KNOCKING IN INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

CHAVAN RAJU

24075A2401

INTRODUCTION

Knocking, also known as engine knock or detonation is a critical and well-documented phenomenon in
internal combustion engines, particularly in spark-ignition (SI) configurations. It is characterized by the
abnormal auto ignition of the unburned air-fuel mixture (end-gas) ahead of the flame front. This leads to
sudden and extreme pressure spikes, creating high-frequency oscillations and metallic sounds within the
engine cylinder. Over the years, extensive research has been dedicated to understanding the causes, impacts,
and mitigation strategies of knock due to its direct implications on engine performance, efficiency,
durability, and emissions.

This document consolidates research findings from six comprehensive studies, ranging from historical
perspectives to cutting-edge detection technologies and modern knock mitigation strategies, providing a
holistic understanding of the knock phenomenon in ICEs.

CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL BASIS OF KNOCK

Knock originates from the spontaneous ignition of the end-gas—typically due to elevated pressures and
temperatures during compression. Knock intensity and onset are influenced by several parameters,
including:

 Compression ratio: Higher ratios raise efficiency but also increase end-gas reactivity.
 Fuel composition: Hydrocarbon structure significantly affects knock resistance.
 Engine geometry and operating conditions: Combustion chamber design, spark plug location, and
operating load all play roles.

octane number and knock resistance the octane number is a standardized measure of a fuel’s knock
resistance, benchmarked against a scale of iso-octane (100, minimal knock) and n-heptane (0, severe knock).
Fuels with higher octane numbers resist knock better, allowing higher compression ratios.

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Historically, tetra-ethyl lead (TEL) was used as an anti-knocking additive. However, due to its toxicity and
environmental hazards, it has largely been phased out in favour of oxygenates like ethanol, ETBE, and
MTBE—compounds that raise octane ratings while enabling cleaner combustion.

HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF KNOCK RESEARCH

1920s–1930s: Foundational Understanding

Initial investigations focused on understanding the phenomenon and developing fuel standards. Ricardo's
seminal work identified auto ignition in the end gas as the primary cause of knock. Tools like the bouncing
pin indicator were used to detect knock, and the octane number system was developed using iso-octane and
n-heptane mixtures.

The introduction of TEL enabled higher compression ratios and greater efficiency. Nonetheless, health
concerns due to lead toxicity began emerging, prompting calls for alternative anti-knocking agents.

1940s–1960s: Refinement and Standardization

The mid-20th century saw the development of Research Octane Number (RON) and Motor Octane Number
(MON) tests, standardized using CFR engines. Research expanded into high-performance aviation engines
and early knocks mitigation methods like water injection and exhaust gas recirculation.

Knock modeling also advanced with the advent of early electronic instrumentation and visualization
techniques, which allowed researchers to measure flame speed and pressure waves.

1970s–1990s: Emissions and Environmental Shifts

The oil crises and increasing environmental awareness led to a shift towards unleaded fuels. Research
pivoted to explore chemical kinetics, pre-ignition phenomena, and the influence of engine deposits. New
modeling techniques and time-frequency analysis allowed better prediction and mitigation strategies for
knock.

Simultaneously, emissions regulations pushed automakers to redesign engines to reduce pollutants without
exacerbating knocking tendencies.

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MODERN PERSPECTIVES AND RESEARCH DIRECTIONS

ADVANCED DIAGNOSTICS AND SIMULATION

Research now emphasizes knock onset prediction, super-knock phenomena, and low-speed pre-ignition
(LSPI)—a damaging form of auto ignition at low engine speeds associated with modern direct-injection
systems.

Engine developers use rapid compression machines (RCMs), optical diagnostics, and computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) to visualize knock and simulate combustion in detail. These tools help refine:

 Combustion chamber geometries

 Ignition timing strategies
 Fuel injection patterns

Controlled Auto ignition (CAI) and Spark-Assisted Compression Ignition (SACI) are being explored as
potential technologies to push efficiency while managing knock under new combustion paradigms.

KNOCK MITIGATION TECHNIQUES

1. Charge Motion Control: Enhancing in-cylinder turbulence (e.g., tumble and swirl) improves flame
propagation and delays knock.
2. Charge Temperature Management: Lowering intake temperatures through intercooling or cooled
EGR reduces knock tendency.
3. Fuel Modification: Ethanol blends increase octane rating and burn cleanly. Future fuels like
hydrogen and synthetic hydrocarbons are under consideration for knock-resistant combustion.
4. Ignition System Optimization: High-energy spark systems and advanced ignition timing help
maintain stable combustion near knock limits.
5. Mixture Formation and Dilution: Direct injection systems allow stratified charge formation,
enabling better control of knock-prone regions.
6. Combustion Chamber Design: Smaller quench areas and minimized end-gas volumes reduce hot
spots and pressure gradients that can lead to knock.
7. Exhaust System Design: Variable valve timing and EGR strategies play roles in temperature control
and pressure wave damping.

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DIESEL ENGINE KNOCK

Knock in compression ignition (CI) or diesel engines differ significantly from SI engines. Here, knock is
often related to delayed fuel combustion after injection. This delay leads to a large accumulation of fuel,
which combusts rapidly and violently once ignition begins. Strategies to reduce diesel knock include:

 Optimizing injection timing and rate

 Using pilot injections
 Increasing injector nozzle precision
 Employing EGR and fuel additives

RECENT REGULATORY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

Following the 2015 Paris Agreement, there is increasing pressure to reduce CO₂ emissions. While
electrification is a major pathway, SI engines remain dominant in the market, making combustion
improvements essential.

Knock limits how much the compression ratio—and thus efficiency—can be increased. Therefore, reducing
knock or operating safely closer to its limits is essential for meeting regulatory goals without compromising
performance

FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINE KNOCK

COMBUSTION PROCESS AND KNOCK ONSET

In a conventional SI engine, a mixture of fuel and air is ignited by a spark plug, leading to a flame front that
propagates smoothly through the combustion chamber. Ideally, this flame burns the mixture evenly and
completes combustion before the piston reaches top dead centre (TDC). However, under certain operating
conditions—high pressure, high temperature, and insufficient fuel octane rating—the unburned portion of
the mixture ahead of the flame front auto-ignites. This spontaneous combustion results in a sharp pressure
rise and creates acoustic waves within the cylinder, experienced as knock.

CAUSES OF KNOCK

Knock onset is influenced by multiple variables:

 High compression ratios

 Elevated intake air temperatures
 Low-octane or poor-quality fuel
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  High engine loads and advanced ignition timing
 Combustion chamber design flaws
 Insufficient cooling and hot spots in the chamber

The core physical mechanism underlying knock involves the auto-ignition of the end-gas due to increased
thermal and pressure stresses caused by advancing flame propagation.

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE AND EVOLUTION OF KNOCK RESEARCH

EARLY INVESTIGATIONS (1920S–1950S)

Knocking has been recognized since the early 20th century. Ricardo’s 1922 work defined knock as a
primary limitation to increasing engine compression ratios. This insight propelled the development of
standardized methods for knock evaluation and fuel classification.

The concept of the octane number was introduced to quantify fuel resistance to knock. Iso-octane, with
excellent anti-knock properties, was assigned a value of 100, while n-heptane, prone to knocking, was given
a rating of 0. The octane number of commercial fuels is expressed as a percentage of iso-octane in a
reference mixture with n-heptane that produces a similar knocking response.

Tetra-ethyl lead (TEL) became a common additive to improve octane ratings, though its environmental
toxicity led to its eventual replacement by oxygenates such as ethanol, MTBE, and ETBE.

MID-20TH CENTURY DEVELOPMENTS

During the 1950s–1970s, further refinements to fuel testing led to the development of the Research Octane
Number (RON) and Motor Octane Number (MON) methods using Cooperative Fuel Research (CFR)
engines. These techniques became globally recognized standards.

Instrumentation advances allowed for knock detection through photographic flame imaging and acoustic
vibration analysis. Research began to focus on detonation wave theory and pressure oscillation studies.

MODERN ERA AND RENEWED RESEARCH FOCUS

By the 2000s, new challenges emerged, such as super-knock (extreme knocking in turbocharged engines)
and low-speed pre-ignition (LSPI). With the rise of gasoline direct injection (GDI) engines, knock became
more complex due to higher in-cylinder pressures and lean combustion modes. Researchers turned to
computational fluid dynamics (CFD), optical diagnostics, and machine learning for deeper insights.

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ENGINE KNOCK IN DIFFERENT ENGINE TYPES

SPARK-IGNITION (SI) ENGINES

In SI engines, knocking primarily results from end-gas auto ignition. The propagation of pressure waves and
acoustic resonance modes can lead to mechanical damage and a reduction in thermal efficiency.

COMPRESSION-IGNITION (CI) OR DIESEL ENGINES

In diesel engines, knock is linked to delayed ignition and rapid combustion of a large fuel mass, leading to
violent pressure oscillations. Optical diagnostics show that diesel knock involves flame impingement,
prolonged ignition delay, and subsonic to supersonic reaction fronts.

KNOCK CHARACTERISTICS AND DETECTION

PRESSURE OSCILLATIONS AND ACOUSTIC SIGNATURES

Knocking induces pressure oscillations typically in the frequency range of 5–20 kHz. These are
superimposed on the normal combustion pressure curve and can be detected using high-resolution pressure
transducers.

In the study by Zhang et al., cylinder pressure oscillations were analyzed using filtered in-cylinder pressure
data from a high-pressure direct injection natural gas engine. Resonant modes such as the first to fourth
circumferential and the first radial modes were prominent indicators of knock.

KNOCK DETECTION TECHNIQUES

 MAPO (Maximum Amplitude of Pressure Oscillation): A traditional method based on peak

pressure amplitude.
 SEPO (Signal Energy of Pressure Oscillation): An energy-based method, more suitable for post-
processing.
 Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN): The study by Ofner et al. proposed a theory-guided 1D
CNN that classified knocking vs. non-knocking cycles with over 92% accuracy based on raw
pressure data. This approach showed strong generalization to new engines and operating points,
outperforming traditional threshold-based methods.

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KNOCK MITIGATION STRATEGIES

ENGINE DESIGN AND HARDWARE MODIFICATIONS

 Combustion Chamber Geometry: Minimized surface area and quench zones reduce hot spots.
 Spark Plug Location: Central placement ensures uniform flame propagation.
 Piston and Valve Cooling: Avoids excessive local temperatures.

FUEL MODIFICATION

 High-Octane Fuels: Reduce end-gas reactivity.

 Oxygenated Additives: Ethanol, ETBE, and MTBE improve fuel resistance to knock and reduce
emissions.
 Alternative Fuels: Natural gas, LPG, and hydrogen show promise due to their high knock
resistance.

OPERATING PARAMETER OPTIMIZATION

 Retarded Ignition Timing: Reduces peak pressures at critical times.

 Lower Compression Ratios: Trade-off with efficiency, but reduces knock likelihood.
 Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR): Lowers in-cylinder temperature and delays auto ignition.
 Water Injection: Absorbs heat and reduces combustion temperature, thus suppressing knock onset.

ADVANCED TECHNOLOGIES

 Direct Fuel Injection: Allows stratified charge formation and better control over mixture
distribution.
 Variable Valve Timing (VVT): Controls internal EGR and thermal load.
 Knock Control Algorithms: Real-time spark adjustment based on sensor feedback.

HIGH-ALTITUDE ENGINE KNOCK BEHAVIOUR

In high-altitude regions, lower ambient pressure and temperatures lead to delayed ignition and poor spray
atomization. These conditions exacerbate knock in diesel engines, as shown in optical rapid compression
machine (RCM) experiments. High-speed imaging revealed that spray impingement and extended ignition

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delays increase the likelihood of knock. Increased ambient pressure reduced knock intensity, highlighting
the role of intake pressure conditioning in engine design for high-altitude use.

THE ROLE OF FUEL CHEMISTRY IN KNOCK SUPPRESSION

Fuel molecular structure strongly influences knock characteristics:

 Straight-chain alkanes (e.g., n-heptane): High knock tendency.

 Branched alkanes and aromatics (e.g., iso-octane, toluene): Low knock tendency.
 Olefins and cyclic compounds: Intermediate resistance.

Cracked and reformed gasolines possess higher octane numbers due to their content of branched and
aromatic hydrocarbons. Anti-knock performance is therefore a function of both carbon structure and
blending composition.

CHALLENGES AND FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS

EMERGING COMBUSTION MODES

Next-generation combustion strategies such as Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI) and
Spark-Assisted Compression Ignition (SACI) aim to combine the efficiency of diesel with the low emissions
of gasoline engines. However, these modes present new knock challenges due to high compression and lean
mixture operation.

SUPER-KNOCK AND LSPI

Super-knock is a violent knocking event typically associated with high-boosted downsized engines under
transient conditions. LSPI occurs at low speeds and high loads and is driven by oil/fuel droplet pre-ignition.
Both phenomena are destructive and unpredictable, requiring deeper insight into combustion chemistry and
deposit interaction.

INTEGRATION OF AI AND REAL-TIME MONITORING

Machine learning models, like the CNNs discussed by Offer et al., are increasingly used for real-time knock
detection and control. These models learn from physical features, reducing the reliance on manual
calibration and improving adaptability to new engines.

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CONCLUSION

Knocking in internal combustion engines remains a critical barrier to improving thermal efficiency and
achieving cleaner combustion. Over a century of research has led to a deep understanding of its mechanisms,
from early octane rating methods to today's AI-driven detection systems. Combustion chamber design, fuel
formulation, and electronic control systems have evolved significantly to mitigate knock.

Nonetheless, as engines become more efficient, downsized, and reliant on advanced combustion strategies,
new forms of abnormal combustion such as super-knock and LSPI continue to challenge engineers. The
integration of optical diagnostics, data-driven models, and advanced simulation techniques offers promising
pathways to mitigate knock while pushing performance boundaries.

With environmental regulations tightening and the pursuit of carbon neutrality gaining momentum, reducing
knock while maximizing engine efficiency will remain a cornerstone of future engine development.