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Environmental Impact Assessment for Groundwater Management

Article in International Journal of Water Resources Development · June 1992

DOI: 10.1080/07900629208722541

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 Environmental impact
assessment for groundwater
management

Asit K. Biswas

Groundwater plays, and will continue to play a critical role in satisfying water
requirements of most arid and semi-arid countries. Thus, sustainable groundwater
development and preservation of groundwater quality should receive priority atten-
tion. This paper outlines the process through which environmental impact assess-
ment of groundwater development projects can be carried out in arid and semi-arid
developing countries. An appropriate framework for environmental impact assess-
ment is suggested. It is recommended that such impact assessment should be at the
centre of any good groundwater development and management plan.

Throughout history groundwater has been an impor- Environmental aspects of groundwater

tant source of water that has been extensively used for management
human consumption and for agricultural production.
Even now, groundwater plays a critical role in satis- Like surface water, groundwater has many implica-
fying the water requirements of many countries, both tions if it is to be managed in an environmentally
developed and developing. For example, 90% of the sound manner. The three main considerations for
rural population and 50% of the total population in environmentally sound groundwater management are
the USA depend on groundwater for their domestic the following:
water requirements. Similarly 73% of the population
(i) Groundwater development must be sustainable
in West Germany, 70% in The Netherlands and 30%
on a long-term basis. This means that the rate of
in the UK depend on groundwater for domestic pur-
abstraction should be equal to or less than the
poses. In some parts of the world, as much as 75 to
rate of recharge. If the rate of abstraction is
85% of the water used for irrigation comes from
higher than the rate of recharge, it will result in
groundwater.
groundwater mining, which can be carefully
Groundwater is expected to play an increasingly considered for some specific cases. If mining
important role in Egypt, and in many other similar occurs, groundwater levels will continue to
arid countries, in the coming decades. Preliminary decline, which will steadily increase pumping
estimates carried out in Egypt indicate that 500 billion costs, and then at a certain level it would no
m 3 of groundwater is available in the Nile Valley, longer be economic to pump it for many uses
and the Delta. The current annual rate of abstraction such as agricultural production,
of groundwater for domestic, industrial and (ii) Human activities which could impair the quality
agricultural purposes in Egypt is estimated at about of groundwater for potential future use should
2.6 billion m 3 . It is expected that this rate can be be controlled. This would include leaching of
increased by about 90%, to 4.9 billion m 3 , which is chemicals like nitrates and phosphates from
approximately equivalent to the annual recharge rate. extensive and intensive agricultural activities,
contamination by toxic and other undesirable
chemicals from landfills and other environmen-
The author is Professor, International Development Centre,
University of Oxford and President of the International Water tally unsound waste disposal practices, bacterial
Resources Association, 76 Woodstock Close, Oxford, UK. and viral contamination due to inadequate

0790-0627/92/020113-05 © 1992 Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd 113

Environmental impact assessment for groundwater management: Asit K. Biswas

sewage treatment and wastewater disposal prac- involved in water development, such as Ministries of
tices, and increasing salinity content due to inef- Water Resources, Agriculture, Health, Energy, and
ficient or improper irrigation practices, Public Works. Often the organizations concerned
(iii) Improper groundwater management often con- have their own sectoral short- and long-term policies
tributes to adverse environmental impacts. on environmental issues as well as the necessary legal
Among these are land subsidence in certain mandate. These policies are not always compatible
urban centres due to a high rate of groundwater with each other, and under such conditions they are
abstraction, as in Bangkok, and sudden [strict unlikely to be very effective in maintaining and/or
control of groundwater abstraction which allows improving overall environmental quality. EIA, if car-
the groundwater table to rise steadily over its ried out properly, could contribute to an integrated
recent long-term levels, which could contribute environmental planning process which could effec-
to structural damage as in London and Birm- tively respond to critical social and environmental
ingham in the UK. needs on a long-term sustainable basis.

Environmental impact assessment (EIA'

EIA can be considered to be a planning tool which EIA for developing countries
assists planners in anticipating potential future
impacts of alternative groundwater development It is generally recognized that EIA can identify major
activities, both beneficial and adverse, with a view to areas of environmental damage due to development
selecting the 'optimal' alternative which maximizes activities in a systematic and comprehensive manner.
beneficial effects and mitigates adverse impacts on However, notwithstanding the intrinsic value of EIA,
the environment. EIA procedures have been suc- past experiences clearly indicate that there is an
cessfully used in several developed countries during urgent need to develop procedures so as to make them
the past two decades, but only within the past 10 more adaptable to conditions in developing countries.
years or so has EIA been introduced in several It is now quite evident that detailed, expensive, time-
developing countries. While most EIAs carried out in consuming and sophisticated EIA techniques used in
the past, and being carried out at present, have dealt many developed countries at present are unlikely to
with the potential environmental implications of pro- be of much practical value for use in developing
posed development projects, there is an urgent need countries in an operational sense (Biswas, 1991).
to monitor environmental changes once a project is Such difficulties are to be expected, since the direct
operational. Such monitoring is necessary not only transfer of technology from North to South, with dif-
for those projects in developing countries for which fering social, economic, physical and institutional
EIAs were carried out during planning stagesj but conditions, has not been an easy process; outright
also for the vast majority of currently existing successes have generally been exceptions rather than
development projects which received very little norms (Biswas and Qu, 1987).
environmental attention during their planning and In adapting EIA for use in developing countries, it
construction phases. may be useful to take note of differing characteristics,
EIA can be used not only for groundwater develop- such as limited resources in terms of information
ment projects but also for plans, programmes and technology, which can be equally applicable to all
policies. Many projects are the direct outcome of the- developing countries. Various alternatives are
implementation of plans and policies. Often the available and each country must choose its own
implementation of a plan or policy requires a variety system.
of different individual projects to enable its objectives
to be achieved. If EIA were restricted to single [pro-
jects only, then the cumulative regional and national
impacts of development actions would be ignored. It
Objectives
is necessary, therefore, to assess the impacts of The objectives for applying EIA to groundwater
'higher level' development actions such as plans, pro- management could be the following:
grammes and policies to gain a greater understanding
of the cumulative impacts of development. Such EIAs 1. to identify adverse environmental problems that
will, of necessity, be general and can be sup- may be expected to occur;
plemented by more detailed EIAs at the project level. 2. to ' incorporate into the development action,
Past experiences indicate that as a general rule appropriate mitigation measures for the
several national institutions and/or agencies are anticipated adverse problems;

114 WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT Volume 8 Number 2 June 1992

 Environmental impact assessment for groundwater management: Asit K. Biswas

3. to identify the environmental benefits and prescribed decision-making framework. Both legal
disbenefits of the project, as well as its social and and institutional mechanisms need to be simul-
environmental acceptability to the community; taneously developed in order that EIA procedures
4. to identify critical environmental problems which can be implemented effectively. The existence and
require further studies and/or monitoring; implementation of these mechanisms should ensure
5. to examine and select the optimal alternative from that groundwater development plans likely to have
the various relevant options available; significant environmental impacts are automatically
6. to involve the public in the decision-making pro- subjected to the EIA process. The legal and institu-
cess related to groundwater management; and tional mechanisms for EIA should be formulated in
7. to assist all the parties involved in the specific all developing countries as early as possible to pro-
development project to understand their individual vide a solid and enduring foundation for EIA.
roles, responsibilities and overall relationships The interdisciplinary nature of groundwater
with one another. problems means that close cooperation and coordina-
tion are essential among the various government
departments dealing with specific types of problem.
General principles Where expertise is not available within the govern-
Both human activities and natural phenomena can ment itself, it is necessary to consult with universities
cause groundwater deterioration, but as a general rule and other scientific establishments so that EIA can be
it is human activities that contribute to maximum damage properly conducted. The interdisciplinary nature of
through over-exploitation and irrational use. EIA can be groundwater problems also means that the teams con-
successfully used to identify beneficial as well as adverse ducting EIA should also be multidisciplinary and
consequences of human activities, and is thus of prime interdisciplinary.
importance to all parties involved in development To provide adequate environmental information for
planning and implementation of groundwater pro- EIA, it is essential to set up national groundwater data
jects. It is equally applicable to all new development banks which can facilitate the use of the information
actions as well as to the expansion or modification of available. The efficiency in the handling and use of
currently existing actions. Furthermore, in most data is highly likely to increase significantly under
developing countries few environmental considera- such circumstances. Currently in many developing
tions were incorporated in past development actions. countries data are collected by various governmental
Consequently many of the benefits that were authorities on groundwater. Owing to the lack of
originally anticipated by the planners are either not appropriate interdepartmental coordination, it is often
occurring or are being negated by unanticipated difficult — if not impossible — to obtain an aggregate
adverse side-effects. There is thus a need to carry out picture on data collected. This means that the
environmental reviews of existing projects so that the available groundwater data may not be used for EIA,
major problems can be rectified. since people may not be aware of their existence. In
EIA reports should be presented in a simple form some cases it could even result in duplicate data col-
so that decision makers can readily digest and make lection, which is a poor use of the very limited finan-
use of the analysis in making rational decisions. cial resources available in many countries.
However, EIA should aim at maintaining the The flow of environmental information on ground-
availability and use of groundwater on a sustainable water development between developing countries is
basis. Since environmental losses and gains cannot highly unsatisfactory at present. It is not unusual to
always be evaluated in straight economic terms, the find that the flow of technological information from
expected changes in environmental values, which developed to developing countries is better estab-
often can only be considered in a subjective way, lished than between developing countries, even
have to be taken into account in the decision-making though the latter may be more beneficial and relevant
process. because of similar social, economic and institutional
EIA is already. a legal requirement for water systems.
development projects in many developing countries, Developing countries must carry out EIA of
but it has to be admitted that its use thus far for groundwater projects to the best of their national
groundwater development projects has been very capability. Therefore it is urgently necessary to train
limited. A legal requirement by itself, though an their own experts in EIA. Foreign experts are no
essential first step, cannot ensure that EIA will substitute for well-trained local experts. The involve-
actually be conducted, or that, if conducted, it is pro- ment of local expertise will not only ensure that EIAs
perly carried out and effectively used within the are carried out which are more relevant to local

WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT Volume 8 Number 2 June 1992 115

Environmental impact assessment for groundwater management: Asit K. Biswas

needs, but will also ensure a significant reduction in EIA framework

EIA costs when compared with those conducted by
foreign experts. It is crucial that El As in developing An EIA procedural framework for a groundwater
countries be cost-effective. development project is shown in the flow chart in
Figure 1. A feasibility study of a project basically

Project identification

Pre-feasibility study Initial environmental

examination (IEE)

Feasibility study Environment

reviewing unit (ERU)

EIA with necessary

terms of reference

Alternatives Interim/progress Further EIA

review reports unnecessary

EIA draft Public hearing

Full EIA report

Proceed Approve Environmental reviewing

council (ERC)
- Cancel

Modification with
further study - Cancel

Project clearance

Figure 1. Flow chart of project analysis.

116 WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT Volume 8 Number 2 June 1992
 Environmental impact assessment for groundwater management: Asit K. Biswas

depends on data and information on the technical, tional infrastructure exists which checks both that the
economic and social aspects of the project. To avoid recommendations made by the ERC are being
higher cost and unnecessary time delays, EIAs of actually carried out, and also that unexpected adverse
groundwater projects should be carried out along with environmental consequences which were not iden-
the initial feasibility study. tified during the EIA are not occurring. It is equally
Before going into detailed analysis, it is advisable essential to monitor results during the operational
that as soon as the project brief (eg its scale, nature, phases of groundwater projects. Unfortunately, in
location, time frame, etc) is known, an initial many countries, after EIAs have been carried out no
environmental examination (IEE) of the project monitoring is generally done to ensure that the ERC's
should be undertaken to determine whether it requires recommendations are being observed by developers;
a full EIA. This activity is often known as 'screen- nor are there arrangements to monitor developments
ing'. during operational phases.
After an IEE is completed, it should be reviewed by
an environmental reviewing unit, together with the
pre-feasibility study report, in order that the Concluding remarks
technical, economic and social as well as
environmental aspects of the project can be carefully Good environmental impact assessment has to be at
examined and evaluated in a comprehensive fashion. the centre of any sound groundwater management
If the reviewing unit finds no serious adverse plan. However, because of the complexities and
environmental impacts, the project should be sent to uncertainties that are invariably associated with
the environmental reviewing council (ERC) for groundwater regimes, it has generally not been possi-
approval. If approved by the ERC, the project can be ble to carry out proper environmental impact assess-
implemented, provided it complies with all existing ment of groundwater development projects in nearly
environmental regulations. If, however, after all developing countries. Accordingly, many such
deliberation the ERC requires further assessment on projects have proved to be neither sustainable nor
environmental impacts, a detailed EIA with environmentally acceptable on a long-term basis.
appropriate terms of reference (which may include With substantial improvements in indigenous
baseline data requirements and the use of a particular expertise on groundwater management, and with con-
EIA method) may be prepared by the developer comitant increases in interest in regular monitoring of
and/or the environmental agency. the quality of groundwater, more and more develop-
Interim or progress reports of the EIA study being ing countries like Egypt and India should now be in
undertaken should be submitted for review and a position to initiate and implement rational ground-
evaluation at regular intervals so that the parties con- water management plans. The fact that the Cairo
cerned are kept informed of the states of the analysis. Round Table Meeting took place in October 1991 is
Based on the study, an EIA draft should be a further clear indication that many arid and semi-arid
prepared which should consider different, viable countries are giving groundwater the importance it
alternatives available. Public hearings could be deserves in terms of total benefit to their national
arranged to encourage and facilitate public involve- economies. As environmental impact assessment
ment, and participation in the EIA. Thereafter a full becomes an integral part of the planning and manage-
EIA report could be prepared. The report should then ment of groundwater management practices, there is
be reviewed by the ERC, which could either approve no doubt that it can only be considered to be a
it or ask for further study and modification. The ERC beneficial development for all the countries con-
can also recommend that the project be cancelled on cerned.
account of highly undesirable environmental conse-
quences. In cases where further analysis is required
the new EIA report has to be reviewed again by the
ERC. After this review the project could either be References
approved for implementation, with or without sug- Biswas, A.K. and Qu Geping (1987). Environmental Impact
gestions for specific modifications, or be cancelled Assessment for Developing Countries, Cassell Tycooly,
(eg not fit to be approved owing to undesirable London, 232 pp.
environmental side-effects). Biswas, A.K. (1991). 'Environmental assessment: a view from
the South', Key-note Lecture, 11th Annual Meeting, Inter-
After the implementation phase of a groundwater national Association for Impact Assessment, Urbana-
project is approved, it is essential that some institu- Champaign, IL.

WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT Volume 8 Number 2 June 1992 117

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