Theoretical Approaches and Concepts in Gender and Development

Module: Theoretical Approaches and Concepts in Gender and Development

Introduction

Gender and Development (GAD) is a field of study and practice that explores the intersections
between gender relations and socio-economic development. Over time, various theoretical
approaches have emerged to address the root causes of gender inequality and to promote
inclusive development.

Gender and Development (GAD) is an interdisciplinary field that investigates how gender
dynamics shape development processes and outcomes. It critiques traditional development
models that excluded or marginalized women and calls for inclusive, equitable systems. Over the
decades, multiple theoretical approaches have emerged to address gender inequality in
development. This module outlines key frameworks, supported by real-world examples that
illustrate their implementation. It offers a brief yet substantial overview of key theories,
concepts, and their real-world applications in both historical and modern contexts.

1. Welfare Approach (1950s–1970s)

Concept: Women as passive recipients of development aid. Core Idea: Women as passive
recipients of welfare benefits; primary roles in reproduction and family maintenance.

Context: Post-World War II development focused on poverty alleviation through foreign aid.
Women's roles were largely tied to their reproductive functions. Post-WWII recovery focused on
basic needs provision in newly decolonized countries.

Example: In many African countries, international aid programs provided food and healthcare to
women without engaging them in decision-making or productive activities.

 India’s Community Development Programme (1952): Targeted women mainly

through maternal and child health services, food aid, and sewing classes. Women were
seen as dependents rather than agents of change (Kabeer, 1994).

• Green Revolution in Asia: Increased agricultural productivity but sidelined women,

who were not seen as primary landowners or farmers, despite their labor contributions (Agarwal,
1994).

Criticism: Reinforced traditional gender roles and failed to empower women as economic
agents. Reinforced traditional roles; lacked focus on empowerment or systemic change.
________________________________________

2. Women in Development (WID) (1970s–1980s)

Concept: Integrate women into existing development projects without altering the structures that
create inequality. Integrate women into existing development structures; influenced by liberal
feminism.

Historical Context: Influenced by liberal feminism and Ester Boserup's "Woman's Role in
Economic Development" (1970), which highlighted women's exclusion from development
benefits.

 Ester Boserup’s “Woman’s Role in Economic Development” (1970) – demonstrated how

women’s labor was invisible in development statistics.

Example: USAID programs encouraged women's participation in agriculture but often

ignored unequal land rights or access to credit.

 USAID’s Women in Development Office (1974): Promoted women’s inclusion in

agricultural and entrepreneurial projects. However, women often received less training
and fewer resources.

 Kenya’s Women’s Bureau (est. 1976): Created to implement women-specific programs

such as income-generating activities. However, it faced criticism for operating separately
from mainstream development planning (Nzomo, 1995).

Criticism: Treated women as a homogenous group and focused more on inclusion than
transformation. Focused more on adding women into systems rather than transforming the
systems themselves.

3. Gender and Development (GAD) (1980s–present)

Concept: Focuses on the social construction of gender and seeks to transform unequal power
relations.
Theoretical Roots: Influenced by socialist and radical feminism. Emphasizes both women’s and
men’s roles in development. Addresses the power relations between men and women; targets
social structures and institutions that perpetuate gender inequality. Socialist and radical feminist
critique of WID’s limitations.

Example (Modern): UN Women’s “HeForShe” campaign includes men in the gender equality
dialogue. Another example is Rwanda’s post-genocide development model, which mandated
gender quotas in parliament, resulting in over 60% female representation—one of the highest
globally.

 Rwanda’s Post-Genocide Gender Policy: In response to the 1994 genocide, Rwanda

introduced gender quotas, requiring 30% minimum female representation in government.
Women now hold over 60% of parliamentary seats—the highest in the world—enabling
policy changes in health, education, and land rights (Burnet, 2008).
 Philippines Gender and Development Budget Policy: Mandates that 5% of all
government agency budgets be allocated for gender-responsive programs (RA 9710,
Magna Carta of Women, 2009). This law stemmed from feminist and civil society
advocacy under a GAD framework.

Advantage: Recognizes intersectionality and aims for structural change. Emphasizes gender
relations, intersectionality, and transformative change.

4. Practical vs. Strategic Gender Needs (Molyneux 1985)

 Practical Gender Needs: Immediate needs arising from women’s existing roles (e.g.,
water access, healthcare). Immediate needs without challenging gender roles. Needs that
aim to transform gender relations. Immediate needs without challenging gender roles

 Strategic Gender Needs: Long-term needs to transform gender relations (e.g., legal
rights, political participation). Needs that aim to transform gender relations
Example: In India, providing microcredit to women meets practical needs; changing
inheritance laws to grant daughters equal rights addresses strategic needs.

Examples:

 Water Collection Programs in Sub-Saharan Africa: Providing boreholes or

handpumps addresses PGNs but doesn’t challenge why women are solely responsible for
water collection.
 Land Reform in South Africa (post-1994): Some reforms began recognizing women's
independent rights to land ownership—meeting SGNs by challenging patriarchal
inheritance structures (Walker, 2002).

5. Intersectionality and Postcolonial Feminism (1990s–present)

Concept: Gender does not exist in isolation—race, class, caste, and other identities influence
experiences of oppression. Gender is not a standalone category—class, race, ethnicity, and
colonial legacies shape women’s experiences.

Theoretical Roots: Black feminist thought, e.g., Kimberlé Crenshaw.

Example: In South Africa, post-apartheid development policies recognized the compounded
discrimination faced by Black women in rural areas. In the Philippines, Indigenous women face
barriers not just as women but as ethnic minorities resisting displacement.

 Brazil’s Afro-Brazilian Women’s Movement: Advocated for rights by highlighting the

unique struggles of Black women who faced both racial and gender discrimination in
health and employment (Caldwell, 2007).
 Indigenous Women in the Philippines (Cordillera Region): Faced gender-based
violence and displacement due to mining projects. Their resistance is both a feminist and
anti-colonial movement (Claver, 2012).

Impact: Urges development practitioners to consider diverse identities and avoid one-size-fits-
all policies. Promotes policies sensitive to cultural, ethnic, and social diversity.

6. Capabilities Approach (Amartya Sen and Martha Nussbaum)

Concept: Development should expand people’s capabilities—the real freedoms they enjoy.
Development should enhance people’s real freedoms—what they are able to do and be.
Application to Gender: Emphasizes education, health, bodily integrity, and agency. Moves
beyond income-based metrics to assess well-being.
Examples:

 Bangladesh’s BRAC Programs: Focused on education, microfinance, and legal aid for
women. Increased women’s literacy and employment, enhancing capabilities beyond
income (Nussbaum, 2000).
 UNDP’s Gender Inequality Index (GII): Measures reproductive health, empowerment,
and labor force participation. Countries like Nepal improved their GII through female
education and maternal health investments.

 The Human Development Index (HDI) and Gender Inequality Index (GII) incorporate
education, health, and empowerment indicators. Countries like Bangladesh have made
significant strides by investing in girls' education and maternal health.

Conclusion
The evolution of gender and development theory reflects a shift from treating women as
peripheral to recognizing them as central actors in societal transformation. From welfare-based
models to intersectional and capability-focused approaches, contemporary development must not
only address inequality but also reshape the power dynamics that sustain it. These theoretical
frameworks show how the understanding of gender in development has evolved—from viewing
women as dependents to recognizing the need to transform systemic inequalities. Each approach
offers tools and lessons for current policy-making, but GAD and intersectional frameworks offer
the most potential for equitable, inclusive progress.

Key Takeaways

 Gender is a social construct affecting access to resources and opportunities.

 Development strategies must go beyond economic inclusion to challenge structural
inequalities.
 A nuanced approach considers intersecting identities and context-specific barriers.
 Real change requires addressing both practical and strategic gender needs.

 Development must address both material conditions and structural inequalities.

 Strategies that consider race, class, ethnicity, and culture are more effective and just.
 Empowerment is not only about participation but also about transforming power
relations.

References (APA 7th Edition)

Agarwal, B. (1994). A field of one's own: Gender and land rights in South Asia. Cambridge
University Press.

Boserup, E. (1970). Woman’s role in economic development. George Allen & Unwin.

Burnet, J. E. (2008). Gender balance and the meanings of women in governance in post-genocide
Rwanda. African Affairs, 107(428), 361–386. https://doi.org/10.1093/afraf/adn024

Caldwell, K. L. (2007). Negras in Brazil: Re-envisioning black women, citizenship, and the
politics of identity. Rutgers University Press.

Claver, J. (2012). Women’s resistance in Cordillera: Indigenous voices against extractivism.

Asian Indigenous Women’s Network.
Crenshaw, K. (1989). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex. University of Chicago
Legal Forum, 1989(1), 139–167.

Kabeer, N. (1994). Reversed realities: Gender hierarchies in development thought. Verso.

Molyneux, M. (1985). Mobilization without emancipation? Women's interests, state and

revolution in Nicaragua. Feminist Studies, 11(2), 227–254.

Nussbaum, M. C. (2000). Women and human development: The capabilities approach.

Cambridge University Press.

Nzomo, M. (1995). Women in top management in Kenya. African Association for Public
Administration and Management.

Philippine Commission on Women. (2009). Magna Carta of Women (Republic Act No. 9710).
Retrieved from https://pcw.gov.ph/magna-carta-of-women/

Rathgeber, E. M. (1990). WID, WAD, GAD: Trends in research and practice. The Journal of
Developing Areas, 24(4), 489–502.

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). (2019). Human Development Report 2019:
Beyond income, beyond averages, beyond today. Retrieved from http://hdr.undp.org

Walker, C. (2002). Agrarian change, gender and land reform: A South African case study.
United Nations Research Institute for Social Development.

Development Theory, Gender theories & Feminist Critiques

Introduction

Development theory has long shaped how societies envision progress, growth, and equity.
However, many mainstream development models have historically overlooked or marginalized
gendered experiences. Feminist critiques and gender theories have challenged and reshaped these
paradigms, arguing for more inclusive, intersectional, and justice-centered approaches to
development.

1. Classical Development Theory: An Overview

Mainstream development theories, especially during the mid-20th century, largely followed
Western capitalist models.

 Modernization Theory (Rostow, 1960): Suggested that societies evolve in linear stages
from "traditional" to "modern."
 Critique: Imposed Eurocentric models, ignoring women's roles in "traditional"
economies.

 Dependency Theory (Frank, 1967): Argued underdevelopment was a result of

exploitation by wealthy nations.
Feminist Response: While highlighting global inequalities, it often neglected gendered
dimensions of labor and poverty (Sen & Grown, 1987).

Example:

In Latin America, dependency theorists explained economic underdevelopment, but feminists

like Maria Mies argued that both colonialism and patriarchy exploited women’s labor in informal
and reproductive economies (Mies, 1986).

2. Gender Theories in Development

a. Women in Development (WID)

Focused on integrating women into existing development programs without altering structural
inequalities.

Example:
USAID-supported WID programs in the 1970s provided women with microcredit and training
but often ignored patriarchal land ownership laws, limiting long-term empowerment (Rathgeber,
1990).

b. Women and Development (WAD)

Critiqued capitalist structures and emphasized collective organization and women’s labor.

Example:
In Tanzania, Ujamaa village programs under WAD were based on cooperative labor models.
Yet, women's labor remained under-compensated and under-valued (Snyder & Tadesse, 1995).

c. Gender and Development (GAD)

Shifted focus from women to gender relations, emphasizing power and institutional change.

Example:
Rwanda’s post-genocide reforms adopted GAD principles by implementing gender quotas and
transforming family and property laws, resulting in increased women's political participation
(Burnet, 2008).

3. Feminist Critiques of Development

Feminist scholars argue that traditional development theory is inherently gender-blind and often
upholds patriarchal structures.

 Postcolonial Feminism: Highlights how Western development projects perpetuate

colonial dynamics.
Example: Chandra Talpade Mohanty (1988) critiques how Western scholars construct
“Third World women” as passive victims, ignoring their agency.

 Intersectional Feminism: Emphasizes overlapping oppressions based on race, class,

sexuality, etc.
Example: In South Africa, land reform efforts failed to consider how poor Black women
face triple exclusion—racial, economic, and gender-based (Walker, 2002).

 Ecofeminism: Connects the exploitation of nature with the oppression of women.

Example: Vandana Shiva’s critique of the Green Revolution argues that chemical
agriculture disempowered women farmers in India and degraded ecosystems (Shiva,
1989).

4. The Capabilities Approach and Gender

Developed by Amartya Sen and Martha Nussbaum, this approach sees development as
enhancing individuals' freedoms and choices, not just income.

Example:
BRAC’s programs in Bangladesh provided girls with education, microloans, and legal aid—
expanding their "capabilities" and reducing child marriage rates (Nussbaum, 2000).

BRAC (originally the Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee) is one of the largest non-
governmental organizations (NGOs) in the world, founded in 1972 in Bangladesh by Fazle
Hasan Abed. It was established initially to assist refugees returning after the Bangladesh
Liberation War, but it evolved into a comprehensive development organization that now operates
in many countries across Asia and Africa.

What does BRAC do?

BRAC runs a wide range of programs aimed at alleviating poverty and empowering
marginalized communities, particularly women and girls. These include:
  Education: BRAC runs one of the largest secular private education systems in the world,
especially for children who drop out of or never attend formal schools.

 Microfinance: It pioneered microloans to help poor women start small businesses.

 Health Care: Community health programs provide maternal and child care, vaccination,
and disease prevention.

 Legal Aid and Human Rights: Supports women's rights through legal services,
community awareness, and advocacy.

 Social Enterprises: BRAC operates social businesses (e.g., dairy, agriculture) that fund
its development work.

Impact on Gender and Development:

BRAC has been widely recognized for improving the capabilities of women and girls, a
concept central to the Capabilities Approach developed by Amartya Sen and Martha
Nussbaum.

Example: BRAC’s adolescent girls’ clubs in rural Bangladesh provide safe spaces for girls to
learn about health, finance, and rights. A 2016 evaluation showed these programs significantly
reduced child marriage rates and improved school retention (Bandiera et al., 2017).

Conclusion

Development theory, when examined through gender theories and feminist critiques, reveals the
importance of power, structure, and identity in shaping development outcomes. Today’s most
progressive approaches integrate intersectional, rights-based, and participatory frameworks that
center the voices and agency of marginalized groups, particularly women and gender-diverse
populations.

References (APA 7th Edition)

Bandiera, O., Buehren, N., Burgess, R., Goldstein, M., Gulesci, S., Rasul, I., & Sulaiman, M.
(2017). Women's empowerment in action: Evidence from a randomized control trial in Africa
(World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 9074). https://doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-
9074
Burnet, J. E. (2008). Gender balance and the meanings of women in governance in post-genocide
Rwanda. African Affairs, 107(428), 361–386. https://doi.org/10.1093/afraf/adn024

Frank, A. G. (1967). Capitalism and underdevelopment in Latin America. Monthly Review

Press.

Mies, M. (1986). Patriarchy and accumulation on a world scale: Women in the international
division of labour. Zed Books.

Mohanty, C. T. (1988). Under Western eyes: Feminist scholarship and colonial discourses.
Feminist Review, 30(1), 61–88.

Nussbaum, M. C. (2000). Women and human development: The capabilities approach.

Cambridge University Press.

Rathgeber, E. M. (1990). WID, WAD, GAD: Trends in research and practice. The Journal of
Developing Areas, 24(4), 489–502.

Rostow, W. W. (1960). The stages of economic growth: A non-communist manifesto. Cambridge

University Press.

Sen, G., & Grown, C. (1987). Development, crises, and alternative visions: Third World
women's perspectives. Monthly Review Press.

Shiva, V. (1989). Staying alive: Women, ecology and survival in India. Kali for Women.

Snyder, M. C., & Tadesse, M. (1995). African women and development: A history. Zed Books.

Walker, C. (2002). Agrarian change, gender and land reform: A South African case study.
United Nations Research Institute for Social Development.