KEY TERMS

experiment (laboratory and field]

independent variable
dependent variable controlled
standardised procedure
standardised instructions
laboratory setting natural setting
Looking ahead to A Level
This research methods chapter covers everything you need to understand and to evaluate the 12 core studies
at Cambridge International AS Level and to conduct your own investigations.
Planning and conducting research as well as analysing data and reporting your findings are excellent ways to
consolidate your growing understanding of methodological concepts (please note, ethical guidelines must be
upheld at all times). The chapter also includes a tew additional aspects which are relevant to the Cambridge
International A Level part of
using examples from the A Level options as different students/schools study different combinations. Whichever
options you or your school choose (Clinical Psychology, Consumer
Psychology, Health Psychology and/or Organisational Psychology), you wil learn about additional research
methods and methodological concepts, including randomised control
trials, postal questionnaires, rating scales: forced/fixed choice, psychometric tests, writing and applying
knowledge of null hypotheses and alternative directional (one-tailed) and non- directional (two-tailed)
hypotheses, and temporal validity.
Before you start...
Previously, you learned about the early psychological experiments performed by Wilhelm Wundt. In tribute to
his great work on reaction times, we have referred to a mock study by a fictional researcher, Dr Rox, to help
you to put your new knowledge into action. Her study
is introduced on page 170. You'll find that she needs your help with her study on caffeine
and reaction times quite a lot! Hopefully, you'll be able to think of some more contemporary ways of measuring
reaction times than the chronometer and maybe even find a way to make your measurements both valid and
reliable. Good luck!
STUDY TIP
Although it might be tempting to claim that a certain study proved a certain theory, it is important to avoid the
words proof, 'prove' and proved' ni psychology. Philosopher Karl
Popper noted that ti is impossible to prove the claim that all swans are white' (Popper, 1959). You could go out
searching for swans a hundred times, returning each time
with a photo of a white swan, but this does not prove that all swans are white. Popper
suggested that tracking down just one black swan would disprove (falsify) the claim - this is why psychologists
test null hypotheses (see page 198). This is rather complex,
but it is generally better to be cautious when writing in psychology and use phrases like researchers found
evidence to support their theory/hypothesis', or this suggests that..., or this supports the idea that....
5.1 Research methods 5.1.1 Experiments
Think!
What is the difference between a laboratory experiment and a field experiment? In what way are these types of
experiment similar?
Think!
Imagine you have been asked ot conduct a field experiment to investigate obedience at a zoo. What would
your independent and dependent variables be? Why might the data you collect be unreliable?
Think!
Why might the findings of laboratory experiments lack validity?
5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
5.1 Research methods
Experimental group
Control group
A Figure 5.3 Andrade (doodling) hypothesised that people who doodle while listening to a boring message will
recall more of the message than people who do not doodle while
listening to the message. She designed an experiment to test her hypothesis
What was Andrade's independent variable (what differed between the two groups)? What was one of her
dependent variables (what was measured)? What type of experiment was this?
What is an experiment?
Think back to the circle of science ni Figure 5.2 on page 16 and you wil remember that psychologists design
and conduct experiments to test hypotheses. They are interested ni discovering cause-and-effect relationships
between variables. To help reveal the causes of behaviour, thoughts and feelings, they compare how people
behave ni different situations (conditions), carefully changing one thing at a time (the independent variable)
and observing how this affects another thing (the dependent variable).
To be sure that changes in the dependent variable really were caused by the independent variable, it is
important to think about any other variables that might affect the dependent variable and make sure that they
are controlled (kept the same) from one group/condition
to the next. Afinal important feature of experiments is that there
is always a carefully standardised procedure. The term procedure means what the experimenter must do in
order to collect their data. Standardised means that each step is kept exactly the same
for every participant. This includes the use of standardised instructions, the exact same environment (in terms
of lighting, room layout, temperature, noise, etc.) and the exact same task.
The main features of experiments are as follows:
» Experimenters compare data collected from the experimental group or condition with
data collected in the control group or control condition in order to draw conclusions
about cause and effect.
» They have independent variables that are manipulated (changed) and dependent variables that are
measured.
» Cause and effect can only be inferred fi all other variables that could affect the dependent variable are
controlled (kept the same for both groups/conditions).
» They have a standardised procedure and standardised instructions so that all participants have the exact
same experience and so that the study can be replicated to test for
reliability.
5
169

5
Dr Rox notices that her students always
seem more alert following a cup of coffee
and decides to carry out an experiment
to investigate the effect of caffeine on reaction time. She gives one group of students a 300 ml cup of coffee
containing 100 mg of caffeine and tests their reaction time immediately
after they have drunk it. She compares their results
with another group of students who are given a 300 ml glass of water (and no
coffee). She predicts that the average reaction time for the caffeine group will
be significantly faster than the average reaction time in the no-caffeine group.
» The independent variable is A
whether the participants are given
caffeine
or water (this is what
Dr Rox manipulated).
» The dependent variable is participants'
170
reaction times measured in milliseconds on the reaction time test.
When Dr Rox analyses the results, she finds her prediction was correct, but can you think of any reasons why
Dr Rox should not conclude that it was the caffeine that caused the faster reaction times?
Laboratory experiments
Location
The term laboratory refers to the setting (location) ni which the experiment takes place. Alaboratory is any
setting over which the experimenter has a high level of control - for example, they can control the temperature,
lighting and noise level. In Dr Rox's caffeine study, the students would be brought to a specific room at the
university where they are given the coffee or water. Next, they would complete a specially designed
reaction-time test on a computer - for example, touching the screen as quickly as they can every time they see
the number 2on screen. The time taken to press the button wil be measured ni milliseconds.
Controls
Controlled variables are kept the
same between
all levels (groups or conditions) of the independent variable, to ensure that only the independent variable is
causing any effect on
the dependent variable. Working in a laboratory setting allows researchers to control many variables. This
means the researcher can be much more confident that the independent
variable really did cause the changes ni the dependent variable. In Dr Rox's study, fi the room was rather hot
on the day the coffee group took part but colder on the day the water
group took part, the difference ni temperature might affect reaction times. Therefore, Dr Rox should control the
temperature of the room and the temperature of the water and the coffee. She would also need to control
noise levels within the room, ensuring that both
groups have the same quiet environment and do not become distracted.
Evaluating laboratory experiments
Validity
Another strength si that, because of the high levels of control, researchers are able to infer cause and effect
because they have isolated the variable ot be manipulated and the variable that si being measured. For
example, ni an experiment on the effects of caffeine on reaction time, if the researchers found a significant
difference in the results between the caffeine
and the control group, they could say that caffeine had an effect on reaction time.
0:003
IV: the drink (coffee or water)
DV: time taken to press
the button (milliseconds)
Figure 5.4 Dr Rox's experiment to investigate the effect of caffeine on
reaction time.
IV, independent variable; DV, dependent variable

Aweakness of some laboratory experiments is that they can be low in ecological validity because the tasks
participants are asked to perform sometimes do not reflect what they would do ni real life. For example, ni
Pozzulo et al's (line-ups) experiment, participants
were asked to watch some videos, then identify cartoon and (real) human characters from the videos ni photo
line-ups. This si not the same as witnessing a crime ni real life, where people are unlikely to be expecting the
event, may feel more intense emotions and wil be viewing the situation ni real life not on a screen. These
factors are likely to affect their recall for faces in a different way to a calm, controlled setting. This means that
the results of laboratory experiments should only be generalised to everyday life with caution as when people
are in a real-life setting, they may behave very differently.
Another weakness is that validity can also be affected by demand characteristics, which
are features of the environment that reveal the aim of the study. fI participants are able to work out the aim of
the study, they may act in a way they feel the researchers want them to,
rather than behaving how they normally would.
Reliability
One strength of laboratory experiments is that the setting means the procedure can be
highly standardised. This means that al participants within each group/condition have the exact same
experience as each other. This is important because it means other researchers
should be able to replicate the study to test the findings for reliability (i.e. consistency).
Ethics
Astrength is that laboratory experiments should be more ethical than field experiments (see below) because
participants know they are taking part in research (even if they have not been told the exact hypothesis). They
will have given their consent to take part and
wil be made aware of their right to withdraw. Unlike field experiments, researchers are generally able to debrief
their participants following any deception. This is important as upholding ethical guidelines helps to ensure that
participants are treated with respect and that they leave the research setting ni the same psychological state
as they were ni when they arrived.
Field experiment
Location
When psychologists talk about working in 'the field', they mean conducting research in real-world settings.
Away from the controlled world of the laboratory, field experiments take place in natural environments, where
one might expect to see the behaviours of interest, such as the street, supermarket or workplace. One or more
independent variables are still
manipulated by the experiment ni order ot observe the effect on the dependent variable(5). However, the
natural environment means that ni comparison with laboratory experiments,
there may be uncontrolled variables both within and between groups/conditions. These are factors that are not
being measured or controlled by the researcher and can have an
unwanted effect on the dependent variable. These could be things such as the temperature of the room or
noise levels.
How could Dr Rox redesign her study as a field experiment? Where would it take place and how could she
measure reaction times in a more naturalistic way?
Controls
When researchers conduct field experiments, they try to maintain control over variables that could affect the
dependent variable to allow cause-and-effect conclusions to be drawn, but this is much more difficult than in a
laboratory environment. In natural environments, like
public places (e.g. Piliavin et al., subway Samaritans), it si not possible to control how many people board the
train or how close people are standing to each other, for example. These uncontrolled, situational variables
(see page 201) make it hard to draw firm conclusions.
171
5.1 Research methods

5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
172
Can you think of any variables that would be difficult to control fi Dr Rox decided to conduct her study in a
coffee shop? Imagine she has ten students in each group, would it be possible to ensure that they all have the
exact same experience as each other?
Evaluating field experiments
Validity
Astrength of field experiments is that they generally have higher ecological validity than
a laboratory experiment, meaning that participants' behaviour si more likely to be natural as they are not in an
unfamiliar laboratory setting and often unaware that they are even
taking part in the research. This means their results should be generalisable to other similar situations. Another
strength of field experiments is that participants are also much less likely to show demand characteristics fi
they do not know they are taking part ni research. This means that they are unlikely to try to work out what the
aim of the research si and act in the way that they
think the researchers want them to.
Field experiments take place in real-world settings. The behaviours of interest are observed/measured ni
everyday situations. For this reason, they tend to have higher ecological validity. Also, participants are less
likely ot be affected by demand characteristics, especially fi they do not even know they are in a study. The
researcher
still manipulates an aspect of the situation (e.g. Piliavin et al. staged an emergency on the subway, see page
154) and so the setting si not completely natural.
» Do you think it si possible for a laboratory experiment to have ecological validity? » Do you think ti si possible
for a field experiment to lack ecological validity?
Reliability
Aweakness si that researchers have much less control ni a field experiment. For example, ni
the Piliavin et al. experiment (see page 153), researchers could not control who was sitting in the train carriage
or how crowded it was when the experiment took place. Neither could
they control whether the passengers had already seen the confederate collapse in a previous
trial, leading them to become suspicious and potentially affecting their response. Field experiments tend to be
more difficult to replicate due to the limited ability to standardise
the procedure. This makes ti difficult to test the reliability of the findings.
Ethics
Aweakness of field experiments si that participants often do not know that they are taking part ni research, so
consent cannot be sought, which also removes the right to withdraw.
When the deception si revealed, ti may lead participants ot doubt psychologists ni the future. Deception should
only be used when the research aims cannot be met without it taking place
and only if the participants are unlikely to feel discomfort on finding out about the deception. The research
design should protect the dignity of the participants.
Control groups and/or conditions
Experiments involve making comparisons between data obtained in two or more groups or conditions.
Astrength of control groups/conditions is that the data provided in this part of the experiment provides a
baseline to which the data from the experimental group or condition can be compared. Control
groups/conditions allow the researchers to confirm that the results of their study are due to the manipulation of
the independent variable. In
Dr Rox's study, the water group provides the reaction speed baseline to which the coffee group's average
speed can be compared.
Can you think of a different control group that Dr Rox could have used to provide the baseline in
her study?

5.1 Research methods

LEARNING LINK
The study by Bandura et al. (aggression) used a laboratory experiment to investigate whether a child would
imitate aggressive behaviour fi they witnessed such behaviour in an adult. The children's behaviour was
observed through a one-way mirror while they
played with a standardised set of toys that were laid out in exactly the same way for
5
each child, regardless of which group they were in (aggressive model, non-aggressive model or control]. The
study by Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans) was a field experiment
investigating helping behaviour on a subway train. The subway train was a natural
environment for the passengers, who did not know that they were being observed and happened to be riding in
the train carriage at the time that the study was being conducted.
• What similarities and differences are there between these two studies?
• Think about the independent and dependent variables and how the setting affects the level of control and
standardisation; what impact does the setting have on the validity and reliability of the findings of each of these
studies?
STUDY TIP
Sometimes ti can be difficult to work out which variable is the independent variable (IV)
and which is the dependent variable (DV). There are several ways to think about this. Experimenters generally
want to know whether one thing causes an effect on another; they want to know whether the independent
variable (I) causes (C) an effect (E) on the dependent variable (D). This spells ICED; you could ask D' o sales
of iced coffee (the DV) depend on the weather, e.g. hot or cold (the IV)?
TESTYOURSELF
1
Outline two features of a laboratory experiment. [2] 2
Explain one similarity and one difference between a laboratory experiment and
a field experiment.
[4]
[2]
3
Andrade used a laboratory experiment to study doodling. Outline one strength of this method with reference to
this study.
4
Suggest one advantage of Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans) conducting their research on a New York
subway. [2]
5
Sanija is conducting a study to investigate whether there is a difference in students attention spans in school
depending on whether they eat a hot or cold breakfast.
a Suggest an appropriate research method that Sanija could use to test her theory. [1]
[2]
a Identify one variable that Arthur should control in his experiment. [2]
b Outline why Arthur should use a standardised procedure in his experiment. [2]
5.1.2 Experimental designs
Think!
What is the purpose of random allocation?
Think!
Imagine you are investigating brain localisation and the effect of playing a certain video game. You want to see
whether grey matter concentration increases in a certain brain structure following increased time spent playing
the game. What research design would you use to investigate this question? How might you improve the
validity of your design?
b Suggest how Sanija could operationalise her dependent variables.
6
Arthur is conducting an experiment into memory for instructions with a group of children with autism spectrum
disorder. He thinks the children will remember
the instructions better fi they are presented as a written story with pictures compared with reading the
instructions aloud.
173

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
174
KEY TERMS random allocation
experimental design
experimental group control group
independent measures baseline
repeated measures control condition
demand characteristics
order effects (practice and fatigue]
counterbalancing experimental condition
matched pairs
Think!
How would you rank the three experimental designs in terms of their practicality and validity? Put the
experimental designs in order from least to most practical and least to
most valid. If possible, discuss this with a classmate to see whether you agree.
In Dr Rox's caffeine experiment (see page 170), the students in the experimental group consumed caffeine
and their average reaction time was compared with the average reaction time of the participants in the control
group, who did not consume caffeine
the water group).
» Which experimental design was used ni this study? » What were the problems of using this design?
» How could Dr Rox have improved her experiment?
Independent measures design
In an independent measures design, participants are put into two or more different
groups, relating to the levels of the independent variable. These groups are sometimes
called the experimental group and the control group. Data from the control group provides a baseline to which
the researcher can compare the data collected in the experimental group. For example, in the study by
Andrade (doodling), participants in the experimental group
were asked to shade circles and squares on an A4 piece of paper, while participants in the control group were
not allowed to shade or doodle. The average number of words recalled by
the two different groups of participants was then compared to see fi there was a difference between them.
An independent measures design uses different participants for each condition of the experiment. In what way
might using different participants for different conditions
affect the validity of the results, and how might this be avoided?
Random allocation and participant variables
Another key feature of laboratory experiments is that the researchers are able to randomly
allocate participants into either the experimental or the control group. This is often done
by assigning each participant a number and then using a random number generator to select participants for
the two or more groups.
Without random allocation, it is possible that members of one group all share some
common characteristic that makes them different from the people ni the other group. These characteristics are
called participant variables, and may be things like gender, age or level of intelligence or empathy. When this
happens, ti is impossible to know whether differences in the dependent variable result from the manipulation of
the independent variable or the
participant variables. The purpose of random allocation, therefore, si to increase validity (see
below).
Dr Rox realises that there might be some
important participant variables affecting the students' results in her study on the effects of caffeine on reaction
times
(see page 170). An important participant variable in her study might be how much
coffee (and other caffeinated drinks/ snacks) the students usually consume. If all
the heavy-caffeine users end up in the
coffee group and all the light-caffeine
users, by chance, end up in the water
group, ti would be unclear whether any difference in average reaction times results
from the drink consumed before the test or
differences ni the students' regular caffeine consumption. How could Dr Rox reduce the
effect of participant variables ni her study?
A Figure 5.5

5.1 Research methods

Repeated measures
• Figure 5.6 In repeated measures designs, the same participants take part in both the experimental condition
and the control condition
In a repeated measures design, the same group of participants provide data relating to both levels of the
independent variable; they act as their own control group. This means participant variables cannot affect the
validity of the data as every participant takes part in both the experimental and the control conditions. The
control condition provides a baseline for comparison and allows the researcher to see whether the
independent variable has caused the dependent variable to increase or decrease. Unfortunately, the repeated
measures design has problems of its own regarding validity: demand characteristics and order effects.
Demand characteristics
Demand characteristics are cues ni the set-up of the experiment, including how the
researcher speaks and behaves, that provide clues about the aims and/or hypotheses of the study.
Participants sometimes, consciously or unconsciously, change their behaviour in response to these cues and
this reduces the spontaneity of their behaviour, meaning they may not behave as they usually would. This may
be because they want to please the experimenter or behave in ways that they think are expected of them.
Demand characteristics are, therefore, a threat to the validity of the study's
findings and action should be taken to minimise them where possible.
Order effects, including fatigue and practice effects
When participants have to perform a task twice under different conditions, behaviour in the second condition
may be different to the first, not because of the changes
in the independent variable, but due to the fact they have performed the task once already. For example, they
may perform better the second time due to the experience gained in the first condition (a practice effect) or
increased motivation, or worse due
to boredom, tiredness or the strain of concentrating in the first condition (a fatigue effect). Therefore, order
effects are a threat to validity as it becomes unclear whether the independent variable is affecting the
dependent variable or whether the order of the
conditions has brought about any changes observed. One way researchers can reduce the
impact of order effects is to leave a significant time period between first and second
conditions. When this is not possible, they can be addressed using a technique like counterbalancing.
175

176
In Dr Rox's experiment on the effects of caffeine on reaction time (see page 170),
the participants might perform better the second time
they do the reaction time test because they have already done it once
and had the chance to practise. Similarly, participants may perform worse in the
Counterbalancing
second condition as they have already been concentrating on the screen in the
first condition (fatigue effect). They might also
need the toilet fi they have consumed both a cup of coffee and a glass of water! How could
you set up the experiment to avoid order effects?
Counterbalancing is a technique that can be used ni a repeated measure design so that order effects do not
compromise the validity of the findings. Participants are put into one of two
groups: group one does the experimental condition first and then the control condition, and group two does the
control condition first and then the experimental condition. This
way, although practice effects wil still occur, their impact on the findings si reduced.
Matched pairs design
In a matched pairs design, each participant ni the experimental group wil be matched with a participant in the
control group on a number of relevant factors. This means for every participant in the experimental group, the
control group will contain a person who is very
similar to them on key variables that might have otherwise affected the dependent variable of the study. For
example, participants could be matched on handedness (preference for using the right or left hand), gender,
socioeconomic status or age. Amatched pairs design overcomes the problem of participants' variables and
order effects, but in practice, they can be difficult to set up as careful screening of the participants is necessary
in order to match the groups. It can also be difficult to recruit people who have the necessary characteristics.
Dr Rox is still concerned that participant
variables might affect the validity of her conclusions about the effect of caffeine on
reaction times. She decides to use a matched
pairs design where she will match the participants
ni each condition on age, sex, handedness and experience in playing video games, all variables
which may affect the validity of her conclusions. What would she need to do to set up her matched groups of
participants?
• Figure 5.7 In matched pairs designs,
participants are matched across the experimental and control conditions
LEARNING LINK
Experimental
group: Soraya, female,
aged 22, left-handed
Control group:
Elina, female, aged 22,
left-handed
The research by Hölzel et al. (mindfulness and brain scans) uses a combination of both independent
measures design and repeated measures design (see page 29).
Participants in the experimental group took part in an eight-week Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction
(MBSR) programme. MRI brain scans were conducted both before
and after the intervention. Data from the scans was compared to see fi the MBSR
programme had changed grey matter concentration.
• Which part of Hölzel's study is independent measures and which part is repeated measures?
• Why was it important in this study to also have a control group?
5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

5.1 Research methods

KEY TERMS
placebo effect randomised control trial
placebo
expectancy effects
single-blind double-blind
5.1.3 Randomised control trials
Think!
What is meant by a placebo effect? How are placebo effects controlled in a randomised control trial (RCT)?
Think!
Your friend says she cannot concentrate in her study periods unless she has had a can of her favourite brand
of cola first. How could you design a study using a RCT to see whether your friend's favourite brand really
improves her concentration or whether she
just thinks that ti does? Can you think of any problems with your study?
Think!
RCTs sometimes raise ethical issues as when participants are assigned to a placebo/
control group, this may mean they have to wait for a treatment that could improve their quality of life. Can you
think why such studies may be ethically justifiable?
STUDY TIP
Once you are confident in being able to explain the strengths and weaknesses of the
different experimental designs, ensure that you are able to apply this knowledge and understanding to any
new psychology experiments that you learn about in class or read about online. Working with a partner, fi you
can, why not design a set of experiments for each other on topics like sleep, memory, aggression and
helpfulness? Write out the independent and dependent variables you would like to investigate. Rol a dice to
see whether the design will be independent measures (odd numbers) or repeated measures (even numbers).
Write
a sentence on how you would set your study up and then swap with your partner and identify
the problems in each study le.g. specific participant variables, how order effects might alter the results) and
re-design the studies to overcome the problems. Being able to evaluate the experimental design, using key
features from the study, is an essential skill.
T E S TYOURSELF
Outline what is meant by 'counterbalancing' using any example. [2]
2
Outline one strength and one weakness of a matched pairs design. [4]
3
Pozzulo et al. used a repeated measures design so children observed both human and cartoon faces and they
also participated in both target-present and target-
5
one disadvantage of this design using this study as an example.
Javine thinks ink colour (red or black) might affect the speed at which people are
able to solve anagrams. She decides to conduct a laboratory experiment with a repeated measures design to
test this idea.
absent line-ups. Suggest one advantage of a repeated measures design with reference
to
this study.
[2]
[2]
a Explain how practice effects could affect the validity of Javine's findings. 12)
4
nI Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans), the researchers observed train passengers' reactions to a staged
emergency. The design was independent measures. Explain
[2]
six months to complete and another group was told it took six years to complete. He asks the participants to
rate how much they liked it on a scale from 1-10.
a Identify the experimental design used in Fabian's experiment. [1]
b Explain one disadvantage of using this experimental design in this study. [2]
b Explain how Javine could use counterbalancing to improve her study.
Fabian shows his participants a painting. He tells one group that it took the artist
177

5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
178
One special type of experiment is called a randomised control trial (RCT). Randomised control trials (RCTs)
are a special type of experiment. They use various techniques to
increase validity and they are often referred to as the 'gold standard' in clinical and health research, such as
drug testing. For example, participants might be randomly assigned to either an experimental group (who are
given the new drug) or a control group. The control groups ni RCTs sometimes receive no treatment or they
receive a placebo.
The placebo effect
Sometimes it is hard to know whether the positive effect of a new drug is due to the drug itself or the fact that
participants expect their symptoms to improve once they begin the new course of treatment. In order to isolate
how much of any improvement is due to the
drug and how much si due to expectancy effects, researchers often use placebo treatments. Here participants
ni the control group receive a treatment that is administered ni exactly the same way as the real treatments
(e.g. in the case of orally administered
tablets, the tablet will look, smell and taste just like the real drug) but contains no active ingredients.
Importantly, the participants do not know whether they have received the real drug or the placebo. This si
called a single-blind design. Changes ni symptoms (before and after
treatment) are calculated for both groups. For example, ni the study by Perry et al. (personal space),
participants were asked to self-administer either oxytocin or a saline solution (placebo), before taking part in
experiments on personal space. They were unaware whether they had received the drug or the placebo (the
saline solution) to avoid this knowledge
affecting their behaviour.
Often, placebo groups experience significant improvements over time (the placebo effect) but any significant
difference ni the amount of improvement between the experimental and control groups must be caused by the
independent variable - that is, the presence of the active ingredient in the real drug.
RCTs are also used in studies investigating the efficacy of psychological treatments such as cognitive
behavioural therapy (CBT) and other interventions to improve health and wellbeing. Here the placebo
treatment is something that is similar to the genuine
treatment/intervention ni many ways (e.g. weekly appointments with a counsellor), but without the CBT
element.
Double-blind design
As noted above, participants do not know whether they have received the placebo or the
real drug but often the researcher who measures the severity of the participants' symptoms is also unaware
whether the participants are in the placebo group or treatment group. This is
called a double-blind design. In some studies, the person analysing the data is also unaware whether data
points were contributed by people ni the placebo or intervention group and this is known as a triple-blind
design!
Evaluating RCTs
Validity
Astrength of the double-blind design is that it reduces experimenter bias as well as reducing
demand characteristics. For example, fi the experimenter knew who was ni the placebo group they might
expect those participants to have experienced less improvement over the course of the study. The
experimenter's expectations could affect the data provided by the
participant, reducing the validity of the findings. Adouble-blind design makes sure this cannot happen, ensuring
the experimenter's assessment of the participant remains objective.
Reliability
Another strength is that the double-blind design allows researchers to test interventions (e.g. treatments and
therapies) in a controlled way. As none of the experimenters who come
into contact with the participants are aware which groups they are in, al participants are treated in exactly the
same way by the experimenters, meaning that their assessments can be replicated and tested for inter-rater
reliability.

Ethics
Aweakness is that valid, informed consent is not possible. Double-blind RCTs rely not
only on the researchers being unaware which group (placebo or genuine treatment) the participant is in, but
also the participant, meaning they are not giving fully informed consent. This is important, however, as ti
preserves the validity of the findings and arguably the benefits of the research outweigh the cost to
participants, especially given that the participants have consented to the possibility that they will receive a
placebo.
Aweakness of RCTs is that it could mean that participants randomly assigned to the control group do not have
access to treatments that could significantly improve their quality of
life. In order to still conduct important RCTs on treatments for mental health disorders, the
control groups are often offered the treatment they missed out on as soon as the study has ended. The start of
treatment, however, would still be delayed, potentially causing unnecessary psychological harm. They are
often referred to as a wait-list control group.
In Dr Rox's study about the effect of caffeine on reaction times (see page 170), the control group drank a cup
of water. Now that you have a better understanding of expectancy effects, you should be able to explain why
the coffee group might have experienced faster reaction times than the water group for psychological rather
than
biological reasons.
» How could Dr Rox have turned her study into a RCT with a placebo group and a
double-blind design?
LEARNING LINK
Lewin et al. (1992) used a randomised control trial to test the effectiveness of a home-
based exercise programme to help improve fitness after a heart attack (see page 617). Participants were
randomly assigned to receive either the self-help rehabilitation
intervention or standard care plus a placebo package of information and informal counselling.
T E S TYOURSELF
1 Explain one strength and one weakness of using randomised control trials. [4]
Suggest one ethical issue which may arise from the use of randomised control
trials, using any example. [2]
3 Dr Phil would like to test a new drug he has developed to support individuals with
gambling disorders. Suggest how Dr Phil might use a randomised control trial to
test whether the new drug is more effective than a placebo. [2]
4 Hajra would like to find out whether yoga has a positive impact on people's subjective wellbeing, as previous
research has suggested. Suggest one reason why a
randomised control trial may not be a suitable method to investigate this. [2]
5
Malcolm is investigating the effectiveness of electro-convulsive therapy (ECT) as a treatment for
schizophrenia. He plans to use a randomised control trial
where the control group think they have been given ECT but have not.
a Suggest two ways that Malcolm can ensure that his data is objective.
b Outline one difference and one similarity between the experimental and
[4]
control groups in Malcolm's study. [4]
6 Jolene has had pain in her shoulder for months following a car accident. She is participating in a randomised
control trial to test the effectiveness of acupuncture.
Explain one ethical issue relating to randomised control trials. You must refer to Jolene in your answer.
[2]
179
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5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
5
KEY TERMS
open question closed question
self-report
questionnaire interview
rich (as in data)
target population
5.1.4 Self-reports: questionnaires
Think!
What is the difference between an open question and a closed question?
Think!
Imagine you are investigating the effect of stress on the content of people's dreams.
Which type of question (open or closed) would be best to find out about people's stress levels and their dream
content?
Think!
Why do you think some researchers prefer rating scales with an even number of choices,
such as six-point scales from 0-5, and others prefer to use scales with an odd number, such as seven-point
scales from 0-6?
Self-reports are a method of research where the participant responds to either open or closed questions. Data
may be gathered about their beliefs and opinions as well how they believe they would behave in certain
situations. Self-reports include both questionnaires and interviews and may collect both quantitative and
qualitative data.
Questionnaires
Questionnaires can be completed in a number of ways. Printed questionnaires may be completed by hand, but
nowadays most questionnaires are distributed digitally and participants complete them online. This saves
printing and postage costs and data can be collated much quickly and easily. This said, online questionnaires
can only be completed
by participants who have access to the internet and understand the technology, meaning traditional 'pen and
paper' surveys are still used and may be more convenient for many types of research.
Closed questions
Closed questions offer a fixed choice of answers. They may use some form of scale such as a Likert scale, in
which the participant can circle or tick the response to show the extent to
which they agree with a statement. An example of a Likert scale might be:
I do not like people invading my personal space, especially fi I do not know them.
180
123
45
Please circle the response that best fits your view: 1= Completely disagree, 2= Disagree, 3= Neither agree nor
disagree, 4= Agree, 5 = Completely agree.
Here si another example of a closed question is: D' o you find mindfulness meditation relaxing? Yes/No. This
type of closed question may not provide enough options to reflect
the participants' range of experiences with mindfulness meditation. For example, it si not possible to
communicate that you occasionally find mindfulness meditation relaxing but
often find ti ineffective. In this example, a rating scale may allow participants to provide more valid responses.
For example, To what extent do you agree: Mindfulness meditation helps me to relax 0=Never found it helpful
to 5=Aways very helpful.
Although dichotomous questions (with only two answers) are often not very useful, they may be helpful fi you
wish to provide contingency questions. These allow the participant to ignore questions that are not relevant to
them. For example:
Have you ever tried mindfulness meditation as a way of relaxing? Yes/No. If yes, please answer questions 2-5.
If no, please continue to question 6.

5.1 Research methods

• Table 5.1 Evaluating open and closed questions Closed questions
Open questions
Data si qualitative, so ti si rich and detailed, giving researchers deeper insight than would be possible
with quantitative, fixed-choice answers,
Data can be harder to analyse than for closed
questions. As there may be a huge amount of data, analysis can be time-consuming. It can also be
subjective as researchers summarise and report on key themes in the data; other researchers might interpret
the data differently, making findings less reliable than quantitative data from closed questions.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Data is quantitative (answers can be categorised and counted) and can be analysed using measures
of central tendency and/or spread and displayed visually using graphs and charts.
Forced/fixed-choice rating scales do not alow participants to avoid answering questions.
Limited choice reduces validity. Afixed range of answers mean participants cannot freely express their
opinions; their views may not fit with the fixed-choice answers available.
STUDY TIP
Rating scale: forced/fixed choice
Some of the studies ni the options topics use rating scales where respondents must make
a forced/fixed choice. This type of scale does not allow the participants to respond with answers like
'unsure/undecided/don't know/neutral' as ti si intended to 'force' the participant
to make a response and express an opinion. Forced-choice questions are often written
as a statement that participants have to agree or disagree with or give a yes/no' answer
to. Fixed-choice questionnaires produce quantitative data, which allows for objective comparisons to be made
between people; however, participants' answers may lack validity as the fixed responses may not exactly
match what they would like to say.
Open questions
Open questions allow the participants to express their opinion more freely and tend to start
with words such as 'why' and 'how'. These words encourage participants to give detailed, qualitative answers.
The data they provide is often described as rich because it allows the
researcher to understand the complexity of the issues they are asking about. This is because participants are
able to explore the reasons behind their initial thoughts and feelings in
greater depth. These sorts of questions also allow the researcher to understand the diversity of an issue as the
answers provided by the participants may be very different from one another.
5
When analysing data from a questionnaire, ti is useful ot remember that yes/no answers can be summarised
by using the mode as a measure of central tendency. If you have a
Likert scale, where people indicate their agreement on a numerical scale, you can use the mode or the
median. fI you want to try creating an online questionnaire, there are many free programs you can use to do
so.
What to avoid when creating questionnaires
1 Double-barrelled questions: these are questions where two things are asked in one question, such as:
I think that students should have more exams and coursework. 12345
Please circle the response which best fits your view: 1=Completely disagree, 2=Disagree, 3 = Neither agree
nor disagree, 4= Agree, 5 = Completely agree.
It might be that the participant thinks that more coursework would be beneficial but
does not want more exams. However, it is not possible for them to make this clear in their answer.
181

5
2 Ambiguous (unclear) questions: it is extremely important that participants can
understand what the question si actually asking. If not, it wil affect the validity of their responses. Pilot studies
are useful to 'trial' drafts of newly developed questionnaires.
Technical terms: avoid using technical language unless your target population wil understand it. For example, fi
you were only going to be using doctors as your target population, ti would be acceptable to use medical
terminology, but not fi your target population had no medical training.
Emotive language: you should avoid using words that are likely to offend or upset your participants for ethical
reasons but also emotive language may be persuasive and lead participants to give an answer that they would
not have given if the question was worded differently.
STUDY TIP
fI you are creating a questionnaire, ti is best to undertake a small pilot study on a few
participants before distributing ti to a larger number of people. This will help you to ensure that participants
understand all of the questions and are able to answer as many as
possible. fI the pilot study highlights any problems, these can be resolved before collecting any further data.
Evaluating questionnaires
• Table 5.2 Advantages and disadvantages of questionnaires
182
Advantages
Relatively quick and easy to obtain the views
of a large number of participants; large sample size means results should be more
representative, although this also depends on the sampling technique (see page 199).
Participants may be less likely to give socially
desirable answers than during interviews
because they are not answering face-to-
face and their responses can be provided anonymously.
STUDY TIP
Disadvantages
Participants may be less willing to elaborate fuly on answers to open questions when writing, therefore limiting
the depth of data collected.
Participants may still give socially desirable answers. These are answers that make
them look good or acceptable within their society but do not actually reflect their own viewpoint.
Although researcher bias and subjectivity can be an issue in the analysis of qualitative data, ti does not mean
that al researchers wil show researcher bias. When evaluating methods and studies, it is best to use words
such as 'could' and 'might' to show that bias is a possibility rather than a certainty.
Psychologist Hans Eysenck created a well-known personality test called the Eysenck Personality Inventory
(EPI). It includes nine questions to assess whether a participant is likely to have given socially desirable
answers or not (the lie scale) (Eysenck and Eysenck,
1991). Anyone scoring five or above was probably lying. This allows researchers to tell fi the participant is
likely to be giving truthful answers about the rest of the personality questions. For example, one question on
the EPI si I'f you say you will do something do you always keep your promise, no matter how inconvenient it
might be to do so?' If the participant responds 'yes' to this question, it is likely that they are lying and giving a
socially desirable answer as most people at some point break a promise. Do you think it is valid to assume that
participants lied on other questions based on their answers to the
lie scale questions?
5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

5.1 Research methods

Postal questionnaires
Postal questionnaires refer to questionnaires that are posted out to the sample. For example, Lewin et al.
(1992) used postal questionnaires to assess the psychological impact of a rehabilitation programme for people
who had had a heart attack (see page 617). The questionnaires measured anxiety and depression, general
health and use of the health services.
• Table 5.3 Evaluating postal questionnaires
5
Advantages
Relatively quick and easy to obtain the views of a large number of participants;
large sample size means results should be more representative, although this also depends on the sampling
technique
(see page 205).
Can be posted anywhere ni the world; location is not an issue as it would be
with
a face-to-face interview.
LEARNING LINK
Disadvantages
The return rate for postal questionnaires is quite
low due to the effort of posting them back; participants may not have the motivation to do this. Participants who
do return the questionnaires may be unrepresentative of the target population -
for example, they may be especially helpful, motivated or have a particular interest in the topic
being studied.
It can be expensive to post large numbers of questionnaires, especially fi return postage is included.
Questionnaires can also be used to collect data as part of an experiment. For example,
Pozzulo et al. (line-ups) used an eight-item questionnaire called the Demographic
and Cartoon Watching Form to gather information from the parents of the children in the study (see page 70).
This information included age, gender, primary language
and ethnicity, whether they had any siblings and how much time they spent watching cartoons. Questionnaires
like this can be helpful in providing key information that is
required when making generalisations from the sample to the target population. Also,
in experiments with matched-pairs designs, questionnaires may be useful to gather data to match the
participants, as part of the initial screening.
TESTYOURSELF
1
Suggest one advantage of asking open questions in questionnaires. [2] 2 Suggest one disadvantage of using
online questionnaires. [2] 3 Baron Cohen et al.'s Eyes Test is a 'pen and paper test. Suggest one strength of
using this format. [2]
4 Pozzulo et al. (line-ups) used a questionnaire to find out more about the children
in their study. State one closed question that they could have asked about
children's cartoon watching. [1]
5 Lucca works with elephant handlers (mahouts) in Nepal. He is using a questionnaire to investigate the
handlers' attitudes towards training methods that focus on positive reinforcement.
a Explain how one ethical guideline would be important for Lucca's study.
[2]
b Suggest two advantages of Lucca using a questionnaire to gather data for his study. [4]
6 Carol creates a questionnaire including a series of fixed/forced-choice questions
to measure helping behaviour in a variety of different situations. Identify two questions that Carol could include
in her questionnaire. [2]
183

5
KEY TERMS structured interview unstructured interview
semi-structured interview
in-depth
5.1.5 Self-reports: interviews
Think!
What are the key features of a semi-structured interview?
Think!
Imagine you are investigating unusual phobias (e.g. buttons, flowers). You are interested to know whether
people can remember any traumatic events that might have become
associated with their feared object. Why might an interview be more effective than a questionnaire for
collecting data about this topic?
Think!
There are many factors that can affect the validity of the data obtained in an interview, from the experience and
appearance of the interviewer to the location of the interview. What advice might you give to a researcher to
ensure their interview data si valid?
Interviews
Interviews differ from questionnaires ni that the researcher speaks directly to individual participants, asks them
questions and records their responses. Interviews are generally done on smaller numbers of participants as
they are far more time-consuming to conduct.
Interviews can be
conducted face-to-face or by telephone.
Just like questionnaires, interviewers can ask both open and closed questions. However, interviews are likely
to have more open questions as people are often willing to speak ni greater depth about a topic than they are
to write about ti ni a questionnaire.
•
Table 5.4 Types of interview
184
Interview format Structured interviews
Unstructured interviews
Semi-structured interviews
Key features
The researcher has a pre-determined, fixed list of questions; al participants are asked the same questions, in
the same order.
The main topics are pre-determined.
There will be a research question that steers the direction of the
interview; the interviewer does not follow a set list of questions.
Questions are based on whatever the participant chooses to talk about.
The researcher has a number of key questions that guide the
interview, but they can be asked in any order and the interviewer may introduce new questions based on what
the participant
says.
The interviewer is also able to ask follow-up questions to clarify anything that the participant has said and to
probe more deeply into interesting or unexpected areas.
Some of the questions will be the same for each participant but not all.
5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

5.1 Research methods

Evaluating interviews • Table 5.5 Advantages and disadvantages of interviews
Advantages
Interviews offer researchers a much greater opportunity to gather rich, in-depth data from their participants.
Semi-structured or unstructured interviews allow researchers to gain a good insight into the area that they are
researching as they
are not constrained by set questions. They may discover thoughts and ideas that they had not previously
considered.
Face-to-face interviews allow researchers to gather information about non-verbal communication (e.g. gesture,
posture, facial expression); this can increase the validity of the findings as this data may provide cues about
the person's emotional state and how comfortable they are with the interview.
An advantage of telephone interviews is that they provide a
quicker and more cost-effective way of gathering in-depth
information than face-to-face interviews. This is because the
interviewers do not have to travel to meet the participants (or the
other way round), saving both time and money. This might alow
them to gather a larger sample than fi they were doing face-to- face interviews.
STUDY TIP
Disadvantages
Participants may be more likely to give socially desirable answers, due to speaking directly with the researcher
and
being afraid they wil be judged. This would reduce the validity of the data collected.
Although semi-structured and unstructured interviews can offer a greater insight into what people think and
feel about things because they are not constrained by set questions, it makes them more at risk of researcher
bias.
Face-to-face interviews may be impractical for people who live in remote areas a n d /or have limited mobility
or
transport. Furthermore, people may feel uncomfortable being interviewed face-to-face about sensitive topics or
ni unfamiliar environments and may prefer a telephone or video call.
Adisadvantage of telephone interviews is that some participants may not feel comfortable speaking over the
phone and may be less willing to speak in-depth. Another disadvantage is that because the researcher cannot
see the participants, they cannot use non-verbal signals to help them engage with the participant and get them
to feel comfortable about talking to them.
While participants may be more likely to give socially desirable answers in face-to-face, or even phone,
interviews due to a fear of being judged, one may also argue the opposite. The pressure of speaking to
another person may prevent a participant from feeling able to lie. The topic of the interview may affect
participants' potential honesty levels, and
socially sensitive topics such as mental health, race or gender may be more prone to social desirability.
T E S TYOURSELF
1
Describe one similarity and one difference between a semi-structured interview
and an unstructured interview. (4]
2
Identify three ways that an interview differs from a questionnaire. [3]
3
Pozzulo et al. (line-ups) interviewed their participants after showing them videos including either human faces
or cartoon characters. Outline the interview format used
in this study.
[2]
4
Milgram (obedience) interviewed his participants to find out more about why the majority of them obeyed.
Suggest one reason why the answers that the
participants gave may not have been valid. [2]
5 . Tilly is planning to interview a group of parents about their attitudes towards aggression in children.
a Suggest one open question that Tilly could use to collect data about people's attitudes towards aggressive
behaviour in children. [1]
b Suggest one strength of using open questions to collect data in Tilly's study. [2]
Tai and Vinh are planning to use structured interviews to ask passengers in two busy airports about their
attitudes towards personal space.
a State which type of interview Tai and Vinh should use to collect data in their study. [1]
b Suggest one strength of using the type of interview you suggested in part a,
in this study. (2]
185

186
Psychometric tests
The word psychometric literally means 'measuring the mind. Psychometric tests are carefully designed to
provide valid and reliable measures of individual differences between
people relating to personality, aptitude, knowledge or skills. The tests are standardised
on large random samples in order to establish norms or average scores. This means that an
individual's scores can be compared to the norm to reveal whether they score higher or lower than average,
and if so, how much higher or lower than other people who are comparable to
them (e.g. the same age).
Floor and ceiling effects
fI tested on a large enough random sample, a valid psychometric test will provide scores which range from
very low to very high. Most people should score somewhere in the middle.
This is called a normal distribution. Some tests do not differentiate between people very well - for example, the
range of scores is low. If the majority of the scores are very high, we
get a ceiling effect - people are unable to achieve any higher (they are bumping their heads on the ceiling!).
Alternatively, fi everyone receives a very low score, this si called a floor effect.
Again, the test is not valid as it does not allow us to rank the participants from those with
the highest scores to those with the lowest scores. An intelligence or QI test, for example,
must not be too hard (to avoid floor effects) or too easy (to avoid ceiling effects). In a clinical setting,
researchers must also ensure that the tests cover a range of scores - for example, a test of depression must
be able to show scores from not depressed at al to severely depressed.
•
Table 5.6 Evaluating psychometric tests
Advantages
Psychometric tests are objective as the tests produce numerical data, which does not require the subjective
interpretation of
psychologists.
Psychometric tests are a fast, cost-effective way of shortlisting job applicants before interviewing, which may
allow employers to recruit more suitable candidates.
LEARNING LINK
Disadvantages
Participants may respond to demand characteristics and answer in a way they think
is expected of them, reducing the validity of the data collected.
If a participant feels under stress, ti may affect how they respond on a psychometric
test, meaning that it is less likely to be valid or reliable (if they were tested again, when
less stressed, they may respond differently).
•
Whichever options you are studying, you will find psychological research using
psychometric tests ni al the applied areas, including Clinical, Consumer, Health and Organisational
Psychology. For example, a visual analogue scale (VAS) is a psychometric scale for measuring attitudes,
feelings or characteristics that cannot be directly
measured, like subjective perception of pain, along a continuum of values (see example ni Figure 5.8). Can
you think of any reason why a scale like this might not provide valid data? Do you think there are any groups of
people in particular that might not understand
this scale very well? What implications might this have? 23456789
Nagging,
Intense. Mild, annoying
uncomfo
Distressing,
rtable,
No pain
miserable
dreadful, pain
troublesome
pain
horrible pain pain
Figure 5.8 An example of a visual analogue scale for measuring pain
10
Worst possible, unbearable, excruciating
pain

5.1 Research methods

KEY TERMS
triangulation
case study unit
STUDY TIP
Many of the evaluation points for questionnaires and fixed/forced-choice questions may be relevant here. tI is
important though to consider the purpose of psychometric tests and how they might be used to avoid general
evaluations of these. Psychometric tests can be used in different contexts, so always consider what the data
will be used for.
TESTYOURSELF
1 Explain what is meant by a psychometric test. [2]
2
Give two strengths of using psychometric tests to collect data. [2]
3
Minh would like to use a visual analogue scale to measure people's overall level
of happiness. Suggest one disadvantage of psychometric tests in this study. [2]
4 Dr Siraj is investigating a case study of a girl who has a phobia of flowers. Explain how Dr Siraj might use a
psychometric test to obtain data about the girl's phobia.
5 Harper is investigating whether there is a correlation between stress and illness.
He uses a psychometric test to measure stress. Suggest one strength and one weakness of investigating
stress using a psychometric test. You must refer to
5
4(1
Her supervisor suggests that an observation may be a better way of assessing leadership qualities. Give one
similarity and one difference between psychometric tests and observations. [4]
5.1.6 Case studies
Think!
What is meant by triangulation? Why is this a strength of case studies?
Think!
Imagine you are conducting a case study on a female child with a sex hormone imbalance. She lives with her
dad and her older brother. You are interested to see whether her
cognitive and social development are affected by this biological difference. You visit her every month from the
age of two years old to seven years old. Can you think of any
problems that might affect the objectivity and generalisability of your data?
Think!
Compared with other research methods, can you think of any reasons why it might be difficult to maintain a
person's confidentiality following the publication of a case study and therefore why fuly informed, valid consent
si so important?
Harper's investigation in your answer.
6 Xanthe has designed a new psychometric test to measure leadership qualities.
Saavedra and Silverman focused on one nine-year-old boy as the 'unit of study' but
the unit can be more than one person. In
Figure 5.9, we see one family, at one specific refugee camp. Acase study might investigate
factors affecting one individual ni this family, the whole family or ti could even
focus on the whole camp as the unit of study, looking at factors that are specific to
this particular camp. What data-collecting techniques might you like to use ni a case study investigating factors
affecting anxiety in refugees? Remember you need at least two
different methods as triangulation is a key feature of a case study.
A Figure 5.9
[2]
187

5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
188
•
Table 5.7 Advantages and disadvantages of case studies
Advantages
Case studies are detailed investigations of individual people or small groups (units) of people, such as people
from the same family or a single shop or health clinic. They tend to be used to study unusual or rare cases. For
example, in the Saavedra and Silverman (button phobia) study, a nine-year-old Hispanic-American boy's
unusual phobia was investigated.
Akey feature of the case study as a research method si that data si gathered using a number of different
techniques, such as interviews, observations and psychometric tests. This is known as triangulation. Data is
often gathered over an extended period of time; therefore,
most case studies are also longitudinal studies. The data gathered may be a combination
of both qualitative and quantitative data. As well as gathering information from the participants themselves,
information may also be gathered from family, friends, school records, psychiatric records, the workplace or
any other relevant sources of information. When psychologists write up case studies for publication, they often
begin with a case history, which provides rich and detailed background information, which often helps to put
current behaviour into context.
Evaluating case studies Disadvantages
Researchers can gather rich and detailed information about an individual or small group of individuals. This
gives them a
unique insight into their participants' lives in order to gain a good understanding of whatever aspect of
behaviour they are studying.
As case studies use more than one method of gathering information, researchers can triangulate the data to
ensure its
For case studies, the researchers often work very closely with a participant, usually over an extended period of
time, so they get to know the participant very wel. This could result
in the researcher being less objective when analysing the data because they may be influenced by how they
feel about the participant, reducing the validity of the research.
It is very hard to replicate a case study, simply because ti is a detailed analysis of one unique individual, or a
small group of individuals. It might be that their specific experience leads them to act ni a certain way that is
not representative of others, meaning that findings may not be generalisable to others.
validity.
Case study evidence is sometimes criticised for being unreliable because it can be hard to replicate. However,
some case studies include quantitative data collected using standardised procedures and/or psychometric
tests. These measures can be checked for reliability. Can you think of any ways of checking the reliability of
qualitative data, from
interviews, for example?
LEARNING LINK
Saavedra and Silverman's case study (button phobia) (see page 114) collected both qualitative and
quantitative data using a variety of methods, such as structured interview, observation and the use of a
psychometric scale to measure subjective distress. The study was longitudinal as the boy's behaviour was
studied before, during and after treatment and he also attended follow-up sessions at 6 and 12 months after
treatment. How might the researchers redesign the study to increase generalisability?
STUDY TIP
While case studies only focus on one, or a small group of, unique individual(s), making it
difficult to generalise from the findings, it is important to consider the significance of the topic being
investigated. Consider whether the participant/s of the case study is/are truly
unique, or representative of a certain group of individuals. While the nine-year-old boy
in the study by Saavedra and Silverman (button phobia) had a rare phobia of buttons, the
researchers aimed to establish an effective treatment for disgust-based phobias, which could be more widely
applied to others.

KEY TERMS behavioural checklist observation

participant observation overt observation
non-participant observation
structured observation
covert observation unstructured observation naturalistic observation controlled observation
Think!
Behavioural checklists are an important feature of which type of observation?
Think!
TESTYOURSELF
Suggest one strength and one weakness of using a case study. [4]
Outline what is meant by longitudinal with reference to case studies.
[2] Saavedra and Silverman (button phobia) used a case study to investigate a nine- year-old boy's phobia of
buttons. Suggest two reasons why the case study method
[4) [2]
a Explain what is meant by 'subjectivity' using Zeph's case study of Myles as an example. [2]
b Outline one way that Zeph could try to reduce the subjectivity in his case study. [2]
6
Ruby is training to be a carer. Her client, Indie, has brain damage that is affecting his sleep. She decides to
write up a case study so that other carers can learn about her work with Indie.
a Outline how Ruby might collect quantitative and qualitative data as part of
her case study about Indie. [4]
b
Explain one advantage of Ruby using the case study method to collect data about Indie.
5.1.7 Observation
3
was used in this study.
4 Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams) conducted experiments and a correlation
into sleep and dreams. Alternatively, they could have conducted a case study. Outline two ways that data could
have been collected in this case study.
Zeph has written up a case study about his work with a student called Myles.
5
Myles has autism spectrum disorder and Zeph has been providing him with training sessions to improve his
social sensitivity. Zeph's supervisor says that
his case study is too subjective.
Imagine you are conducting a participant observation at a hairdressing salon. You are interested in the ways
clients interact with each other and with their stylist. How would
you record your data? Can you think of any problems with collecting data ni this way?
Think!
Which type of observation do you think is better: overt, non-participant or structured observation?
Hassett et al.'s study was an experiment as the researchers predicted that toy
preference (wheeled versus plush = the dependent variable) depended on the monkeys' biological sex (males
versus
female = the independent variable). The
data, however, was collected using observation. The researchers used a
carefully operationalised behavioural checklist to code the monkeys'
interactions with the toys. What were the four features of this observation?
A Figure 5.10 As predicted by Hassett et al. (monkey toy preferences; see
page 15), this female monkey is investigating a plush toy
[2]
189
5.1 Research methods
 5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 00000000
5
Observational research involves watching people's behaviour and recording it. Researchers may observe
either human or non-human animal behaviour. There are four different features of observation, each with two
alternatives.
Overt and covert
In an overt observation, participants know that they are being observed. For example, a researcher might be
observing behaviour ni the playground and the teacher has told the children that the researcher is there to see
how they play.
In a covert observation, participants do not know that they are being observed. This could mean that the
researcher is standing far enough away from the participants that he/she cannot be seen.
Participant and non-participant
In a participant observation, the researchers) join the group of participants that they want to observe in order to
gain a greater understanding of the group.
There are no examples of participant observation
at Cambridge International AS Level, but
an interesting example was conducted by Festinger et al. (1956). Leon Festinger joined a cult called The
Seekers, who believed that a flood would cause the world to end on 21 December 1954, but that true believers
would be rescued by aliens from another planet. Festinger
wanted to observe cult members first-hand so he and other researchers joined the cult, attended group
meetings at the leader's house and even lived in the house for a short time.
This was an interesting study that investigated the role of groups and social context, and is therefore part of
the social approach. This is an example of a covert participant observation but participant observations can
also be overt.
In a non-participant observation, the researcher will observe from a distance (either covertly or overtly) but will
not become part of the group that they are observing and will not
interact with the participants.
Structured and unstructured
With structured observations, researchers record a pre-determined, limited number of
behaviours, using a behavioural checklist. Each behaviour si tightly defined (operationalised) to avoid
ambiguity, and researchers keep a tally (count) of the number of times each behaviour
is observed. Observers can be trained in how to observe the behavioural categories, which increases both the
validity (ensuring they are scoring the correct behaviours) and reliability
(ensuring that they are able to identify and score the behaviours each time they occur).
In unstructured observations, the researcher records all behaviour that is relevant to the aim of the research
without using pre-determined behavioural categories. Often the data si qualitative as, instead of recording
tallies on a checklist, the
researcher
writes notes
or speaks into a voice recorder.
Naturalistic and controlled
In a naturalistic observation, the researchers observe participants (including non-human
animals) ni uncontrolled, real-world settings. Researchers do not interfere ni any way; they simply observe
behaviour within the setting. Controlled observations generally take place ni laboratory settings where ti is
possible to standardise the situation for every participant.
Evaluating observations Disadvantages
190
•
Table 5.8 Advantages
and disadvantages of observations
Advantages
Structured observations are more reliable than unstructured observations as the behaviours that are to be
recorded are decided in advance and operationalised. This means that the behaviour
that is being observed wil be broken down ni components that can be easily identified and recorded. This
ensures that different observers are more likely to record data consistently.
Observations can also be subject to observer bias as they rely
on the observer's own judgement as to what behaviour to record and are therefore
subjective.

Advantages
Unstructured observations can be used as part of a pilot study
to give researchers a good understanding and overview of the
range of behaviours that they might observe. The researchers would then choose a limited number of these to
observe for
their main research.
An advantage of overt observations is that it is more ethical
because participants know they are being observed so it avoids having to deceive participants.
An advantage of covert observations is that it avoids any potential demand characteristics because the
participants do not know they are being observed.
An advantage of participant observations is that the
observer is not viewing from a distance and therefore may gain a
greater understanding of the participants' behaviour.
An advantage of non-participant observations is that the
observer si likely to be more objective ni their observations as they are not personally getting involved in the
study.
An advantage of naturalistic observations is that behaviour is likely to be normal as the participants are in their
own natural
settings and the researchers do not interfere ni any way. Therefore it is likely to be high in ecological validity.
An advantage of controlled observations is that they can be
more easily replicated by other researchers as they can use the same behaviour schedule and it is easier to
standardise
the situation for all participants. This makes controlled observations more reliable.
Disadvantages
In unstructured observations, it can be difficult to record al behaviour and some of the subtler (but interesting)
behaviours
might be missed.
Adisadvantage of overt observations is that participants
may show demand characteristics because they know they are being watched and therefore may not act in a
natural way
Adisadvantage of covert observations is that they are less ethical than overt observations because participants
do not know they are being observed and studied.
Adisadvantage of
participant observations si that the observer may become too involved with the people that they are observing,
and become less objective ni their observations.
Adisadvantage of non-participant observations is that
because the observer si watching from a distance some behaviours may be missed.
Adisadvantage of naturalistic observations is that it is
much harder to control for variables that might affect the participants' behaviour.
Adisadvantage of controlled observations is that behaviour may be less natural if participants are aware that
they are in a
controlled setting. Researchers might also miss key behaviours fi they have a very rigid behaviour schedule.
5
The children in Figure 5.11 have been told
that the researcher will be present at
lunchtimes this week, although they have not been told exactly what she is
researching. She keeps her distance and does not interact with the children or the
play-time supervisors.
» What are the four features of this
observation?
» How could each feature be changed and what impact would this have on the
validity and reliability of the data? » How can the psychologist ensure
ethical guidelines are followed in this observation?
LEARNING LINK
• Figure 5.11 These children are being observed by a psychologist who is recording acts of physical and verbal
aggression, using a behavioural checklist
In Fagen et al. (elephant learning), researchers observed whether elephants could be
taught to complete a trunk wash. It was a structured observation, as the researchers were observing the
elephants training sessions using a carefully operationalised
behavioural checklist. Imagine you are observing elephants in the wild and want to investigate interactions
between family groups. Would your observation be naturalistic or controlled? Would you choose to use a
structured or unstructured observation and why?
191
5.1 Research methods

Do you think time spent on video games improves reaction speed or do people with good reaction speeds
play more video games?
Think back to Dr Rox's study about the effects of caffeine on reaction time (see
page 170). The research method was an experiment as Dr Rox manipulated whether the
participants drank coffee or water before taking the reaction time test. She now wants to conduct a
correlational study on another variable that may or may not be related to
reaction time. She decides to investigate the relationship between time spent playing video games each week
and reaction speed.
» Do you think she will predict a positive or a negative correlation? How would this
correlation look on a scatter graph?
» How could she measure time spent on video games in a way that is valid, reliable and
ethical?
» Why is Dr Rox unable to conclude that playing video games improves reaction speed?
Correlational studies look at the relationship between two variables. These are called co-
variables. For each participant, researchers will gather two sets of data which they can plot on a scatter graph
to see whether there is a correlation between the two measures.
Operational definitions for co-variables
Just as it is important to operationalise your VI and DV in an experiment, it is also
important to operationalise your co-variables ni a correlation. This means stating exactly what they are and
how they will be measured. For example, Co-variable 1: average time
spent playing video games per week, measured in hours. co-variable 2: reaction speed on an app measured in
minutes, seconds and milliseconds. It is always important to operationalise your hypotheses for correlations.
Correlations are often used by researchers to investigate new areas of psychology before conducting
experimental research, or in cases where ti is not practical or ethical to manipulate variables.
Various methods may be used to collect data for correlations, as long as the data is
quantitative. In order to analyse the data, the pairs of scores are plotted against one another on a scatter
graph (see Figure 5.12) to see whether there is a correlation or not.
A scatter graph is a helpful way of quickly seeing whether two variables appear to be correlated or not. It
should also be possible to infer the direction and strength of the relationship.
Positive, negative and no correlation
When there is a positive correlation, the two variables being measured increase together - as
one value increases so does the other. For example, ni Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams), the longer
the duration of REM sleep (in minutes) the more words participants used to describe their dream. When there
is a negative correlation, as one value increases, the other decreases.
In Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test), the higher the Eyes Test score the lower the Autism Spectrum Quotient
score. Sometimes there is no consistent relationship between the scores. In Hölzel
et al. (mindfulness and brain scans), there was no correlation between time spent on
mindfulness activities between the weekly MBSR sessions and grey matter concentration. Figure 5.12 shows
how each of these outcomes might look on a scatter graph.
Positive correlation Negative correlation No correlation A Figure 5.12 Types of correlation on scatter graphs
193
5.1 Research methods

5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
5
The strength of the relationship between the two variables can be represented by a correlation coefficient. In
general, the closer to 1 (for a positive correlation) or 1-
(for a negative correlation) that the coefficient is, the stronger the correlation is. Acorrelation of +0.75/-0.75 si
considered to be a 'strong correlation'. This means that the two variables being studied are very strongly
related.
Evaluating correlations
• Table 5.9 Advantages and disadvantages of correlations
194
Advantages
Correlations allow psychologists to investigate new areas of research to see whether they are worth
investigating further with experimental methods.
Correlations alow researchers to investigate areas where ti si not practical or ethical ot manipulate variables.
LEARNING LINK
Disadvantages
Correlations can only show the strength of the relationship between two variables and cause and effect cannot
be inferred. They also do not tell us why that relationship has occurred.
The presence of a third variable cannot be
ruled out ni correlations. Athird variable that is not being measured may have influenced
the relationship.
Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test) (see page 60] found a negative (inverse) correlation between
performance on the Revised Eyes Test (where participants have to look at photographs of
people's eyes and decide which word best describes the mood of the person in the photo]
and the Autism Spectrum Quotient (a self-report questionnaire where a high score indicates responses
consistent with traits of autism]. The correlation was -0.53. What does this tell
us about the relationship between the Autism Spectrum Quotient and the Eyes Test?
STUDY TIP
It is important to remember that a correlation is not an experiment. It is critical to refer to your two variables as
'co-variables when planning a correlational study. There is no independent or dependent variable in a
correlation.
TESTYOURSELF
1 Explain what is meant by the term lack of causality' as a disadvantage of correlations in psychological
research.
[2]
2 Outline what is meant fi a study says that there was no correlation. [1]
3.
Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams) found a positive correlation between
length of REM and number of words in a dream report. Explain what is meant
by the term positive correlation, using this study as an example. [2]
4 Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test) used both experiments and correlations in their research. State one similarity
and one difference between experiments and
[4]
[2]
[2] [2]
Trixie found a correlation between aggressive playground behaviour (scored
• Tradnig coer to eaetn i real payeoru
using a structured observation, where the higher the score, the more aggressive the child) and amount of time
spent playing violent video games. Explain why
6
Trixie cannot conclude that playing violent games causes childhood aggression.
Rebecca finds a negative correlation between empathy (measured on a self-report
questionnaire, where the higher the score, the more empathetic the person) and time taken to offer help to a
confederate in a staged emergency situation (in seconds).
a
Explain what the term 'negative correlation' means, using an example from Rebecca's study.
b
Suggest one weakness of Rebecca using a correlation in her study.

5.1 Research methods

•
Evaluating longitudinal studies Table 5.10 Advantages and disadvantages of longitudinal studies
KEY TERMS
longitudinal study
experiment with longitudinal design
cohort effects
follow-up cross-sectional
attrition
5.1.9 Longitudinal studies
Think!
What si the difference between a longitudinal study and an experiment with longitudinal design?
Think!
Imagine you are a participant ni a longitudinal study about the effects of the pandemic on loneliness. You have
recently started seeing your friends much more and do not really
have time to fit the sessions ni any more. You decide to drop out. What type of people do you think might be
left ni the psychologist's sample at the end of the study? How
might this affect her findings?
Think!
Longitudinal studies can take place over many years - for example, following the development of a group of
people growing up after the Second World War. Can you think of any potential problems with generalisability of
findings from such studies and why they might not apply to children growing up following other conflicts?
Auseful term here is cohort effects, which means that the group of people being studied may not be
like similar groups growing up in other time periods.
Longitudinal research involves following the same group of individuals over an extended period of time
(sometimes years) and giving them tests or tasks at various intervals during that time to see how they change
and develop ni their thoughts, feelings and/or behaviour. Participants of longitudinal designs need to be
re-contacted over time for repeated testing.
This testing needs to be standardised for valid and reliable comparisons to be made between participants'
scores over time. Longitudinal studies use a variety of techniques to gather
data, from psychometric testing to interviews and questionnaires. Experiments can also use a longitudinal
design where the experimental group si given an intervention (such as a wellbeing programme, an educational
intervention or a dietary supplement) and compared over time to
a control group that si not given the intervention. Follow-up sessions allow psychologists to measure the
long-term impact of treatments and interventions on the participants.
5
Advantages
Longitudinal studies have an advantage over cross-sectional studies, where sub-samples from within a
population are
simultaneously tested and compared (such as testing cognitive differences in six-year-old, seven-year-old and
eight-year-old children). Because longitudinal studies are following the same group of participants as they
change and develop
over time, researchers do not have the issue of participant variables
where any changes found may be due to differences between participants, such as in schooling or home life.
Longitudinal studies allow some topics to be studied which might not be possible using other research
methods, such as child development over time.
An advantage of experiments with longitudinal designs si that they avoid participant effects by following the
same group of participants over an extended period of time.
Disadvantages
Due to the long-term nature of the research, it is more prone to attrition. Attrition si where participants drop out
of the research, either because they move away and lose contact with the researchers, they decide they no
longer wish to take part or their life circumstances change.
By the time longitudinal research is completed, it may
no longer be generalisable due to changes ni society (depending on the focus of the research). This means it
may lack temporal validity (see page 214).
Adisadvantage of experiments with longitudinal designs
si that they can have issues of attrition where participants drop out from the study for a number of reasons
such as no
longer wishing to take part.
195

5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
196
Lots of people had left Mis Steps dance class. Why do you think that might be? What does this example tell
you about
attrition ni longitudinal studies?
• Figure 5.13 Posy was pleased with
her progress, but was Miss Steps, the teacher, really all that good?
LEARNING LINK
Hölzel et al. (mindfulness and brain scans) was an experiment with a longitudinal design into the effects of
mindfulness on the brain, as data was collected over an eight-week period. Al participants provided two sets of
data, once at the beginning and once at the end of the eight-week period.
STUDY TIP
Longitudinal designs can be a research method in their own right or they can be part of
an experiment with a longitudinal design, for example. An experiment with a longitudinal design will have
independent and dependent variables, with the effect of the independent
variable on the dependent variable being measured over time, whereas a longitudinal study will not have an
independent variable and will just involve repeatedly gathering data
from the participants over several weeks, months or even years.
TESTYOURSELF
1
Give one strength of experiments with longitudinal designs.
[2]
[2]
study as an example. [2] Explain one reason why a psychologist might conduct a longitudinal study. Use
an example from Saavedra and Silverman (button phobia) in your answer. [3]
Rick and his puppy, Basil, have been attending Dr Barker's puppy training classes every week for six months.
Basil has done brilliantly and is now much
more obedient and Rick cannot thank Dr Barker enough. At the end of the
programme, many of the original puppies and owners have dropped out. Outline
one reason why Rick should be cautious when making generalisations about the effectiveness of Dr Barker's
classes. [2]
6
Shawna has a son who has been diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder. She and her son are part of a
longitudinal study tracking children's social and emotional development. Shawna sometimes feels sad after the
monthly assessments as her
son is not making very good progress. She also has four other children and struggles to find the time to attend.
Explain two ethical guidelines that must be considered
[4]
2
Explain one disadvantage of longitudinal studies relating to validity.
3
The study by Hölzel et al. (mindfulness and brain scans) was an experiment with a longitudinal design. Outline
what is meant by a longitudinal design', using this
4
5
when conducting longitudinal studies. You must refer to Shawna in your answer.

5.2 Methodological concepts

KEY TERMS
hypothesis (directional/ one-tailed, non-
directional/two-tailed, null and alternative)
operationalisation independent variable dependent variable
aim
operational definition correlational
5.2 Methodological concepts
5.2.1 Aims, hypotheses and variables
Think!
How is a directional hypothesis different to a non-directional hypothesis?
Think!
Do you have any teachers who gesture a great deal with their hands while they are teaching? Research
suggests that using hand gestures can actually help students to draw logical conclusions from new information
(Pilegard and Fiorella, 2021). Can you write a non-directional hypothesis that could be used to test this idea ni
your school?
Think!
Why do you think psychologists are so concerned about operationalising their variables? What si the point of
doing this? What might happen fi a psychologist did not operationalise their variables very well?
Pilegard and Fiorella (2021) found that understanding of complex ideas was better when lessons were
delivered by a teacher who consistently used specific hand gestures than when they were delivered by a
teacher who did not use hand gestures. Although the students in the experimental group (gestures) did better
on the logical inferences test, they did not do any better than the control group (no gestures) on a factual recall
test. » There were three variables ni this study: the teacher's hand gestures, the students'
understanding and the students' recall. Which one was the independent variable? » There were two
dependent variables in this study. What were they?
» Which hypothesis would Pilegard and Fiorella (2021) have accepted regarding
understanding of complex ideas? Which would they have accepted regarding factual recall?
Aims
The aim is a statement that explains why the researcher is doing the research and what they hope to achieve.
For example, in Dr Rox's experiment into the effects of caffeine on reaction times (see page 170), the aim
would be 'to investigate the effects of caffeine on reaction times.
Hypotheses and operationalisation
A hypothesis is a statement where the researcher predicts what they think will happen
in the research. It is important that the hypothesis is operationalised. This means that
the independent and dependent variables (in an experiment) or the co-variables (in a correlation) are clearly
defined. The units of measurement (e.g. milliseconds) should always
be included.
When psychologists talk about operational definitions, they mean how something is observed or measured.
For example, a phobia could be measured using a score from a self-report
questionnaire, heart rate from a heart rate monitor (in beats per minute), a participant's body language from an
observation (e.g. number of times they touch their face or hair, cross and
uncross their legs, etc.) or a measurement of cortisol (a stress hormone) in their saliva.
5
197

198
Do you remember Dr Rox and her experiment about the effects of caffeine on reaction times? She's back and
she needs your help. Initially, she was going to measure reaction times using a computer program, where the
participant had to touch the screen every
time a number 2 appeared. The computer would record the participants' average reaction time across a series
of trials
in milliseconds.
» Before making a decision, Dr Rox wants to know fi you can think of any other ways she could measure
reaction time?
» See fi you can think of three alternatives. Remember, fully operationalised definitions include units.
The term experimental hypothesis is used for studies where this is an independent variable (e.g. laboratory
and field experiments), whereas the term alternative hypothesis is used in non-experimental studies, such as
correlational studies. Hypotheses can be directional (also
known as one-tailed) or non-directional (or two-tailed).
Directional hypotheses
With a directional hypothesis, the researcher will predict whether the experimental group wil perform
significantly better or worse than the control group (or ni a correlation,
whether ti wil be a positive or a negative correlation). Directional hypotheses tend to be used where previous
research has been done in the area, so the researcher has a good idea of
what results to expect.
Dr Rox decides to use a directional hypothesis for her study on the effects of caffeine on reaction times. She
quickly scribbles her hypothesis down and asks you to operationalise
it for her. What does she mean and how would you do this?
Hypothesis: People who drink a cup of coffee wil have quicker reaction times than people who drink a cup of
water.
Tip: You need to clarify the size of the cup and the exact amount of caffeine, as well as stating exactly how
reaction time will be measured and in what units.
Non-directional hypotheses
For a non-directional hypothesis, the researcher states that there will be a significant difference between the
experimental and control groups but does not state in which direction
that difference will be - for example, whether the experimental group will be faster or slower. Similarly, with a
correlation, the researcher will state that there wil be a significant correlation between two variables, but not
whether ti will be a positive or negative correlation.
Researchers tend to use non-directional hypotheses when there has not been previous research conducted in
the area that they are researching or when the research is contradictory regarding what the possible outcome
might be. Non-directional hypotheses
tend to start with the words 'There wil be a significant difference/correlation...
Dr Rox has changed her mind. She now wants you to rewrite her hypothesis but this time it should be
non-directional. Look back at your fully operationalised directional hypothesis above. What do you need to
change to make it non-directional? What wil stay the same?
Null hypothesis
The null hypothesis is the statement that the independent variable will have no effect
on the dependent variable, or that two variables are not correlated with each other. It is important for the null
hypothesis to also be operationalised. Nul hypotheses normally start
with 'There wil be no difference/correlation.., and they usually finish by saying that 'any difference that does
arise will be due to chance.
5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
 You are looking forward to collecting some data now and maybe even having a cup of coffee of your own, but
there is one last thing to do. Dr Rox reminds you that you need to write a null hypothesis before you do
anything else.
» What will be different about the null hypothesis and what will stay the same?
Data analysis
Psychologists analyse quantitative data using descriptive statistics, as explained on
page 217. These help to summarise the data and make it easier to see whether there are any obvious patterns
or trends. You are not likely to encounter this ni your AS studies, but sometimes ti is hard to know whether
these trends are significant and so psychologists use a branch of mathematics called inferential statistics,
which allows them to calculate the
probability (chance) that their result would have arisen fi the null hypothesis was true. This is called a p value.
Having completed their analysis, the researchers will decide whether
to accept or reject their null hypothesis. The nul hypothesis si rejected fi the p value (the probability of a
significant result having occurred due to chance) is less than 0.05 1( in 20)
and ti is accepted fi ti si more than 0.05 1( ni 20). Inferential statistics are beyond the requirements of the
syllabus.
LEARNING LINK
In the experiment by Andrade (doodling), the independent variable was whether the
participants were allowed to doodle or not while they listened to the phone message.
Andrade had three dependent variables, which were operationalised as follows:
1 Monitoring accuracy: the number of correct names (out of eight) recorded while
listening to the tape
2 Memory for monitored information: number of correct names recalled (out of eight)
3 Memory for incidental information: number of correct places recalled (out of eight).
What are the main advantages of the way in which Andrade operationalised these variables? Can you see any
disadvantages?
STUDY TIP
Many of the core studies have more than one independent and dependent variable, which
means the researchers are testing multiple different hypotheses. For example, in the
study by Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams), there were three main experimental. hypotheses, each
with their own independent variables.
TESTYOURSELF
1
Explain what is meant by the term 'null hypothesis', using any example. [2]
2
Explain the difference between an independent and dependent variable, using
any examples. [4)
3
Describe how obedience was operationalised in the study by Milgram (obedience). [2]
4
Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test) hypothesised that there would be a negative correlation between score on the
Eyes Test and score on the Autism Spectrum
Quotient. Identify whether this is a directional (one-tailed) or non-directional (two-tailed) hypothesis, including a
reason in your answer. []
5
Tristan would like to investigate whether people are happier in the presence of
babies. Suggest how you might operationalise the dependent variable in this study. [2]
6
Nung wants to see whether meditation affects people's subjective level of
wellbeing. Write an operationalised, non-directional hypothesis for Nung's study. [2]
199
5.2 Methodological concepts

5
KEY TERMS standardisation
control
participant variables situational variables
uncontrolled
5.2.2 Controlling of variables
Think!
Why is standardisation so important in psychological research?
Think!
Imagine you have to write a research proposal for an experiment on the impact of
online/remote working on people's attitudes towards their colleagues. You wil organise either an online or a
face-to-face interview between each participant and a confederate, who they are told is a new member of staff
at their workplace. You will then ask your
participants to rate the confederate on a number of personality traits. How wil you control participant variables
and situational variables?
Think!
Twenty people have their memory tested individually ni a quiet room. Ten complete the study ni total silence
and ten complete the study with quiet classical music. During the study, someone has a distracting coughing fit
in the next room. What sort of variable is this? How could this affect the findings of this study?
In order for Dr Rox to be sure about the effect of caffeine on reaction times (see
page 170), she had to control a wide range of variables. How many can you think of? Try for five. fI this is too
easy, try for seven! Go back over your list and note down why each
variable needs to be controlled - that is, how might ti have changed the results fi ti was uncontrolled?
When conducting experiments, researchers attempt to control all variables other
than the one being manipulated (the independent variable). Controlled variables are 'held constant', or
standardised, between the two or more conditions. This allows the researcher to state that any changes in the
dependent variable were caused by the independent variable.
Standardisation of a procedure
In order to make research replicable so that it can be checked for reliability, it is essential that the procedure si
standardised for al participants. In an experiment, the only difference should be what the researcher si
manipulating (the independent variable). However, al research, whether it si experimental or not, should follow
standardised procedures. This
includes participants all receiving the same information and instructions (unless this is something that is being
manipulated as part of the independent variable).
Participant variables
Participant variables are aspects of a person's background, personality, cognitive abilities, health and
wellbeing, etc., that affect how they behave or respond ni a study. Individual differences between people are of
course inevitable and this si why psychologists work with averages calculated from larger groups of people.
However, participant variables can
cause problems in experimental designs fi some aspect of the participants (e.g. empathy, aggression or
intelligence) varies systematically between the two or more experimental and control groups. For example, if al
passengers ni Piliavin et al's 'cane' condition
200

5.2 Methodological concepts

(see page 153) were high in empathy and all the people in the drunk condition were low in
empathy, ti would be impossible to know whether aspects relating to the victim (drunk or cane) affected helping
behaviour, or whether ti was individual differences (high and low empathy) between the passengers that
affected behaviour.
Random allocation of participants to the experimental and control groups can help overcome the effects of
participant variables on the results. Of course this was not possible in Piliavin et al's study as it was a field
experiment, but in Andrade's study
(doodling) participants were randomly assigned to the experimental (doodling) and control (non-doodling)
groups to ensure that people with naturally good memories did not all end
up ni the doodling group, for example, and obscure the true impact of doodling on recall of facts from a boring
task.
Using a matched-pairs design can also help reduce the impact of participant variables, as researchers can
match participants in both the experimental and the control groups on key
factors that could impact on the research, such as age, handedness, cultural background or socioeconomic
status. For example, ni Bandura et al. (aggression) participants were matched on their existing aggression
levels, so that each group (experimental and control groups) contained children with lower and higher levels of
aggression. Again, fi the most aggressive
children had al ended up ni one of the experimental groups, ti would be unclear whether they bashed Bobo
due to observing an aggressive adult or they would have done this on
their own anyway.
On page 172, you were asked to list all the variables you could think of that might have reduced the validity of
Dr Rox's experiment on the effects of caffeine on reaction times. Now try to label the controls with a 'P' or an
'S' depending on whether they help to
control participant or situational variables. For example, the temperature of the drink is a situational variable
that could have affected reaction time; a cold cup of water might
have been more refreshing and made the students more alert. The researcher could have overcome this
problem by serving the water and the coffee at the same temperature, or by using a cold caffeinated drink
rather than a hot one.
Situational variables
Situational variables refer to any aspect of the environment that could impact participants' behaviour and affect
the results. Environmental variables include factors like the
temperature of the room, lighting and noise levels. It si important for researchers to control these variables as
much as possible so that each participant experiences the same
environment, and it is only the independent variable that is affecting the dependent variable. By controlling the
environment for all participants, it also makes the research replicable.
Uncontrolled variables
These are factors that are not being measured or controlled by the researcher and can have an unwanted
effect on the dependent variable. These could be things such as the temperature of the room or noise levels.
LEARNING LINK
In the Bandura et al. (aggression] study, all the children (in both the experimental and the control groups) were
made to feel frustrated by being told they were not allowed to play with some attractive toys. Why was this
such an important control? Can you think of any other participant and situational variables that were controlled
in this experiment?
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STUDY TIP
It is important to remember the difference between a standardised procedure and
controls. Standardisation refers to features of the procedure being kept the same, while control variables are
features of the study that are kept the same between each level of the
independent variable. Standardisation is essential for replicating the study in the future, while controls are
essential for ensuring that the independent variable was the only factor affecting the dependent variable.
202
KEY TERMS
quantitative data qualitative data subjective data objective data
Imagine you have been asked to conduct some research on the effects of social media on teenagers' mental
health. Would you rather collect quantitative data or qualitative data? What are your reasons for this answer?
Your supervisor says that she would rather
you collect the opposite type of data. How wil you convince her ot come round ot your point of view?
Think!
People sometimes think that quantitative data cannot be subjective and qualitative data cannot be objective.
Can you think of an example that challenges these views?
Dr Rox collected her reaction time data ni milliseconds. What type of data si this?
Quantitative and qualitative data
Quantitative data refers to any data that is numerical. For example, closed questions on questionnaires
produce quantitative data.
TESTYOURSELF
Explain what is meant by 'situational variables', using any example. [3] Define 'control variables'
and 'uncontrolled variables', using any examples.
[6] Describe one control used in the study by Perry et al. (personal space). [2]
The study by Andrade (doodling) used a standardised procedure. Explain why it
was important to use a standardised procedure in this study. [2]
Buck is investigating the effect of background music on memory for faces. The
experimental group looks at a set of 50 faces while listening to quiet classical
music. The control group looks at the same 50 faces in silence. Describe one situational variable and one
participant variable that Buck must control to
ensure the validity of his findings. [4)
6
Georgia's teacher tells her she cannot start collecting data for her project as her standardised procedure is
unclear. Georgia ignores this advice and goes ahead
12
34
5
anyway. Explain why a standardised procedure is important for a study.
5.2.3 Types of data
Think!
What do people mean when they say that data is subjective?
Think!
[2]

5.2 Methodological concepts

Qualitative data refers to non-numerical data, usually ni words but sometimes ni images (e.g. photographs).
Open questions produce qualitative data as participants are able to freely express their thoughts and feelings.
•
Table 5.11 Evaluation of quantitative and qualitative data
5
Qualitative data
Quantitative data
Qualitative data analysis may be more at risk of researcher bias as
the interpretation of the data is
more subjective. Therefore, the findings can be less reliable.
Quantitative data does not always allow us to fully understand what a participant is thinking or feeling. Some
scales may limit how a
participant can respond and they may feel that none of the responses
reflects how they feel, making the data less valid.
Strengths
Qualitative data provides researchers with a more in-depth
understanding of
what their participants are thinking and
feeling and the reasons behind
their behaviour, which may give the data greater validity.
Quantitative data can be more easily compared.
The analysis of quantitative data is objective and so less prone to
researcher bias.
Weaknesses
Subjective and objective data
Subjective data means that the data can be influenced by a person's personal thoughts, feelings or opinions.
This is more likely to be an issue with qualitative data, which requires
interpretation by the researcher when being analysed.
Objective data is unbiased, factual and not influenced by a person's personal thoughts or opinions. For
example, research that uses ratings scales that are quantifiable is more objective as the data does not require
interpretation by the researcher. In scientific research, ti is important to be as objective as possible.
Researchers can improve objectivity by getting another researcher, who does not know the aim of the study, to
interpret the data. This person is likely to be more objective than the
primary researcher, who will have already formed hypotheses about what the data will show.
LEARNING LINK
In Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans), observers collected qualitative data by recording
what passengers ni the carriage said about the incident. They also encouraged the passenger next to them to
comment, so that they could record what they said. Can you
think of any more of the core studies that collected qualitative data?
STUDY TIP
In psychology, all research methods can be adapted to collect both quantitative and
qualitative data. For example, a structured observation might collect quantitative data,
while an unstructured observation might collect qualitative data. When evaluating research
methods, avoid implying that they can only be used to collect one type of data; for example, it might be
tempting to claim that interviews only collect qualitative data and evaluate them
on this basis. While ti is certainly possible for an interview to only consist of open questions, ti may contain
both open and closed, therefore collecting both types of data.
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T E S TYOURSELF
204
KEY TERMS
generalisation sample representative sampling techniques population opportunity sampling
random sampling volunteer (self-selecting) sampling
You see an advert on social media asking for participants for a memory study. The advert says that the
research could have far-reaching benefits in terms of the early detection
of Alzheimer's disease. Would you respond to the advert? What factors would affect your decision? How else
do you think the researcher could recruit participants ni order to get the largest and most diverse sample
possible?
Think!
People often think the larger the sample the more representative ti si and, therefore, the more generalisable
the findings will be. Why is this not necessarily the case? Why is it still important to have a large sample?
Sample and population
Sampling refers to how researchers obtain participants for their research. Researchers will have a target
population of people to whom they wish to generalise their findings. For example, the target population might
be the global community of Cambridge International A Level psychology students. It would be practically
impossible to test the entire population and instead the researcher selects a sample from the target population.
Collectively, researchers refer to their participants as the sample.
Sampling techniques
Opportunity sampling
There are a number of ways that researchers can select their sample. Opportunity sampling is a technique in
which researchers select participants who are readily available. For example,
1
Define subjectivity using any example. [2]
2
Explain why data collected using an observation as a research method may be subjective. [2]
3
Perry et al. (personal space) collected quantitative data in their study.
a Define quantitative data using an example from this study. [2]
[2]
data from this study. [2] Jagdeep and his cousin Nishit are planning a study on mental health and therapy
in India. Jagdeep thinks the findings will be more valid fi they collect qualitative
data, but Nishit thinks quantitative data will provide more valid findings. Explain whether you agree more with
Jagdeep or Nishit. [6]
6
Sampson is listening to a podcast where the presenter is discussing a new piece of research on teenagers
attitudes towards climate change. The presenter says
b Suggest one advantage of using quantitative data in this study.
4
Milgram (obedience) collected data on participants' responses to orders from an authority figure. Identify one
piece of quantitative data and one piece of qualitative
5
the findings were very subjective. Outline what the presenter means with reference to the study on attitudes
towards climate change.
5.2.4 Sampling of participants
Think!
When we make generalisations ni psychology, what does this actually mean?
Think!
[2]

5.2 Methodological concepts

•
to
take part.
Evaluation of sampling Table 5.12 Strengths and weaknesses of sampling techniques
Sampling technique Opportunity sampling
Volunteer sampling
Random sampling
Strengths
Quick and easy as researchers use people who
are readily available at the time of the research. May result in a larger sample and likely to mean research can
be conducted without delays.
Participants have volunteered to take part so they are motivated and willing - drop-out rates are likely to be
low. This is important ni longitudinal research where attrition may significantly affect validity (see page 195).
Should be representative of the target population, making the findings more generalisable (if the sample si
large enough).
Weaknesses
Often unrepresentative of the target population. Findings may not be generalisable.
May not be representative as only certain
personality types volunteer to take part ni research,
such as those with more pro-social attitudes,
those who are more motivated than the rest of the
population and those who have a personal interest in the research topic.
Time-consuming and expensive. Potential participants may not wish to take part in the study.
All potential participants must be contacted and arrangements must be made for them to visit the
location where the research is being held.
a psychologist might know six teachers from different countries around the world who teach Cambridge
International ALevel. The psychologist will ask those teachers fi they can use
their students. Many research studies are conducted by university lecturers using their own students.
Random sampling
With random sampling, every person in the target population has an equal chance of being
chosen to participate ni the research. For example, fi the target population si Cambridge International ALevel
students, this means that each Cambridge student across the world
would have an equal chance of being selected as a member of the sample. This would involve
getting the names of al of the students and putting them into a random name generator (computer program),
which would pick a sample of 100 students, for example. This would involve obtaining the names of all of the
students registered for this qualification and
assigning each a number. Arandom number generator (a computer program), could then be used to select
however many numbers are required for the sample. The psychologist would then contact all the students
whose numbers were selected by the computer to ask whether they would like to participate in the research.
Volunteer (self-selecting) sampling
Another way for psychologists to select samples si with volunteer (self-selecting) sampling, where participants
put themselves forward to take part in a piece of research.
Researchers may advertise for participants ni many ways including posters, flyers, direct
mail, e-shots, newspapers, radio and online forums. For example, fi the researchers were
looking to study a condition such as prosopagnosia (a condition where people struggle
to recognise faces), they could find a Facebook group of people with the condition and advertise their research
in the group so that members can volunteer (self-select) themselves
5
Many studies use university students as their participants because the researchers work at a university and
they are readily available (opportunity sampling). Some universities
make ti a course requirement that students take part ni research
studies or offer course credits for participation.
» What are the benefits to the researchers and the students of this arrangement?
» What are the potential practical and ethical issues of this?
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5
LEARNING LINK
The study by Milgram (obedience) used a volunteer sample as he advertised for
participants in the local New Haven newspaper and by directly mailing potential
participants.
• Why do you think this type of sample was particularly problematic for a study on obedience?
•
How might the results have been different fi Milgram had used random or opportunity sampling?
STUDY TIP
Volunteer sampling can sometimes be confused with opportunity sampling. Remember that in volunteer
sampling participants are self-selecting themselves to take part in the
research, while in opportunity sampling they have been directly approached. Volunteer
samples, therefore, tend to consist of more motivated people who may have a particular interest in the
research, while an opportunity sample simply happened to be in a certain
place at a certain time and did not refuse!
TESTYOURSELF
1 Define opportunity sampling using any example. [2]
206
KEY TERMS valid consent
ethical guidelines informed consent
right to withdraw harm
privacy
lack of deception
debriefing confidentiality
2
Suggest one advantage and one disadvantage of random sampling.
[4]
3
Milgram (obedience) used volunteer sampling in his research.
a Explain how he obtained his sample. [3]
b Suggest one disadvantage of using volunteer sampling in this study. [2]
4
Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans) used opportunity sampling in their study investigating helping behaviour on
a New York subway. Explain one reason why it may be difficult to make generalisations from this sample.
5
Puangchompoo would like to interview people on their meditation habits.
a Explain one sampling technique Puangchompoo might use to obtain her
sample for this study. [2]
b Suggest one advantage of using this sampling technique to obtain participants
for this study. [2]
6
Nancibelle wants to conduct research using a questionnaire to find out what types of gifts people like. She
uses opportunity sampling to obtain a sample
from outside a large department store in Malaysia. Suggest one disadvantage of Nancibelle using this
sampling technique in her study. [2]
5.2.5 Ethics and human participants
Think!
Why si ti sometimes ethically justifiable to use deception ni psychological research?
Think!
Imagine you were a participant ni Milgram's study (obedience). You administered a shock of 450 V, were
debriefed and met with the learner in the reconciliation phase. How do
you think you would have felt when you met the learner? Do you think Milgram's actions were justified by the
possible benefits of his findings?
[2]

Think!
Why do you think it might be difficult to gain truly valid consent from people who are detained, such as people
who are waiting for asylum requests to be processed?
Does your country have its own ethical guidelines? You could compare them to the British Psychological
Society Code of Human Research Ethics (2021), or the guidelines of
the American Psychological Association, or the Chinese Psychological Society. What do the guidelines have in
common and what differences can you find?
Ethics are a critical component of all psychological research, which is why wherever in the world there is
psychology, there are also ethical guidelines. Although local cultural norms
and values may be reflected, many of the core principles are the same, including the need for
informed consent and the right to withdraw. While ethical guidelines serve to protect the participants and
ensure they do not come to any harm, they also help to ensure that research that benefits wider society can be
pursued, as long as certain safeguards are in place.
fI you carry out any research yourself, it is critical that you obtain ethical approval from your teacher, before
collecting data from participants. Al ethical guidelines must be upheld when planning and conducting your
research.
Ethical guidelines in psychological research
Valid consent
This means that participants know exactly what will be happening during the research before
not considered valid unless it is informed; participants must know what they have signed up for and, therefore,
should be given detailed, age-appropriate information before being asked for consent. Researchers must be
able to provide evidence that consent was obtained; this
could be by ticking a box online, signing their name on a consent form or even giving audio- recorded verbal
consent.
Consent should be given by all participants, wherever possible, including children. However,
ni the case of some vulnerable groups, parents, family members or caregivers should also give consent. For
example, consent from a close relative may be necessary when working
with adults whose cognitive abilities and ability to communicate are significantly impaired, such as people with
severe dementia. Parental consent must be obtained when working with
children, although age restrictions may vary from country to country (e.g. under 16 versus under
18). Children should also be asked for their assent.
Right to withdraw
Although participants give their consent, they must also be made aware that they can withdraw from the
research at any time without any pressure to continue. They must also be informed
that their data wil be destroyed. If there si a point in the research when it si no longer possible to withdraw their
data (for example, they are completing an anonymous online questionnaire and they click 'submit'), then
participants must be made aware of this in advance. Researchers working with very young children or adults
with significantly impaired communication ability should look out for signals (both verbal and non-verbal) that
the participant si no longer happy to participate - for example, a young child that gets up and wanders round
the room. If a participant shows any sign of distress, the researcher must end the trial.
Minimising harm and maximising benefit
Researchers must aim to minimise harm to participants' psychological wellbeing, personal values, privacy or
dignity and mental health. The risk of harm should be no greater than the
participant might expect to experience in their everyday lives. Researchers should aim to
maximise the benefits of their research at all stages of the research process from developing the initial theories
and hypotheses, to publishing their findings and applying them to help people in their everyday lives.
5
207
5.2 Methodological concepts

208
Lack of deception
By obtaining fully informed consent, participants will be very clear about what they will be doing and the aim
and purpose of the study. Lack of deception means that the participants wil not be deceived about anything to
do with the research. In reality, ti can be difficult
to conduct research without any deception as simply knowing the true aim of the research could change
participants' behaviour. Researchers must explore al possible ways of conducting their research before
deciding to use deception. This is because it can put
participants at greater risk of psychological harm (e.g. feeling upset, angry, embarrassed or ashamed). When
deception si involved, full debriefing si essential.
Confidentiality
An individual's results should remain confidential before and after publication and an individual's data should
not be identifiable. This is particularly important fi the participants have provided qualitative data, which is more
likely to be personal and thus more identifiable.
It is important that any data that the researchers keep while conducting the research and analysing the data si
stored confidentially. Participants' names should not be included with
their data. If the participants need to return to complete another part of the research at
a later point, then participants should be assigned a code number so that the data can be paired up. Al data
should be stored in password-protected files or in locked cupboards.
Privacy
Privacy is generally discussed in the context of observational research. Participants should
only be observed in public situations where they might expect to be observed by other people, such as in a
supermarket or train station. It is not acceptable to observe people in their own homes without their consent.
Researchers who conduct research in public places
need to gain consent from whoever owns the space - for example, the station manager, or the local
government if it si an outdoor public space like a park.
Debriefing
Debriefing happens after the participant has completed the research. The purpose is to
explain any deception that has taken place, to answer any questions the participant may have and to ensure
they leave the research in the same state in which they entered it. For
example, fi the research has left the participant ni a negative state of mind, ti si important that the researcher
ensures that they leave
feeling more
positive.
LEARNING LINK
Think about the research by Hölzel et al. (mindfulness and brain scans; see page 29).
Participants were given brain scans, then underwent an eight-week programme of
Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction, before returning for another brain scan. It would have been important for
Hölzel et al. to have been able to match up the participants'
scores for analysis at the end. However, they also needed to ensure the data was kept confidential. Can you
think of any of the other core studies that presented ethical issues?
STUDY TIP
It can be easy to confuse privacy and confidentiality. Maintaining confidentiality means
taking steps to ensure personal information is not disclosed to anyone outside of the
immediate research team (for example, using initials to refer to participants in case
studies) whereas privacy refers to each participant's right not to be interrupted, observed or disturbed and this
can extend to public spaces such as restaurants and shops. Agood
way to ensure that you fully understand each of the ethical guidelines and how they differ from each other is to
form your own ethics committee with people in your class or an
online study group. Whenever any practical work is undertaken, it must first be formally proposed to the
committee and discussed. The committee should provide feedback and suggestions for improvements or
areas that need more careful consideration. Your teacher should be head of the committee but remember,
ethics si everyone's responsibility.

5.2 Methodological concepts

KEY TERMS
species suffering
replacement
pain housing
reward
deprivation and aversive stimuli
TESTYOURSELF
Outline the ethical guideline of privacy. [2]
Explain why it is sometimes necessary for researchers to use deception in psychological research. [2]
3
One ethical guideline is to obtain valid consent. Explain how this guideline might
have been broken in one core study from the social approach. [2]
4
From the study by Perry et al. (personal space):
a Identify two ethical guidelines followed in this study.
b For one of the ethical guidelines you identified in part a, suggest one
disadvantage of following this guideline in this study.
[2]
[2]
him when he returns to the home a week later. He worries that the consent they
have provided is not valid. Explain one way that Boniface can ensure that his
study of the residents is ethical. [3]
6
Irina is conducting an experiment where half of her participants receive nasal
drops containing oxytocin and the other half receive placebo nasal drops containing saline and no oxytocin.
Aconfederate then asks fi he can borrow the participant's
phone to make a call. fI they say yes, he asks fi he can take it outside as the call is private. Irina records how
many people in each group agree. Explain how Irina can ensure her study is ethical. [6]
5.2.6 Ethics and non-human animals
Think!
Why do psychologists use small numbers of animals in research but try to recruit large samples of humans?
Think!
You have been asked to assist on a study where cats are persistently woken up every time they enter REM
sleep to see how this affects their physical and psychological wellbeing. They are woken up by dropping them
into water, which they hate. Would you agree to help out on this project? Why do you feel this way?
Think!
Ethical guidelines for the use of animals in psychological research are very strict, so
why do researchers continue to conduct animal studies? What are the advantages from a
scientific point of view?
Just as it is important to protect humans from psychological and physical harm during psychological research,
it is also important that non-human animals are protected.
There are legal, as well as ethical, requirements when it comes to working with animals. These may vary from
country to country, but ni the United Kingdom, research involving 'protected' animal species si governed by the
Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986,
amended in 2012. In this context, 'protected' does not just mean animals that are endangered, it refers to all
non-human animals that have the capacity for cognition and suffering. Protected species include non-human
vertebrates and cephalopods, such as octopuses and squid.
5
Boniface is assessing attention and memory in a group of elderly residents at a care home. Boniface is
concerned that some of the residents do not remember
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5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
5
Ethical guidelines for non-human animals
Minimise harm and maximise benefit
As with human research, psychologists must seek to minimise harm, discomfort and suffering to the animals
that they are studying and maximise the benefit of the research in applying their findings to helping either other
animals of the same species or helping humans.
Replacement
The British Psychological Society guidelines recommend that, where possible, the use of animals is replaced
with video footage from prior research or computer simulations. This is
particularly important fi the animals are to be used for training or teaching purposes.
Species
It is important that researchers use species of animals that are both scientifically and ethically suitable for the
research. The researchers must have a good understanding of the animal's natural history and its level of
sentience (its ability to feel). The researchers should
know whether the animals have been bred ni captivity and whether or not they have been involved in previous
research. The researchers must choose the species that is likely to
suffer the least while still meeting the research objectives. Researchers should discuss these choices with
colleagues who are also knowledgeable about the species that they plan to
use. The use of non-human primates should be avoided where possible because of their high level of
sentience.
Numbers
According to the Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986, researchers should use the smallest number of
animals possible to meet the research aims. However, this must not mean
that those animals chosen are used over an extended period of time, which could prolong any suffering.
Reducing the number of animals used in an experiment can be achieved by appropriate pilot studies, reliable
measures of behaviour, good experimental design and the appropriate use of statistical tests. Pilot studies
should be used with a very small number
of animals to ensure that the design is appropriate and testing what the researchers want
to investigate, before conducting the research on larger numbers of animals. Researchers should consider
using measures of behaviour that have been used in previous research and have been demonstrated to be
reliable. Good experimental design ensures the minimum use of animals. It is recommended that researchers
have a good understanding of statistics so that appropriate tests can be used to minimise the number of
animals used.
Procedures: pain and distress
The researchers should avoid causing death, disease, psychological or physical discomfort to any animals.
Where possible they should look at enriching the animals' environment rather than depriving them or using
observational techniques in situations where naturally occurring instances of adverse conditions are
happening. It is important that researchers
carefully consider the balance between the harm or potential harm caused to the animals and the benefits that
would be gained from the research. Pain can only be ethically justified
in psychological research when there si no alternative research method available and the research would have
significant scientific or educational value. Any surgical procedures should be conducted using anaesthesia to
reduce any pain and prevent infection. fI an animal's life needs to be terminated at the end of the research for
any reason, then this should be done swiftly.
Housing
The social and natural behaviour of the species being studied should be considered when housing the
animals. Isolating animals who would normally live ni social groups could cause stress. Similarly, overcrowding
could also cause stress and aggression. Using the same
cage to both house and test the animals could reduce the negative impact and should be considered
210

Reward, deprivation and aversive stimuli

If the researcher is considering the use of food deprivation, they must have a good understanding of the
species' normal eating and drinking habits to ensure that deprivation is kept to a minimum, as feeding habits
can vary greatly between species. In Skinner's classic research on operant conditioning ni pigeons (see page
87), he deprived them of
food so that they would always be motivated by the food offered as reinforcement during
his experiments, but it is important that researchers consider all alternative methods to motivate the animals in
their care before resorting to deprivation and aversive stimuli. For example, Fagen et al. (elephant learning) did
not need to starve the elephants to get them to learn the trunk wash. Instead, she selected chopped banana,
the elephants' favourite treat and, therefore, a powerful reinforcer even when they were well fed.
In order to protect creatures like the octopus, Russell and Burch (1959) suggested psychologists remember
the three Rs: replace (do not use animals unless absolutely necessary), reduce (use the smallest number
possible) and refine (ensure procedures minimise pain and suffering).
» Can you think of any novel ways that you could demonstrate sentience in an octopus or other aquatic
animals?
5
» What would your hypothesis be?
LEARNING LINK
In Fagen et al. (elephant learning), elephants were chained in their stables in Nepal but
able to show their desire to participate, or not, by walking away from the trainer stables. Hassett et al. (monkey
toy preferences) worked with rhesus monkeys at the Yerkes
National Primate Research Center. See fi you can find the name of the ethical guidelines used here.
: Whtawsadonenieachfohtesestudiesotuphodlhteprincipleslistednihtsi section?
STUDY TIP
It is tempting to argue that a lack of informed consent on the part of animals is an ethical
issue; however, since animals cannot give valid consent, this is not included in the ethical guidelines for
working with animals. Be careful not to confuse human and animal
ethical guidelines when evaluating animal research, such as Hassett et al. (monkey toy preferences) and
Fagen et al. (elephant learning).
F i g u r e 5.14 Octopuses are protected by the Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act in the United Kingdom due
to
their impressive cognitive capacity and experiments which support their
sentience (ability to experience pleasure and pain) (Crook, 2021), but they are
not included under a new proposed law called the Animal Welfare (Sentience) Bill
211
5.2 Methodological concepts

5
T E S TYOURSELF
1 Describe the ethical guidelines of 'species' and replacement in relation to
animals in research, using any examples. [6]
2
State what is meant by the ethical guideline of 'numbers' ni relation to animals.
[2] In the study by Hassett et al. (monkey toy preferences), explain how two ethical guidelines relating to
animals were followed. [4)
4 In the study by Fagen et al. (elephant learning), explain how the ethical guideline
212
you to give their study a score from 1-10 for ecological validity (where 1si very poor Whtaies your answer eul
uoy about vaet ywdi bychniginat aesard uoy change ?ti:
Think!
Is it possible to have a study that is high in reliability and also high in ecological validity?
Validity refers to the extent to which the researcher is measuring what they think they are measuring and the
extent to which the findings are useful and meaningful.
Ahistorical example of a psychometric test that lacked validity is the Army Alpha and Beta
QI tests. The term 'Id' stands for 'intelligence quotient'. nI 1917, a psychologist called Yerkes worked with
colleagues to create QI tests for army recruits ni the United States
of America, to see which section of the army would be most appropriate for them, based on their QI levels.
Many of the recruits were immigrants who had not lived in the country
very long. However, the I'Q' tests contained questions such as W' hat si Crisco?' and Who si Christy
Mathewson?'. These questions were impossible to answer unless the recruit had a good knowledge of
American culture. This led to recruits from certain nations experiencing prejudice as they (understandably)
received low QI scores. This si a good example of a test that lacks validity - it was testing cultural knowledge,
not IQ.
Ecological validity
Ecological validity si the extent to which behaviour that participants demonstrate during research relates to
how they would behave ni their real lives. Research conducted ni normal, real-life settings, as ni field
experiments, si likely to be (but not always) higher ni ecological
KEY TERMS
ecological validity validity
subjectivity
objectivity
demand characteristics
generalisability temporal validity
ethical guidelines Yoko must follow when conducting this research.
5.2.7 Validity
Think!
of procedures le.g. housing, reward, deprivation and aversive stimuli] was followed.
[3]
[2]
13J
5
Mirabel is observing two groups of gorillas in the wild, a large group of 65 and a small group of 20. She is
recording the number of close social relationships each gorilla has with other gorillas in the group. Outline why
Mirabel must have a strong knowledge of the 'species' before being allowed to conduct this work.
6
Yoko is conducting an experiment on mice. The mice have been genetically engineered to make them more
anxious than normal. Yoko will then test a new drug on the mice to see whether she can reverse their anxiety.
Describe three
When psychologists say that a study lacks ecological validity, what do they actually mean?
Think!
Imagine that you are a participant ni Perry et al's study (personal space). Can you remember what you had to
do? If not, check page 144 for a summary. Perry has asked
5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

5.2 Methodological concepts

validity. However, some laboratory experiments can also be high in ecological validity fi
the setting si unlikely to impact on behaviour. fI research lacks ecological validity, then ti cannot be generalised
to real-life situations. However, where it is important for research
to be conducted under controlled conditions, elements of the procedure can be made more ecologically valid.
For example, fi participants had to demonstrate their driving skills in a laboratory setting, ti would have greater
ecological validity fi a participant were able to
use virtual reality headsets with a steering wheel, brake and accelerator rather than using a computer keypad
as controls.
Evaluating studies based on their validity
You should be able to evaluate all studies based on their validity. Here are a number of ways that you can do
this.
Subjectivity/objectivity
fI a researcher si required to interpret behaviour, or the data collected, ni any way, there is always a risk of
subjectivity. This is where their personal thoughts, feelings or opinions
nay affect the validity of the findings. An example of subjectivity in data collection might be in an observation
where the researcher misinterprets a certain behaviour and records it
in a way that was not meant. This would lead to the data not being valid. In terms of data
analysis, qualitative data si most at risk of subjectivity as it requires a researcher to analyse the meaning
behind the data and draw conclusions based on this. This process involves
the researcher's own interpretation and may be influenced by their personal biases, either consciously or
unconsciously, leading to low validity. For example, Milgram (obedience) needed to interpret the behaviours of
the participants as they delivered what they believed to be electric shocks to another person and decide what
data to record. Having previously conducted a pilot study, he may have already had certain expectations about
what behaviours to expect.
If data collection or analysis is not influenced by a researcher's personal thoughts, feelings or opinions, then it
is said to be objective. Scientific equipment - for example, brain
scanning techniques such as EEGs used in Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams) and MRIs used in
Hölzel et al. (mindfulness and brain scans) - is only capable of recording
what biologically occurs, thus this method of collecting data si completely objective. It si worth noting, however,
that the images produced by brain scans still require the subjective interpretation of researchers. Quantitative
data is also more objective than qualitative as
it can be statistically analysed. The less risk the data has of being influenced by another person's
interpretation, the more objective and some would argue, the more valid.
LEARNING LINK
fI you study Clinical Psychology at ALevel, you wil come across the case study of Little Hans, by Sigmund
Freud (see page 323).
Hans father interpreted his son's dreams and fantasies and wrote letters to Freud
about his child. Freud also interpreted Hans' behaviour and wrote back to the father with
ideas of how to help the boy. These interpretations were subjective because they were based on the father's
and Freud's own personal views of what the dreams/fantasies
meant. Hans himself sometimes disagreed with his father about how he had interpreted
the dreams. This meant that the findings reported by Freud were unlikely to be a valid reflection of Hans'
thoughts and feelings.
Even quantitative data can be manipulated by the researcher and presented in a way that supports their
hypotheses, so it is still not free from biased analysis. For example, Burger (2009) highlighted that ni the study
by Milgram (obedience) only the fourth prod was a direct command: 'You have no other choice, you must go
on' (Milgram, 1963). In his
partial replication of Milgram's study, not a single person continued after this prod, highlighting the prevalence
of disobedience - a quantitative finding that Milgram did not report. Why do you think ti might be tempting for
psychologists to only present quantitative data that supports their hypotheses?
213

5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
214
Demand characteristics
In research studies, participants might try to guess the aim of the research and change
their behaviour based on what they think the researcher is looking for. This
would reduce
the validity of the study. Any features of the research environment which may give away the study's aim are
called demand characteristics. This is why some studies use deception to avoid the participants' behaviour
being affected. In Milgram (obedience), participants were deceived in a variety of ways to attempt to hide the
study's true purpose. However, critics
have argued that participants did pick up on demand characteristics and knew that the learner could not
possibly come to any harm. For example, the experimenter's total lack of concern for the learner may have
cued at least some of the participants to realise that the shocks were not real (Orne and Holland, 1968).
One of the strengths of using animals as participants is that they do not actively try to work out what the study
is about. Therefore, demand characteristics are reduced and validity
increased. This said, animals may unconsciously pick up on subtle cues from researchers, which may affect
their behaviour.
Generalisability
Findings should only be generalised to the target population fi the sample was sufficiently
representative. This wil depend upon the sampling technique, for example random samples are typically more
representative than opportunity or volunteer samples. The extent to
which findings can be generalised beyond the sample si sometimes called 'population validity. For example,
the study by Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans) looked at helping behaviour on a New York subway carriage. It
may not be appropriate to generalise their findings to all cultures because helping behaviour may differ in other
countries, based on
cultural values. Whether the results from a study can be generalised to real-life situations or not is called
ecological validity. For example, as the study by Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans) took place on a normal
subway journey, as part of people's real lives, it is
possible to generalise the findings to similar real-life contexts.
Temporal validity
Temporal validity refers to whether the results of a study can be generalised to a different
time period. For example, Bandura's study was conducted in the 1960s and the results may
not be the same today as modern children have access to personal technology such as phone
and tablets and gender roles have also changed significantly. This means the findings may be era-bound and
said to lack temporal validity.
Other studies, such as Hassett's study of sex differences and play in monkeys, are less likely to be affected by
temporal validity since they are based on a generally stable biological
functions. Social psychological research may be most susceptible to issues with temporal I validity, as cultural
and societal norms change over time.
STUDY TIP
It is important to remember the difference between demand characteristics and socially desirable answers -
demand characteristics are features of the environment that give
away a study's aim, while socially desirable answers are those given by the participant to ensure they are
viewed ni a more positive way. Both of these, however, can affect the validity of data collected.

5.2 Methodological concepts

KEY TERMS
replicability
reliability
test-retest reliability
inter-rater reliability inter-observer reliability
TESTYOURSELF
1 Suggest one reason why subjectivity may cause validity issues when conducting observations. (2]
2 State what is meant by the term generalisability.
(2)
3
Explain one way in which demand characteristics were avoided in the study by
Perry et al. (personal space). [2]
4 Explain why demand characteristics were not a problem in the study by Hassett et al. (monkey toy
preferences).
5
In a study looking at the effects of exercise on grey matter, the researchers
cannot be sure if an increase in grey matter they observe is due to exercise or
some other factor. Explain whether this is a problem with validity or reliability. [2]
6
5.2.8 Reliability and replicability Think!
What
si the difference between replicability and reliability?
Think!
Imagine your friend has videoed ten student nurses interacting with patients on a
hospital ward. With the nurses' consent, she has been asked to assess their empathy. She asks you to score
five of the clips to ensure that her scoring is reliable. What is this
called and how would you go about it?
Think!
There has been a huge replication crisis in psychology in recent years but does it really matter fi some of the
classic findings in psychology appear to be unreliable?
Reliability
Reliability is about consistency and can refer to the results from each participant and the overall findings,
based on the whole sample. If you tested your participants again and the results were the same, we could
assume the results were reliable. If we ran the whole study
again, with a different set of participants (a replication), we could check the reliability of the findings. If we got
the same results again, we could conclude that these
findings were
reliable.
Replicability
Replication means that other psychologists can repeat the study exactly to see fi they get consistent results.
Therefore, the ability to replicate a study is critical as it helps researchers
to demonstrate the reliability of their findings - that is, to show that their findings were not due to chance.
Replicability relies heavily on the extent to which the study has a standardised procedure that other
researchers can follow in their replications.
Ichika is conducting a study on recall of items from a menu. Awaiter reads out a list
of nine dishes to diners in a restaurant. They are then asked which dish they would like
to order. Ichika records whether they choose from the first, middle or last three menu
items. She allows half of the participants to doodle on a napkin while they are listening to the waiter and the
other half are not allowed to doodle. Explain one reason that
Ichika's study has high validity and one reason why it has low validity. 14)
[2]
215

5
Standardisation
Standardisation of the procedure and instructions provided to the participants is an important way of making a
study replicable. It also means that all aspects of the research
are consistent for every participant (except for the manipulation of the independent variable ni experimental
studies). For example, ni the study by Bandura et al. (aggression), the model always displayed the same
sequence of behaviours, in the same order and for the same length of time. The toys were laid out in exactly
the same way in each of the rooms and
the children were always given the exact same standardised instructions. The observer also scored the
children's aggressive and non-aggressive behaviour in the same way according
to the categories on the behavioural checklist. This high degree of standardisation means
Bandura's study is easy to replicate and, therefore, his findings could be checked for reliability.
Dr Rox needs to ensure the replicability of her study on the effects of caffeine on reaction times (see page
170), so that her study can be checked for reliability.
» What can she do to make sure every participant has the exact same experience apart
from whether they drink coffee or water?
» How would you ensure that everyone understands the task before they start?
» How could you ensure that everyone begins the reaction time task at exactly the right time, after finishing the
drink?
» When writing up the procedure for publication, how can Dr Rox make sure that ti si replicable?
T a b l e 5.13 Ways of increasing reliability
216
Technique
Test-retest reliability
Inter-rater reliability
Inter-observer reliability
Description
Participants repeat a test or questionnaire a few weeks or months later to see whether their scores are
consistent. If they are, the researcher can say that results are reliable.
Inter-rater reliability refers to the extent to which two researchers agree in their scoring of a questionnaire or
test. fI the two raters plot their scores
for each participant against each other on a scatter graph, they should see
a positive correlation, suggesting that they are both applying the scoring criteria consistently (in the same
way).
Inter-observer reliability refers to the extent to which two researchers agree ni their rating or coding of
behaviours ni an observation.
LEARNING LINK
In the learning approach, you studied the experiment by Bandura et al. (aggression). This study provides an
excellent example of a highly standardised procedure, which
increases replicability and the ability to check for reliability. It also included examples
of both inter-rater and inter-observer reliability. Be sure to cross-reference your notes
on techniques to increase reliability with this study. What level of agreement was found between the
experimenter and
the nursery teacher regarding
the children's pre-existing aggression? What level of agreement was found between the two observers who
assessed the children's behaviour in the third and final room? Tip: These are numbers between 0 and 1- the
closer to 1.0, the stronger the agreement. What do these figures tell us about the reliability of Bandura et al.'s
study?
5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

5.2 Methodological concepts

KEY TERMS
histogram bar chart
data
median
mean
measure of central tendency descriptive statistics
measure of spread mode
range
standard deviation
scatter graph
fully trained. Suggest two ways Clara can check the reliability of Philly's behaviour.
5.2.9 Data analysis
Think!
When should you use a histogram instead of a bar chart?
Think!
STUDY TIP
It can be easy to confuse the terms validity and reliability as the term reliability' is often used in real life to
mean trustworthy'. In the context of science, however, it refers to how consistent something is. In the context of
a study, fi ti was repeated again with the same participants, would the same results be obtained? The more
standardised the procedure,
the more reliable the study will be. Also remember that simply repeating a study many times does not make it
any more reliable, in the same way that a study being conducted a single time is not unreliable. Replication of
research is done to check for reliability.
T E S TYOURSELF
11
State what is meant by test-retest reliability. [2]
2 Explain what is meant by the terms 'inter-rater reliability and inter-observer reliability using any examples. [6]
3 Becky and Graham are discussing the study by Pozzulo et al. (line-ups). Becky
thinks that the findings are reliable and Graham thinks they are not reliable.
Explain why either Becky or Graham is correct. [4]
4 Explain why the study by Hölzel et al. (mindfulness and brain scans) may not be reliable.
5
Grace asks a group of six athletes to run a marathon before coming to sleep in her laboratory. She will record
the amount of REM sleep they have using an EEG.
5
Suggest three ways Grace could improve the replicability of her procedure.
[2]
[3]
[2]
6
Clara is a zookeeper. She is training Philly the leopard to open her mouth and hold it
open so her teeth and gums can be checked. She wants to be sure that Philly really does understand her
commands before signing the paperwork to say Philly has been
Imagine Dr Rox has asked you to collect some more data for her study on the effects of caffeine on reaction
times (see page 170). Write out aset of scores where ti would be more appropriate to use the median rather
than the mean as the measure of central tendency.
Think!
fI a histogram shows that the data ni a sample si heavily skewed, what si the most appropriate measure of
central tendency?
Measures of central tendency
Measures of central tendency are descriptive statistics. Along with measures of spread, they help researchers
to summarise large sets of individual data points, so that trends and patterns can be identified. Measures of
central tendency summarise al the data into a single
217
 5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
5
score, which tells us about the midpoint or average score. In an experiment, a researcher wants ot know
whether there si a difference between the results of an experimental and control group. To do this, they wil
compare the average results of the two groups, to see whether there is a difference and how big that
difference is. Altogether, there are three
measures of central tendency: the mean, median and mode. • Table 5.14 The mean, median and mode
218
The range
Standard deviation
Find the highest value ni the set of
Hölzel et al. (mindfulness and brain scores. Find the lowest value ni the
scans) calculated the range for the set of scores. Subtract the lowest
amount of time spent
engaging ni value from the highest value.
different mindfulness activities - for example, time spent body
The mean
The median
The mode
How to calculate
Add up all of the data points (scores) and divide by the number of scores.
The m' iddle' value when the data points (scores) are put ni rank order from smallest to greatest;
al of
the data must be used, even fi some of
the scores are the same. If there is an even number of data points, the two
middle scores are added together and divided by two.
The most frequently occurring data point (score) or category of behaviour.
Example
Andrade calculated the mean number
of correct names recalled ni a surprise memory test.
Piliavin et al. calculated the median number of seconds that passed before
help
was offered - for example, in the il condition compared with the drunk
condition.
Hassett
et al. tallied whether the male and female monkeys chose to
play with the wheeled toys or the plush toys; the mode could be used
to demonstrate which type of toy was favoured by each sex.
Measures of
spread
Measures of spread help researchers to identify how similar the data points are to one another and give an
idea of the amount of variation ni a data set. In an experiment, the means of both the experimental and the
control groups might be very similar but this tells us nothing about how diverse the scores are. In one group,
some of the scores might be very high compared with the mean and others might be very low; ni the other
group, the scores might al be very close to the mean. There are various measures of spread and the two you
need to know about are the range and the standard deviation.
• Table 5.15 The range and standard deviation
Description
Tells us how widely the data is spread between the lowest and
the highest data points (scores). The larger the range, the wider the data is spread. Can be used with a
median or mean.
Gives precise information about the
The mean is subtracted from each spread around the mean. Smaller
data point to see how far each standard deviations suggest the
score deviates from the mean. The data points are clustered more
rest of the calculation allows the tightly around the mean; larger
researcher to identify the average standard deviations suggest that
amount of deviation from the
the data points are more diverse.
mean.
How to calculate
Example
scanning ranged from 335 to 1002 minutes.
Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test) calculated the standard deviation of the Eyes Test and QI scores for
each of his comparison groups.

distance from centre of the room

RZ
Do you remember Dr Rox and her study on the effects of caffeine on reaction time
(see page 170)? She has collected all her
data now and wants you to look at it. She
suggests that you calculate the mean
average reaction time for the experimental
and control groups to see whether there is
any noticeable difference between them, and if there is, whether the difference is in
the expected direction - that is, the
caffeine group has a faster reaction time. Table 5.16 shows her results.
» Calculate the mean for each condition. Are the results as expected?
» Calculate the range for each condition. What do the ranges tell us about the effects of caffeine on reaction
time?
» What will you report back to Dr Rox?
• Table 5.16 Raw data from Dr Rox's
investigation into the effects of caffeine
on reaction time
5 Reaction times (milliseconds)
Bar charts, histograms and scatter graphs
Graphs help researchers to communicate their results visually, allowing people to quickly understand the main
patterns and trends from the results.
Bar charts
Bar charts are very helpful for quickly demonstrating the relative difference between the values obtained from
two or more groups or conditions in an experiment. Often bar charts compare the mean, median or modal
values obtained in two or more levels of the independent
variable ni experimental studies but they can also be used to illustrate quantitative data from observational and
self report studies.
Figure 5.15 shows some of the data from the experiment by Perry et al. (personal space). The bar chart
illustrates how the data from two of the independent variables can be neatly compared on one graph.
36 34
24 - 22-
20 - 0
Placebo • Oxytocin
High empathy
Low empathy
A Figure 5.15 Abar chart to show how oxytocin affects preferred interpersonal distance ni people with high and
low empathy traits, from Perry et al. (personal space) (see page 143)
Pp1 Pp2
Pp3 Pp4 Pp5
Ррб Mean
Experimental group (caffeine)
16 23 24 2 4
91
Control group (water)
2 24
12 24
219

Eyes-C score (max 28)

5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Task
5
Figure 5.16 shows the average number of offers made to the elephants in Fagen et al.'s study before they
successfully performed each part of the trunk wash. As you can see, the bars
are not touching each other as each bar represents an independent category of behaviour.
In this bar chart, the behaviours are on the y axis, showing that it does not actually matter
which way round you draw a bar chart, although with experimental data, you typically see the independent
variable on the horizontal (x) axis and the dependent variable on the vertical (y) axis.
220
25-Г 20
15- 10-
5-
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 Ft ( n m o l / i )
• Figure 5.17 Ascatter graph showing the relationship between scores on the Eyes-C
Test and foetal
testosterone exposure
for children aged 6-9
of both sexes, from Chapman et al. (2006)
A Figure 5.16 Abar chart to show average number of offers necessary to teach individual behaviours from the
trunk wash and the whole trunk wash sequence (HFUBB = here, fluid,
up, bucket and blow), from Fagen et al. (elephant learning) (see page 101)
Histograms
Histograms are used when the data si continuous. Continuous data si data that can be measured on an infinite
scale, where values can be infinitely large or infinitely tiny. Agood example is time; units can be as large as a
century or as tiny as a millionth of a nanosecond!
Ahistogram shows the distribution of al of the collected data rather than the average. The horizontal (x) axis si
divided into appropriate intervals, representing the ful range of data
points or scores and the vertical (y) axis si labeled frequency and shows how many people scored within each
interval. As the data si continuous, the bars on a histogram should be touching and fi there are no scores with
a certain range, a gap should be left.
Scatter graphs
Scatter graphs are used to present correlational data. Like a histogram, they show
the complete distribution of the data collected from all of the participants. The x axis
(horizontal) will be labelled with one of the co-variables and the y axis (vertical) will be labelled with the other
co-variable. It does not matter which co-variable goes on which axis. Next, the pairs of scores obtained from
each participant are plotted using a small dot or cross. As none of the Cambridge International AS Level core
studies included a scatter graph, we have included an interesting one presented in a paper by one of the
researchers from the cognitive approach, Simon Baron-Cohen, and his colleagues. Baron- Cohen is known for
his 'extreme male brain' theory of autism, which suggests that autism traits may be influenced by foetal
testosterone exposure. Figure 5.17 shows the negative
correlation between foetal testosterone exposure and scores on the Eyes-C Test, a version of the Eyes Test for
children, with 28 items. The graph indicates that the lower the
testosterone levels in the mother's amniotic fluid while pregnant, the higher the child's social sensitivity, as
measured by the Eyes Test ni childhood.