4 (75, 71, 107) and making an angle of 60° with horizontal.
6. Pass a plane through line 5 (12, 50, 94)–6 (38, 15, 107) and making an angle of 135° with a profile plane.
7. Pass a plane through line 7 (63, 61, 99)–8 (63, 30, 86) and making an angle of 60° with plane 1 (63, 12, 117)–2 (88, 63, 117)–3 (88, 63, 81)–4
(63, 12, 81).

695
 Line and Plane Tangencies

n FIGURE 16 n Lay out and solve problems as assigned. Use Layout A–1 or A4–1 (adjusted) divided into four equal areas.
1. Surfaces A and B form a dihedral angle of 130°. Complete the front view. Omit the pictorial in the layout.
2. Complete the views of a line 1 (63, 63, 140)–2, which is 50 mm in length and forms angles of 45° with a profile plane and 35° with a frontal
plane.
3. Point 1 (96, 23, ?) is in plane 2 (63, 38, 75)–3 (140, 50, 75)–4 (100, 10, 122). Find in plane 2–3–4 a line 1–5 that forms an angle of 25° with
a horizontal plane.
4. Find a line 2 (81, 45, 167)–4 which is 40 mm in length, is perpendicular to line 2 (38, 38, 127)–3 (75, 88, 178), and makes an angle of 40° with
a frontal plane.

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Cartography, Geology, and Spherical Geometry

OBJECTIVES OVERVIEW
After studying the material in this chapter, Although graphical methods may be used to advantage in all fields
you should be able to: of engineering, the nature of many problems in mining and civil
1. Understand the concept of producing and engineering makes them suitable for graphical representation and
representing three-dimensional contours solution. Highway engineers, geologists, mining engineers, and mili-
on a two-dimensional map drawing. tary strategists have frequent need to prepare and use topographic
2. Define and understand the terminology maps, which are a graphical means of representing the earth’s sur-
used in cartography and map projections. face and related information to a convenient scale in single views.
3. Decribe the four basic types of map Orthographic projection as used in technical drawings, in which the
projections. line of sight is assumed to be perpendicular to the plane of the map,
4. Draw a contour map given elevation data. is the method most commonly used in topographic representation.
5. Solve strike, dip, stratum thickness, Specific applications of the principles of descriptive geometry
outcrop, and cut and fill problems using are required to illustrate graphically the areas of topography, min-
descriptive geometry techniques. ing, and geology. Spherical geometry is fundamental to celestial and
6. Solve problems using spherical terrestrial navigation and inertial guidance.
triangles. Cartography uses some of the most exciting new technology
developments. Inexpensive computer programs now display maps
for nearly every country, and personal Global Positioning System
(GPS) receivers determine your position to within 50 meters. Both
technologies rely on cartography to display and triangulate the
curved surface of the Earth on a two-dimensional surface. Civil
engineers use cartography and engineering graphics to lay out cut
and fill areas for road design. Mining and geological stratum plots
require descriptive geometry solutions to show strike, dip, thickness,
and outcrop. Cellular telephone providers use sophisticated map-
ping software in conjunction with modeling software to predict and
measure path loss over coverage terrain when designing new or
expanding cellular networks across the globe. Some automobile
manufacturers use on-board computer maps and GPS software
combined with traffic condition data to direct drivers along the best
route to their destinations. All of these technologies require thor-
ough understanding of the basic principles of cartography and
spherical geometry.

From Chapter 24 of Engineering Graphics, Eighth Edition, Frederick E. Giesecke,

Alva Mitchell, Henry Cecil Spencer, Ivan Leroy Hill, Robert Olin Loving, John
Thomas Dygdon, James E. Novak. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Published by Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.
 Cartography, Geology, And Spherical Geometry

1 n CARTOGRAPHY ignored and the map is regarded simply as a top view

Cartography is the science and art of map making. It is in orthographic projection.
the process of representing the surface of a sphere, usu-
ally the earth or other heavenly body, on a plane sur- 2 n CONSTRUCTION OF TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS
face. Because a sphere is not truly developable, it is Maps that are designed to describe in detail local fea-
impossible to represent exactly any extensive portion tures of the earth’s surface, either natural or man-
of a spherical surface on a plane. A sphere may be made, are called topographic maps (or drawings). The
developed approximately by the polyconic or poly- source of information for the construction of topo-
cylindric methods. Shown in Fig. 1 (a) is a modification graphic maps is the survey. Surveying is the actual
of the polyconic method, in which the zones are not measurement of distances, elevations, and directions
separated. Alternatively, the spherical surface may be on the Earth’s surface. Hence maps are plotted from
projected on a plane or a developable surface, such as a field data provided by the surveyor. These data are
cone or cylinder, Fig. 1 (b) to (d). The projection may obtained with traditional surveying equipment or by
be parallel projection, as in Fig. 1 (d), or central projec- photogrammetry.
tion, as in (b) and (c). The central projection may be Distances are measured by several alternative or
from the center of the Earth or any other point. Fre- complementary methods. The traditional measuring
quently, the resulting developed map is intentionally instrument is the steel tape, with stakes driven to mark
altered to improve accuracy in areas most severely dis- the points of measurements. Distances may also be
torted. All these variations, and many others, are pur- calculated from photographs via aircraft or satellite if
sued with the objective of minimizing one or another the conditions under which the photographs were
type of distortion for a particular purpose. Detailed made are known. There are also several instrumental
treatment of the theory of map drawing is beyond the methods for measuring distances. The stadia transit is
scope of this text. an optical instrument used in conjunction with a spe-
Civil engineers, mining engineers, and geologists cial stadia rod. A sight is made on the rod, and the
normally are concerned with maps of relatively instrument reading is converted to distance with a
small areas, and at proportionally large scales, so conversion factor.
that the curvature of the Earth’s surface is small The level, also an optical instrument, is equipped
compared to local irregularities such as hills and val- with a telescope containing cross hairs. This instrument
leys. Under these circumstances, the curvature is is commonly used to determine differences in elevation

n FIGURE 1 n Map Projections.

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 Cartography, Geology, And Spherical Geometry

in the field, a process called differential leveling. When successive contours. For example, in Fig. 2 the contour
this instrument is leveled, the line of sight of the tele- interval is 10¿. The contour interval should not vary on
scope becomes horizontal. A level rod, graduated into any one map. As an aid to reading, particularly where
feet or meters, is held vertically on selected points. contours are closely spaced, every fifth contour may be
Instrument readings of the rod then serve to determine drawn somewhat heavier, as shown in the figure.
the difference in elevations of the points. When extended far enough (if the map is suffi-
Photogrammetry is now widely used for map sur- ciently large), every contour line will close. At streams,
veying. In this method actual photographs of the contours form Vs pointing upstream. Evenly spaced
earth’s surface, usually aerial, are used. Originally, contours indicate uniform slope, and closely spaced
aerial photogrammetry was used for mapping enemy contours suggest steep slopes.
territory during wartime. Now this method is used for A profile—not to be confused with a view on the
government and commercial surveying, exploration, profile plane in multiview drawing—is a line contained
property valuations, real estate tax records, and so in a vertical plane that depicts the relative elevations of
on. It is easy to use in rough or inaccessible terrain, points along the line. Thus, if a vertical section were to
and large areas can be mapped from a relatively few be cut into the earth, the top boundary of this section
clear photographs. By combining photogrammetry would represent the ground profile. See the lower or
pictures through the use of special optical devices, it front view of Fig. 2.
is possible to determine not only the relative position Locations of points on contour lines are deter-
of objects in a horizontal plane but also their relative mined by interpolation. In Fig. 2 the locations and
elevations. The method is also used in connection elevations of seven control points are determined, and
with ground surveying by including in the pho- contour lines are drawn on the assumption that the
tographs control points already located on the slope of the surface of the ground is uniform between
ground by precise surveying. station A and the six ädjacent stations. A contour inter-
Contours are lines drawn on a map to show points of val of 10¿ was adopted, and the locations of the points
equal elevation; that is, all points on a single contour line of intersection of the contour lines with the straight
have the same elevation. A contour interval is the verti- lines joining the point A and the six adjacent points
cal distance between horizontal planes passing through were calculated as follows.

n FIGURE 2 n Contours Determined from Control Point.

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 Cartography, Geology, And Spherical Geometry

The horizontal distance between stations A and B is struct a profile of the ground along a line in any direction.
740¿. The difference in elevation of these stations is 61¿. In Fig. 2, the profile of line KAL is shown in the front
The difference in elevation of station A and contour view. In civil engineering it is customary to draw the pro-
300 is 9¿. Therefore, assuming a uniform slope between file to a larger vertical scale than that of the map or plan
A and B, contour 300 crosses line AB at a distance from to emphasize the varying slopes. However, in mining
9
station A of 61 of 740, or 109.1¿. Contour 290 crosses engineering and geology this practice complicates angu-
line AB at a distance from contour 300 of 10 61 of 740, or
lar and certain other measurements. See §4.
121.3¿. This distance of 121.3¿ between contour lines is Contours may also be plotted through the use of
uniform along line AB and can be set off without fur- other patterns of distribution of points of recorded
ther calculation. elevation. A popular pattern is the checkerboard or
In the same way, points where the contours cross grid survey, as in Fig. 3, in which lines are estab-
the other lines of the survey are interpolated, after lished at right angles to each other, dividing the sur-
which the several contour lines are drawn (freehand) vey into squares of appropriate size, here 100¿, and
through points of equal elevation, as shown. elevations are determined at the corners of the
After contours have been plotted, it is easy to con- squares. The contour interval is selected here as 2¿,

n FIGURE 3 n Contours Determined from Readings at Regular Intervals.

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 Cartography, Geology, And Spherical Geometry

and the slope of the ground between adjacent stations 1. Strike. The bearing, of a horizontal line in a plane,
is assumed to be uniform. customarily measured from north. In the illustra-
The points where the contour lines cross the sur- tion, the strike is N40°W.
vey lines may be located approximately by eye, or more 2. Dip. Includes both an angle and a direction. The
accurately by graphical methods, or by the numerical angle is the dihedral angle between a given plane
method explained for Fig. 2. and a horizontal plane. The direction is that of
The points of intersection of contour lines with maximum downward slope. Because this direction
survey lines also may be found by constructing a pro- is always perpendicular to the strike of the given
file of each line of the survey, as shown for grid line 1 in plane, and because the strike and dip are usually
Fig. 3 (b). Horizontal lines are drawn at elevations at given together, it is sufficient to give the quadrant
which it is desired to show contours. The points in in which the direction of dip falls: NE, NW, SE, or
which the profile line intersects these horizontal lines SW. In Fig. 4 the dip is 30°SW. Note on a map
are projected upward to survey line 1 as indicated. that the dip direction is given by the angle and the
While this procedure is more reasonable than assum- arrow only.
ing uniform slopes between measured elevations, it 3. Stratum, seam. A sedimentary layer or deposit
must be repeated for every grid line of the survey. It is bounded by parallel bedding planes or bounding
therefore quite tedious and time consuming, and it is planes (within limits).
the responsibility of the engineer in charge to deter-
4. Vein. A deposit in a fissure or fault. May be
mine if the increased accuracy is sufficiently significant
bounded by bedding planes, or may be highly
to justify the extra expense.
irregular in outline.
3 n GEOLOGY AND MINING TERMS 5. Fault. A discontinuity in a formation involving dis-
placement of one segment with respect to another.
An extensive vocabulary of special terminology has If the displacement takes place along an essential-
been developed in geology and mining. For the limited ly plane surface, that plane is called a fault plane.
treatment here, however, only the few terms illustrated
6. Thickness. The perpendicular distance between
in Fig. 4 are needed.
the two bedding planes of a stratum, seam, or vein.

n FIGURE 4 n Geology and Mining Terms.

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 Cartography, Geology, And Spherical Geometry

7. Outcrop. If a sloping stratum continues without point 5 to the top view.The bearing of line 1–5 is N 75°E,
faults, it eventually outcrops (becomes exposed) at which is the strike of plane 1–2–3. Note that strike is
the earth’s surface. The area is established on a conventionally given from the north, not from the south.
topographic map by plotting the lines of intersec-
tion, outcrop lines, of the two bedding planes with DIP In the front view at (b), it is observed that point 2
the surface of the earth. Outcrop lines are similar to is below (lower than) line 1–5 in space. The general
contour lines except that they are intersections of direction of the dip in the top view is thus from line 1–5
sloping planes, as opposed to horizontal planes, with toward point 2, or southeasterly, as indicated by the
the surface of the earth. arrow. The amount of dip—the actual angle with hori-
zontal—is not known as yet, however.
Since line 1–5 is the line of intersection of a hori-
4 n STRIKE, DIP, AND THICKNESS OF STRATUM
zontal plane with plane 1–2–3, and since the top view
Strata are represented by plotting points on the bed- of line 1–5 is true length, the top view of 1–5 serves to
ding planes on a map and on an adjacent elevation establish the direction of sight for the auxiliary view at
view. Field data on such points are obtained by survey- (c), which shows the dihedral angle between plane
ing and test drillings. Theoretically, only three points 1–2–3 and a horizontal plane. This is the dip angle,
not in line are necessary to establish a plane. Actually, which is referred to as “a dip of 60°SE”; on the map
because of the likelihood of concealed faults and irreg- (top view), at (c), the dip is indicated by the arrow plus
ularities, many field measurements are made, and dis- the number of degrees in the dip angle.
crepancies are balanced out or otherwise accounted for
in the plotting room.
For simplicity, in Fig. 5 (a) only three points, 1, THICKNESS Point 4 is next located in the auxiliary
2, and 3, are given in the upper bedding plane of a stra- view at (c), and the edge view of the lower bedding
tum and one point, point 4, in the lower bedding plane plane is drawn parallel to that of the upper bedding
(since the bedding planes are to be assumed parallel). plane. The perpendicular distance between the parallel
Let it be required to find the strike, dip, and thickness edge views, 2.2 m in the example, is the thickness of
of the stratum. the stratum.
Note that, because of the angle and thickness mea-
surements, the vertical scale should be the same as the
map scale. Compare with Fig. 2. 5 n OUTCROP
In Fig. 6 an enlarged portion of Fig. 5 (c) is shown
STRIKE At (b) the top view of the horizontal line 1–5 is with a contour map superimposed on the top view. The
found by connecting points 2 and 3 with a line, adding front view is not shown here, the elevations of the vari-
horizontal line 1–5 in the front view, and projecting ous points being indicated by numbers in parentheses on

n FIGURE 5 n Strike, Dip, and Thickness of Stratum Established by Points in Bedding Planes.

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 Cartography, Geology, And Spherical Geometry

n FIGURE 6 n Outcrop.

the map. These numbers in turn permit the proper loca- ized by equating the quantities of the two to minimize
tion in the auxiliary view of the parallel lines represent- haul distances. Also, cuts that are excessively deep, and
ing the edge views of the horizontal planes (horizontal in fills that are unusually high, may be too wide to fit the
space) of the contours. Points common to the planes of acquired right of way. The plotting of these areas, before
the stratum and the planes of the contours appear at the the final design is approved, is therefore very important.
intersections of the edge views in the auxiliary view. As Like outcrop lines, cut and fill lines for relatively
an example, point A, B in the auxiliary view represents loose material (not solid rock) are simply the intersec-
the point view of the line of intersection of the upper tions of plane bounding surfaces with the surface of the
bedding plane 1–2–3 and a horizontal plane at the 130 earth. Figure 7 is an example. A level highway at 100
m elevation. In the top view this line intersects the 130 m elevation is shown; the cut is at the ratio of 1:1 and
m contour at points A and B which are thus points on the fill at 1.5:1. The plotting of the cut and fill lines is
the outcrop line of the upper bedding plane.This process the same as the plotting of outcrop lines. Note the
is continued for all such points, and the upper outcrop curved construction lines concentric with the center line
line is drawn through the points thus located. Note that of the highway. Also note the points where the cut and
the outcrop line must not intersect a contour line except fill lines intersect the edges of the highway. Since the cut
at a point located by the foregoing construction process. and fill lines are lines of intersection of planes at oppos-
The lower outcrop line is located by the same proce- ing slopes, they are not continuous with each other but
dures. For clarity, it is advisable to draw the outcrop lines would intersect, or cross, if extended into the highway
somewhat heavier than other lines of the map. In addi- area. However, since the highway bed is level (a hori-
tion, a dash line or dashdot line coding or the use of col- zontal plane), there is little to be gained by showing cut
ors will help distinguish these lines. Shading the outcrop or fill areas in the highway area itself. A profile along
area, as shown, further emphasizes the outcrop. the center of the highway, §2, would give a better pic-
ture of the relation between cut and fill in that area.

6 n CUT AND FILL AREAS

In laying out a railroad or highway right of way through 7 n SPHERICAL GEOMETRY,
hilly country, material must be removed from high areas SPHERICAL TRIANGLE
and added to low areas to keep percent grades within Attention here will be confined to what might be more
reasonable limits. If the material removed from the cuts is accurately called spherical trigonometry: the study and
suitable for use as fill, economies can frequently be real- solving of spherical triangles.

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 Cartography, Geology, And Spherical Geometry

n FIGURE 7 n Cut and Fill Areas.

A plane containing the center of a sphere cuts OA in point view. This, in turn, is a view showing the
from the surface of the sphere a circle having the same size of the dihedral angle, between surfaces AOB and
radius or diameter as the sphere. Such a maximum- AOC of the spherical pyramid OABC.
sized circle on a spherical surface is called a great circle. Thus, just as in plane trigonometry, there are six
Any three intersecting great circles that do not inter- quantities to be measured on a spherical triangle: the
sect at the same point on the surface of the sphere form three sides a, b, and c and the three angles A, B, and C.
a series of spherical triangles, Fig. 8. Let us confine Given any three of these, it is possible to solve for the
our attention to the small spherical triangle ABC. other three. Only one example will be given here.
Conventional notation is similar to that used in
plane trigonometry, with the vertices (and interior
angles) of a spherical triangle being denoted by capital
letters, and the sides opposite each vertex with the
same letter in lowercase form, as shown. The sides of
the spherical triangle could be measured by the corre-
sponding lengths of the great-circle arcs. As an exam-
ple, the length of arc AB (side c) in the figure is

∠AOB
* 2 pr
360°

where r is the radius of the sphere (and all great cir-

cles). For a given sphere the quantity 2pr/360° is a con-
stant, so that it is conventional to give the sides of a
spherical triangle in degrees, converting to a linear dis-
tance only in special cases. The interior angle of the tri-
angle at a vertex such as A is the angle between the
sides b and c where they intersect at A, which is the
angle between the two tangents to the curves at A. The
true size of this angle is seen in a view showing radius n FIGURE 8 n Spherical Triangle ABC.

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 Cartography, Geology, And Spherical Geometry

n FIGURE 9 n Solution of Spherical Triangle—Three Sides Given.

GIVEN THREE SIDES OF A SPHERICAL TRIANGLE, TO FIND THE revolved position of point B, denoted by B¿ R at the right
THREE ANGLES Fig. 9 Let it be given that side of the front view.
a = 45°, side b = 30°, and side c = 40°. The precise Point B is then counterrevolved about both axes
size of the sphere is immaterial. It needs to be large OA and OC, as shown at (b). The paths (perpendicular
enough for clarity, yet compatible with the working to the axes) intersect at the front view of vertex B. The
area available. To keep the construction as simple as top view of vertex B is located by drawing the circular
practicable, it is advisable to assume one vertex at the top view of the path of revolution of vertex B about
top of the front view (or at the front of the top view). axis OA and by projecting the front view of vertex B to
At (a) vertex A is placed at the top of the front view. the top view. This completes the layout of the spherical
Again for simplicity, vertex C is placed in the same triangle ABC. It is not necessary to plot the elliptical
frontal plane as A, so that side b = 30° is laid out arcs of sides a and c in the front view and side a in the
along the circular arc in the front view, as shown. top view, since these are not needed for the following
Although various arrangements and/or combina- solution of the triangle.
tions of auxiliary views and revolved views may be Radius OA appears in point view in the top view.
employed for the remainder of the layout, revolution, Hence, as indicated at (b), angle A is measured in the
§20.4, yields a fairly simple construction in this exam- top view. Radius OC appears in true length in the
ple. Vertex B is assumed to be revolved about true- front view. Auxiliary view 1, showing radius OC in
length axis OA until B is in the same frontal plane as A. point view, then yields angle C. Finally, radius OB does
Setting off side c = 40° in the front view then locates not appear in true length in either given view. Auxil-
BR, as shown at the left in the front view. Similarly, iary views 2 and 3 are constructed to show radius OB
point B is assumed to be revolved about truelength axis in true length and then in point view. Angle B appears
OC until B is in the same frontal plane as C. Setting off in view 3, as indicated, completing the solution of the
side a = 45° in the front view then locates another triangle ABC.

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 Cartography, Geology, And Spherical Geometry

8 n SPHERICAL TRIANGLE IN NAVIGATION 3. What is the bearing at the end of the trip?
Although the Earth is not a perfect sphere, being slight- First, a layout is made, Fig. 10. The horizontal
ly flattened at the poles, the difference is imperceptible center line in the front view is designated as the equa-
at the scale of ordinary graphical representations. tor, which places the North Pole N at the top of the
The coordinate system of latitude and longitude front view as shown. To simplify the layout, the hori-
has been in use since ancient times for locating points zontal center line in the top view is assigned the longi-
on the Earth. It is natural to use the great circle mid- tude of one of the given points, in this illustration point
way between the North and South poles, the equator, B, longitude 10°E. The dihedral angle at N then has the
as a reference. The equator is assigned the latitude of value 10° + 50° = 60°, which locates in the top view
0°. The parallels of latitude then proceed north and the meridian through point A. The front view of point
south from the equator, so that the poles are at 90° B is located 30° north of the equator, as shown. Point A
north and south. The equator is divided into 360°, is considered revolved about axis ON to the frontal
each degree into 60 minutes, and each minute into 60 plane through point N, and its revolved AR is located
seconds. The great circles through these division at 45°N. Point A is then counterrevolved to longitude
points and the poles then become the meridians of 50°W to complete the layout of the given problem.
longitude. Remember, parallels are east-west lines, and The great circle from point A to point B would appear
meridians are north-south lines. Most countries of the elliptical in the front and top views. It is not plotted,
world use the meridian through Greenwich, England, since this is not required in the solution.
as the zero reference of longitude—the prime meridi-
an. Longitude is reckoned east and west of the prime 1. The distance from point A to point B is measured
meridian up to 180°. by side n (opposite vertex N) of the spherical tri-
In §7 it was mentioned that the length of an arc of a angle NAB. The true size of side n (angle AOB) is
great circle of a sphere of designated size is the number seen in a true-size view of plane AOB. This could
of degrees in the arc multiplied by a constant. For the be obtained by successive auxiliary views as in
Earth this constant is approximately 60 nautical miles. §19.10; however, it is simpler in this case to
[The international nautical mile = 1852 m 16076.1¿2.] revolve point A about true-length axis OB in the
Because of the flattening at the poles, the length of 1 front view, since the path of revolution must be
degree of latitude varies from approximately 59.5 nauti- perpendicular to line OB and terminate at the cir-
cal miles at the equator to about 60.4 nautical miles cular outline of the front view. Angle ARœ OB is
nearer the poles. The average figure of 60 nautical miles measured as 48°, and the great-circle distance
is accurate enough for our problem solutions. A degree from point A to point B is therefore
of longitude varies in length from about 60 nautical 48° * 60 = 2880 nautical miles.
miles at the equator to zero at the poles.
Any two points on the Earth’s surface, plus either 2. The initial bearing (from north) is measured from
the North or South pole, can be considered the three the meridian through point A (side b of the spher-
vertices of a spherical triangle, if the Earth is treated ical triangle) to the great-circle course arc AB (side
as a sphere. The solution of the spherical triangle is n of the spherical triangle). This angle is the dihe-
basic to navigation over appreciable distances. dral angle at A. Auxiliary views 1 and 2 are used
Let it be assumed that two points are given by to find this angle, and it is recorded as azimuth
means of the following information: point A, latitude bearing N 87° §19.5.
45°N, longitude 50°W; and point B, latitude 30°N, longi-
tude 10°E.A fundamental navigation problem would be 3. Since at the end of the journey the direction of trav-
as follows: Assume a trip is made from point A to point el will be through point B away from point A, the
B along the greatcircle course. final bearing is measured as the supplement of the di-
hedral angle at vertex B of the spherical triangle
NAB. Auxiliary view 3 is constructed to show this
1. What distance is traveled? angle, and the final bearing is measured from the
2. What is the bearing of the course at the beginning meridian NB to the extension of side AB, and is
of the trip? recorded as N 125°.

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 Cartography, Geology, And Spherical Geometry

Of interest is the difference in the initial and final suggests navigation by computer. If the navigation is
bearings. The course is initially in a northeasterly direc- controlled by a human, a great-circle course is approxi-
tion and finally southeasterly. Thus, a great-circle mated by calculating a series of courses (rhumb lines)
course between two points of different latitudes and that have constant bearings toward points on or near
longitudes involves constantly changing bearings. This the great-circle course.

n FIGURE 10 n Spherical Triangle in Navigation.

707
 Cartography, Geology, And Spherical Geometry

Graphics
Spotlight CAD Solutions for Industrial Piping
P ROCESS D ESIGN S PECIALISTS as pumps, pressure vessels, and pipe diameters. When
The Harris Group is an international consulting company, the engineers have sized the equipment, the pipe design-
whose main focus is power plant design, process design ers go to work. They use Propipe software to create 3D
for the petroleum industry, research and development for drawings of all the equipment and piping. Using a 3D rep-
power plants using special coal drying techniques, and a resentation allows them to check and make sure that they
wide variety of other projects. To design a large industrial have the necessary clearances between runs of pipe. They
plant, first the plant is broken down into systems such as also check to see that all of the equipment fits into the
heating systems, tube oil systems, and chemical reaction space provided. Previously, using hand drafting methods,
systems. Design teams composed of chemical process it was very difficult to visualize whether the piping inter-
engineers, mechanical engineers, and process engineers fered. By creating 3D drawings of the design like that
work together to design the total plant. Kip Funk is a shown in Figure A, they are able to ensure that the piping
process design engineer with the Harris Group. He designs will fit when the equipment is installed.
complex piping systems for industrial plants using CAD.
Kip says that to start, he creates piping and instru- P IPE S TRESS A NALYSIS
mentation drawings (P&IDs) using Rebus’s Autoplant soft- Once the 3D drawings are completed, Kip uses the 3D
ware running inside AutoCAD. The P&ID drawings are point locations of the pumps, tanks, vessels, and pipe to
usually single line drawings that show all valves and model the pipe stress analysis using Algor’s pipe stress
equipment, like turbines, boilers, pneumatic and electrical software. He makes sure that the stresses from thermal
controls, gauges, levers, and anything else that is needed expansion, the weight of the pipe, and other factors do not
in the system. damage the equipment when it is in place. Figures B and C
show pipe stress analysis. Stress concentrations near the
3D U SED TO C HECK C LEARANCES pumps can be particularly critical. According to Kip, bal-
The completed P&ID drawings are sent to the engineers ancing the stresses in the system is kind of like a game.
within the Harris Group to size all of the components such “You try to spread out the stresses so that you don’t have

(A)

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 Cartography, Geology, And Spherical Geometry

critical concentrations at any one point, but as you are tion of the design. All parts of the group must work togeth-
moving equipment and load, it has an effect in other er to design an effective system in a short time frame. The
places. You must reanalyze the system and check to see use of CAD piping software helps them meet this goal.
that by moving one thing you haven’t created a new con-
centration of stress somewhere else in the system.” F INAL A PPROVAL
Once the stresses are checked, the design is sent back to
C OMMUNICATION IS I MPORTANT TO S UCCESS the engineers to double check the design. They make sure
Kip also points out that they usually work under short time the pressure drop in the system is not too large and verify
frames so that while the P&IDs are being designed, the the sizes of the other equipment. Finally, the design is
engineers may be sizing equipment at the same time. approved for production. Although revisions to the draw-
Communication is important because the changes to the ings are noted throughout the design process, after the
design that one engineer makes to improve one part of the drawings are released for production, further revisions are
system may affect the stress analysis or some other por- specially documented on the drawings.

(B)

(C)

709
 Cartography, Geology, And Spherical Geometry

KEY WORDS
CARTOGRAPHY OUTCROP CONTOUR STRATUM

AERIAL DIP INTERPOLATION VEIN

PHOTOGRAMMETRY SPHERICAL TRIANGLES GRID SURVEY CUT AND FILL
PROFILE LATITUDE GEOLOGY BEDDING PLANE
INTERVAL TOPOGRAPHY STRIKE LONGITUDE

CHAPTER SUMMARY
n Cartography is the drawing of surface maps that describe n A profile is a graph of the changes in elevation along a
surface contour over a defined area. Studies of elevation straight line drawn on a map. Civil engineers use profile
change, surface profile along a straight line, and the outcrop and contour maps to smooth out the elevation of a road
of geological veins are common applications of cartography. using cut and fill techniques based on descriptive geom-
n Because the Earth’s surface approximates a sphere, flat etry theory.
maps will distort the curvature of the actual surface. Sev- n Geologists use strike, dip and thickness of stratum to pre-
eral projection techniques are used to approximate the dict the location of mineral veins. Locations for drilling
curved surface on a flat projection. and outcrop plots can be accurately defined using
n Maps use contour lines to show changes in surface eleva- descriptive geometry.
tion. Each contour line represents points on the surface n Computers can aid in the drawing of map images, but the
that have the same elevation. The vertical distance underlying principles of descriptive geometry are the
between the elevation of two adjacent contour lines is the same whether the map is drawn by computer or by hand.
contour interval.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. How do flat maps show changes in elevation? 6. What is the difference between strike and dip?
2. Is a profile graph an elevation drawing or a plan drawing? 7. Describe the procedure for finding cut and fill.
3. What is meant by interpolation? 8. Which type of map projection is most accurate at the
4. Are contour lines horizontal or vertical cutting planes equator?
through the earth?
5. When solving for outcrop, are you more interested in
finding edge view of a vein or true size of the surface
boundary of a vein.

CARTOGRAPHY, GEOLOGY, AND SPHERICAL GEOMETRY PROBLEMS

Following are problems involving mining and geology, contour Prob. 2 Draw, to assigned vertical scales, profiles of any
maps, and spherical triangles. Use Layouts A–1 or A4–1 three of the six lines shown in Prob. 1.
(adjusted), A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), or B–3 or A3–3 as specified. Prob. 3 Using the elevations shown in Fig. 3 (a) and
Since many of the problems in this chapter are of a a contour interval of 1 m, plot the contours to any conve-
general nature, they can also be solved on most computer nient horizontal and vertical scales, and draw profiles of lines
graphics systems. If a system is available, the instructor 3 and 5 and of any two lines perpendicular to them. Check
may choose to assign specific problems to be completed graphically the points in which the contours cross these lines
by this method. (Layout B–3 or A3–3).
Additional problems, in convenient form for solution,
are available in Engineering Graphics Problems, Series 1, Prob. 4 Using a contour interval of 1 m and a horizon-
by Spencer, Hill, Loving, Dygdon, and Novak, designed to tal scale of 1/1000, plot the contours from the elevations
accompany this text and published by Prentice-Hall/ given Fig. 11 at 10 m stations; check graphically the points
Pearson Education. in which the contours cross one of the horizontal grid lines
and one of the vertical grid lines, using a vertical scale of
Prob. 1 Assuming the slope of the ground to be uni-
1/100 (Layout B–3 or A3–3).
form and assuming a horizontal scale of 1– = 200¿ and a
contour interval of 5¿, plot by interpolation the contours of Prob. 5 Fig. 12 (a). Find the strike and dip of plane 1
Fig. 2 (Layout B–3 or A3–3). (12, 38, 75)–2 (50, 38, 88)–3 (50, 25, 68).

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 Cartography, Geology, And Spherical Geometry

n FIGURE 11 n To Draw Contours (Prob. 4).

n FIGURE 12 n Probs. 5–10. Use Layout A–1 or A4–1 (adjusted). Divide the working area into four equal areas for problems as
assigned by the instructor. Some problems require a single problem area and others require two problems areas (one half sheet). Data for the
layout for each problem are given by a coordinate system. For example, in Fig. 12 (a), point 1 is located by the full-scale coordinates (12 mm,
40 mm, 75 mm). The first coordinate locates the front view from the left edge of the problem area. The second and third coordinates locate the
front and top views of the point from the bottom edge of the problem area.

711
 Cartography, Geology, And Spherical Geometry

Prob. 6 Fig. 12 (b). Find the strike and dip of plane 1 Prob. 10 Fig. 12 (f). Point 1 (38, 12, 75) lies in the
(50, 12, 63)–2 (71, 46, 94)–3 (88, 25, 63). upper bedding plane of a stratum. The surface of the Earth
Prob. 7 Fig. 12 (c). Plane 1 (50, 38, 100)–2 (88, –, 106)–3 locally is represented by the horizontal plane through H (–,
(88, –, 75) has a strike of N 75°W and a dip of 30°SW. Find the 50, –). Points 2 (63, –, 106) and 3 (100, –, 91) are on the upper
front views of points 2 and 3. outcrop line of the stratum. Point 4 (88, –, 114) is on the
lower outcrop line. Find the strike, dip, and thickness of the
Prob. 8 Fig. 12 (d). Points 1 (25, 12, 63) and 2 (75, 50,
stratum. Scale: 1/400.
100) lie in a plane that has a dip of 60°NW. Find the strike of
this plane. Hint: See §5. Prob. 11 Fig. 13. Draw the profile along grid D. Use
a vertical scale of 1/200.
Prob. 9 Fig. 12 (e). Points 1 (25, 38, 75), 2 (63, 12,
117), and 3 (100, 25, 75) are in the upper bedding plane of a Prob. 12 Fig. 13. Point P (at the intersection of grids
stratum. Point 4 (25, 12, 75) is in the parallel lower bedding 7 and C) is at an elevation of 80 m and is in a thin vein that
plane of the stratum. Find the strike, dip, and thickness of the has a strike on N 68°W and dip of 14°SW. Plot the outcrop
stratum. Scale: 1/200. of this vein.

n FIGURE 13 n Probs. 11–14. Use Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted). The map scale is 1/500. Place the map toward the upper left of
Layout A–2. Reproduce the grids and contour lines by tracing.

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 Cartography, Geology, And Spherical Geometry

Prob. 13 Fig. 13. Points R, S, and T are in the upper Prob. 17 Fig. 14. Given that side b = 40°, angle
outcrop line of a stratum. Point U is in the lower outcrop A = 75°, and angle C = 75°, solve for sides a and c and
line. Find the strike, dip, and thickness of the stratum and angle B.
plot the outcrop area. Vertical scale (same as horizontal Prob. 18 Fig. 14. Given that side b = 50°, side
scale): 1/500. c = 30°, and angle C = 60°, solve for side a and angles
Prob. 14 Fig. 13. Line VWXY is the center line of a A and B.
level 12 m wide roadway that is at an elevation of 70 m. Plot Prob. 19 Fig. 14. Point A is at latitude 15°N and lon-
the cut and fill lines. Shade the cut and fill areas. gitude 175°W. Point B is at latitude 50°N and longitude 15°W.
Prob. 15 Fig. 14. Given that side a = 35°, side Determine the great-circle distance between the points. Plot
b = 40°, and side c = 60°, solve for angles A, B, and C of the course in the given views.
spherical triangle ABC. Prob. 20 Fig. 14. Point A is at latitude 60°N and longi-
Prob. 16 Fig. 14. Given that side b = 45°, side tude 90°W. Point B is at latitude 30°N and longitude 30°E.
c = 50°, and angle A = 105°, solve for side a and angles B Determine the great-circle distance between the points and the
and C of the spherical triangle. initial and final bearings of the great-circle course from A to B.

n FIGURE 14 n Probs. 15–20. Use Layout A–1 or A4–1 (adjusted).

Point O (125, 25, 230) is the center of the sphere.

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Graphical Vector Analysis

From Chapter 25 of Engineering Graphics, Eighth Edition, Frederick E. Giesecke,

Alva Mitchell, Henry Cecil Spencer, Ivan Leroy Hill, Robert Olin Loving, John
Thomas Dygdon, James E. Novak. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Published by Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.
 Graphical Vector Analysis

OVERVIEW OBJECTIVES
Vector analysis, an important branch of mathematics, is the solution After studying the material in this chapter, you
of problems involving directed magnitudes such as forces, velocities, should be able to:
accelerations, and moments. Analytic applications of vector analysis 1. Notate vector diagrams using standard
are in wide use in advanced engineering analysis and design, Graphi- Bow’s notation.
cal solutions of vector problems are sufficiently accurate for, and are
2. Solve concurrent and nonconcurrent
commonly used by, civil engineers, structural engineers, and architects
coplanar vector problems.
in the form of graphic statics, §1. Structural members are selected
or designed from handbooks, and extreme accuracy is impractical if 3. Use funicular polygons for vector analysis.
not impossible in predicting loads that members can withstand. For 4. Use vector analysis to solve for reactions
this reason, a structural designer will apply a factor of safety, so that and stresses for a truss.
the structure will be capable of withstanding stresses much greater 5. Use point view of unknown force to
than any likely to occur. Extreme accuracy in predicting stresses is resolve concurrent noncoplanar vectors
therefore not necessary, and the accuracy required is well within the with one unknown force.
capabilities of graphic methods. Most vector problems can be solved 6. Use edge view of a plane to resolve
quickly by graphic methods, and errors are usually apparent. Thus concurrent noncoplanar vectors with
graphic statics is in wide use for structural design. two unknown forces.
Since most engineering data are graphical in origin, being read
7. Use graphical vectors to solve velocity
from scales, meters, and the like, graphic methods are suitable for
problems.
solution of problems involving such data. The results, with reason-
able care, are likely to be within the accuracy range of the original
data. This chapter presents some of the more common graphical
solutions of problems involving vectors.
Many static force problems can be solved using graphical vector
analysis. Vectors are graphical representations of magnitude and direc-
tion.Vector solution techniques can be applied to both planar problems
as well as three-dimensional problems in space. The magnitude com-
ponent of a vector can be a distance (e.g., miles), a force (e.g., Newtons),
a rate (mph), or any scalar that represents the amount applied in the
direction of the vector. Three basic types of vector representations are
common: the space diagram, the vector diagram, and the vector poly-
gon. Concurrent vectors pass their action through a single point; non-
concurrent vectors apply their action through different points in space.
Vector analysis is the process of graphically summing the action of
multiple vectors in space. Taking one step forward and then one step
backward is a simple representation of two vectors whose graphical
sum is zero. By combining common descriptive geometry construc-
tions like point view and edge view, vector analysis can be expanded

716
 Graphical Vector Analysis

into three-dimensional spatial analysis, summing forces. The magnitude of a couple is the magnitude
multiple, noncoplanar vectors in space to find the of either force multiplied by the arm.
resultant sum. Many CAD programs can combine 15. Vector Scale. The scale to which the magnitudes of
graphical vector techniques with numerical precision the vectors are drawn, as contrasted with the scale at
to provide quick and accurate vector analysis solu- which physical objects are represented in a drawing.
tions. While the CAD program can perform the cal- 16. Space Diagram. A graphical layout or sketch of a
culations quickly, the user still needs to understand problem showing the spatial arrangement of physi-
the principles behind the construction techniques in cal objects or members of a structure, together with
order to ensure the correctness of the results. the locations, magnitudes, and senses of vectors.
17. Vector Diagram or Stress Diagram. A diagram
showing the magnitudes to scale and directions of
1 ■ DEFINITIONS AND NOTATIONS the vectors specified by the space diagram.
1. Vector. A directed magnitude represented graphi- 18. Reactions. Force components representing the
cally by a straight-line segment that has a definite forces resisting externally applied loads. For static
length proportional to the magnitude and an arrow- conditions, the vector sum of the reactions must
head pointing in the direction of action or sense of equal and oppose the vector sum of the applied loads.
the vector. Vectors are commonly used to represent 19. Bow’s Notation. A system for identifying members
forces, velocities, accelerations, and moments. and vectors in space and vector diagrams, Fig. 1.
2. Scalar. A magnitude without a specified action.The In the space diagram at (a) capital letters are placed
magnitude or length of a vector is a scalar quantity. in the spaces between structural members (if any)
3. Statics. A branch of mechanics dealing with forces and lines of action of vectors (usually forces for
in equilibrium. Bow’s notation). Note the temporarily assumed
4. Equilibrium. A state of rest or of uniform motion. resultant R for completion for the notation. The vec-
tors are identified by pairs of letters: AB, BC, CD,
5. Graphic Statics. Solutions of problems in statics
and DA.The letters are usually read in the clockwise
by graphic methods.
direction, as indicated by the arrow. In the vector
6. Force. An action causing or tending to produce diagram at (b) corresponding lowercase letters are
motion. placed at the ends of the vectors. Many variations,
7. Resultant. A single vector that will produce the including numerals, are used in practice, but the
same effect (externally, in the case of forces) as a
system of vectors.
8. Equilibrant. A vector that is equal to a resultant
but opposite in sense.
9. Component. One member of a system of vectors.
10. Resolution of Vectors. Act of resolving a single
vector into two or more components.
11. Concurrent and Nonconcurrent Vectors. Vectors
whose lines of action pass and do not pass, respec-
tively, through a single point.
12. Coplanar and Noncoplanar Vectors. Vectors that
lie and do not lie, respectively, in the same plane.
13. Moment. The product of the magnitude of a vector
and its perpendicular distance from a point called
the center of moments. The perpendicular distance
is called the lever arm. Moments tending to pro-
duce clockwise rotation are considered positive.
14. Couple. Two equal and opposite forces whose
lines of action are parallel. The external effect on
the object to which the couple is applied is a ten-
dency to produce rotation only. The arm of a cou-
ple is the perpendicular distance between the two ■ FIGURE 1 ■ Bow’s Notation.

717
 Graphical Vector Analysis

fundamental ideas are the same. The advantages of the application of the parallelogram of vectors to obtain
Bow’s notation will become apparent in later exam- the resultant R.
ples. Bow’s notation is most commonly used in struc- Note that either the lower half or the upper half of
tural analysis involving multiple loads and members. the parallelogram at Fig. 2 (b) could be omitted with-
20. Vector Notation. When Bow’s notation is not out altering the resultant. This simplification is of value
used, vectors are commonly identified in printed when several vectors must be combined, as in Fig. 3.
matter in boldface type, for example, A, B, V. For In Fig. 3 (b) the vectors are combined two at a
handwritten or handlettered
! material an identify- time to form subresultants: vectors ab and bc combine
ing symbol, such as A, may be used. to form subresultant r1 , r1 and cd to form r2 , and final-
21. Newton (N). The unit of force, kg m/sec2. A mass ly r2 and de to form R, the overall resultant.
of 1 kilogram (kg) exerts a gravitational force of As seen at (c), the subresultants r1 and r2 need not
9.8 N (theoretically 9.80665 N) at mean sea level. be shown. This simplification results in a vector poly-
gon, a great convenience when many vectors must be
2 ■ CONCURRENT COPLANAR VECTORS shown, as in a stress diagram of a truss or beam with
several loads and reactions. (Note the use of Bow’s
RESULTANT OF CONCURRENT COPLANAR VECTORS This notation in Fig. 3.)
process is called vector addition. In Fig. 2 two forces
acting at point A are added vectorially. The space dia- RESOLUTION OF VECTOR INTO COMPONENTS A very impor-
gram at (a) shows the directions and specifies the mag- tant process in vector analysis, either analytical or graph-
nitudes of the vectors. The vector diagram at (b) shows ical, is the decomposition of a vector into two or more
components acting in selected directions. A common
practice is to resolve a vector into components along
Cartesian axes as shown in Fig. 4. At (b) conventional
x- and y-axes are introduced with their origin at A. Here,
vector V is drawn to scale; hence (b) is a vector diagram.
At (c) lines drawn through the arrowhead end of V par-
allel to the x- and y-axes resolve V into components Vy ,
and Vx , respectively. In analytical vector analysis, addi-
tion of multiple vectors is usually accomplished through
the separate additions of the x- and y-components.
Essentially, resolution into two components is the
reversal of the parallelogram process of Fig. 2. A prac-
tical application is shown in Fig. 5, which is a simpli-
fied drawing of a crane. Members BC and BD (Bow’s
notation) are rigid; members AB and AD are cables.
The force polygon at (b) is started with the vertical
force vector ac since the 350 kg load is the only quan-
■ FIGURE 2 ■ Parallelogram of Vectors. tity known. This is multiplied by 9.8 to obtain the 3430

■ FIGURE 3 ■ Polygon of Forces.

718
 Graphical Vector Analysis

■ FIGURE 4 ■ Resolution of Vector into Components Along Axes.

■ FIGURE 5 ■ Stresses in Crane.

N force of the force polygon. Lines parallel to AB and segment are its projections on frontal and horizontal
BC are drawn through points a and c, respectively, planes, respectively, the views shown at (a) are actual-
intersecting to locate point b. Then lines are drawn ly frontal and horizontal components of the space vec-
through points a and b, respectively parallel to AD and tors A and B. The sum of two vectors is the vector sum
BD, intersecting at point d. The components ab, bd, of the components of the vectors. Hence at (b) vectors
ad, and bc are measured at the same scale as for com- AF and BF are added vectorially to locate vector RF .
ponent ac to determine the magnitude of the stresses Likewise, vectors AH and BH are combined to establish
in these members. vector RH . That RH and RF are views of the same vector
The reactions at the ground attachment points are is substantiated by the vertical projection line connect-
readily determined from the vector diagram. The reac- ing the right-hand ends. The true length of resultant R
tion at the foot of cable AD is simply equal to compo- can now be determined by revolution, as shown at (c).
nent ad but opposite in sense. The reaction at the foot Two concurrent vectors are necessarily coplanar.
of mast BD is equal and opposite to the dashed diago- However, any number of concurrent vectors can be
nal component cd, since it falls between members C combined two at a time in the preceding manner to
and D of the space diagram at (a). obtain a single resultant, even though the complete
Two concurrent vectors are shown in multiview system is not coplanar. This procedure will be shown
form in Fig. 6. Since the front and top views of a line later, §4.

719
 Graphical Vector Analysis

■ FIGURE 6 ■ Concurrent Vectors in Multiview Projection.

■ FIGURE 7 ■ Resultant of Nonconcurrent Coplanar Vectors.

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 Graphical Vector Analysis

3 ■ NONCONCURRENT COPLANAR located. The vectorsV1 to V4 have now been replaced

VECTORS—FUNICULAR POLYGON by components (strings) proportional to the strings
shown at (c). The intermediate components ob, oe,
A system of coplanar vectors that do not intersect at a and od are canceled, leaving components oa and oe
common point is shown in Fig. 7 (a). (The student to represent the entire system. These intersect at point
may wish to extend them to check this.) The magnitude X, which is thus a point on the line of action of their
and sense of the resultant R are obtained, as usual, by resultant R. This resultant R, as has been demonstrated,
means of the vector polygon shown at (b). Since the is the same as the resultant of the original system. The
given vector system does not have a common point of magnitude and sense may therefore be transferred
action, the location of the resultant is yet to be deter- from (b) or (c) to complete the funicular polygon.
mined, (c) and (d). The thoughtful student may ponder the situation
At (c) a pole o has been added to the vector poly- in which the resultant of a system of forces turns out to
gon and connected to the ends of each vector with be zero. In this case the force polygon is said to close, as
strings or rays oa, ob, oc, od, and oe. Each given vec- illustrated in Fig. 8 (a).
tor may now be replaced by components along the At (c) is shown the space diagram with a funicular
strings. For example, vector ab is replaced by strings polygon corresponding to (b). Note that the funicular
ao and ob, and vector bc by bo and oc. Observe that polygon closes at point X on force CB (extended). This
rays ob of the first triangle and bo of the second trian- system is said to be in equilibrium, §1.
gle are of opposite sense and thus cancel. The same By contrast, at (d) the funicular polygon closes at
observation may be made of rays oc and od. The final point X, which is not on the line of action of force CB.
result, then, is that the entire set of original vectors has Although the resultant of this system is known to be
been replaced by the two strings ao and oe, which add zero, the system is not in equilibrium. Any object sub-
vectorially to give the same resultant R. jected to this force system would tend to rotate clock-
At (d) the space diagram is repeated from (a), and wise—it would be subjected to a couple, §1. The
the funicular polygon* is constructed as follows. Any couple can be described numerically as the product of
convenient point on vector V1 is selected, and through the magnitude of vector CD and distance d. (The cou-
it are drawn lines parallel to strings oa and ob. ple may also be represented by a vector perpendicular
Through the intersection of string ob and vector V2 , a to the plane of the couple, but this concept is of no con-
line is drawn parallel to string oc to intersect vector cern in the discussion to follow. The student may wish
V3 . This process is continued until the last string oe is to investigate this idea in other texts.)

*Funicle means a small chord or string.

■ FIGURE 8 ■ Forces in Equilibrium.

721
 Graphical Vector Analysis

In summary, for any coplanar system of vectors to The force polygon at (b) is now begun. Forces ab,
be in equilibrium, it is necessary that both the vector bc, and cd are laid out from conditions given at (a).
polygon and any funicular polygon close. This principle The direction of reaction ae is known to be vertical,
is employed to find the reactions at the supports of the but point e cannot be located at this stage, since the
truss in the following example. direction of force de is not known. However, force DE
Assume a truss is given with the loading† shown at in the space diagram at (a) acts through the pinned
Fig. 9 (a), with reactions R1 and R2 to be deter- joint, so the funicular polygon is started at the pinned
mined. Since one load, force AB, is not vertical, it has a joint at (a). Line od is drawn through the pinned joint
horizontal component as well as a vertical component at (a) and parallel to string od of the force polygon at
that must be resisted for equilibrium. It is assumed that (b). The procedure is then similar to Fig. 7 (d). Lines
the connection at R1 is roller supported, so that reaction oc, ob, and oa are added in turn, finally locating point
R1 must be vertical. This leaves the horizontal compo- X at the intersection of reaction R1 and component oa.
nent to be resisted at reaction R2 , which is then As was shown before, for a system to be in equilib-
assumed to be at a pin-connected joint‡. Since the rium the funicular polygon must close. Therefore, the
direction of reaction R2 is not now known, it is conven- direction of line oe is from point X to the pinned joint.
tionally represented by a wavy line, as shown. This same direction, transferred to (b), locates point e
in the force polygon. Reaction R1 is string ea, and
†The loads would, of course, have to include the weights of the truss reaction R2 is determined by drawing string de.
members. It is assumed here that these weights have been distributed With all external forces established for the truss, the
among the loads shown. internal stresses in the members can now be deter-
‡If both joints are pin-connected, the system becomes indeterminant,
and the solution requires more sophisticated methods than will be
presented here.

■ FIGURE 9 ■ Reactions and Stresses for a Truss.

722
 Graphical Vector Analysis

mined. First, Bow’s notation is extended to the inner designs, a point on a stress vector at a joint can be
spaces of the truss. Numbers are frequently used, as located only by proceeding first to the joint at the
shown at (c). Each joint could be considered in turn as other end of the same member and drawing a line
isolated—a so-called free body. A force polygon could back toward the first stress vector.
then be drawn for each joint in a fashion similar to Every line of the stress diagram will be parallel to
Fig. 5. This procedure is called joint by joint analysis. either an external force or a truss member, and, of
However, it saves time and space, and also builds in course, all portions of the stress diagram must close,
accuracy checks, to combine all the free-body diagrams attesting to the overall accuracy.
into one stress diagram, or Maxwell diagram.
At (d) the first step is to reproduce the force poly-
gon from (b), but without the pole and strings.The stress 4 ■ CONCURRENT NONCOPLANAR VECTORS
diagram may be started at any one of several points. A As pointed out in §2, multiview representation of
good starting point is e, since stress e–1 is known to be vectors in space actually consists of components of
horizontal. A horizontal line is then drawn from point e the vectors—their projections on the coordinate
to the left, and a second line is drawn from point a par- planes. In Fig. 10 (a) is shown a multiview space
allel to member A–1.These two lines intersect at point 1. diagram of four concurrent vectors, A, B, C, and D.
Triangle a–e–1 is the force polygon for the roller joint, (For simplicity the vectors are assumed drawn to
and stresses (forces) a–1 and e–1 may now be mea- scale.) At (b) the horizontal and frontal components
sured at the same scale as for the force polygon. are added separately by vector polygons in the hori-
Through point 1 a line is now added parallel to zontal and frontal projection planes. Continual
member 1–2, and through point b a horizontal line checks of vertical alignment are made to assure accu-
(parallel to B–2) is drawn. These intersect at point 2 of racy. The vector sums, RH and RF , are the horizontal
the stress diagram, establishing the force polygon for and frontal components of the resultant R. Its magni-
the upper left joint of the truss. tude (true length) and angle with one of the coordi-
This procedure is continued from joint to joint nate planes can now be found.
until all are covered. Frequently, in trusses of different

■ FIGURE 10 ■ Addition of Concurrent Noncoplanar Vectors.

723
 Graphical Vector Analysis

5 ■ RESOLUTION INTO CONCURRENT In Fig. 11 (a), a tripod structure is shown acted

NONCOPLANAR VECTORS upon by a 3000 N force. Member O–2 appears in the
Frequently in practice it is necessary to resolve a front view as a point. Thus there are actually only two
known load or force into components along noncopla- unknown frontal components, and the problem can be
nar directions—that is, to find the stresses in the sup- solved by beginning the construction of the vector dia-
porting members of a structure. This is a problem gram with its front view.
involving forces in equilibrium. At (b) a free-body diagram of joint O is shown.
In any one multiview projection of a concurrent Bow’s notation is applied in only one view, in this case
force system, two unknown magnitudes can be deter- the front view. Note the arbitrary bending or offset of
mined, as in §3, by closure of the force (vector) poly- member O–2 to position O–2¿ for applying Bow’s
gon. Three or more unknown magnitudes in a single notation. This offset can be in any desired direction.
view constitute an indeterminate system that cannot be The vector diagram at (c) is now begun by draw-
solved directly by graphical means. However, if two ing the top view of member ad to scale and project-
adjacent views of a system are shown, it is possible to ing its front view. The front view of member ad is
determine three unknown magnitudes by several then resolved into the components ba and dc, as
methods, two of which follow. shown. In the top view the directions of components
ba and dc are known from the space and free-body
diagrams. Projection upward from point b, c in the
POINT VIEW OF UNKNOWN FORCE If one view shows (or a front view locates points b and c in the top view,
new view is constructed to show) one of the unknown completing the two views of the vector diagram. The
vectors as a point, that vector has no effect in that view. actual stresses in the tripod members are now found
The known load or force can then be resolved into by constructing true-length views of members ba,
components along the other members. cb, and dc.

■ FIGURE 11 ■ Resolution into Components by Point View of Unknown Force.

724
 Graphical Vector Analysis

EDGE VIEW OF PLANE OF TWO UNKNOWN FORCES In Fig. 12 back to the auxiliary view 1 establishes point b in that
(a), a tripod is shown supporting a load of 1000 N. The view. Thus every member of the vector diagram is now
preceding method could be applied by constructing a shown in the two adjacent views, permitting the con-
point view of one of the members. In this case, struction of true-length views of the vectors. The front
however, two auxiliary views would be required, compli- view of the vector diagram is not needed.
cating the construction.A line connecting points 1 and 3
is true length in the top view, as indicated.This establish-
es the direction of sight for auxiliary view 1, showing 6 ■ RELATIVE MOTION
plane O–1–3 in edge view.With members O–1 and O–3 As was pointed out in the definitions of §1 velocities
coinciding in view 1, there are only two unknown force are frequently represented by vectors. Graphical vector
components in view 1: the force in O–2 and the com- analysis is readily applicable to many velocity problems.
bined force in O–3–1. The auxiliary view also serves as In Fig. 13 (a) let it be given that the river has a
a free-body diagram, and Bow’s notation is applied current velocity of 10 knots and that it is desired to pro-
after offsetting force O–3 to some temporary and arbi- ceed from station A to station B in a motorboat traveling
trary position such as O–3¿. at 13 knots. The problem is to determine the direction
The vector diagram at (b) is now constructed. The (bearing) in which the motorboat should be headed.
vectors are parallel to their space-diagram positions as At (b) a suitable scale is selected, and the current-
usual. First, load vector ad is resolved in view 1 into velocity vector (10 knots) is set off. The problem then
vector components dc and cba. (The position of point becomes that of positioning the motorboat velocity
b is not yet determined.) This permits the location of vector (13 knots) so that the resultant points from sta-
point c in view H, the top view. This component, in turn, tion A toward station B. The required bearing is N 66°,
must be the equilibrant of components cb and ba in as shown, and the net velocity of the motorboat turns
the top view, locating point b in the top view. Projection out to be 6 knots.

■ FIGURE 12 ■ Resolution by Edge View of Plane of Two Unknown Forces.

725
 Graphical Vector Analysis

In the preceding example all velocities were rela- Since the scalar magnitude of vector R and the dis-
tive to the surface of the earth, and the result was tance traveled to closest approach can be measured at
obtained by simple vector arithmetic. In Fig. 14 (a) their individual specified scales, the elapsed time can
let it be given that two objects A and B are moving on a be calculated as follows.
horizontal plane in the directions and with the veloci-
ties indicated. Will the objects collide? If not, how close Time = distance , velocity
will they pass? What will be the elapsed time to the
3601m21hr21n. miles236001sec2
point of the closest approach? =
The given velocities are with respect to the plane 31.51n. miles218521m21hr2
of motion. The required answer must be in terms of the = 22.2 sec
motion of one object with respect to the other. If, for
example, the plane of motion is imagined to be moving The results can be referred back to the horizontal
in the opposite sense but with the same velocity as plane of motion (map), as at (c), by moving distance X
object A, object A becomes stationary with respect to (line 1–2) along vector A until point 2 falls on the line
the drawing paper; and object B moves in the direction of action of vector B at point 2¿. It is then seen that the
and with the composite velocity R shown at (b). Vector actual map positions of objects A and B at the moment
R is the vector difference between vectors A and B. It is of closest approach will be at points 1¿ and 2¿, respec-
then seen that the closest approach of object B to tively. As the objects continue beyond these positions,
object A is distance X, as indicated. the distance between them increases.

■ FIGURE 13 ■ Graphical Combination of Velocity Vectors.

■ FIGURE 14 ■ Relative Motion.

726
 Graphical Vector Analysis

Graphics
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(A)

(B)
(continued)

727
 Graphical Vector Analysis

(C)

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AutoCAD pull-down menu. The same dialog box you used engineers, and detail drafters.

728
 Graphical Vector Analysis

KEY WORDS
VECTOR MOMENT SCALAR COUPLE

STATICS SPACE DIAGRAM EQUILIBRIUM VECTOR DIAGRAM

FORCE VECTOR POLYGON RESULTANT REACTIONS

EQUILIBRANT BOW’S NOTATION RESOLUTION FUNICULAR POLYGON

CONCURRENT RELATIVE MOTION NONCONCURRENT FREE BODY

CHAPTER SUMMARY
■ Graphical vector analysis is a simple technique for solv- show the vectors connected sequentially (head to tail)
ing spatial relations between multiple forces acting in dif- with a single final resultant.
ferent directions. Vectors are graphical representations ■ One technique for resolving vectors is to break each vector
that show the magnitude of an action applied in a speci- up into two Cartesian axis component vectors and sum the
fied direction. Vectors can be graphically summed to vectors along each axis to find the resultant vector.
determine the resultant action of all the vectors. ■ When resolving oblique vectors in space via multiview
■ Specific notation, like many descriptive geometry tech- projection, the resultant must be revolved to determine
niques, is required to effectively share solutions with oth- its true-length magnitude.
ers. Vector analysis uses Bow’s notation to label vectors ■ Stress diagrams are a common and accepted method of
and describe their relationship in space. determining stresses in civil engineering applications.
■ Space diagrams show the vectors connected at a common ■ Use the point view of an unknown force to resolve con-
source (tails connected). The resultant is usually not current noncoplanar vectors with one unknown force.
apparent in a space diagram. Vector diagrams show the Use the edge view of a plane to resolve concurrent non-
vectors connected (head to tail) and are resolved sequen- coplanar vectors with two unknown forces.
tially, showing intermediate resultants. Vector polygons

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is the difference between a vector and a scalar? 4. What are concurrent vectors?
Which part of the vector is the same as a scalar? 5. What is the difference between a space diagram and a
2. The resultant vector of a fishing pole with a fish pulling vector polygon?
on the line would be a vector with some force from the 6. In Bow’s notation, how are structural members or lines
handle of the fishing pole to the fish. Give another of force notated?
example of a real-life two-vector problem, and describe
7. What is meant by a free body in a stress diagram?
the resultant vector.
8. Give an example of a relative motion problem that
3. A kite on a string has a resultant force of zero (the force
could be solved using vector analysis. What information
of the kite pulling against the string is canceled by the
must be given in order to solve the problem?
equal and opposite direction force of the person pulling
down on the string). Give another real-life example of a
two-vector problem whose resultant is zero.

GRAPHICAL VECTOR ANALYSIS PROBLEMS

In Figs. 15–20 are problems on concurrent coplanar problem area. The third coordinate (not given in this
vectors, nonconcurrent coplanar vectors, and concurrent example; see Fig. 19, Prob. 1) locates the top view of
noncoplanar vectors. the point from the bottom edge of the problem area.
Use Layout A–1 or A4–1 (adjusted), and divide the Since many of the problems in this chapter are of a
working area into four equal areas for problems to be general nature, they can also be solved on most computer
assigned by the instructor. Some problems require two graphics systems. If a system is available, the instructor
problem areas (one-half sheet) or the entire sheet. Data may choose to assign specific problems to be completed
for the layout for each problem are given by a coordinate by this method.
system. For example, in Fig. 15, Prob. 1, point a is Additional problems, in convenient form for solution,
located by the full-scale coordinates (100 mm, 25 mm, –). are available in Engineering Graphics Problems, Series 1,
The first coordinate locates the front view of the point by Spencer, Hill, Loving, Dygdon, and Novak, designed
from the left edge of the problem area. The second coor- to accompany this text and published by Prentice-
dinate locates the front view from the bottom edge of the Hall/Pearson Education.

729
 Graphical Vector Analysis

■ FIGURE 15 ■ Concurrent Coplanar Forces. Lay out and solve problems as assigned. Use Layout A–1 or A4–1 (adjusted)
divided into four equal areas.
1. Find the resultant of the force system. Point O of the space diagram is at (38, 88, –). Complete the Bow’s notation
beginning with A as shown, and start the vector polygon at a (100, 25, –). Vector scale: 1 mm = 4 N.
2. Find the horizontal and vertical components of the resultant of the force system whose space diagram is shown at
P (25, 88, –). Use Bow’s notation beginning with A as shown, and start the vector polygon at a (75, 25, –). Vector scale:
1 mm = 40 N.
3. Determine the magnitudes and senses of force F and resultant R of the system shown at X (38, 88, –). Start the force
polygon at a (152, 75, –). Vector scale: 1 mm = 4 N. Hint: Arrange Bow’s notation so that all known forces are included
before an unknown force is encountered.
4. Determine the magnitudes of forces F1 and F2 for the system shown at Q (38, 63, –). The resultant is R. Begin the force
polygon at a (127, 50, –). Vector scale: 1 mm = 20 N. Hint: Translate the “pushing” forces to “pulling” forces before applying
Bow’s notation. Also see the hint in Part 3.

730
 Graphical Vector Analysis

■ FIGURE 16 ■ Concurrent Coplanar Forces. Lay out and solve problems as assigned. Use Layout A–1 or A4–1
(adjusted) divided into four equal areas.
1. Point P of the space diagram is at (50, 63, –). Space scale: 1/50. Starting the force polygon at a (100, 100, –), find the
stresses in the two members, supporting the 800 kg load. Vector scale: 1 mm = 100 N.
2. Cables OP and OQ are supporting an 80 kg mass. The stress in and position of cable OQ are as shown. Find the stress
in cable OP and angle u. Vector scale: 1 mm = 10 N. Start the force polygon at a (125, 100, –).
3. The members and coordinates of the space diagram of a loading crane are as follows: mast 1 (75, 75, –)–2 (63, 25, –),
boom 2–3 (100, 50, –), cable 1–4 (7, 25, –), and cable 1–3. Start the force polygon at a (127, 75, –) and find the stress
in each of the four members. Also find the reactions at mounting points 2 and 4. Vector scale: 1 mm = 100 N.
4. The 750 kg load is supported by four struttural members the coordinates of whose end points are as follows in the space
diagram: 1 (50, 63, –), 2 (12, 38, –), 3 (12, 88, –), 4 (38, 88, –), and 5 (50, 111, –). Find the stresses in the members,
starting the force polygon at a (127, 110, –). Vector scale: 1 mm = 100 N.

731
 Graphical Vector Analysis

■ FIGURE 17 ■ Noncurrent Coplanar Forces. Lay out and solve problems as assigned. Use Layout A–1 or A4–1
(adjusted) divided into four equal areas.
1. Find the magnitude, sense, and line of action of the resultant of the force system positioned at X (25, 50, –). Start the force
polygon at a (152, 114, –). Space scale: 1/100. Vector scale: 1 mm = 10 N.
2. Find the magnitude, sense, and line of action of the force that will place the given system located at X (12, 50, –) in
equilibrium. Start the force polygon at a (140, 114, –). Space scale: 1/100. Vector scale: 1 mm = 10 N.
3. Find the reactions R1 and R2 of the space diagram at X (12, 63, –). Start the force polygon at a (127, 114, –). Space
scale: 1/100. Vector scale: 1 mm = 100 N.
4. Find the reactions R1 and R2 of the space diagram at X (12, 66, –). Start the force polygon at a (127, 114, –). Space scale:
1/100. Vector scale: 1 mm = 100 N. Remember: Start the funicular polygon at the pinned joint.

732
 Graphical Vector Analysis

■ FIGURE 18 ■ Noncurrent Coplanar Forces. Lay out and solve problems as assigned. Use Layout A–1 or A4–1
(adjusted) divided into four equal areas.
1. Find the reactions R1 and R2 of the truss at N (25, 178, –). Start the force polygon at a (127, 228, –). Find the loads in
each member of the truss starting the stress diagram at a new a (152, 114, –). Space scale: 1/200. Vector scale:
1 mm = 100 N. Note: In this problem it is not necessary to repeat the space diagram. Simply extend Bow’s notation in the
original space diagram.
2. Find the reactions R1 and R2 of the truss at N (12, 178, –). Start the force polygon at a (127, 230, –). Find the loads in each
member of the truss starting the stress diagram at a new a (127, 114, –). Space scale: 1–400. Vector scale:
1 mm = 100 N. See Note in Part. 1.

733
 Graphical Vector Analysis

■ FIGURE 19 ■ Concurrent Noncoplanar Vectors. Lay out and solve problems as assigned. Use Layout A–1 or A4–1
(adjusted) divided into four equal areas.
1. Three concurrent vectors are shown to scale in multiview form: The coordinates are O (12, 12, 75). A (38, 38, 100),
B (63, 38, 88), and C (38, 12, 63). Starting the vector diagram at P (88, 12, 75), find the magnitude and slope of the
resultant of the vectors. Vector scale: 1 mm = 1 N.
2. The vectors are shown to scale in the space diagram. The coordinates are O (12, 38, 88), A (28, 20, 110), B (45, 45, 106),
C (35, 60, 88), and D (40, 33, 75). Start the vector diagram at P (75, 38, 75). Find the magnitudes of the horizontal and
vertical components of the resultant. Vector scale: 1 mm = 10 N.
3. The tripod structure shown in the space diagram is located as follows: O (75, 25, 96), 1 (25, 12, 75), 2 (25, 65, 100), and
3 (25, 12, 117). Find the loads in the three members O–1, O–2, and O–3. Vector scale: 1 mm = 10 N. Hint: Use the
front view in the space diagram as a free-body diagram.
4. The tripod structure withstanding the 500 N horizontal force is located by the following coordinates: O (63, 63, 100),
1 (18, 30, 75), 2 (35, 25, 117), and 3 (63, 12, 100). Find the loads in the tripod legs. Vector scale: 1 mm = 10 N.

734
 Graphical Vector Analysis

■ FIGURE 20 ■ Concurrent Noncoplanar Vectors and Velocity Vectors. Lay out and solve problems as assigned. Use
Layout A–1 or A4–1 (adjusted) divided into four equal areas.
1. The tripod structure supports a weight of 500 kg and is located by the following coordinates: O (58, 172, 205),
1 (25, 142, 244), 2 (46, 193, 244), and 3 (86, 160, 244). Find the loads in the tripod legs. Vector scale: 1 mm = 100 N.
2. An aircraft at A (25, –, 25) is in level flight on a compass course of N 45° and at an indicated air speed of 200 knots. If
there is a 100-knot wind blowing from due east, what is the resulting true ground speed and course? Scale: 1 mm = 4
knots. If the aircraft is to pass over point P (63, –, 100), with the original compass course and wind velocity, what must be
the indicated air speed of the craft?
3. A ship at A (12, –, 100) is sailing a course of N 135° at 16 knots. Another ship at B (88, –, 75) is on a course of N 215° at
12 knots. How close will the ships pass? Distance scale: 1/2000. Velocity scale: 1 mm = 0.5 knot. How much time will
have elapsed at the moment of closest approach? (Show calculations.) Show the actual positions of the ships at this time.
4. An aircraft at A (25, 50, 114) is flying a true course of N 120° at a corrected air speed of 120 knots. A destroyer at
S (100, 12, 100) is on a course of N 240° at 20 knots. Find the resulting minimum antiaircraft artillery range in
meters. Distance scale: 1/50 000. Velocity scale: 1 mm = 2 knots.

735
This page intentionally left blank
Sheet Layouts

From Engineering Graphics, Eighth Edition, Frederick E. Giesecke, Alva

Mitchell, Henry Cecil Spencer, Ivan Leroy Hill, Robert Olin Loving, John
Thomas Dygdon, James E. Novak. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Published by Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.
738
739
This page intentionally left blank
From Engineering Graphics, Eighth Edition, Frederick E. Giesecke, Alva
Mitchell, Henry Cecil Spencer, Ivan Leroy Hill, Robert Olin Loving, John
Thomas Dygdon, James E. Novak. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Published by Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.
This page intentionally left blank
 Plate 1
■ A ■

CAD Documents Supply a Multitude of Information

that Engineers and Technicians Must Understand
and Use. (Courtesy of SolidWorks Corporation.)

■ B ■

Types of Solids.

From Engineering Graphics, Eighth Edition, Frederick E. Giesecke, Alva

Mitchell, Henry Cecil Spencer, Ivan Leroy Hill, Robert Olin Loving, John
Thomas Dygdon, James E. Novak. Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Published by Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.
 Plate 2
■ A ■

Conic Sections.

■ B ■

The Three Regular Views.

744
 Plate 3
■ A ■

Hidden-Line Practices.

■ B ■

The Glass Box.

745
 Plate 4
■ A ■

A Section.

■ B ■

Full Section.

746
 Plate 5
■ A ■

Cutting Planes and Sections.

■ B ■

An Auxiliary View.

747
 Plate 6
■ A ■

Robotic Welding on Ford Automobile Assembly Line.

(Courtesy of Ford Motor Co.)

748
 Plate 7
■ A ■

Four Types of Projection.

749
 Plate 8
■ A ■

3D Piping Drawing Produced on a CAD System.

(Courtesy of SolidWorks Corporation.)

■ B ■

Exploded Solid Model. (Exhibition Light Designed for Klem Products GmbH
by Bendis & Kieruff. Courtesy of SolidWorks Corporation.)

750
Index
Page references followed by "f" indicate illustrated 520, 524, 527, 531, 534, 544, 552 overview, 235
figures or photographs; followed by "t" indicates a laying out, 95-96, 669 Partial, 235, 243-244, 248-250, 252-255, 257-258,
table. oblique projections, 546 429, 451, 453
orthographic projections, 508, 531 primary, 236, 243, 246-250, 256-257, 263, 454, 609
receding lines, 134, 546, 551, 573 projecting, 244, 249, 263, 602, 645, 705
1 rotating, 49, 534 Projection, 235-240, 242, 244, 246-248, 250, 263,
16-pitch threads, 384 screw threads, 115, 520 265, 267, 601, 609, 725
text on, 106 reference planes, 237, 240
transferring, 129, 237-238, 250 reverse construction, 243
3 Angular dimensions, 323, 334, 352 revolutions, 263, 265, 267
3D models, 8, 183, 211, 422-423, 507, 534, 692 Angular perspective, 567, 570, 583 Secondary, 236, 246-250, 256-257, 454, 602, 609
layouts, 422 Angular tolerances, 323, 343, 356 Sectional views, 235
orthographic views, 183 Animation, 15, 17-18, 412, 679 sections, 244-245
Appearance, 16, 28, 48, 113, 118, 136, 139, 164, 219, successive, 246, 248-249, 263, 265, 601, 706
8 278, 288, 305-306, 315, 329, 375, 390, 394, uses, 241, 246
8-pitch threads, 390, 396 507, 531, 544, 546-547, 551, 583, 642 Availability of materials, 288
Approximate dimetric drawings, 525 Axes, 23-24, 108-110, 112, 114, 120, 131, 134, 144,
A Archimedes, 115, 120, 371 175-176, 211, 242, 249, 305, 361, 507,
Abbreviations, 316-317, 326, 334, 351, 430 spiral of, 115, 120 509-514, 516-517, 520-521, 524-525, 527,
Accessory shaft group, 433 Architects’ scale, 52, 55-56, 81, 334-335, 379, 524 529-532, 534-539, 549, 573, 583, 651-652,
Accuracy, 9, 24, 33, 44, 46, 49, 57-58, 72, 88, 95, Architectural drawings, 46, 329, 583 705, 718-719
97-98, 106, 269, 278, 283, 289, 291-292, Arcs, 29-30, 42, 59-60, 66-67, 75, 81-84, 87, 89, ellipses, 109, 131, 134, 175-176, 242, 249, 507,
294, 299, 302, 306-307, 311, 320-321, 91-93, 95-99, 102-107, 112-114, 116, 118, 516-517, 520-521, 524-525, 527, 529,
323-324, 334, 339-340, 346-347, 349-350, 120, 130-131, 135-137, 144-147, 149, 534
391, 394, 429, 515, 564, 568-569, 602-603, 160-161, 175, 178, 212-213, 220, 262-264, isometric, 134, 507, 509-514, 516-517, 520-521,
605, 608, 631, 645, 656, 675, 680, 684, 693, 268, 302, 311, 335, 357, 391, 399, 518-520, 524, 527, 530-532, 534-539
698, 701, 716, 723 548, 550-551, 571, 704-705 spheres, 651-652
dimensions, 9, 57, 283, 289, 292, 294, 302, bisecting, 91-92 Axis, 18, 24, 74, 90, 106-107, 109-111, 113-115, 120,
306-307, 311, 320-321, 323-324, 334, dimensions, 29-30, 81-84, 136, 146-147, 160-161, 134-135, 173, 175, 211, 214, 242, 248-249,
339-340, 391, 394, 429, 515, 680, 693 262-263, 302, 311, 335, 391, 399 261-268, 270-274, 330, 350, 353-354,
importance, 9, 46, 278, 429, 564 drawing, 29-30, 42, 59-60, 66-67, 75, 81-84, 87, 356-357, 359-361, 372-375, 385, 418, 507,
technical drawings, 9 91-93, 95-99, 102-107, 112-114, 116, 118, 509, 512, 514, 517, 521, 524, 527, 529-532,
Acme threads, 375, 381, 384 144-146, 149, 160-161, 212, 220, 546-551, 553, 556, 573, 576, 581, 596-598,
notes, 384 262-264, 302, 311, 335, 391, 518-520, 628, 638, 643, 652, 654, 660, 662, 677, 686,
Actual size, 57, 341, 343, 378 548, 550-551, 705 689-690, 705-706, 729
Adaptive control (AC), 295 elliptical, 60, 131, 135, 520, 705 defined, 115, 211, 356, 359, 689
Adjustable order, 559 in isometric, 520, 550 Axis of revolution, 261-262, 265, 268, 270-271,
Aerial photogrammetry, 699, 710 rectifying, 106 596-598, 689
Aesthetic design, 411, 443 review, 30, 81, 118, 149, 335 Axis of screw, 373
Aligned sections, 164, 205, 218-219, 223 rotating, 59 Axonometric drawing, 532, 534
Alignment, 126, 147, 149, 155, 184, 315, 349, 398, sketching, 42, 59-60, 66-67, 75, 81-84, 130-131, Axonometric projections, 509, 530, 534
438, 490, 627, 723 135-137, 144-147, 149 computer graphics, 534
dimensions, 126, 147, 155, 315, 438, 490 Array, 20, 25 dimetric, 509, 534
Alignment of views, 147, 149, 184 Arrowheads, 46, 66, 210, 304-306, 308-309, 329, 333, intersections, 530
Allowance, 312, 328, 330, 338, 339-342, 344-345, 350, 431, 522, 553 oblique, 530, 534
347, 370, 459, 668, 680 Arrows, 21, 50, 76, 159, 164, 206, 210, 213, 239-240, trimetric, 509, 530, 534
bend, 328, 330, 338, 668, 680 244, 246, 453 types, 534
fit, 328, 339-342, 344-345, 347, 370, 459, 680 Artificial intelligence (AI), 298
Alphabet of lines, 34, 42, 47, 80-81, 149 Assembly drawings, 208, 286, 331, 391, 430-431, 434, B
Alternate views, 238 438, 443, 607 Background, 6, 80, 217, 495-496, 502, 679
American National Standard for pipe threads, 385 bolts, 286, 331, 391, 430, 434 color, 502
American National Standards Institute (ANSI), 6, 34, isometric, 438, 607 Base circle, 658, 685-686
303 threads in, 431 Basic angle tolerancing method, 356
American national threads, 378-379, 382-385 working drawings, 430-431, 434, 438, 443 Basic dimension symbol, 351
Analysis stage, 281 Assembly sections, 434 Basic hole system, 342, 344-345
Angle bearing, 252, 557 Associativity, 607 locational interference fits, 344
Angle guide, 253 AutoCAD, 16, 21, 146, 211, 282, 315, 329, 362, 369, running and sliding fits, 344
Angles, 29, 37, 42, 44, 49-52, 57, 70, 82, 88-89, 386-387, 403, 502-503, 633-634, 653, 692, tolerancing, 342, 344-345
95-96, 102-103, 106, 111, 114-115, 119, 129, 708, 727-728 Basic shaft system, 342
134-135, 158, 172-173, 182, 211, 213-214, Automated and robotic assembly systems, 295 Basic size, 341-343, 345, 347-348
236-238, 241-242, 249-250, 270, 302, Auxiliary planes, 236, 238-240 Beams, 60
304-305, 311, 326, 332-333, 352, 356, 373, Auxiliary shaft bearing, 228 Bearings, 279, 294, 363, 428, 434, 607, 707, 713
376, 434, 507-510, 514-515, 517, 520, Auxiliary view, 171, 175, 235-260, 261-262, 265-266, ball, 434
524-525, 527, 531, 534, 544, 546, 551-552, 268, 270, 454, 509, 517, 590, 594-598, bushings, 428
572-573, 594, 596, 602, 609-610, 614, 617, 601-603, 605, 609, 619, 624, 628, 631-632, Belleville springs, 401
629, 669, 683, 690-691, 696, 700, 704-705, 635, 638, 645, 648, 669-670, 672, 676, 689, Bend allowance, 330, 338, 668, 680
713 702-703, 705-706, 725, 747 Bilateral system, 343
arcs, 29, 42, 82, 89, 95-96, 102-103, 106, 114, 135, Auxiliary views, 235-260, 263, 265, 267, 429, 451, Bilateral tolerance, 343, 370
213, 302, 311, 520, 551, 704-705 453-454, 601-602, 609, 645, 705-706, 725 Bill of Materials, 28
dihedral, 182, 241-242, 250, 602, 609-610, 617, CAD, 235, 249-250, 258 Bisecting, 91-92
691, 696, 704 classification, 238 Blind rivets, 400
dimensions, 29, 37, 57, 82, 134, 237-238, 250, curves, 235, 242-243, 249-250 Blocking, 75, 129-130, 133, 250, 424
302, 304-305, 311, 326, 332-333, 352, dihedral angles, 241-242, 250, 602 Blocks, 29-30, 272, 279, 339, 440, 443, 502, 728
507, 510, 514-515, 527, 534, 552, 573, edge views of planes, 601 advantages of, 443, 502
690 Ellipse, 242, 248-249 color, 502
dimetric drawings, 525 half, 244, 253, 453 create, 29-30, 339, 502, 728
isometric, 134-135, 507, 509-510, 514-515, 517, hidden lines, 244, 250-251, 253, 257, 454 creating, 29

751
 defined, 279 pitch, 379 dimensions, 660, 680, 690, 693
edit, 29, 728 root, 62, 379 Configurations, 18
revision, 443, 728 Circles, 24, 29-30, 42, 58-60, 62-63, 66-67, 69-70, 75, Conic sections, 87, 106-107, 118, 155, 184, 244, 578,
scale, 29, 443, 502 81-84, 89, 98-99, 101-102, 109, 118-120, 744
title, 29, 272, 443, 728 130, 134, 136-137, 144, 147, 149, 160-161, ellipses, 107
tolerance, 339 174, 248, 268, 270, 302, 319, 333, 356, 381, Connections, 396
Blueprint process, 5, 8, 494 399, 416, 429, 431, 518, 521, 544-546, Constraints, 7, 35, 146-147, 420
Body, 14, 49, 230, 312, 318, 367, 390-391, 394, 400, 548-551, 553, 556, 571, 578, 638, 651-652, dimensional, 146
428, 498, 560, 698, 723-725, 729, 734 676, 691, 704, 706 geometric, 146
Boeing 777 jetliner, 291 auxiliary views, 248, 429, 706 Construction lines, 29, 46, 48, 59, 63-64, 74, 80, 82,
design, 291 center, 29, 58-59, 62-63, 66, 89, 98-99, 101-102, 91, 93, 118, 130, 134, 136-137, 145, 147,
Bolts, 33, 141, 143, 278, 284, 286, 307, 331, 371-372, 109, 118-120, 130, 134, 137, 144, 149, 149, 160-162, 381, 391, 513, 529, 534, 556,
382-383, 388-391, 393-394, 396-399, 403, 160-161, 319, 333, 356, 381, 518, 521, 591, 703
428, 430, 434, 493, 498 549-551, 553, 556, 571, 578, 638, 652, Constructions, 4, 46, 54-55, 75, 82-83, 87-123, 131,
connections, 396 704, 706 265, 518, 520-521, 529-530, 544, 579, 623,
miscellaneous, 396-397 characteristics, 29, 58, 81 658, 675-676, 689, 716
sketching, 141, 143 diameter, 42, 59, 62-63, 89, 109, 118-120, 248, helix, 115, 120
specifications, 371, 383, 391, 393, 398, 403 333, 381, 521, 551, 638, 704 hyperbola, 106, 113-114, 117, 120
standard, 307, 331, 371-372, 382-383, 388-389, drawing, 24, 29-30, 42, 58-60, 62-63, 66-67, 69-70, parabola, 106, 112-114, 117, 120
391, 393-394, 396, 398-399, 428, 430, 75, 81-84, 98-99, 101-102, 109, 118, 144, spiral, 115, 120
434, 493 149, 160-161, 248, 270, 302, 319, 333, Continuous products, 279
types, 278, 286, 371, 389, 393-394, 396, 398, 403 356, 381, 416, 429, 431, 518, 521, 544, Contours, 75, 141-142, 156, 206, 313, 548, 550, 692,
Borders, 71, 223, 303, 428, 436, 728 546, 548-551, 553, 556, 578 697, 699-701, 703, 710-711
Boundaries, 29, 155, 184, 209, 213, 645, 680 great, 60, 69, 134, 521, 704, 706 defined, 692, 710
Box, 19, 24, 80, 88, 134-137, 146, 157-158, 182-184, oblique, 109, 134, 136-137, 149, 248, 268, 270, drawing, 75, 141, 156, 206, 313, 548, 550, 692,
211, 230, 236-237, 257, 271-272, 286, 329, 521, 544-546, 548-551, 553, 556, 638, 697, 699, 710
362, 370, 387, 428, 448, 500, 510, 513-515, 652, 676 Conventional breaks, 215, 220-221, 223, 381
517, 520, 531, 534, 549, 633, 727-728, 745 radius, 58-59, 62-63, 67, 82-84, 98, 101-102, 109, revolved sections, 215, 221
Box construction, 137, 513-515, 534, 549 118, 120, 130, 333, 518, 521, 571, 652, section views, 221
isometric drawings, 534 704 Conventional edges, 181-182
BOX tool, 257 sketching, 42, 58-60, 62-63, 66-67, 69-70, 75, Coordinate dimensioning, 320, 331-332
Brackets, 278, 291, 310 81-84, 130, 134, 136-137, 144, 147, 149, Coordinate systems, 211
dimensions, 310 553, 556 UCS, 211
mounting, 291 Circular arcs, 59, 67, 106, 112-113, 220, 262-264, 268, Coordinates, 22, 28, 114, 273, 352, 420, 610, 635,
sheet metal, 278, 291 391, 399, 518, 520, 548, 550-551, 571 660, 692-693, 711, 729, 731, 734-735
Brake control lever, 255 rectifying, 106 cursor, 22
Brass pipe, 373 Circularity, 350, 356, 370 relative, 22, 729
Break, 48, 162, 205, 214, 220-221, 244, 248, 309, Classification of auxiliary views, 238 Copy, 17, 24-25, 33, 37, 292, 411-412, 437, 442,
313, 326, 333, 367, 371, 415, 423, 444, 729 Clearance fits, 341, 344 494-496, 499, 502-503, 554
Breaks, 215, 220-223, 381, 728 Clearances, 344, 391, 402, 416, 429, 708 Corners, 45, 96, 98, 141-143, 145-146, 156, 160-162,
conventional, 215, 220-221, 223, 381 fits, 344, 402, 416, 708 164-166, 174, 178, 184-185, 272, 391, 428,
revolved sections, 215, 221 Clevis pins, 398 515, 518, 531, 550, 612, 628, 700
section views, 221 Coarse threads, 390, 396, 463 rounded, 141-142, 145, 165, 178, 391
Briggs, Robert, 385 Coated sheets, 71 Costs, 31, 33, 281, 283-288, 293-295, 298, 340, 346,
Broaching machine, 202 Cocking block, 229 371, 382, 416, 430, 494, 528-529
Burr, 292 Coil spring, 67 considerations, 287-288, 293-294, 416
Bushings, 428 Color, 16, 19-20, 25, 32-33, 71, 288, 364, 436, design process, 281, 283
Buttons, 22-23, 387 499-500, 502 manufacturing processes, 283, 294-295, 298
mouse, 22-23 background, 502 materials, 281, 283, 285-288, 294-295, 416
Colors, 20, 298, 499, 703 Cotter pins, 393, 398
C Column support, 225 Counterbore, 212-213, 312, 369
Cabinet projections, 548 Combined symbols, 352 Counterbored holes, 175, 218
Camera, 292, 496, 501-502, 569 Combining, 52, 679, 699, 716 cylinders, 175
Cameras, 28 Commands, 16, 21-23, 28, 34, 36-37, 72, 298, 315, description, 218
Cams, 633 418, 502 Countersink, 312, 326, 369
motions, 633 selecting, 28, 315 Creativity techniques, 411, 413, 443
Cap screws, 321, 388, 390-391, 394-395, 403 transparent, 502 Cross section, 214, 373, 396, 418, 669
standard, 388, 391, 394-395 Comments, 32-33, 444, 503 Crosshairs, 22
Cartography, 15, 17-18, 667, 680, 697-713 adding, 503 Cursor, 21-23, 503, 580
Casting, 121-122, 284, 289, 291, 294, 299, 312, 320, Communication, 1, 3, 8, 11, 44, 165, 281-282, 414, graphics, 503, 580
322-323, 333, 586 493, 502-503, 506, 507, 709 Curves, 24, 42, 64, 66-69, 75, 99, 106, 112-114, 117,
Castings, 319, 428 engineering drafting, 8 133, 155, 166, 176, 178, 184, 220, 235,
Cavalier projections, 547 model, 8, 165, 503 242-243, 249-250, 323, 375, 391, 401, 507,
CD-ROM storage systems, 499 Compatibility of files, 503 515-516, 534, 548, 550, 553, 578, 646, 648,
Cellular manufacturing, 295, 299 Composite materials, 287 651, 680, 704
Center of vision, 567, 583 Composites, 287, 387 analytic, 106
Centering block, 252 Compression spring, 401-402 auxiliary views, 235, 242-243, 249-250
Centerlines, 416 Compression springs, 400-401 dimensioning, 250, 323, 553
circles, 416 Computer Numerical Control (CNC), 18, 295 irregular, 42, 66-69, 113-114, 133, 155, 176, 184,
drawing, 416 Computer-aided design (CAD), 280, 282, 493 242, 249-250, 507, 515-516, 534, 648,
Ceramics, 279, 287, 387 product development, 280, 282, 493 651
Chamfer, 326, 379, 391 Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM), 14-15, 283 isometric, 507, 515-516, 534, 550, 553
Chamfers, 326, 328, 343 Computer-aided process planning (CAPP), 295 parabolic, 112-113
dimensioning, 326, 328, 343 Computer-output microfilm (COM), 502 perspective drawings, 507
Check assemblies, 430, 435 Concentricity tolerance, 361 projected, 155, 176, 184, 220, 242-243, 250, 516,
Checking drawings, 429 Concurrent engineering, 278, 281-282, 286, 299 648
Chordal dimensions, 328 Condition, 303, 341, 348, 350-351, 354-356, 359, Cutting planes, 209-210, 224, 515, 520, 551, 605-606,
Chords, 96, 100-101, 114, 670, 672, 675 361-362, 369-370, 623, 635, 697 608, 644-646, 648-652, 656, 658, 660, 710,
Chuck, 192, 196, 451 fixed, 355 747
Circle, 42, 57, 59, 62-63, 70, 75, 81, 87-90, 96-98, Cone, 9, 28, 60, 90, 106, 112-113, 115, 118, 173, 226, Cutting-plane lines, 74, 127, 205-206, 209-210
100-104, 106, 108-111, 114-120, 126, 244, 266-267, 314, 317-318, 350, 356-357, description, 127
130-131, 137, 139, 145, 149, 175, 177-179, 389, 396, 399, 508, 557, 569, 573, 578, 638, Cylinders, 155, 175-178, 184, 316-317, 333-335, 346,
242, 248-249, 261, 266, 268, 306, 319-320, 642-644, 646-652, 654-656, 658-660, 662, 356, 367, 418, 520-521, 642, 649-652,
333, 353, 379, 399, 428, 516-517, 519, 521, 665-666, 674-677, 680, 683-685, 689-691, 656-657, 660, 667, 669, 672, 675, 680, 686,
532, 534, 551, 556, 574, 578, 602-603, 616, 693-694, 698 693
619, 648, 652, 658-659, 674-675, 684-686, Cones, 418, 642, 649, 651-652, 656-657, 660, 665, and ellipses, 175, 520
688-689, 704, 706-707, 713 667, 672, 675-676, 680, 684, 689-691, 693 developments, 667, 669, 672, 675, 680
base, 90, 115, 517, 532, 578, 658, 674-675, description, 689 dimensions, 155, 316-317, 333-335, 660, 680, 693
684-686, 689 developments, 667, 672, 675-676, 680 intersections, 176-178, 520, 642, 649-652,

752
 656-657, 660 chain, 54, 324, 333, 444 circles, 29-30, 81-84, 134, 136, 147, 160-161, 302,
Cylindrical shapes, 316-317, 518, 549 chamfers, 326, 328, 343 319, 333, 399, 429, 431, 553
Cylindricity, 350, 356-357, 369-370 checklist, 29, 332 continued, 262, 438, 470, 477, 482
Cylindricity tolerance, 356 coordinate, 311, 320, 323, 331-332, 334, 352-353 continuous, 160, 438
curved surfaces, 328, 330 control, 36, 146, 195, 253, 255-256, 283, 294-295,
D curves, 250, 323, 553 303, 311, 321, 329, 332, 339-340,
Dams, 572 cylinders, 316-317, 333-335, 367 351-353, 361, 370, 420, 503, 536, 557
Databases, 386 direct, 215, 320, 325, 329, 339 conventions, 155, 162, 164, 250, 302
Datum, 29, 237, 320-321, 331, 345, 351-353, 355-356, direction, 76, 213, 215, 241, 250, 303-304, 310, coordinate, 37, 273, 311, 320, 323, 331-332, 334,
359, 361-362, 367, 369-370 343, 345, 522, 553 352-353, 510, 530, 635, 660, 693
features, 320-321, 351-352, 355-356, 359 drawings, 29, 34, 54, 76, 213, 250, 302-303, defined, 302, 370, 693
identifying symbol, 351 305-307, 309-313, 316, 319, 321, 323, diameter, 57, 126, 162, 288, 292, 307, 314,
Datums, 321, 323 326, 329, 331, 334-335, 362, 368, 444, 316-317, 320, 323, 326, 328-329,
Deleting, 599 522-523, 728 333-334, 340, 343-345, 348, 351-354,
Depth, 3, 36, 88, 135-139, 145, 147, 155, 157-161, dual, 54, 307, 309, 332 391, 394-396, 527
165, 178, 184-185, 235-240, 245, 248, 250, example, 54, 241, 307-308, 310, 314-315, 320-321, double, 57, 229, 474, 668, 693
263, 275, 314-317, 328, 369, 373, 375-379, 324-326, 329, 331-332, 335, 339-340, editing, 29, 36-37
381, 384-385, 389, 391, 394, 396, 402, 515, 343, 345, 362, 367, 370, 444, 513, 522 extension lines, 302, 305, 329, 332-334, 522, 553
544, 553, 556, 573, 594 exercises, 303 fillets, 155, 325, 334
auxiliary views, 235-240, 245, 248, 250, 263 fillets and rounds, 312, 325 holes, 155, 162, 164, 179, 292, 294, 305, 307, 314,
thread, 373, 375-379, 381, 384-385, 389, 391, 394, finish marks, 312-313, 333-335, 368, 444, 728 316, 319-321, 324, 326, 333, 335,
402, 553 form and proportion, 317 342-344, 352-354, 394-395
Depth dimensions, 155, 160, 240, 250, 515 geometric, 29, 34, 304, 314-316, 319, 321-322, house, 535
transferring, 160, 250 335, 339, 350, 352, 361-362, 366-370, isometric, 81, 126, 134, 136, 314, 438, 507, 510,
Descriptive geometry, 4, 6, 11, 159, 249, 524, 530, 728 513-515, 522-523, 527, 530, 534-539,
590, 609, 623, 693, 697, 710, 716, 729 geometric breakdown, 304, 314, 321-322 552-553
Design drawing, 306 geometric dimensioning and tolerancing, 366-370, knurling, 328
Design for assembly (DFA), 284 728 leaders, 306, 310, 326, 333-335, 431
Design for manufacture and assembly (DFMA), 284 guidelines, 76, 79 limits, 57, 294, 307, 339-340, 342-345, 348, 354,
Design for manufacture (DFM), 283 holes, 145, 215, 305, 307, 314, 316, 318-321, 324, 370, 428, 573
Design process, 6, 11, 81, 146, 279-281, 283, 299, 326, 333, 335, 341, 343, 352-353 linear, 54, 304, 307, 311, 320, 328-329, 514-515,
367, 370, 410-411, 413-415, 417, 423, 443, keyways, 307, 328 552
506, 555, 709 knurls, 328, 330 location, 292, 302-303, 310, 314, 319-320, 324,
overview, 410 leaders, 306, 310, 326, 333-335 332, 334-335, 343-345, 351, 353, 370,
parametric modeling, 146, 410 lines, 29, 34, 76, 79, 145, 185, 213-215, 241, 250, 399, 515, 583
technical drawings, 6, 81, 506 302, 304-306, 309-311, 313-314, modifying, 37
Detail drawings, 208, 213, 331, 391, 422-423, 428, 319-320, 325-326, 329, 332-334, 352, ordinate, 329
430-431, 434-435, 447-448, 459 513, 522-523, 553 placing, 126, 133, 305, 313, 332, 352, 553, 690
multiple, 428 location, 302-303, 310, 314, 319-320, 324, 332, points, 9, 29-30, 81, 100, 157, 160-161, 237-238,
parts, 208, 213, 331, 391, 422-423, 428, 430-431, 334-335, 341, 343, 345, 350, 353, 362, 247, 250, 262-263, 271, 295, 303, 307,
434, 448, 459 369-370 309, 326, 332, 394, 396, 429, 515, 530,
subassemblies, 434-435 mating, 303, 321-322, 332, 334, 339-341, 343, 353, 566, 573, 583, 591, 660, 690, 693
Details, 2, 20, 33, 44, 46, 74-75, 128, 132, 137, 145, 370 properties, 288-289
147, 223, 317, 364, 389, 393, 399, 422-424, oblique, 185, 250, 523, 553 quick, 81, 126, 420
427, 431, 435, 456-468, 470, 472-475, 477, overview, 302, 339 radius, 37, 57, 82-84, 179, 307, 311, 316, 320,
479, 482, 485, 498, 503, 633, 645 piping, 523 323-324, 330, 333-334, 343, 354, 573
enlarged, 74-75 principal, 185, 241, 250 rounds, 155, 179, 292, 325, 334
layouts, 2, 422 prisms, 315-316 scale, 29, 54-55, 57, 81, 126, 133, 160-162, 164,
per sheet, 33, 423 reference, 250, 319-320, 331, 333, 345, 350, 352, 226, 238, 273, 292, 302-303, 306-307,
springs, 389, 393, 399 367, 369-370 309, 332, 334-335, 422, 424, 429, 436,
threads, 389, 393, 399, 431, 463 rounded-end shapes, 323-324 463, 467, 510, 513-514, 527, 534, 573,
Developments, 279, 283, 294, 667-682, 697 shaft centers, 326 583, 585, 587, 635, 660, 693
Diagrams, 20, 23, 46, 54-55, 287, 419, 443, 502-503, standards, 34, 214, 303, 312, 331, 334-335, 343, styles, 54, 209, 329, 391, 396
507, 523, 676, 716-717, 723-724, 729 366 symbols, 30, 146, 302, 316-317, 326, 339, 344,
perspective, 507 superfluous, 303, 324-325, 334-335 348, 351-353, 361, 399, 405, 428
Dialog boxes, 362, 633 surface roughness, 366 symmetry, 164, 354, 513
Diameters, 46, 90, 96, 109-110, 120, 292, 316, 318, symbols, 302, 312, 316-318, 326, 339, 350, tolerances, 7, 294, 309, 315, 319, 323-324, 326,
326, 333, 340, 347-348, 373, 376-377, 352-353, 361-362, 368-369, 728 332, 334, 339, 342-345, 348, 351-354,
382-383, 385, 389, 391, 394, 396-398, 517, tabular, 330-331 366, 370, 428-429, 438
527, 628, 708 tapers, 326, 328, 331 types, 81, 146, 302, 329, 335, 343-344, 394-396,
circle, 90, 96, 109-110, 120, 333, 517 threads, 307, 326, 553 401, 404, 422, 444, 507, 513, 534, 552,
conjugate, 109-110, 120, 517, 527 tolerance, 307, 309, 321, 323-324, 326, 329, 583, 680
dimensioning, 316, 318, 326, 333, 340 339-340, 343, 345, 350, 352-353, units, 30, 54, 57, 303-304, 306, 308, 315, 335, 399
rivets, 398 361-362, 369-370 variables, 7, 294-295
screw threads, 383 units, 54, 76, 303-304, 306, 308, 315, 335 Dimetric projections, 248
spherical, 318, 708 Dimensions, 7, 9, 29-30, 36-37, 54-55, 57, 81-85, 100, Direction, 9-10, 23, 49, 67, 76, 106, 115, 120, 129,
Diazo-dry process, 495 121, 126, 133-134, 136, 138-139, 146-147, 134, 138, 161, 164, 181, 183, 206, 209-213,
Diazo-moist prints, 495 155, 157, 159-162, 164, 179, 185, 187-204, 215, 235, 237-239, 241, 244-250, 256,
Differential leveling, 699 209, 225-234, 237-238, 240, 247, 250, 303-304, 310, 343, 345, 354, 364, 374,
Digital image processing, 499, 506 252-260, 262-263, 271-273, 283, 288-289, 380-381, 434, 438, 453, 498, 509, 522,
Dihedral angles, 182, 241-242, 250, 602, 610, 617 292, 294-295, 297, 302-311, 313-317, 531-532, 546-547, 553, 580, 592-595,
Dimension styles, 329 319-326, 328-335, 339-340, 342-345, 348, 597-598, 602, 605, 609, 624, 629-632, 644,
Dimension Styles dialog box, 329 351-354, 361, 366, 370, 391, 394-396, 399, 655-656, 687, 700-702, 706-707, 716-717,
Dimensioning, 29, 34, 54, 76, 79, 145, 185, 213-215, 401, 404-405, 420, 422, 424, 428-429, 431, 722, 724-726, 729
241, 250, 301-338, 339-341, 343, 345, 350, 436, 438, 444-448, 451-458, 460-468, 470, cutting-plane, 206, 209-210, 213, 215, 244, 605,
352-353, 361-362, 366-370, 444, 513, 472-475, 477, 479, 482, 485, 490-492, 503, 644
522-523, 553, 728 507, 510, 513-515, 522-523, 527, 530, dimensioning, 76, 213, 215, 241, 250, 303-304,
accuracy, 302, 306-307, 311, 320-321, 323-324, 534-539, 552-553, 557-560, 566, 573, 310, 343, 345, 522, 553
334, 339-340, 350 583-587, 591, 635, 660, 668, 680, 690, 693 section lines, 206, 209, 213, 244, 434
and notes, 302, 310, 319, 326, 335 abbreviations, 316-317, 326, 334, 351 viewing, 164, 183, 532
angles, 29, 213-214, 241, 250, 302, 304-305, 311, aligned, 164, 302, 310-311, 334, 444, 522-523, 553 Discrete products, 279
326, 332-333, 352 angular, 311, 320, 323, 328-329, 334, 343, 352, Display case, 581
arcs, 29, 145, 213, 302, 311, 335 514-515, 583 Distances, 29, 57-58, 60-61, 64, 75, 80, 95, 97, 106,
arrowheads, 304-306, 308-309, 329, 333, 350, 522, arcs, 29-30, 81-84, 136, 146-147, 160-161, 108, 112-113, 116, 129, 132-133, 158-160,
553 262-263, 302, 311, 335, 391, 399 176, 236-238, 242, 246, 249, 304, 320, 463,
assembly drawings, 331 associative, 29 467, 474, 510, 516, 520, 564, 573, 576, 579,
baseline, 320 baseline, 320 602, 605, 624, 628, 631, 644, 658, 669-670,
CAD, 29, 34, 76, 185, 250, 302-303, 314-315, 329, break, 162, 309, 313, 326, 333, 444 698, 703, 706
335, 339, 368, 444, 553, 728 chamfers, 326, 328, 343 Dividing lines, 56

753
Document management software, 501 412, 414-416, 430, 436, 653 506, 507, 528, 530, 534, 543, 563-564, 572,
Double-curved surfaces, 668, 683, 687 text, 4-5, 15, 17, 54, 76, 82, 316, 362, 387, 680, 581, 583, 589-591, 594, 609-610, 623, 635,
Dowel pins, 398 698 641-642, 660, 667, 679-680, 683, 693, 697,
Draft, 80, 326 tolerances, 178, 309, 319, 323, 326, 334, 349, 362, 700, 710, 715-716, 729, 737, 741, 743
Drafting, 1-2, 6, 8-9, 15-18, 34-35, 37, 42-46, 48, 51, 368, 382, 428-429, 438, 459 concurrent, 278, 281-282, 286, 299, 716, 729
57-58, 64, 69-72, 87, 160, 164, 220-221, units, 52, 54, 57, 76, 303, 306, 335, 439 design process, 6, 11, 81, 279, 281, 283, 299,
244, 308, 311-312, 376, 399, 412, 430, 435, views, 4-5, 28-29, 82, 140, 142-143, 148, 155, 165, 410-411, 413, 415, 443, 506
514, 527, 532, 550, 653, 693, 708 172, 181, 183-184, 205, 208-209, 211, Engineering drafting, 8
Drafting standards, 6, 72, 312 213, 221, 243, 250, 264, 270, 303, Engineering printers, 494
Drawing lines, 50, 52, 81, 436, 515, 573, 575 312-313, 316, 326, 334, 381-382, 387, Engineers’ scale, 43, 52, 54-55, 57, 379, 381
Drawing numbers, 427-428, 443, 493 391, 394, 413, 422, 424, 428-430, 436, Equilateral triangles, 638
Drawing pencils, 43, 45-46 438, 449-454, 456, 465, 479-480, Erase, 29, 46, 118
Drawings, 1-6, 8-9, 11, 14-15, 17, 22, 24-25, 28-29, 490-492, 503, 507, 532, 534, 544, 583, Erasers, 73, 128
33-34, 37, 42, 44, 46, 48, 52, 54-55, 57, 59, 680, 697 Expert systems, 283, 298-299
64-66, 70-72, 74, 76, 81-82, 87-88, 99, 118, working, 5-6, 9, 15, 22, 34, 44, 48, 70-71, 82, 148, Exploded view, 286-287
127, 140, 142-143, 146, 148, 155, 165, 172, 178, 305, 335, 401, 404, 409-492, 581, Exploded views, 438
178, 181, 183-184, 205, 208-209, 211, 213, 607 Extend, 62, 106, 108, 110, 143-144, 157, 182, 305,
221, 243, 250, 264, 270, 275, 278, 280, 286, Drill size, 388-389 333, 356, 394, 436, 440, 508, 530, 567, 603,
302-303, 305-307, 309-313, 316, 319, 321, Drilling, 284, 289-290, 294, 312, 314, 710 656, 658, 680, 721, 733
323, 326, 329, 331, 334-335, 349, 362-363, holes, 284, 294, 314 Extension springs, 400
368, 375, 381-382, 386-387, 389, 391, Extensions, 691
394-396, 401-402, 404, 409-492, 493-494, E External threads, 326, 372, 379, 381, 383-384
496, 499, 501-504, 506, 507, 512, 517, Edge views of planes, 601, 689 ANSI, 326, 372
522-523, 525, 532, 534-539, 541, 544, Edges, 24, 44, 52, 64, 70, 76, 90, 134-135, 156, dimensions, 326
546-547, 556-560, 570, 572, 581, 583, 607, 166-167, 169-173, 176, 181-182, 184, 206, notes, 326, 383-384
633-634, 653, 680, 692, 697-698, 708-709, 213, 238, 270, 284, 326, 333, 379, 508-510, symbols, 326, 383
728 512, 515, 524, 527, 529-531, 564, 567-568, Extrude, 418
arcs, 29, 42, 59, 66, 81-82, 87, 99, 118, 146, 178, 570, 572-573, 579, 583, 643-645, 648-649, Extrusion, 284, 289, 418-420, 443
213, 264, 302, 311, 335, 391 667, 669-670, 672-674, 676, 703 creating, 418
assembly, 2, 6, 17, 29, 146, 148, 208, 278, 286, conventional, 181-182
303, 319, 331, 362, 382, 386, 391, 394, orthographic projections, 508, 530-531 F
396, 410, 414, 416, 421-424, 428-436, solids, 90, 166, 173, 643-644, 648-649, 667, 669 Faces, 90, 136, 140, 157, 235, 264, 319, 510, 513,
438, 443-444, 456-468, 470, 472-475, tangent, 135, 176 518, 524, 527, 544-545, 554, 572-573, 617,
477, 479, 481-482, 485, 503, 523, 532, Editing, 16, 28-29, 36-37, 76, 499 643, 669, 674, 676, 692
607 dimensions, 29, 36-37 objects, 235, 513, 545
associativity, 607 materials, 28 Facets, 692
Bill of Materials, 28 properties, 16 Factor of safety, 716
circles, 24, 29, 42, 59, 66, 70, 81-82, 99, 118, 270, text, 76 Fasteners, 284, 371-407, 428, 634, 727-728
302, 319, 381, 416, 429, 431, 544, 546, eDrawings, 503-504 applications, 371-372, 383, 387, 400
556 Efficiency, 298, 529 CAD, 284, 371, 387, 402, 727-728
creating, 17, 28-29, 33-34, 42, 76, 146, 183-184, Electronic files, 494, 502-503 fixed, 398
205, 211, 221, 362, 386, 410-411, 418, storage, 494, 502 lengths of, 391
439, 494, 507, 534, 544, 556, 583, 633, Elements, 23, 29, 72, 81, 87, 112-113, 157, 166, locknuts and locking devices, 393
653, 680, 692, 708 173-175, 218, 244, 267, 281, 314, 331, 343, miscellaneous, 396-397
detailed, 28, 37, 148, 208, 278, 280, 312, 375, 354, 356-357, 361, 410-411, 423, 436, 493, overview, 371
381-382, 387, 391, 401-402, 404, 416, 520-521, 555, 565, 590-591, 609, 642-646, rivets, 398-400, 403
422, 434, 436, 506, 507, 698 648-651, 654-656, 658-660, 667, 669-670, springs, 371-407
dimensioning, 29, 34, 54, 76, 213, 250, 302-303, 672, 674-676, 680, 685-687, 689-691, 693 Feature control frames, 351, 362
305-307, 309-313, 316, 319, 321, 323, cylinders, 175, 356, 520-521, 642, 649-651, 656, Features, 14, 28, 30-31, 36, 69, 98, 139, 141, 144,
326, 329, 331, 334-335, 362, 368, 444, 660, 667, 669, 672, 675, 680, 686, 693 146, 162, 164, 184, 205, 211, 215, 217-220,
522-523, 728 standard, 72, 81, 331, 343, 361, 410, 493, 590, 693 223, 246, 270, 284, 289, 302, 305, 307, 313,
format, 22, 386-387, 504, 653 surfaces, 112, 166, 173-175, 314, 642-645, 320-321, 324-325, 330, 332-334, 346,
hatching, 29, 221 648-649, 656, 659-660, 667, 669, 676, 350-352, 354-356, 359, 366, 381, 399, 402,
layers, 422 680, 687 416, 418, 430, 436, 513, 534, 544, 546, 553,
limits, 57, 307, 349, 428 Elevation drawing, 710 556, 607, 685, 692, 698, 728
lines, 3, 5, 9, 24, 29, 34, 37, 42, 46, 48, 52, 59, Elevations, 698-702, 710 datum, 320-321, 351-352, 355-356, 359
64-66, 71-72, 74, 76, 81-82, 87-88, 99, Ellipse, 67, 69-70, 75, 90, 106-112, 118, 120, 131-132, defined, 211, 302, 356, 359, 416, 692
118, 127, 142-143, 146, 148, 155, 165, 134-136, 175-176, 242, 248-249, 261, 268, extrusion, 284, 289, 418
172, 181, 184, 205, 208-209, 213, 243, 271, 516-521, 527, 529-530, 532, 534, revolve, 218-219, 270
250, 270, 302, 305-306, 309-311, 313, 550-551, 578, 688 rib, 217-219, 223
319, 326, 329, 334, 375, 381-382, 391, Ellipses, 67, 75, 107, 109, 111, 131-132, 134-136, sheet metal, 607
394, 401, 404, 430-431, 434, 436, 438, 175-176, 220, 242-243, 248-249, 270, 507, slot, 321
454, 496, 499, 501-502, 512, 517, 516-518, 520-521, 524-525, 527, 529, 534, types, 31, 146, 205, 223, 302, 513, 534, 556
522-523, 532, 534, 546-547, 556, 570, 545-546, 548, 550-551, 553 Ferrous metals, 286
581, 607, 633 approximate, 75, 111, 176, 249, 517, 525, 529 Field rivets, 399
naming, 6, 72, 501 auxiliary views, 242-243, 248-249 Files, 16, 19, 22, 24, 28, 34, 71-72, 423, 428, 493-495,
new, 1-2, 6, 8, 11, 14-15, 17, 22, 28-29, 33, 37, 99, axes, 109, 131, 134, 175-176, 242, 249, 507, 501-504, 506, 728
146, 155, 165, 211, 213, 264, 286, 303, 516-517, 520-521, 524-525, 527, 529, electronic, 16, 22, 493-494, 502-503, 506
312, 362, 411-414, 416, 418, 420, 534 Fillet, 178-179, 181, 727
422-423, 428-429, 440, 443-444, 454, construction, 107, 109, 111, 132, 134-136, 243, Fillets, 70, 102, 155, 178, 180-181, 184, 312, 325,
479-480, 503-504, 506, 633, 653, 697, 516-518, 520-521, 529, 534, 551 334, 581
709 foci, 107 creating, 184
notes, 29, 66, 76, 81-82, 178, 302, 310, 316, 319, isometric, 132, 134-136, 248, 507, 516-518, description, 155, 181
326, 334-335, 404, 416, 422, 424, 520-521, 524, 527, 534, 550, 553 dimensions, 155, 325, 334
428-431, 436 on conjugate diameters, 109 Fine threads, 382, 394, 396
opening, 309, 313, 375, 418, 431 parallelogram, 109, 135, 517-518, 520, 545, Finish marks, 312-313, 333-335, 363, 368, 444, 728
orientation, 270 550-551 Finish symbols, 302, 368
points, 9, 22, 29, 66, 81, 88, 99, 118, 172, 184, sketching, 67, 75, 131-132, 134-136, 553 Finite element analysis (FEA), 7
213, 243, 250, 264, 270, 303, 307, 309, tangents to, 111 First-angle projection, 5, 182-183
326, 381, 394, 396, 429, 517, 532, 547, templates, 75, 111, 520, 527 Fits, 7, 31, 111, 306, 321, 329, 340-344, 346-349,
570, 572, 583, 607, 692, 698, 709, 728 trimetric, 248, 507, 525, 527, 529, 534 382-383, 389, 397, 402, 416, 450-451, 459,
rectangles, 82, 213 Elliptical arcs, 705 708
save, 25, 29, 183, 381, 386-387, 401, 438, 503, E-mail, 494, 502-503, 506 allowance, 340-342, 344, 347, 459
607, 653 Engineering, 1-6, 8-9, 11, 13-18, 28, 31, 34-37, 41-42, clearance, 340-342, 344, 348-349, 382, 389
saving, 71, 286, 391, 430 46, 54, 75-76, 80-81, 85, 87, 125, 155, 173, interference, 341-342, 344, 348-349, 459
sheet metal, 278, 323, 331, 607 205, 235, 261, 277-279, 281-283, 286, location, 341, 343-344, 349
splines, 396 291-292, 297, 299, 301-303, 307, 311, 314, locational interference, 344, 349, 459
standards, 1, 6, 11, 24, 34, 72, 148, 205, 221, 280, 334-335, 339, 371, 386-387, 399, 409-413, mating parts, 7, 321, 340-344, 346, 348-349,
303, 312, 331, 334-335, 382, 387, 389, 415-416, 422, 438, 443, 493-496, 498, 502, 382-383

754
 metric system, 344, 346 parallel, 42, 80, 126, 136, 516, 701, 712 Installation assemblies, 430, 435
running and sliding, 344 perspective, 73 Instance, 29, 116, 265, 287, 439, 597, 658
studies, 416 Grids, 712 Integrated circuits, 23
thread, 343, 382-383, 389, 402, 450 Grips, 45 Intelligent models, 7
tolerance, 321, 329, 340, 342-343, 346-348, 383 Move, 45 Interchangeability of parts, 303
transition, 341-342, 344, 348-349 Group technology (GT), 295 Interference fits, 341, 344
Fittings, 385, 619 Guidelines for lettering, 79 ANSI, 341, 344
Fixed gages, 292, 299 description, 344
Flanges, 253, 382 H locational, 344
Flat keys, 396-397 Half auxiliary views, 244 Internal threads, 379-383
Flat patterns, 669 Half sections, 213 ANSI, 382
Flat springs, 400-401 Hard leads, 46, 59 notes, 383
Flatness tolerance, 356 Hatch, 221 symbols, 382-383
Flexible manufacturing systems (FMS), 298 HATCH command, 221 International Organization for Standardization (ISO),
Floors, 297-298, 528 Hatching, 29, 221 346, 372, 383
Flues, 643 lines, 29 screw threads, 372, 383
Folding lines, 157-159, 235-240, 246, 250, 595, 598 section views, 221 tolerances and fits, 346
auxiliary views, 235-240, 246, 250 Headless set screws, 396 International System of Units, 52, 303
Fonts, 75-76, 80 Height auxiliary views, 238, 240 International tolerance grades, 347
Force fits, 344 Heights, 263, 317, 391, 427-428, 566, 568, 573, 575 Intersect, 91-92, 94-98, 102-103, 107, 110-112, 114,
Forging dimensions, 322 dimensions, 263, 317, 391, 428, 566, 573 116, 143, 181, 184-185, 244, 420, 518-519,
Form tolerances, 356, 359 Helical springs, 400-401 521, 529-531, 551, 573, 576, 590, 592, 597,
single features, 356 Helix, 115, 120, 372, 403 599-600, 603-606, 608, 612, 624, 627-628,
symbol, 356 Help, 7, 22, 25, 28, 34, 57, 75-76, 155, 184, 298, 402, 637, 642, 648-649, 651-652, 655-656, 658,
Formats, 22, 29, 31 410, 413, 426, 439, 443, 501, 506, 529, 660, 667, 672, 676, 685, 687, 689-691, 693,
Formulas, 28, 385, 391, 414 554-555, 653, 660, 679, 692, 703 703-705, 721, 723
Four-center ellipses, 518 Hexagon bolts, 389-391 Intersections, 91, 96, 105-106, 109, 113, 144,
Frame guide, 192 ANSI, 389 176-179, 181, 220-221, 326, 511, 518-520,
Frames, 351, 362, 367, 709 Hexagon cap screws, 390 530-531, 550-551, 570-571, 573, 576, 600,
Front views, 142, 147, 158-160, 174, 213, 246, Hexagon head screws, 394 605, 641-666, 676, 702-703
263-264, 515, 593, 602, 613, 624, 628, 645, Hexagon socket screws, 394 axonometric projection, 511, 518-520, 530-531,
649-651, 656, 712 Hexagons, 69 573
adjacent, 593, 624, 656 drawing, 69 cylinders, 176-178, 520, 642, 649-652, 656-657,
section, 213 Hidden lines, 48, 74, 80, 115, 127, 129, 139, 141-145, 660
Frontal planes, 158, 609, 691 147-149, 155-156, 160, 162, 164, 185, principles, 600, 642-643, 648
Frustum, 90, 318, 669, 675-677 205-207, 213-215, 217, 223, 244, 250-251, Investment casting, 284
cones, 675-676 253, 257, 305, 314, 332, 375-378, 430-431, Irregular curves, 42, 66-68, 155, 184, 507, 534
cylinders, 669, 675 454, 513, 551 Irregular objects, 215, 515
pyramids, 675-676 assembly drawings, 430-431 in isometric, 515
Full sections, 206, 221, 522, 552 auxiliary views, 244, 250-251, 253, 257, 454 Isometric axes, 134, 510-514, 516, 534
views, 206, 221 drawing, 48, 74, 80, 115, 127, 129, 139, 141, Isometric drawing, 507, 510-514, 518, 520-522, 524,
Full-size scales, 524 143-145, 148-149, 155-156, 160, 162, 534, 540, 552-553
Function keys, 21 164, 185, 205-207, 214-215, 223, 244, dimensioning, 513, 522, 553
Functional decomposition, 412-413, 443 250-251, 305, 314, 332, 375-378, ellipses, 507, 518, 520-521, 524, 534, 553
Functional design, 411, 443 430-431, 513, 551 Isometric drawings, 507, 512, 517, 534-539, 541, 544,
Fundamental deviation, 347-348 guidelines, 80 556, 607
Furniture, 287, 507, 548, 569 Hidden threads, 376 angles, 507, 517, 534, 544
High-strength bolts, 389 axes, 507, 512, 517, 534-539
G Hinge lines, 157-158, 236-237 curves, 507, 534
Gage blocks, 339 Hole sizes, 178, 292 ellipses, 507, 517, 534
Gauges, 708 Hole system, 342, 344-345, 370 inclined surfaces, 534
Gears, 115, 265, 279, 292, 294, 416, 633 tolerancing, 342, 344-345, 370 lines, 512, 517, 534, 556, 607
drawing, 115, 292, 416, 633 Holes, 63, 66, 145, 150-151, 154, 155, 162, 164, 175, Isometric sketches, 534-536
helical, 115 177-179, 184, 211, 215, 218-219, 284-286, Isosceles triangles, 576
types, 279 292, 294, 305, 307, 314, 316, 318-321, 324,
worm, 115 326, 333, 335, 341-344, 346-347, 352-355, J
General notes, 326 376, 381, 384, 388-389, 394-395, 398, 498, Jam nuts, 393
Geneva cam, 82, 85 520, 727 Jetliner, 291
Geometric characteristic symbols, 350-351 basic hole system, 342, 344 design, 291
Geometric constraints, 146 countersink, 326 Joining, 105, 109, 112-113, 116, 175, 236, 289-290,
parametric design, 146 dimensions, 155, 162, 164, 179, 292, 294, 305, 299, 373, 419, 568, 573, 576-577, 599, 645,
Geometric constructions, 75, 87-123, 131 307, 314, 316, 319-321, 324, 326, 333, 648-649, 672, 699
circles, 75, 89, 98-99, 101-102, 109, 118-120 335, 342-344, 352-354, 394-395 Joints, 385, 398-399, 668, 722
conic sections, 87, 106-107, 118 tapped, 319, 326, 376, 384, 388-389, 394-395 pipe, 385
ellipses, 75, 107, 109, 111, 131 Horizontal guidelines, 75-76 riveted, 398-399
involutes, 116 Horizontal lines, 48, 66, 129, 145, 171, 174, 213, 268, sheet metal, 398
overview, 87 570, 575-577, 625, 656, 687, 701 Juke box systems, 500
parallel lines, 88, 93-94, 105, 120 perspective drawings, 570 Just-in-time production (JIT), 295
perpendicular lines, 88 Horizontal planes, 170, 182, 548, 609, 651, 677, 699,
spiral of Archimedes, 115, 120 702-703, 719 K
squares, 75, 88, 99 Hydraulic fitting, 228 Kerned pairs, 80
triangles, 87-89, 98, 110, 114 Hyperbolas, 67, 391 Keyboard, 18, 21, 23, 28, 36, 75, 315, 422-423
Geometric tolerances, 339, 350, 356, 362, 370 Keys, 21, 33, 328, 331, 346, 396-398, 403, 422, 428,
orientation, 350 I 430, 434, 634
Geometry, 4, 6-7, 11, 24-25, 28-29, 36, 81, 87, 106, Inclined edges, 171, 568 Pratt & Whitney, 397
146, 159, 249, 350, 420, 503, 524, 530, 590, Inclined letters and numerals, 76 standard, 331, 346, 396, 398, 422, 428, 430, 434,
609, 623, 683-684, 689, 692-693, 697-713, Inclined lines, 24, 49-50, 66, 120, 129, 171-172, 513, 634
716, 729 546, 576-577, 594 Woodruff, 328, 397-398
reference, 159, 249, 350, 706 vanishing points, 576-577 Keyways, 307, 328
Global positioning system (GPS) receivers, 697 Inclined lowercase letters, 76, 78 dimensioning, 307, 328
Gothic font, 75 Inclined surfaces, 170-171, 184, 241, 256, 302, Knurling, 284, 328
Graph paper, 73, 127, 136, 149-154, 185, 223-224, 510-511, 534 Knurls, 328, 330
524, 553, 556 isometric drawings, 534
Great circles, 521, 704, 706 Industrial robots, 295, 299
Grid, 20, 22, 42, 73-76, 80-81, 126, 133, 136, L
Injection molding, 294 Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM), 422
149-150, 223-224, 516, 524, 700-701, 710, cycle, 294
712 Large rivets, 398-399
machines, 294 Lateral surfaces, 645, 673
centering, 80 process, 294
characteristics, 81 Lathe, 173, 231, 257, 371, 373, 474, 559

755
Lay symbols, 364-365 218-219, 223-224, 235-238, 240-250, 262, 600-602, 606, 608-609, 623-625,
Layers, 282, 422 265-268, 273, 286, 296-297, 302-306, 309, 628-632, 642, 645, 656, 658, 667, 672,
current, 282 312, 314, 316, 320-321, 323, 326, 328, 330, 684, 687, 689-690, 693, 703, 717
drawing, 422 333-335, 341, 343, 350-354, 356, 362, 369, cutting-plane, 74, 127, 205-206, 209-210, 213, 215,
new, 282, 422 373-374, 376, 378-379, 381, 385, 402, 223, 244, 604-606, 608, 620-621, 628,
scale, 422 413-414, 416, 418, 422, 425, 429-430, 434, 645, 649
Layout, 17, 63-64, 72, 82-85, 118-119, 121, 127, 436, 493, 495, 501-502, 509-511, 514-515, dimensioning, 29, 34, 76, 79, 145, 185, 213-215,
150-154, 160-161, 186-204, 223-234, 517, 519, 522-524, 527, 529-531, 534, 546, 241, 250, 302, 304-306, 309-311,
251-260, 272-275, 323, 335-338, 404-406, 550-551, 566-569, 571, 573, 575-578, 581, 313-314, 319-320, 325-326, 329,
416-417, 422, 444, 465, 474, 535-536, 541, 583, 590-606, 608-616, 619-620, 622, 332-334, 352, 513, 522-523, 553
579, 607, 610-622, 635-639, 660-666, 668, 623-624, 626-633, 635-639, 642-645, 648, dividing, 56, 93-94, 116-117, 378-379, 381, 645,
670, 680-682, 693-696, 705-706, 710-713, 654-656, 658, 660, 667, 669-670, 672, 668, 675, 700
717, 729-735 674-676, 680, 683-696, 697, 699-703, 706, drawing, 3, 5, 9, 24, 29-30, 37, 42, 45-52, 56,
Layouts, 2, 18, 71, 85, 185, 422, 430, 523, 541, 583, 708, 710, 712-713, 717, 719, 721-723, 58-59, 63-67, 71-76, 79-83, 85, 87-88,
668, 710, 737 725-726, 729, 732, 745, 748 91-100, 102-106, 109-118, 126-129, 133,
CAD, 18, 185, 422 construction, 3, 5, 29, 37, 46, 48, 59, 61, 63-64, 74, 139, 141, 143-146, 148-149, 155-156,
defined, 710 80, 82, 87, 91, 93, 95, 97, 100, 106, 159-162, 164-166, 168, 172-173, 177,
planning, 18 109-111, 115-116, 118-120, 128, 134-135, 182, 184-185, 205-209, 212, 214-215,
Leader lines, 66 137, 145, 149, 160, 162, 165, 206, 214, 219-220, 223, 235-241, 244, 246-248,
Leaders, 48, 306, 310, 326, 333-335, 431, 434 243, 266, 268, 303, 381, 416, 510, 250-251, 269-270, 302, 304-306,
Leaf springs, 401 514-515, 517, 519, 529, 534, 551, 566, 309-311, 313-314, 319, 326, 329,
Left-hand parts, 181-182 568-569, 590-591, 594, 597, 600-602, 332-334, 352, 375-382, 391, 394, 401,
Left-hand threads, 374 606, 608-609, 623-624, 628-632, 642, 403-404, 430-431, 434, 436, 438,
Legibility, 44, 48, 304, 308, 429 645, 656, 658, 667, 672, 674, 684, 687, 495-496, 499, 501-502, 510-517,
dimensions, 304, 308, 429 689-690, 693, 703, 717, 725 519-522, 524, 527, 531-532, 534,
Length, 10, 18-19, 37, 45, 48, 52, 54, 56, 61, 64, 71, cutting planes, 209-210, 224, 515, 551, 605-606, 546-551, 553, 556, 566-567, 570,
81-82, 85, 88, 95-96, 106, 110, 112, 114-116, 608, 644-645, 648, 656, 658, 660, 710 573-576, 578-579, 581, 598, 602,
120, 126, 133-136, 138, 145, 149, 158, 164, dimension, 37, 48, 57, 64, 66, 74, 127, 129, 146, 606-607, 609, 624, 627-628, 633, 642,
167, 170-172, 176, 221, 235, 244-246, 209, 236, 238, 240, 248, 250, 302-306, 655, 667, 683-684, 688-689, 699, 710,
248-250, 261-262, 265-267, 270, 273, 297, 309, 312, 314, 316, 320-321, 323, 328, 717-718, 722-723
302-303, 305, 314, 316, 318, 326, 328, 330, 330, 333-335, 341, 351-353, 356, 369, erasing, 64, 66, 71, 81
333, 343, 345, 350, 353, 365, 369, 376, 429, 514-515, 522-523, 605, 613 folding, 71, 157-159, 235-240, 246-247, 250, 268,
378-379, 381-385, 388-391, 394, 396, 401, distance between two, 88, 635 591, 594-595, 597-598, 601-602, 609,
411, 459, 507, 512-514, 517, 527, 529-530, extension, 22, 48, 64, 66, 74, 127, 129, 302, 624, 631-632
534, 546-547, 552, 554, 566, 568, 576, 590, 304-305, 333-334, 351, 353, 522-523, freehand, 42, 45-52, 56, 58-59, 63-67, 71-76,
594-599, 601-605, 608-611, 613-614, 619, 706 79-83, 85, 100, 111, 127-128, 132, 144,
623-624, 626-631, 635-637, 639, 644, 652, hidden, 29, 48, 64, 66, 74, 80, 115, 127, 129, 139, 146, 149-150, 153-154, 185, 223,
669-670, 672-676, 680, 689-691, 696, 702, 143-145, 148-150, 156-157, 160, 162, 250-251, 305, 430, 516, 556, 581, 700
704-706, 717, 719, 723-725, 728-729 164-165, 169-170, 175, 185, 205-207, involutes, 116
bolts, 382-383, 388-391, 394, 396 213-215, 223, 237, 244, 246, 250, 305, nonisometric, 510, 513-514, 517
lines, 37, 45, 48, 52, 56, 64, 71, 81-82, 85, 88, 312, 314, 333, 376, 378-379, 381, 430, parallel, 9, 24, 42, 48, 51, 80, 88-89, 91-94, 96-97,
95-96, 106, 110, 112, 114-116, 120, 126, 551, 593, 604, 745 100, 102-106, 109-112, 114-116, 118-120,
133-136, 145, 149, 158, 164, 167, holes, 63, 66, 145, 150, 162, 164, 175, 177, 184, 126, 134-137, 143, 156-157, 166-167,
171-172, 176, 235, 244, 246, 248, 250, 215, 218-219, 286, 305, 314, 316, 169, 171-173, 175, 206-207, 209, 215,
261, 267, 270, 297, 302, 305, 314, 326, 320-321, 326, 333, 335, 341, 343, 235-241, 244, 246-248, 250, 267-270,
333, 376, 378-379, 381-382, 391, 394, 352-354, 376, 381 304, 306, 309, 359, 375, 379, 381, 431,
401, 512-514, 517, 527, 529-530, 534, leader, 66, 215, 306, 326, 351, 353, 362 508, 510, 512-514, 516-517, 520-522,
546-547, 566, 576, 590, 594-599, precedence of, 148-149 527, 529-532, 534, 546, 548-551, 553,
601-605, 608-611, 613-614, 619, sketched, 67, 75, 81, 128, 137, 149-150, 185, 223 566-567, 570, 573, 576-578, 594-595,
623-624, 626-631, 635-637, 639, 652, thickness, 64, 81, 118, 128, 143, 165, 209-210, 597-603, 605, 608-609, 615, 623-628,
669-670, 672, 675-676, 689-691, 702, 330, 643, 697, 701-702, 710, 712-713 631-632, 635-637, 643, 645-646,
706, 717, 719, 723, 729 true length, 37, 106, 164, 167, 170-172, 176, 235, 648-649, 654, 656, 658, 667, 669-670,
receding lines, 134, 136, 546-547 244-246, 248, 250, 262, 265-267, 273, 676, 683-684, 686-687, 693, 701-703,
thread, 343, 376, 378-379, 381-385, 388-391, 394, 514, 546, 566, 576, 590, 594-599, 712, 717-719, 721-723
401 601-602, 608-611, 613-614, 623, 626, perpendicular, 9, 42, 52, 64-65, 80, 88, 91, 94-96,
Lettering, 34, 41-86, 264, 305-306, 308-309, 312, 333, 628-631, 635, 637, 644, 669-670, 672, 102-103, 105, 109-110, 112-113, 118-119,
427, 429-430, 499, 522, 553, 604 675, 680, 689, 702, 719, 723, 725 126, 139, 146, 155-156, 160-161, 166,
CAD, 34, 42, 72-76, 80-81, 499, 553 visibility, 65, 246, 590, 592-593, 605-606, 609-610, 171-172, 175-176, 209, 214, 235-240,
defined, 52 612, 620, 622, 645, 656, 660 246-248, 250, 270, 320, 332, 359, 508,
dimensions, 54-55, 57, 81-85, 305-306, 308-309, Line fit, 341 521-522, 524, 527, 529-530, 546-547,
333, 429, 522, 553 Linear dimensions, 328-329 549-550, 567, 570, 573, 576, 578,
fractions, 56-57, 79, 81, 306, 308, 333 drawing, 329 594-595, 597, 599, 602, 623-624,
freehand, 41-86, 305, 430 Lines, 3, 5, 9, 20, 24, 29-30, 34, 37, 42, 45-52, 56, 626-632, 635, 637, 658, 669-670, 684,
guidelines, 75-76, 79-81 58-59, 63-67, 71-76, 79-83, 85, 87-89, 688-689, 691, 701-702, 706, 710, 717,
inclined, 49-50, 62, 66, 76, 78-80, 85, 306, 333, 91-100, 102-106, 109-120, 126-137, 139, 721
427, 522 141-150, 153-154, 155-162, 164-169, point views, 599, 601, 610
lowercase, 76-78, 80 171-177, 181-182, 184-185, 205-210, precedence, 148-149, 210
pencils, 43, 45-46, 49, 62-63, 71, 73 212-215, 217-220, 223, 228, 235-241, rules, 148, 304, 513, 655-656, 693
spacing, 48, 64, 75-76, 80, 305, 427 243-244, 246-248, 250-251, 253, 257, 261, sketching techniques, 42
standards, 34, 47, 72, 75, 312, 430 267-270, 297-298, 302, 304-306, 309-311, triangles for, 50
templates, 44, 63, 69-70, 75, 430 313-314, 319-320, 325-326, 329, 332-334, true length, 37, 106, 164, 167, 171-172, 176, 235,
titles, 66, 76, 80, 427 352, 357, 359, 375-382, 391, 394, 401, 244, 246, 248, 250, 261, 267, 270,
vertical, 49, 63-64, 66, 76-77, 80, 85, 333, 427, 403-404, 430-431, 434, 436, 438, 454, 513-514, 546-547, 566, 576, 590,
429, 522, 553 495-496, 499, 501-502, 508, 510-517, 594-599, 601-602, 608-611, 613-614,
Life cycle engineering, 281, 299 519-524, 527, 529-532, 534, 546-551, 553, 623, 626, 628-631, 635, 637, 652,
Light, 17-18, 20, 22-23, 25, 32, 44, 46, 63-64, 67, 69, 556, 565-567, 570, 573-579, 581, 589-622, 669-670, 672, 675, 689, 702, 719, 723
71, 74-76, 81, 93, 107, 109, 112-113, 118, 623-633, 635-637, 639, 642-643, 645-646, viewing-plane, 164
128-132, 149, 161, 182, 237, 246, 278, 302, 648-649, 652, 654-656, 658-659, 667-670, Lines of sight, 9, 156, 182, 246, 248
349, 391, 398-399, 404, 413, 421, 425, 672, 675-676, 683-684, 686-691, 693, 695, List, 1, 14, 29, 31, 36-37, 42, 79, 118, 185, 223, 278,
495-496, 501, 516, 529, 581, 591, 620, 638, 699-703, 706-707, 710, 712-713, 717-719, 299, 302, 332, 367, 370, 386-387, 404, 410,
750 721-723, 729 422, 427-428, 430, 434, 481, 506, 507, 544,
Lighting, 501 bisecting, 91-92 564, 660, 667, 727
Limit dimensions, 339-340, 344, 370 construction, 3, 5, 29, 37, 46, 48, 59, 63-64, 74, 80, LMC (least material condition), 351
Line, 3, 5, 9, 11, 20, 22, 24, 29, 34, 37, 42, 45-49, 82, 87, 91, 93, 95, 97, 100, 106, 109-111, Local notes, 326-327
51-52, 57, 59, 61, 63-67, 69, 73-76, 80-82, 115-116, 118-120, 128, 130, 132, Location, 19, 22-23, 87-88, 98-99, 118-119, 206, 210,
87-88, 90-106, 108-112, 115-120, 127-129, 134-137, 145, 147, 149, 160-162, 165, 243, 284, 292, 302-303, 310, 314, 319-320,
134-135, 137, 139, 143-146, 148-150, 153, 206, 214, 243, 268, 380-382, 391, 401, 324, 332, 334-335, 341, 343-345, 349-351,
156-160, 162, 164-173, 175-177, 181, 510, 513-517, 519-521, 529, 534, 549, 353, 362, 369-370, 399, 427, 493, 498, 512,
184-185, 204, 205-207, 209-210, 212-215, 551, 556, 566, 579, 590-591, 594, 597, 515, 518, 531, 546, 569, 579, 583, 603, 629,

756
 645-646, 670, 687, 703, 710, 721, 725 Measurements, 50, 54, 57-58, 98-99, 133, 149-150, direction, 76, 304, 310
dimensions, 292, 302-303, 310, 314, 319-320, 324, 159, 161, 237-238, 248, 292, 303, 306, 311, thread, 383-385, 404-405, 430
332, 334-335, 343-345, 351, 353, 370, 320, 328, 364, 463, 510, 512, 514-517, 521, Numbers, 21, 79, 160-161, 169, 171, 184, 264, 294,
399, 515, 583 551-552, 566, 569, 572-573, 575-576, 579, 305, 307, 314, 323, 333-335, 343, 348, 370,
tolerance, 324, 343, 345, 350-351, 353, 362, 668, 698, 700, 702 383, 410, 427-429, 431, 434, 436, 438,
369-370 offset, 99, 510, 512, 514-517, 551-552 443-444, 493, 506, 528, 592-593, 604, 656,
Locational fits, 344 Mechanical engineers’ scales, 57 658, 702-703, 723
interference, 344 Mechanical joints, 385 identification, 427, 429, 431, 434, 436
transition, 344 Mechanical pencils, 43, 45-46, 73 inclined, 79, 161, 171, 184, 333, 427
Locking, 393, 439, 444 Menus, 22, 653 revision, 429, 443
Locknuts and locking devices, 393 Meridians, 706 vertical, 21, 160-161, 169, 171, 333, 427, 429, 431,
Loop, 401 Metals, 286, 288, 291, 387, 396, 398, 400, 668 592, 702, 723
Lower deviation, 347-348 Meters, 62, 310, 364, 697, 699, 716, 735 Nuts, 33, 69, 98, 278, 284, 371-373, 382-383,
Lowercase letters, 76-78, 310, 717 Metric threads, 374, 377, 379, 382-383, 463 388-391, 393, 395, 403, 430, 434, 493
ANSI, 382 ANSI, 372, 382, 389, 395, 430, 434
M detailed, 379, 382 sketching, 69
Machine pins, 398 fits, 382-383 specifications, 371, 383, 391, 393, 403
Machine screws, 395, 403 notes, 383 standard, 371-373, 382-383, 388-389, 391, 393,
ANSI, 395 Microfiche, 502, 506 395, 430, 434, 493
standard, 395 Microfilm, 502, 506
Machine tools, 307, 394, 529 Millimeters, 54, 61, 159, 162, 297, 304, 307-308, O
Machining, 169-171, 174, 283-284, 288-292, 294, 299, 310-311, 336-337, 342, 348, 365, 374, 383, Objects, 3-4, 8-9, 23, 29-30, 55, 57, 73-74, 126, 128,
312, 321-323, 329, 333-334, 339, 342, 463, 638 134, 138, 141-142, 144, 149, 159, 161, 183,
346-347, 356, 431, 529 description, 162 205, 213, 215, 223, 235, 270, 278, 282, 299,
categories, 289, 299 dimensions, 54, 159, 162, 297, 304, 307-308, 302, 330, 381, 413, 418, 420, 422, 434, 503,
dimensions, 283, 288-289, 292, 294, 321-323, 329, 310-311, 342, 348, 463 513, 515, 521, 532, 535-539, 545-547, 549,
333-334, 339, 342, 431 Milling, 284, 289-290, 314, 323, 450, 460, 475 564, 567, 569, 581, 583, 590, 660, 699, 717,
drilling, 284, 289-290, 294, 312 Milling machine, 450 726
machine tools, 529 Mirror, 28, 181, 620 irregular, 215, 513, 515, 521
milling, 284, 289-290, 323 Missing-view problems, 150, 187-189 solid, 4, 30, 205, 223, 381, 418, 420, 434, 581, 660
process, 283, 288-289, 291-292, 294, 299, 339 Miter lines, 155 Oblique dimensioning, 553
stock, 312, 333 Modeling, 7-8, 35, 146, 165, 211, 269, 278, 285-286, Oblique edges, 172, 184, 510
tolerances, 291, 294, 323, 334, 339, 342, 346-347, 297-299, 402, 410, 418-420, 423, 426, 443, Oblique projections, 109, 546
356 607, 642, 679, 692, 697 Oblique sketches, 557
turning, 284, 289-290, 356 box, 146, 211, 286 Oblique surfaces, 155, 171, 184-185, 507, 511-512,
Machinists’ scale, 307 cone, 642 534
Manufacturing, 4-6, 8, 14-15, 17, 31, 34-36, 155, 183, cylinder, 642 isometric, 507, 511-512, 534
211, 277-299, 302-304, 306, 314, 316, extrude, 418 true size, 171, 184
319-320, 323, 331-333, 335, 339, 342, 355, Intersect, 420, 642 Obtuse angles, 103
367-368, 370, 371, 403, 413-416, 418, threads, 402 Offset, 47, 99, 111-112, 147, 200, 215, 217, 219, 223,
420-422, 443, 494-495, 499, 502, 529, 607 UCS, 211 326, 379, 493, 496, 501, 506, 510, 512,
mass production, 302, 339, 371, 529 Union, 419-420, 679 514-517, 525, 551-552, 556, 662, 724
process, 5-6, 8, 14-15, 31, 34-36, 155, 278-283, Models, 6-8, 17, 26, 28, 30, 35, 72, 165-166, 183, 211, Offset bearing, 200
285, 288-289, 291-292, 294-295, 280, 282-284, 286, 297, 299, 410, 414, 416, Offset measurements, 99, 512, 514-517, 551-552
297-299, 314, 319, 335, 339, 367, 370, 419-423, 426, 439, 443, 507, 534, 554, 580, axonometric projection, 512, 514-517
371, 403, 413-416, 418, 422, 443, 692 Offset sections, 215, 217
494-495, 499, 502 parametric, 7-8, 30, 410, 420, 443 One-view drawings, 143
Manufacturing costs, 286-288, 293 Modifying symbols, 350 Open, 52, 120, 165, 218, 223, 304, 413, 423, 492,
Manufacturing processes, 155, 278, 283, 289, 291, Motor, 197, 234, 296-297, 416, 431-432, 438, 498, 504, 521, 554, 651, 727
294-295, 298, 302-304, 316, 319, 333, 335, 528, 582, 748 Optical disk storage systems, 493, 500
339, 367, 415, 499 Mouse, 18, 21-23, 28, 32, 36, 425, 580, 653 Ordinate dimensions, 329
CAD, 278, 283, 302-303, 335, 339, 499 buttons, 22-23 Orientation, 126, 141, 149, 215, 270, 350, 369
casting, 289, 291, 294, 333 Move, 24, 45, 51-52, 63, 92-93, 95, 101, 129, 131, Origins, 75, 332
computer-integrated manufacturing, 294 185, 187-189, 224, 295, 298, 345, 349, Orthographic projection, 4, 149, 182, 184, 235, 515,
dimensional accuracy and surface finish, 278, 283, 423-424, 438, 503, 580, 612, 630, 689 545-546, 567, 569, 573, 623, 689, 697-698
291 Moving, 24, 58, 81, 90, 106-108, 112-115, 120, 129, Orthographic projections, 508, 530-531, 545
drawings, 155, 278, 302-303, 316, 319, 335, 415, 149, 261, 297, 415-416, 429, 503, 630, 643, angles, 508, 531
499 709, 726 edges, 508, 530-531
materials, 278, 283, 289, 291, 294-295, 303, 415 objects, 149, 503, 726 surfaces, 508, 545
measuring devices, 278, 302 Multiple threads, 374-375 Orthographic views, 4, 29, 183, 530, 583
methods, 278, 283, 289, 294, 303 Multiview projections, 162, 166, 183 Dimensions, 29, 530, 583
overview, 155, 278, 302, 339 Intersections, 530
rapid prototyping, 278, 283 N
shared, 298 Names, 31, 240, 427, 434, 439, 444, 591 P
Map scales, 57 drawings, 427, 434, 439, 444 Paper, 1-3, 15, 22, 24-25, 36, 42, 44-49, 52, 55, 59-60,
Maps, 55, 677, 697-698, 710 view, 240, 591 63-66, 70-75, 80-82, 87-88, 99-100, 108,
information for, 698 Nanofabrication, 284, 292, 299 118, 126-132, 136-137, 143, 147-154, 157,
United States, 677 Nanomaterials, 287 162, 182-185, 220, 223-224, 240-241, 246,
Margins, 429, 436 Nanotechnology, 292, 299 264, 319, 335, 404, 410, 422, 424, 436, 443,
Material condition, 341, 350-351, 354-355, 362, Necessary views, 73, 128, 141-142, 149-152, 495-496, 499, 501-502, 510, 524, 527, 534,
369-370 159-161, 190-204, 225-227, 232-233, 544, 546, 553, 556, 566, 573, 581, 583, 592,
Materials, 2, 28, 44, 71, 73, 127, 205, 208, 221, 223, 252-256, 422, 424, 491 601, 684, 693, 726
278-281, 283, 285-289, 291, 294-295, 297, Net-shape manufacturing, 294, 299 storing, 24
299, 303, 307, 331, 387-388, 395, 400, Neutral axis, 330 Parabola, 67, 106, 112-114, 117, 120, 244
412-413, 415-417, 422, 426, 428-429, 434, Nominal size, 292, 339, 341-342, 345, 370, 383, 391 Parabolas, 67
443, 495, 532, 667-668 Nominal sizes, 307, 331, 344, 370 drawing, 67
and dimensions, 283, 295 Nonferrous metals, 286 Parallel edges, 172, 564, 570, 572-573, 583
automated handling, 295 Nonisometric lines, 513-514 Parallel lines, 48, 51, 88, 93-94, 105, 120, 137, 172,
cost and availability, 278, 288 drawing, 513-514 379, 516, 534, 546, 551, 566, 570, 599, 615,
manufacturing process, 278, 280, 283, 289, 291, Normal edges, 170-171 623-625, 628, 635, 645-646, 703
294-295, 297, 299, 413 Normal surfaces, 169, 171, 175, 184, 187, 510-511 perspectives, 566, 570
properties, 278, 287-289, 291 Notebooks, 73, 127 spacing, 48
thickness, 291, 668 Notes, 29-30, 66, 75-76, 81-85, 121, 178, 302, 304, Parallel perspective, 570-571
types, 73, 205, 208, 223, 278-279, 286, 291, 299, 310, 314, 316, 318-319, 325-327, 333-335, Parallel views, 625
395, 400, 422, 667 350-352, 361, 383-385, 404-405, 416, 422, Parallelism, 350, 356, 359-360, 369, 511, 600-601,
Mating dimensions, 321-322, 334 424, 428-431, 436 608, 623-639, 669
Mating parts, 7, 288, 303, 321, 332, 334, 339-344, dimensioning, 29, 76, 302, 304, 310, 314, 316, Parallelism tolerance, 359
346, 348-349, 353-354, 370, 382-383 318-319, 325-327, 333-335, 350, 352, Parallelograms, 87, 90, 149
Maximum material condition (MMC), 341, 355 361

757
 review, 149 616-618, 620-622, 623-624, 626-632, 237-238, 244, 246-250, 262-264, 270,
Parametric design, 146, 420 635-638, 642-649, 654-656, 658-662, 303, 309, 326, 332, 356, 374, 379, 381,
geometric constraints, 146 667-668, 670, 675-676, 680, 683-696, 394, 429, 511, 515-521, 532, 547,
Parametric modeling, 7-8, 146, 410 697-699, 701-706, 710, 712, 716-717, 721, 550-551, 564, 566, 568-570, 572-573,
Part, 3-8, 16-17, 21, 29, 34, 49, 52, 67, 73, 76, 79, 725-726, 729 576, 579, 583, 598, 602, 606-607, 609,
109, 116, 118, 120, 129, 131, 133, 141, angle between two, 241, 590 624, 627-628, 642, 655, 683, 689, 692,
146-147, 162, 164, 178, 181-183, 204, locating a point, 601 698-699, 710, 723-724, 726, 728
205-206, 213, 223, 232, 278-283, 285, 289, true shape, 156-157, 215, 246, 248, 270, 556, 628 orthographic projections, 508, 530
291, 294-295, 303, 306, 308, 313-314, Plane method, 237-239, 247, 604-606, 608, 620-621, splines, 30, 396
316-317, 321-323, 329, 332-333, 340-342, 628, 631-632, 644-645, 649, 660 Polyconic method, 677, 698
345-347, 350-351, 355-356, 362, 366-368, Plane surfaces, 90, 166, 168, 178, 314, 328, 330, 643, Polycylindric method, 677
370, 382, 386-387, 395, 398, 404, 410, 412, 648-649, 667, 676, 680 Polyester film, 71, 80-81
414, 422, 428-431, 434, 438, 443-444, Planes, 4, 10, 106, 136, 155, 157-158, 169-172, Polygon, 89-90, 98, 115-116, 118, 233, 716, 718-719,
446-448, 479-480, 493, 502-503, 513, 516, 182-184, 209-211, 224, 235-241, 250, 721-724, 729-733
532, 590, 606-607, 627, 653, 660, 668, 709, 261-262, 264-267, 270, 331-332, 356, 359, Polygons, 30, 89-90, 643, 716, 723, 729
729-730, 733 367, 510-511, 515, 517, 520, 530-531, 548, drawing, 30, 723
saving, 430 550-551, 553, 573, 589-622, 623-625, 630, review, 30, 729
Part drawings, 280, 386, 607 635-636, 642-646, 648-652, 654-656, Polyhedra, 90, 643, 659, 668
Partial views, 142, 162-163, 220, 243-244, 248-249, 658-660, 667, 676-677, 680, 683-684, Position, 22-23, 29, 45, 48-49, 51, 58, 69-70, 90-91,
252, 254-255, 429-430 686-687, 689-691, 693, 699, 701-703, 710, 95, 99-102, 106, 116, 119, 129-130,
Parts list, 79, 422, 427-428, 434, 481 719, 723, 747 133-134, 138, 141, 147, 157-158, 163-165,
Parts lists, 331, 391, 428, 430 auxiliary, 171, 235-241, 250, 261-262, 265-267, 172-173, 206, 210-211, 215, 218-219, 238,
Patent drawings, 412-413, 422, 435-436, 438, 443, 270, 517, 590, 594-598, 601-603, 605, 240, 261-270, 273, 302, 309, 316, 326, 332,
581 609-610, 619, 624, 635, 645, 648, 676, 339, 350-355, 361, 368-369, 380, 383, 398,
ideas from, 422 689, 702-703, 747 423, 508-511, 514, 522, 524-525, 527,
Patterns, 24, 74, 148, 208, 221, 352-353, 643, 669, cylinders, 155, 184, 356, 367, 520, 642, 649-652, 531-532, 535-539, 544, 548, 565-566,
700 656, 660, 667, 680, 686, 693 569-570, 572-573, 576, 579, 592, 594,
circular, 353 developments, 667, 676-677, 680 596-599, 612, 614, 627-628, 630, 643, 645,
dimensions, 352-353 edge views, 155, 237-238, 250, 515, 595, 601-602, 676, 686, 688-689, 697, 699, 705, 724-725,
drawing, 24, 74, 148, 208, 352-353 624-625, 635, 649, 689, 702-703 731
line, 24, 74, 148, 352-353, 643, 669, 700 intersections, 106, 511, 520, 530-531, 550-551, isometric axes, 134, 510-511, 514
rectangular, 221, 352-353 573, 600, 605, 642-646, 648-652, tolerance, 309, 326, 339, 350-355, 361, 369, 383
types, 24, 208 654-656, 658-660, 676, 702-703 Precedence of lines, 148-149
Pencils, 3, 43, 45-46, 49, 62-63, 71, 73, 127, 130 isometric, 136, 264-265, 510-511, 515, 517, 520, Precision, 42, 72, 118, 303, 306, 323, 382, 426, 501,
Perpendicular lines, 52, 88, 156, 237, 626-627, 635 530-531, 550, 553, 607 529, 590, 594, 642, 717
Perpendicularity, 88, 350, 356, 359-361, 369, 623-639, projection, 4, 10, 155, 157-158, 169-172, 182-184, Preferred fits, 347-349
669 235-240, 250, 261-262, 264-267, 270, Preferred sizes, 347-348
Perpendicularity tolerance, 359 510-511, 515, 517, 520, 530-531, 548, Presentations, 20, 523, 692
Perspective drawings, 438, 507, 570, 581, 583 550-551, 553, 573, 591-592, 594, Primary auxiliary views, 243, 246
angular, 570, 583 596-597, 600-601, 604, 606, 608-609, Primary datum, 367, 369
CAD, 507, 581 623-624, 630, 644, 646, 650, 683, 689, Primary revolutions, 271
computer graphics, 581, 583 693, 710, 719, 723 Primitives, 419-420
diagrams, 507 reference, 235, 237-240, 250, 264, 266, 331, 367 Principal dimensions, 138-139, 157, 238
one-point, 570, 583 surfaces, 136, 155, 158, 169-171, 184, 238, 241, Principal views, 184-185, 594, 601
overview, 507 332, 510-511, 573, 594, 602, 607, 620, Prisms, 315-316, 418, 642, 648, 667, 669-671, 680
pictorials, 581 642-645, 648-649, 652, 656, 659-660, developments, 667, 669-671, 680
plans, 438 667, 676-677, 680, 683-684, 687, 703 dimensions, 315-316, 680
shading, 581 Planning, 18, 31, 35, 126, 279-280, 283, 285, 295, intersections, 642, 648
two-point, 570, 583 298-299, 411, 440, 501, 555, 580, 692 Problem identification stage, 415
types, 507, 570, 581, 583 Plastics, 287, 294, 297, 387, 396, 438, 642 Processes, 8, 18, 28, 35, 42, 64, 71, 155, 165,
Phantom lines, 48, 74, 175, 270, 381, 401, 403-404, Plates, 292, 501, 529 277-299, 302-304, 316, 319, 333, 335, 339,
430 Point, 4-5, 7, 9-10, 31, 37, 46, 49, 51, 57-63, 65-66, 346-347, 366-367, 415, 418, 424, 493-494,
threads, 381, 401, 403-404 71, 75, 87-96, 99, 101-103, 105-110, 497, 499, 506
Photogrammetry, 698-699, 710 112-120, 127-129, 137-138, 143, 156, welding, 284, 289, 296
Pictorials, 29, 413, 522, 525, 528-529, 532, 553, 581 159-161, 166-170, 172, 175, 178, 208, 210, Production drawings, 17, 88, 280, 416, 422, 443
CAD, 29, 529, 532, 553, 581 213, 237-238, 241, 246-248, 250, 261-262, Productivity tools, 727
shading, 581 265-266, 268, 270, 273, 278, 287, 304-305, Profile dimensioning, 330
sketching, 553 309-310, 312, 318-319, 326, 333-334, 341, Profile planes, 158, 262, 265, 591
types, 581 345-346, 351, 356, 372, 388-389, 395-396, Profile tolerance, 357
Picture planes, 573 413, 416, 508-509, 512, 514-516, 520, Profiles, 357, 375, 380-381, 692, 710
Pictures, 3, 297, 699 529-532, 534, 546, 564-574, 576-577, 579, Projection, 1, 4-5, 9-11, 37, 73, 109, 128, 134, 138,
Piercing points, 9, 156, 508, 565, 568-570, 573, 576, 581, 583, 590-595, 597-606, 608-615, 149, 155-204, 215, 220, 235-240, 242, 244,
603, 605-606, 609-610, 620, 643-646, 619-620, 623-624, 626-633, 635-638, 246-248, 250, 261-268, 270, 272, 375, 379,
648-649, 659-660 642-646, 651, 654-656, 658, 660, 670, 672, 391, 394-395, 507-541, 543-561, 564-567,
Pins, 321, 326, 331, 355, 393, 398, 403, 428, 430, 675-676, 683-696, 698-699, 702-706, 569-570, 573, 583, 591-592, 594, 596-597,
434, 493, 573 708-709, 711-713, 716-719, 721-726, 600-601, 604, 606, 608-609, 623-624, 628,
cotter pins, 393, 398 729-731, 735 630, 632, 644, 646, 650, 683, 689, 693,
machine, 326, 331, 398, 403, 428, 430, 434 piercing, 9, 156, 508, 565, 567-570, 573, 576, 590, 697-698, 710, 719-720, 723-725, 729, 749
taper pins, 398 603-606, 609-610, 620, 628-630, Projections, 4, 9-10, 37, 72, 81, 109, 149, 155-157,
Pipe threads, 385, 388, 463 643-646, 654, 660 162, 166-167, 172, 176, 183, 248-249, 401,
Pitch, 23, 328, 372, 374, 376-379, 382-385, 390, 396, Point method, 99, 119 507-510, 524, 530-531, 534, 545-548,
403, 520, 553, 728 Points, 9, 22, 29-30, 51, 58, 60-62, 66-67, 69, 75, 81, 590-591, 645, 697-698, 719, 723
threads, 372, 374, 376-379, 382-385, 390, 396, 88-89, 92-94, 96-116, 118-120, 128-132, auxiliary views, 248-249, 645
403, 520, 553 135, 137, 149, 156-157, 160-161, 168-169, isometric, 81, 149, 248, 507, 509-510, 524,
Pitch diameter, 372, 383 172, 174, 176-177, 184, 213, 237-238, 530-531, 534
Placement, 37, 155, 302, 304-306, 309, 312-314, 351, 242-250, 262-264, 266, 268, 270-271, 295, overview, 155, 507, 590, 697
362, 444, 498, 554 303, 307, 309, 326, 332, 356-358, 374, 379, symbols, 183
of dimensions, 37, 302, 304-306, 314, 444 381, 394, 396, 429, 508, 511, 515-521, 530, Projectors, 1, 9-11, 155-157, 184, 235, 508, 544,
Plane, 1, 9-11, 48-49, 74, 88-90, 98-99, 108, 111-113, 532, 547, 550-551, 564-566, 568-570, 546-547, 556, 565, 684
115, 127, 135-136, 148, 155-157, 162, 164, 572-573, 576-577, 579, 583, 589-622, oblique projections, 546
166-173, 175-176, 178, 181-184, 205-206, 623-624, 627-628, 642-646, 648-652, perspective, 1, 9-11, 508, 547, 556, 565
209-210, 212-215, 217-219, 221, 223, 654-656, 658-660, 669-670, 672, 675, 683, Proportions, 73-76, 80, 127-128, 132-133, 149, 376,
235-242, 244, 246-250, 261-268, 270, 272, 687, 689-693, 698-703, 706-707, 709-710, 390-391, 395, 398-399, 416, 508, 520, 553
274, 314, 320, 328, 330, 350-351, 354, 712-713, 716, 719, 723-726, 728, 731 bolts, 390-391, 398-399
356-357, 359, 373, 394, 402, 434, 503, description, 128-132, 135, 137, 149, 156, 243, 303, symbols, 376, 399
508-511, 514, 516-517, 520-524, 527, 594, 597, 689 technical sketching, 127-128, 132-133, 149
530-531, 534, 544-553, 556, 565-570, drawing, 9, 22, 29-30, 51, 58, 60-62, 66-67, 69, 75, Prototypes, 6-7, 35, 211, 278, 282-283, 299, 414, 416,
572-573, 575-576, 578-579, 583, 590-591, 81, 88, 92-94, 96-116, 118, 128-129, 149, 422-423
594-597, 599-606, 608-610, 613-614, 156, 160-161, 168, 172, 177, 184, overview, 278

758
 types, 278, 299, 422 Right triangles, 311 430, 602
Prototyping, 8, 14, 147, 278, 283, 299, 410, 420, 422, drawing, 311 commands, 28, 315
426, 443 Right-side views, 138-139, 142, 150, 154, 156, 158, objects, 30, 141
Protractors, 50-51, 514 182, 185, 201-204, 224, 229, 231, 235, Selective assembly, 341-342
Pyramids, 418, 642, 667, 672, 675-676, 680 251-253, 257-258, 450, 452-454, 479-480, Sellers, William, 372
developments, 667, 672, 675-676, 680 591 Set screws, 395-396, 403
dimensions, 680 Rivets, 398-400, 403 headless, 396
Robots, 283, 285, 295, 297, 299 standard, 395-396
Q Root circle, 379 Shading, 9, 80, 148-149, 436, 581, 703
Quadrilaterals, 89 Rotate, 28, 49, 61, 211, 266, 721 pictorial drawings, 581
Rotating, 49, 59, 534 Shaft centers, 326
angles, 49, 534 dimensioning, 326
R Rough sketches, 146, 413, 423 Shafts, 141, 143, 221, 326, 341, 343-344, 346-347,
Rack slide, 447 Roughness, 363-366, 368 354, 373, 381-382, 394, 396, 398, 434, 727
Racks, 116, 494 Round heads, 394 tolerancing, 341, 343-344, 346-347, 354
Radius, 37, 57-59, 61-63, 67, 80, 82-84, 91-93, 95-98, Rounded-end shapes, 323-324 Shapes, 4, 7, 81, 117, 133-134, 136, 138, 141-142,
101-107, 109-110, 112, 114-116, 118, 120, Rounds, 70, 102, 155, 178-181, 184, 292-293, 312, 145, 155, 162, 165, 168, 179, 213-214, 217,
130, 135, 177-179, 307, 311-312, 316, 318, 325, 334, 402, 581 235, 249, 269, 284, 288-289, 291, 298,
320, 323-324, 330, 333-334, 343, 350, 354, description, 155, 181 313-314, 316-319, 323-324, 331, 357, 382,
369, 388, 518, 520-521, 529, 571, 573-574, dimensions, 155, 179, 292, 325, 334 394, 398, 418, 430, 518, 521-522, 531, 546,
576, 633, 652, 672, 674, 684, 688-689, Rubber bands, 425 548-550, 552, 554-555, 571, 581, 642, 667
704-705 Runout, 181, 350, 356, 368-370 3D, 7, 235, 249, 284, 418
arcs, 59, 67, 82-84, 91-93, 95-98, 102-107, 112, Runouts, 178-180 cylindrical, 134, 168, 213, 314, 316-317, 319, 398,
114, 116, 118, 120, 130, 135, 178, 311, 518, 549
518, 520, 571, 704-705 drawing, 4, 7, 81, 117, 133, 138, 141, 145, 155,
circle, 57, 59, 62-63, 96-98, 101-104, 106, 109-110, S
Save, 25, 29, 111, 144, 164, 183, 220, 244, 297, 308, 162, 165, 168, 214, 235, 249, 269, 284,
114-116, 118, 120, 130, 177-179, 320, 288-289, 313-314, 318-319, 323-324,
333, 521, 574, 652, 674, 684, 688-689, 376, 381, 386-387, 401, 438, 503, 607, 653
Saving, 31, 58, 71, 286, 391, 430 382, 394, 430, 518, 521-522, 531, 546,
704 548-550, 552, 581, 642, 667
dimensioning, 307, 311-312, 316, 318, 320, displays, 31
drawings, 71, 286, 391, 430 essential, 81, 141, 288, 382, 398, 548
323-324, 330, 333-334, 343, 350, 369 extruded, 418
dimensioning symbols, 316, 318 part, 430
templates, 391, 430 oblique surfaces, 155
Rapid prototyping, 8, 147, 278, 283, 299, 410, 420, production, 141, 284, 288-289, 291, 298, 314, 324,
422, 426, 443 S-breaks, 221-222
Scales, 33, 52-57, 70, 72, 81, 160, 292, 302, 308, 335, 331, 522
benefits, 278, 299, 420 rounded-end, 323-324
example of, 422, 443 424, 444, 509-510, 520, 524-525, 527, 530,
547, 698, 710, 716, 726 solid, 4, 81, 145, 284, 382, 394, 418, 581, 642
overview, 278, 410 surface, 81, 136, 155, 168, 179, 213, 249, 269,
roles, 443 architects’, 52, 55-57, 81, 335, 524, 547
decimal-inch, 302, 308, 444 284, 288-289, 291, 314, 324, 357,
types, 278, 299, 410, 422 521-522, 554, 571, 581, 642, 667
Raw materials, 71, 278-279, 288, 297, 299 defined, 52, 302, 710
dimensioning, 54, 302, 308, 335, 444 tolerance, 323-324, 357
Reading drawings, 165 Shared manufacturing, 298-299
Ream, 178, 312 drawing, 33, 52-57, 70, 72, 81, 160, 292, 302, 308,
335, 424, 444, 509-510, 520, 524-525, Sheet metal, 278, 291, 323, 331, 374, 398, 400, 607
Receding lines, 134, 136-137, 546-548, 550-551, 553, brackets, 278, 291
556, 573 527, 547, 698, 710, 726
engineers’, 52, 54-55, 57, 335, 547 dimensions, 323, 331
Record strips, 424, 443 features, 607
Rectangle, 98-100, 109-110, 113, 119, 131-132, 213, isometric, 81, 509-510, 520, 524, 527, 530
mechanical engineers’, 52, 57 methods, 278, 323
271 overview, 278
Rectangle method, 98 metric, 52, 54-55, 57, 81, 292, 302, 308, 335, 444,
510, 547 parts, 278, 291, 331, 398, 607
Rectangular prisms, 316 Sheets, 24, 45, 57, 64, 71, 73, 85, 111, 118, 140, 215,
dimensions, 316 trimetric, 509, 525, 527, 530
Schematic threads, 376 284, 423, 428, 436, 448, 667-668
Rectifying circular arcs, 106 layouts, 71, 85, 668
Recycling, 281, 284-285, 288 symbols, 376
Screen, 1-2, 19-23, 30, 32, 126, 146, 183-184, 250, sizes, 64, 71, 111, 118, 140, 428, 436, 668
Reference dimensions, 320 Shop drawings, 607
Reference frames, 367 362, 423, 502-503, 555, 580, 653, 667, 693
Screw jack, 465 Shop rivets, 399
Reference planes, 237, 240, 331 Shot, 284
auxiliary views, 237, 240 Screws, 141, 143, 321, 331, 371-372, 383, 388-391,
394-398, 403-404, 428, 434, 493 Shrink fits, 344, 349
References, 215, 355-356, 362 SI units, 303, 308
Reflection, 411 cap, 321, 388, 390-391, 394-395, 403
plain, 395, 397-398 Simplified threads, 371
types, 411 Simulation, 7, 297-298, 443, 498, 554-555
Regular polygons, 89-90, 643 round head, 395
set, 331, 388, 395-396, 403 Flow, 554
Regular polyhedra, 90, 643 Simultaneous engineering, 281
Relations, 173, 210, 366, 606, 729 sketching, 141, 143
slotted head, 394 Single threads, 374, 379
Removed sections, 210, 215-216, 227, 431, 452 Single-curved surfaces, 668
Removed views, 164 square head, 396
wood, 371, 396 Single-limit dimensioning, 343
Rendering, 17, 583 Size, 2-3, 16, 22, 24, 26, 28-29, 32-33, 35, 37, 42,
appearance, 583 Secondary auxiliary views, 246, 248-250, 256-257
Secondary datum, 367, 369 44-48, 52, 54-57, 64, 66, 71, 73-76, 79,
models, 17 81-82, 87, 94, 99-100, 108, 111, 116, 128,
Reproduction of drawings, 493-494 Section lining, 205, 207-208, 217-218, 221, 223, 309,
401, 430, 434, 522 133, 136, 138, 145-146, 149-150, 160-161,
Reuse, 31 166, 169, 171-173, 175, 177-178, 184-185,
Reverse construction, 243 Section views, 221
Sectional views, 164, 205-234, 235, 376, 382 201, 203, 209-210, 213, 226, 229-231,
Reverse engineering, 412-413, 443 235-238, 241-242, 245-248, 250, 255-256,
Revision blocks, 728 aligned, 164, 205, 218-219, 223
breaks in, 221 261-262, 265, 267-268, 270-272, 278, 284,
Revisions, 15, 410, 428-429, 434, 443, 493, 709 291-292, 294, 297-298, 302-303, 305,
Revolution, 115, 155, 162, 164, 184, 215, 218, Broken-out, 214, 223
half, 206, 210, 212-214, 220, 223, 225-227, 311-312, 314-316, 318-319, 323, 329, 331,
261-268, 270-273, 356-357, 361, 371, 333-337, 339-345, 347-349, 351, 353-356,
418-420, 443, 590, 596-598, 602-603, 230-231, 233-234
hatch, 221 363, 369-370, 374-375, 378, 383, 387-389,
609-610, 614, 619, 643, 652, 672-673, 684, 391, 398, 404, 416-417, 422-423, 428, 434,
689, 693, 705-706, 719 holes, 164, 211, 215, 218-219, 376
multiple, 210, 217 436, 444-456, 474, 491-492, 493, 498,
auxiliary views, 263, 265, 267, 602, 609, 705-706 501-504, 510, 512, 514, 520, 524, 529-530,
axis of, 261-262, 265, 267-268, 270-271, 361, offset, 215, 217, 219, 223
Partial, 164, 214-215, 220, 227, 229, 231, 235 537-540, 544-545, 548, 552, 556-561,
596-598, 652, 689 568-569, 573, 583-587, 590, 602-603,
true length of line, 273, 596 removed, 164, 206, 210, 212-213, 215-216, 220,
223, 227-228, 231 607-610, 617-618, 626, 628, 667, 669-670,
Revolve, 130, 138, 171, 218-219, 261-262, 266, 268, 672-673, 676, 680, 700, 704-706, 708, 710,
270, 272-273, 452-453, 530-531, 573, 706 section lines in, 207
Sections, 6, 36, 67, 87, 106-107, 118, 155, 164, 184, 728
Revolved sections, 214-215, 221, 227 drill, 173, 178, 312, 319, 331, 333, 378, 388-389,
Ribs in sections, 217 205-207, 209-210, 213-219, 221, 223-224,
227-229, 244-245, 284, 291, 349, 357, 445-446
Right angles, 44, 57, 82, 96, 102, 114, 129, 134-135, lettering, 42, 44-48, 52, 54-57, 64, 66, 71, 73-76,
158, 213-214, 236-238, 242, 249, 305, 352, 430-431, 434, 452, 507, 515, 522, 552-553,
578, 668, 677, 692, 744, 747 79, 81-82, 305, 312, 333
373, 376, 517, 573, 609, 669, 700 oblique surfaces, 171, 184-185, 512
Selecting, 14, 28, 30, 114, 141, 249, 287, 304, 315,

759
 paper, 2-3, 22, 24, 42, 44-48, 52, 55, 64, 66, 71, Square keys, 398 orthographic projections, 508, 545
73-75, 81-82, 87, 99-100, 108, 128, 136, Square threads, 379-380 representation, 181, 184-185, 507, 534, 545, 642,
149-150, 184-185, 241, 246, 319, 335, Squares, 44-45, 70, 73-75, 88, 99, 127-128, 133, 680, 687
404, 422, 436, 501-502, 510, 524, 544, 136-137, 149-150, 153-154, 223, 553, 700 revolve, 171, 573
556, 573, 583 drawing, 44-45, 70, 73-75, 88, 99, 127-128, 133, roughness, 363
sheets, 24, 45, 57, 64, 71, 73, 111, 284, 423, 428, 149, 223, 553 rounded, 173, 178, 181
436, 448, 667 Stamping, 291, 294 shapes, 117, 136, 155, 168, 213, 284, 314, 319,
tolerance, 323, 329, 339-340, 342-343, 345, Stamping of sheet metal, 291 522, 642, 667
347-348, 351, 353-356, 369-370, 383, Standards, 1, 6, 11, 24, 34, 47, 72, 75, 148, 205, 214, true size, 166, 169, 171, 173, 175, 184, 213, 238,
529 221, 279-280, 295, 303, 312, 331, 334-335, 241, 256, 303, 510, 514, 545, 573, 602,
Size dimensions, 100, 314-316, 334, 354 342-343, 366, 372, 382, 387, 389-390, 412, 667, 669, 673, 676, 680, 704
cylinders, 316, 334 414-416, 430, 436, 497, 653, 727 Switches, 33
holes, 314, 316, 354 dimensioning, 34, 214, 303, 312, 331, 334-335, Symbols, 3, 20-21, 28, 30, 33, 69, 88, 143, 146, 183,
prisms, 315-316 343, 366 205, 208, 223, 302, 312, 316-318, 326, 339,
Sketch, 2, 42, 72-75, 80-81, 105, 107-110, 113, drawings, 1, 6, 11, 24, 34, 72, 148, 205, 221, 280, 344, 347-353, 355, 361-365, 368-369,
126-137, 139, 142, 145-147, 149-154, 303, 312, 331, 334-335, 382, 387, 389, 375-378, 382-383, 386, 399, 403, 405-406,
185-204, 223-224, 251, 404, 416, 426, 444, 412, 414-416, 430, 436, 653 428, 430, 434, 634, 653, 727-728
507, 524-525, 531-532, 540-541, 717 keys, 331, 430 degree, 88, 339, 383
3D, 108, 146, 507, 532 lettering, 34, 47, 72, 75, 312, 430 dimensions, 30, 146, 302, 316-317, 326, 339, 344,
creating, 42, 146, 507 nuts, 372, 382, 389-390, 430 348, 351-353, 361, 399, 405, 428
Sketch pads, 73 organizations, 415 form and proportion, 317
Sketches, 1-2, 7, 9, 42, 72-74, 76, 81, 88, 126-128, piping symbols, 430 lay, 363-365, 378
134, 146, 148-149, 371, 411-414, 416-417, screw threads, 372 piping, 33, 430
423, 436, 444, 534-539, 557 welding symbols, 727 projection, 183, 375
isometric, 73, 81, 126-128, 134, 149, 534-539 Steel, 60-61, 71, 95, 169, 208, 221, 287, 291-292, rivet, 399
oblique, 73, 128, 134, 149, 534, 557 294, 299, 306, 314, 326, 349, 388-389, 396, section-lining, 208, 223
perspective, 1, 9, 73, 128, 534 398-400, 425, 540, 698 surface texture, 312, 363-365
Slicing, 205, 520 pipe threads, 388 threads, 326, 375-378, 382-383, 386, 399, 403,
Sliding fits, 344 Stock, 71, 226, 312, 328, 333, 348, 397, 428, 434, 405-406
Sliding nut, 203 466, 559, 607, 667-668, 727 tolerance, 326, 339, 347-348, 350-353, 355,
Slope, 37, 76, 311, 333, 369, 374, 376, 379-381, 524, define, 667 361-362, 369, 383
594-597, 609, 613-614, 631-633, 692, machining, 312, 333 welding, 727-728
699-701, 710, 734 Storage of drawings, 494 Symmetry, 164, 213, 219, 350, 354, 356, 369, 513,
dimensioning angles, 311 electronic files, 494 672
Slotted head screws, 394 Internet, 494
Small rivets, 399 Straight lines, 59, 66, 81, 88-89, 97, 110, 116, 129, T
Snap, 64 146, 156, 166, 177, 212-213, 220, 246, 248, Tables, 22, 34, 333, 343-344, 348, 374, 391, 428,
Solid, 4, 17, 30, 35, 81, 145, 157, 167, 205, 211, 268, 357, 375, 401, 516, 567, 599, 605, 643, 450-451
222-223, 283-286, 304, 306, 340, 379, 645, 648-649, 652, 669-670, 672, 683, 699 creating, 34
381-382, 394, 399, 401, 410, 418-421, 423, Straightness, 321, 350, 356-357, 369 styles, 391
434, 436, 443, 580-581, 607, 642-644, Straightness tolerance, 356 Tabular dimensioning, 331
648-649, 652, 655-656, 658, 660, 680, 703, Stretching, 668 Tangents, 95, 101-102, 109-111, 113, 116, 119-120,
727, 750 Structural drawings, 306, 311 126, 425, 704
Solid modeling, 35, 211, 410, 418-420, 423, 443, 607 Studs, 382, 388, 394, 403 Taper pins, 398
using, 35, 211, 418-419, 423, 607 Styles, 54, 72-75, 209, 312, 329, 391, 396 Tapped holes, 319, 326, 376, 388-389, 394-395
Solid models, 17, 30, 35, 284, 286, 419-421, 580 dimension, 74, 209, 312, 329 Technical sketching, 8, 46, 72, 125-154
union of, 420 table, 54 angles, 129, 134-135
Solids, 30, 90-91, 166, 173, 319, 418-420, 642-644, text, 54, 75 arcs, 130-131, 135-137, 144-147, 149
648-649, 651-652, 655-656, 658-660, 667, visual, 72 axes, 131, 134, 144
669, 680, 743 Subassemblies, 295, 434-435 blocking, 129-130, 133
edges, 90, 166, 173, 643-644, 648-649, 667, 669 Successive auxiliary views, 246, 248-249, 265, 601, CAD, 8, 72, 126, 146, 148-149
objects, 30, 418, 420, 660 706 circles, 130, 134, 136-137, 144, 147, 149
SolidWorks, 30, 34-35, 91, 147, 167, 184, 286-287, Successive revolutions, 262-264, 268, 270-271 curves, 133
315, 334, 368, 418, 421, 502-504, 523, 533, Superfluous dimensions, 324-325, 335 ellipses, 131-132, 134-136
743, 750 Supplementary symbols, 351 field, 127
installation, 35 Surface models, 692 oblique, 128, 134, 136-137, 149-150, 153-154
interface, 286 Surfaces, 22, 30, 44, 46, 90, 112, 117, 136, 148, one-view drawings, 143
resources, 35 155-156, 158, 166-171, 173-178, 180-181, overview, 126
Viewer, 503 184-185, 187, 205, 207, 212-213, 221, 223, parametric modeling, 8, 146
Spacing, 29, 48, 64, 75-76, 80, 107, 133, 139, 238, 241, 256, 284-285, 292, 302-303, 312, position, 129-130, 133-134, 138, 141, 147
160-162, 209, 304-305, 376, 422, 424, 427, 314, 319-321, 328, 330, 332-333, 335, 346, proportions, 127-128, 132-133, 149
576, 579 352, 355, 363, 420, 434-435, 444, 507-508, receding lines, 134, 136-137
between views, 139, 160-161 510-512, 514, 522, 534, 545, 573, 594, 602, scales, 72
hatching, 29 607, 620, 642-645, 648-649, 652, 656, shading, 148-149
letters and words, 76, 80 659-660, 667-669, 673, 676-677, 680, straight lines, 129, 146
parallel lines, 48 683-684, 687, 692, 696, 703-704 techniques, 46, 72, 149
snap, 64 available, 46, 117, 178, 221, 292, 312, 335, 355, Teeth, 116-117, 217, 434
Special bearing, 225 444, 514, 534, 594, 660, 680, 692 Telecopiers, 499
Sphere, 90, 173, 314, 356, 521, 580, 615, 618, 637, boundary, 166, 207, 213, 223, 645 Templates, 33, 44, 63, 69-70, 75, 111, 269, 391, 430,
643, 651-652, 659, 677-678, 680, 683, 687, cylindrical, 168, 173-176, 178, 213, 221, 314, 520, 527, 653
689-690, 693, 695, 698, 704-706, 710, 713 319-320, 333, 545, 656, 677 assembly, 391, 430
Spheres, 418, 651-652, 680, 687, 693 defined, 302, 642, 692 bolts, 33, 391, 430
development, 680 developments, 667-669, 673, 676-677, 680 creating, 33, 269, 653
Spindle, 449 extrusion, 284, 420 electronic symbols, 653
Spiral, 115, 120 filled, 223 ellipses, 75, 111, 520, 527
Spiral of Archimedes, 115, 120 finish, 302, 312, 333, 335, 363, 444 existing, 269
Spline, 67, 250 full sections, 221, 522 isometric, 520, 527
Splines, 30, 396 inclined, 148, 155-156, 168, 170-171, 173, 175, lettering, 44, 63, 69-70, 75, 430
drawing, 30 184-185, 241, 256, 302, 333, 507-508, saving, 391, 430
Spotface, 312, 369 510-511, 514, 522, 534, 545, 594, 645, selecting, 430
dimensioning, 312, 369 648-649, 652, 659, 676 Terms, 6, 8, 15, 35-37, 57, 87-88, 138, 140, 156-157,
Spring, 61, 63, 67, 292, 396, 399-402, 404, 423, 430, irregular, 155, 176-177, 184, 221, 507, 534, 607, 165, 278, 308, 312, 316-317, 321, 341, 343,
501 648-649, 656, 692 346, 354, 372, 379, 394, 413, 440, 593, 603,
coil, 67, 396, 401 isometric, 136, 314, 507, 510-512, 514, 522, 534, 626, 652, 668, 701, 726
compression, 400-402 607 Tertiary datum, 369
Springs, 371-407 oblique, 90, 136, 155, 171, 176, 184-185, 256, Text, 4-5, 15, 17, 20-21, 54, 75-76, 82, 85, 106, 316,
helical, 371, 375, 396, 400-401 507-508, 510-512, 534, 545, 594, 602, 348, 362, 387, 610, 635, 660, 679-680, 693,
Square bolts, 389-391 644, 648, 652, 656, 659-660, 669, 673, 698, 710, 729
Square head set screws, 396 676, 683, 687 adding, 76, 362, 679

760
 color, 20 circularity, 350, 356, 370 lines, 37, 106, 164, 167, 171-172, 176, 235, 244,
dimensions, 54, 82, 85, 316, 348, 635, 660, 680, clearance, 339, 341-342, 344-345, 348-349, 354, 246, 248, 250, 261, 267, 270, 513-514,
693 370, 382 546-547, 566, 576, 590, 594-599,
placing, 106 cylindricity, 350, 356, 370 601-602, 608-611, 613-614, 623, 626,
properties, 679 datums, 323 628-631, 635, 637, 652, 669-670, 672,
style, 76 flatness, 350, 356 675, 689, 702, 719, 723
styles, 54, 75 form, 178, 319, 323, 326, 342-343, 350-352, 356, True projections, 401
symbols, 20-21, 316, 348, 362 359, 382, 390, 429 True size, 108, 166, 169, 171-173, 175, 184, 213,
tables, 348 geometric, 315, 319, 339, 350-352, 356, 362, 235-238, 241-242, 245-248, 250, 255-256,
Textures, 284 366-368, 370 261, 267-268, 270, 303, 510, 514, 524, 530,
Thick lines, 48, 73-74 hole basis, 343, 348-349 544-545, 556, 573, 590, 602, 609-610, 617,
Thin lines, 48, 64, 73-74, 223, 304, 379 interference, 339, 341-342, 344, 348-349, 370, 459 626, 667, 669-670, 672-673, 676, 680, 704,
Third-angle projection, 5, 183-185 interpretation, 354, 368 706, 710
Threads, 115, 307, 326, 371-407, 431, 463, 520, 553 limit, 334, 339, 343-345, 370, 438 oblique surfaces, 171, 184
ANSI, 307, 326, 372, 382, 385, 387, 389, 395-396, nominal sizes, 344, 370 True-position dimensioning, 353
399-400 orientation, 350 Trusses, 399, 723
applications, 115, 371-372, 383, 387, 400 parallelism, 350, 356, 359 riveted, 399
assembly drawings, 391, 431 perpendicularity, 350, 356, 359 T-squares, 44-45, 70
details, 389, 393, 399, 431, 463 plus and minus, 343 squares, 44-45, 70
dimensions, 307, 326, 391, 394-396, 399, 401, positional, 352-355, 362 Turning, 18, 61, 129, 215, 284, 289-290, 314, 326,
404-405, 431, 463, 553 preferred sizes, 347-348 356, 438, 569
fits, 382-383, 389, 397, 402 rectangular, 315, 319, 332, 352-353 Two-view drawings, 142
forms, 371, 373-375, 393-395, 401-403, 520 runout, 350, 356, 368, 370
in isometric, 520 shaft basis, 349 U
length, 115, 326, 376, 378-379, 381-385, 388-391, shafts, 326, 341, 343-344, 346-347, 354, 382 UCS command, 211
394, 396, 401 standard, 326, 332, 342-346, 350, 362, 368, Unified threads, 373, 375, 378, 383-384
notes, 326, 383-385, 404-405, 431 382-383, 428-429, 438 fits, 383
overview, 371 standard sizes, 343 Unilateral system, 343
phantom lines, 381, 401, 403-404 statistical, 350 Unilateral tolerance, 343, 370
pipe, 307, 373, 382, 385, 388, 463 straightness, 350, 356 Unilateral tolerances, 339, 370
pitch, 372, 374, 376-379, 382-385, 390, 396, 403, taper, 326, 356 Union, 419-420, 679
520, 553 transition, 339, 341-342, 344, 348-349, 370 Units, 30, 52, 54, 57, 61, 75-76, 94-96, 108, 112, 132,
representations, 382, 396, 402 true position, 353-355 151, 285, 303-304, 306, 308, 315, 335, 399,
right-hand and left-hand, 374 unilateral, 339, 343, 370 439, 597, 674, 727
series, 373, 381-384, 389-390, 393-394, 520 Toolbars, 653 customary, 54, 304, 597
standards, 372, 382, 387, 389-390 AutoCAD, 653 dimension, 57, 303-304, 306, 308, 315, 335
symbols, 326, 375-378, 382-383, 386, 399, 403, Tooling, 279, 283, 293-294, 443 dimensions, 30, 54, 57, 303-304, 306, 308, 315,
405-406 Tools, 1, 11, 14, 34, 42, 81, 134, 211, 270, 281-283, 335, 399
terms, 372, 379, 394 291-292, 294, 297-298, 307, 316, 326, 329, drawings, 52, 54, 57, 76, 303, 306, 335, 439
types, 371, 385, 389, 393-396, 398, 400-401, 331-332, 342, 346, 382-383, 394, 411, 415, Upper deviation, 347
403-404 423, 429, 493, 499, 502, 504, 506, 529, 583, User coordinate system, 211
Three-view drawings, 29 692, 727 User interface, 21
Title blocks, 29, 443, 728 creating, 34, 42, 211, 294, 411, 583, 692
Title strips, 64, 71, 80 Tooth, 71
Titles, 66, 76, 80, 405-406, 427 Top views, 139, 142, 148, 150, 154, 159-160, 174, V
lettering, 66, 76, 80, 427 176, 181, 201-202, 204, 213, 228, 230, 237, Vanishing points, 137, 564, 566, 570, 572-573,
Tolerance, 307, 309, 321, 323-324, 326, 329, 339-340, 244, 249, 251-252, 264-265, 270, 315-316, 576-577, 579, 583
342-343, 345-348, 350-359, 361-362, 391, 451, 566, 568, 591, 593, 602-603, 611, inclined lines, 576-577
369-370, 383, 529 613-614, 618-619, 638, 644-646, 669, 687, perspective drawings, 570, 583
angular, 323, 329, 343, 350, 352, 356 689, 706, 711, 719 V-block, 161, 195, 251
dimensioning, 307, 309, 321, 323-324, 326, 329, adjacent views, 265, 593 Vertices, 612, 628, 656, 660, 670, 675, 704, 706
339-340, 343, 345, 350, 352-353, Topographic maps, 697-698 pyramids, 675
361-362, 369-370 Tori, 418 solids, 656, 660
fits between mating parts, 340, 346 Torsion springs, 400 Viewing, 28, 36, 156, 164, 183, 220, 270, 413, 499,
for related features, 350, 359 Torus, 90, 318, 643 532, 581
form tolerances for single features, 356 Tracking, 23 Views, 4-5, 28-29, 73, 82-84, 111, 115, 126, 128,
form variations, 350 Trammel method, 120, 131 134-136, 138-145, 147-154, 155-165,
general notes, 326 arcs, 120, 131 168-174, 176-177, 181-185, 187-204,
geometric, 321, 339, 350-352, 356, 361-362, ellipses, 131 205-234, 235-260, 262-265, 267-272, 274,
369-370 Transferring, 60-61, 91-92, 98-100, 129, 160, 162, 303, 312-316, 324, 326, 332-334, 336-337,
hole system, 342, 345, 370 185, 237-238, 248, 250, 282, 516, 675 366, 376, 381-382, 384, 387, 391, 394, 405,
limit, 339-340, 343, 345, 370 angles, 129, 237-238, 250 413, 422, 424, 428-430, 436, 438, 449-454,
machining processes, 346-347 depth dimensions, 160, 250 456, 465, 479-480, 490-492, 503, 507-508,
maximum material condition, 350-351, 354-355, Transforming, 299 513-515, 521, 530-532, 534, 544, 566, 568,
369-370 Transition fits, 344 573, 583-585, 590-595, 599-603, 605-606,
metric system, 307, 346 locational, 344 608-614, 616-621, 624-625, 627-632, 635,
overview, 339 Transition pieces, 676, 680 637-639, 643-646, 649-651, 656, 658,
plus-or-minus, 343 Transparency, 71 660-661, 663-666, 669, 675, 680-682,
positional, 352-355, 362 Trapezoids, 168 687-689, 695-696, 697, 702-703, 705-706,
preferred fits, 347-348 Triangles, 43, 49-52, 70, 87-89, 98, 110, 114, 168, 311, 711-713, 719, 724-725, 744
preferred sizes, 347-348 525, 532, 546, 576, 578, 638, 672, 675-676, alignment, 126, 147, 149, 155, 184, 315, 438, 490,
selective assembly, 342 680, 697, 703-704, 710 627
shaft system, 342, 370 drawing, 43, 49-52, 70, 87-88, 98, 110, 114, 168, assembly drawings, 208, 391, 430, 438
specifying, 339, 350, 353, 357-359, 361-362 311, 525, 532, 546, 576, 578, 680, 697, Auxiliary, 171, 223, 228, 235-260, 262-263, 265,
symbols, 326, 339, 347-348, 350-353, 355, 710 267-268, 270, 429, 451, 453-454, 590,
361-362, 369, 383 equilateral, 114, 638 594-595, 601-603, 605, 609-610, 619,
Tolerance accumulation, 354 review, 680, 710 624, 628, 631-632, 635, 638, 645, 669,
Tolerance grades, 346-347, 383 Triangulation, 667, 675-676, 680 689, 702-703, 705-706, 725
Tolerance note, 342 Trim, 63-64 Foreshortened, 164, 170-172, 219, 248, 267-268,
Tolerance zones, 352-353, 356 Trimetric drawings, 535-539 270, 508, 594
Tolerances, 7, 178, 291, 294, 309, 315, 319, 323-324, Trimetric projections, 248 front, 5, 134-136, 138-142, 145, 147-148, 150, 154,
326, 332, 334, 339, 341-356, 359, 362, Trimetric scales, 527 156-161, 164-165, 168-174, 176-177,
366-368, 370, 382-384, 390, 428-429, 438, True length, 37, 106, 164, 167, 170-172, 176, 235, 181-185, 201-204, 206, 210, 212-213,
459 244-246, 248, 250, 261-262, 265-267, 270, 215, 218, 220, 224, 227-231, 233-234,
analysis, 7 273, 513-514, 546-547, 566, 576, 590, 235-238, 240-253, 257-260, 262-265,
angular, 323, 334, 343, 350, 352, 356 594-599, 601-602, 608-611, 613-614, 623, 267-270, 315-316, 326, 381, 387, 391,
bilateral, 339, 343, 356, 370 626, 628-631, 635, 637, 644, 652, 669-670, 449-454, 456, 479-480, 491-492, 515,
blocks, 339 672-673, 675, 680, 689, 702, 705, 719, 723, 530-532, 534, 544, 566, 568, 573, 585,
chain, 324, 354 725 591-595, 599-603, 605-606, 608-614,

761
 616, 618-619, 624, 628-631, 635, 638, Windows, 15, 29-30, 108, 573
644-646, 649-651, 656, 658, 660, 669, Explorer, 108
675, 687-689, 696, 702, 705-706, selection, 30
711-712, 719, 724-725 Wiring duct, 492
interpreting, 503 Wood screws, 396
necessary, 73, 111, 126, 128, 134, 138-139, Woodruff keys, 328, 397
141-144, 147-152, 156-157, 159-162, Working drawings, 6, 34, 71, 178, 335, 401, 404,
165, 171, 185, 190-204, 206, 210, 409-492, 581
213-214, 219-220, 225-227, 232-233, assemblies, 422, 430-431, 434-435, 444
235, 237, 243-244, 247, 249-250, checking, 422, 429, 443
252-256, 264-265, 268-269, 303, drawing numbers, 427-428, 443
312-313, 324, 326, 332-334, 376, 382, identification numbers, 429
391, 394, 422, 424, 428-430, 436, 454, overview, 410
491, 507, 515, 521, 530, 532, 566, 603, parts lists, 428, 430
606, 608, 630-631, 644-645, 656, 658, patent drawings, 412-413, 422, 435-436, 438, 443,
669, 702, 705, 724 581
Object, 28-29, 126, 128, 134-136, 138-143, 145, revisions, 410, 428-429, 434, 443
148-149, 155-162, 164-165, 168-169, sections, 6, 430-431, 434, 452
172, 181-185, 205-207, 210-215, simplifying, 430
219-220, 223, 235-238, 240, 242, 244, subassemblies, 434-435
246, 248, 250, 253, 262-264, 268-270, zoning, 429
272, 303, 313-314, 333, 422, 424, Workpiece, 283, 293, 312
507-508, 513-515, 530-532, 534, 544, Worm gears, 115
566, 568, 573, 583, 591, 660 Worm’s-eye view, 140
Orthographic, 4, 29, 126, 149, 155, 182-184, 235, Wrench, 121, 123, 388, 464
508, 515, 530-532, 573, 583, 689, 697
partial, 142, 162-164, 201, 214-215, 220, 227, 229, X
231, 235, 243-244, 248-250, 252-255, Xerography, 493, 496, 506
257-258, 429-430, 449, 451-453
projection, 4-5, 73, 128, 134, 138, 149, 155-165,
168-174, 176-177, 181-185, 187-204, Z
215, 220, 235-240, 242, 244, 246-248, Zero-based part rejection, 279
250, 262-265, 267-268, 270, 272, 391,
394, 507-508, 513-515, 521, 530-532,
534, 544, 566, 573, 583, 591-592, 594,
600-601, 606, 608-609, 624, 628, 630,
632, 644, 646, 650, 689, 697, 719,
724-725
removed, 28, 164-165, 206, 210, 212-213,
215-216, 220, 223, 227-228, 231, 244,
449, 451-452, 703
Sectional, 164, 205-234, 235, 250, 376, 382
spacing between, 139, 422
standards, 148, 205, 214, 221, 303, 312, 334, 366,
382, 387, 430, 436
surface, 115, 126, 136, 139, 148, 155-156, 159,
161, 168-173, 176-177, 181, 184-185,
212-213, 236-238, 242, 244, 246-250,
253-254, 256, 267-270, 312, 314, 324,
326, 366, 391, 521, 534, 568, 599, 602,
637, 643, 645-646, 649-651, 660, 669,
675, 680-682, 687-689, 695, 697,
702-703, 706, 712
Virtual prototypes, 35, 423
Visibility, 65, 246, 590, 592-593, 605-606, 609-610,
612, 620-622, 645-646, 656, 660, 662
Visual rays, 9, 508, 534, 565-566, 568-569, 571, 573,
583
Visualization, 42, 108, 136, 164-166, 692
Volume, 114, 283, 418, 420, 496, 643

W
Walls, 383
Warpage, 291
Warped surfaces, 420, 643, 660, 668
Washer, 226, 390-391, 393
Washers, 401, 459
Wedge, 196, 352, 356, 536, 655
Wedges, 418
Weights, 24, 48, 67, 148, 428, 434, 722
line, 24, 48, 67, 148, 434, 722
Weld symbols, 727-728
ANSI, 727
ISO, 727
Welding, 284, 289, 296, 727-728, 748
CAD, 284, 727-728
process, 289
symbols, 727-728
Weldments, 607
features, 607
Whitworth, Joseph, 372
Width, 36, 46, 48, 54, 64, 71, 75-76, 80, 82, 88, 132,
137-139, 145, 147, 155, 157, 160-161, 165,
175, 184-185, 235, 238, 240-241, 264, 302,
305, 314-315, 317, 321, 323, 350, 390, 507,
530, 534, 553, 556, 573
pen, 76
text, 54, 75-76, 82
Width auxiliary views, 235, 240-241

762