SmartenergynetworkdigitaltwinsFindingsfromaUK-baseddemonstrator project
SmartenergynetworkdigitaltwinsFindingsfromaUK-baseddemonstrator project
Keywords: Digital Twins promise to deliver a step-change in distribution system operations and planning, but there are
Digital twins few real-world examples that explore the challenges of combining imperfect model and measurement data,
Digitalization and then use these as the basis for subsequent analysis. In this work we propose a Digital Twin framework
Distribution system state estimation
for electrical distribution systems and implement that framework on the Smart Energy Network Demonstrator
Microgrid
microgrid in the UK. The data and software implementation are made available open-source, and consist of
a network model, power meter measurements, and unbalanced power flow-based algorithms. Measurement
and network uncertainties are shown to have a substantial impact on the quality of Digital Twin outputs.
The potential benefits of a dynamic export limit and voltage control are estimated using the Digital Twin,
using simulated measurements to address data quality challenges, with results showing curtailment for an
exemplar day could be reduced by 56%. Power meter data and a network model are shown to be necessary for
developing algorithms that enable decision-making that is robust to real-world uncertainties, with possibilities
and challenges of Digital Twin development clearly demonstrated.
∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Deakin).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijepes.2024.110302
Received 17 November 2023; Received in revised form 17 June 2024; Accepted 9 October 2024
Available online 30 October 2024
0142-0615/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
M. Deakin et al. International Journal of Electrical Power and Energy Systems 162 (2024) 110302
buses and adding artificial noise [14]). In other cases, power flows
and voltages from real networks are made public, but usage of this
data can be hampered by a lack of corresponding network model and
unspecified measurement accuracy [15]. In contrast, there are many
methods for supporting decision making through control- or market-
based means [16,17], but decision-making algorithms typically do not
consider the data assimilation process, and so would not nominally
be considered a Digital Twin. Such analysis methods may thus fail
to fully exploit available information in the decision making process,
or make unrealistic assumptions as to data accuracy and robustness. Fig. 1. The proposed Digital Twin framework aims to combine network models and
telemetry with DSSE and simulation algorithms. Section 3 discusses the physical
There is therefore a need for test cases which demonstrate practical
system, network model, online measurements, and data historian; Section 4 discusses
imperfections in distribution network and measurement data: we show the network model and DSSE; Section 5 discusses distribution system simulation and
that these are valuable not only for developing ‘whole’ Digital Twin decision making activities.
applications, but also for DSSE on its own.
There is a small but growing literature on experiences with real data
for use with Digital Twins or DSSE. Several papers report findings and 2. A digital twin framework for distribution network applications
experiences using real data that cannot be shared (e.g., for privacy or
commercial reasons). For example, [18] present the results of DSSE on Definitions of Digital Twins vary significantly between sectors and
a Swiss distribution network, highlighting how mismatches between applications [1]. For the purposes of this work, we consider a dis-
real and digital line parameters cause their state estimator to flag tribution system Digital Twin to be a software representation of the
‘normal’ current measurements as gross data errors. Großet al. [19] physical system that is characterized by the five elements illustrated in
evaluate the sensitivity of DSSE outputs to the pseudomeasurements Fig. 1. Functionally, the Digital Twin acts as an interface for support-
required in an MV network. Others explore the impact of measure- ing decision making processes undertaken by control room operators
ment configuration and error on DSSE results [20], or how incorrect and system planners, with the aim of supporting both planning and
transformer impedances affect the development of Digital Twins [11]. operational decisions.
Finally, a small number of test cases feature both network data and real The Digital Twin takes input data from the physical system in the
power data from the network’s smart meters, such as the interconnected form of a network model and online measurements. The network model
LV systems in [21] and the unbalanced MV/LV test system of [22]. includes all information required to run a power flow, i.e., network
However, to the authors’ knowledge, no prior distribution test cases topology, impedances (cables types and lengths), transformer models,
feature a network model together with both power and voltage data. and load/generator connectivity. Measurement data from power meters
This is because energy (power) data are easier to obtain, as utilities and other data acquisition systems can be used online and stored in a
collect them for billing purposes, while voltage measurements are central data historian for subsequent interrogation. The network model,
typically not stored. However, errors in the twin’s network model can
online measurements and data historian can be used for simulation
only be identified if voltage measurements are available, and syntheti-
of the distribution system in unrealized circumstances (using a dis-
cally created voltage measurements do not necessarily capture real-life
tribution system simulator), or for estimating the state of the system
complexities. Given the role of extensive demand-side electrification in
given noisy measurements (using DSSE algorithms). The main differ-
reaching net zero, the need for representative test systems which more
ence between the Digital Twin and a simulation set-up rests in data
closely represent the network and monitoring data available to DNOs
assimilation: through the access to field measurements, the Digital Twin
in contemporary systems is both significant and timely.
can utilize the most up-to-date load and network data for planning and
The contribution of this paper is to explore the opportunities and
operational tasks, enabling significantly increased accuracy. Table 1
challenges of developing Digital Twins in power distribution systems
lists the software used to carry out these functionalities.
by proposing a Digital Twin framework for a real-world MV/LV dis-
tribution system, then acquiring the models and data alongside a
2.1. Comparing digital twins with existing practice
software implementation to realize this twin. Opportunities to provide
inputs for decision-making for system owners are demonstrated as a
In transmission networks, data acquisition and assimilation are part
clear potential benefit of the Digital Twin, whilst also highlighting the
of state estimation workflows since the 1970s, and control rooms
risks if an insufficient model and data fidelity cannot be reconciled
receive updated information on the system’s (steady) state every few
to create a consistent system representation. The network model [23]
minutes. Transmission networks are in general fully observable, and
and measurement data [24] are made available open-source, with a
measurement semantics are well understood. Therefore, Digital Twins
workbook for reproducing results of this work at
could be seen as an extension of current control room practice, rather
than the development of a new operating approach.
https://github.com/deakinmt/DSSE_SEND.
In contrast, distribution network practices vary hugely depending
The paper is structured as follows. Section 2 proposes a Digital Twin on geography, regulation, and policies. It is thus challenging to pro-
for power distribution networks, highlighting the crucial requirements vide a clear overview of the state of the art and compare it with
for DSSE within the Digital Twin for data assimilation. Section 3 the proposed Digital Twin. However, in many distribution systems,
provides a detailed explanation of the Smart Energy Network Demon- developing a Digital Twin would represent a substantial change in the
strator (SEND) microgrid, on which the Digital Twin framework is utility operating practice. For example, the dominant ‘fit-and-forget’
implemented. Section 4 discusses the challenges encountered working model of distribution operations and planning only uses data on an
with the real data, showing how the present meter configuration and ad-hoc basis, and there is no control room as there are no remote
network model require improvement to reach the standards needed for actions the DNO will be expecting to undertake. The SEND system is
effective data assimilation. The benefits of a dynamic voltage control somewhat unusual in this regard (as a demonstrator project) as it has
scheme are estimated in Section 5 to highlight a potential use-case of a relatively high level of monitoring. Nevertheless, even within this
the Digital Twin, albeit using the Digital Twin in a synthetic setup high-value demonstrator, data assimilation is not provided, diminishing
(i.e., using a combination of real and simulated ‘measurements’). In the ability to identify errors in models and data, or to be able to use
Section 6 we survey potential future directions and research gaps for an optimal estimate of the network state from DSSE. In summary,
Digital Twins, before offering conclusions in Section 7. prior practise from DNOs contrast strongly with the proposed Digital
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M. Deakin et al. International Journal of Electrical Power and Energy Systems 162 (2024) 110302
Table 1
Tools used to realize the SEND digital twin.
Digital twin module Tool or format
Online measurements Siemens SICAM P855
Data historian Siemens Distributed Energy Optimization (DEOP); cached in .csv format
Network model OpenDSS .dss format
Distribution system simulator OpenDSS (nonlinear power flow); Julia (linear power flow)
Distribution System State Estimation (DSSE) PowerModelsDistribution StateEstimation.jl [14]
Fig. 2. The SEND virtual private wire system (or ‘microgrid’) interconnects with the
wider distribution network at four points.
Twin concept for distribution systems. The Digital Twin allows planners
and control engineers to exploit a common historic best-view of the
network, based on models and data, with the aim of providing a
step-change in accuracy and granularity of information available for
decision-making.
Typical challenges that distribution network Digital Twins need to
address include integrating disparate databases (e.g., combining GIS
information directly with parameters such as line construction codes);
providing seamless interfaces to third-party information (e.g., AMI
data) as and when required; and improved information recording for
critical parameters such as switch states or off-load transformer tap
positions. Additional organizational bottlenecks and more informed
engineering practices are discussed in [10], such as enhanced mea-
surement semantics, better integration of data sources, and systematic
methods for validating electrical network models.
Fig. 3. Augmented single line diagram of the MV network of the SEND virtual private
wire network showing the network, distributed energy resources and location and
3. The smart energy network demonstrator voltage level of power meters. For conciseness, LV substation transformers are not
shown.
The augmented single line diagram in Fig. 3 shows the electrical microgrid can export. However, even from this point of connection,
network topology, the location of distributed energy resources, and the voltage constraints mean that the export at the point of common
voltage and location of the power meters. A summary of key network coupling must remain less than 1.578 MW. As the total connected
parameters is reported in Table 2, showing that the network peak generation capacity is greater than this value, the site is subject to an
generation is much higher than the baseload demand. The topology of export limit, with protection in-place so that the generators will trip
the MV network is weakly meshed, with LV substations (not shown) if there is a greater export than this value for a period of more than
feeding demands connected radially. Within the LV networks, only the 10 s [26]. To avoid tripping of the protection, an alarm is therefore
LV substation busbar is modeled. raised after one second by the energy management system, then after a
There are four potential points of coupling to the upstream network further four seconds generation is curtailed by the energy management
(as also shown in Fig. 2): bus 1, 2, 13-1, or 13-2. The network is nor- system. It is therefore not uncommon to see oscillatory, ‘hunting’
mally operated with only bus 13-2 connected to the main distribution behavior in PV output during high solar output, as the generation is
network, as this is the point of common coupling (PCC) for which the reduced due to over-export, slowly ramped up over the course of a
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M. Deakin et al. International Journal of Electrical Power and Energy Systems 162 (2024) 110302
Table 3 Table 5
Virtual power plant assets, together representing approximately 400 kVA demand-side Summary of SEND electrical telemetry parameters.
response. Parameter Value
Parameter Number
Meter type Siemens SICAM P855 [27]
Air conditioning unit 1 No. MV meters 7
Air handling units 24 No. LV meters 15
Pump 5 double, 11 single Synchronization accuracy ±25 ms
Fan coil units 20 Update frequency Twice per minute
Electric boiler 3 Measurands Line–line voltages magnitudes [V], phase currents
Smart plug 95 [A], apparent power [kVA], total real power [kW],
Immersion heater 10 total reactive power [kVAr], three-phase power
Chiller 7 factor.
Car chargers 11 dual chargers
Air handling unit circuit pumps 1 double
Variable temperature circuit pumps 1 double
Table 4
Dates in 2022 of data scraped from the SEND DEOP data historian API.
Date Weekday Date Weekday
13th May Friday 16th Sept. Friday
14th May Saturday 17th Sept. Saturday
15th July Friday 11th Nov. Friday
16th July Saturday 12th Nov. Saturday
few minutes, and then reduced once again due to the over-export (as
considered in more detail in Section 5).
3.1.1. Distributed energy resources Fig. 4. Voltages, currents and power measurements for the solar PV generator
Fig. 3 shows that in addition to the generators, there are a number connected close to bus 30 for 15th July 2022.
of other distributed energy resources (DERs). Together, these DERs can
be scheduled to reduce both the total cost of energy supplied to the
SEND campus and overall campus carbon intensity. For example, when
surplus generation is predicted, the site’s gas boilers can be turned off
and the campus water heating demand is instead met via three 0.5 MW
electric boilers.
In addition to the boilers, approximately 400 kVA of demand side
response technologies are split across a wide range of different demand
classes, summarized in Table 3. It is interesting to note that, even
though there are more than 150 assets, together they provide less
flexibility than just a single large electric boiler. Nevertheless, they still
represent a significant opportunity to shift demand temporally to make
use of renewable energy that would otherwise be spilled.
3.2. Telemetry
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M. Deakin et al. International Journal of Electrical Power and Energy Systems 162 (2024) 110302
effective Digital Twin. Firstly, Section 4.1 discusses the quality of raw
data from power meters, showing how a number of data quality issues
require preprocessing. Challenges in network model development are
outlined in Section 4.2, considering data inconsistency and incomplete
component information. In particular, inaccurate MV/LV transformer
models are shown to have a significant detrimental impact on the
Digital Twin’s performance. Finally, challenges around power meter
configurations are outlined in Section 4.3. We show that, even assuming
a perfect network model and noiseless measurements, meter paucity
and inadequate measurement semantics make it impossible to recover
the state of the system reliably. A bespoke, heuristic DSSE approach is
proposed to address these issues, but a clear need for improved data
quality is seen (with regards to measurements and network model) to
enable real-world DSSE-based decision making.
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M. Deakin et al. International Journal of Electrical Power and Energy Systems 162 (2024) 110302
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M. Deakin et al. International Journal of Electrical Power and Energy Systems 162 (2024) 110302
4.3.1. DSSE approach and results be returned that is valid for a set observed nodes (without requiring
To run DSSE, we use the open-source PowerModelsDistributionSta- any assumptions of the statistics of the demand or voltages at the
teEstimation.jl package [14]. This tool is attractive for the SEND system unobserved nodes).
as it can solve under-determined state estimation problems without The full DSSE formulation is given in the Appendix, and is a
relying on pseudomeasurements, and because the optimization-based non-convex quadratically constrained quadratic programming (QCQP)
framework is easily customizable, enabling bespoke measurement con- problem. Results for one timestep are visualized in Fig. 9, both with the
straints such those necessary to include line voltage measurements 𝑈 LL . nominal and updated MV/LV tap positions (as described in Section 4.2).
This ease-of-prototyping is possible thanks to the underlying automatic These figures plot the residual, calculated as the difference between the
differentiation toolbox JuMP [31]. measured line voltage and the estimated voltage as calculated via DSSE.
As is conventional for DSSE problems, measurement errors are Whilst the true value of state variables cannot be known (due to in-
assumed to be independent and normally distributed, with standard evitable measurement noise), approximate bounds can be inferred from
deviation one third of the maximum error, meter tolerances (Table 6). The results from DSSE for the model with
( )
0.005 × 𝑈̂ 𝑖,LLpq nominal MV/LV tap positions (Fig. 9(a)) indicate that the measurement
𝑈𝑖,LLpq ∼ 𝑈̂ 𝑖,LLpq ; , (2) and network models are inconsistent. This cannot be explained due
3
to potential errors that may be introduced by the heuristic (3)–using
where 𝑈̂ 𝑖,LLpq is the line voltage measurement at bus 𝑖 measured from the voltage–power sensitivity (7), introduced later in Section 5.1 and
phase p to phase q. parameterized in Table 7, a 0.15 pu voltage deviation would require
Without per-phase current or power flow measurement, the system an injection of more than 20 MW, much greater than the maximum
would be unobservable even if all nodes had phase voltage and three- demand of the network (see Table 2). A number of buses are com-
phase power measurements. Therefore, for the purposes of this work, pletely unobservable, as can be identified due to their residual having
we combine current magnitudes |𝐼| ̂ 𝑖,𝜙 and total powers 𝑃̂ t ot into a
𝑖 a value that is numerically zero (seven buses have all three voltage
heuristic composite per-phase power measurement 𝑃̂𝑖, 𝜙 for phase 𝜙 for residuals less than 6 × 10−5 ). These buses have numerical value zero,
the 𝑖th bus, as in those under-observed subsystems the state estimator will have
|𝐼|
̂ 𝑖,𝜙 sufficient degrees of freedom to assign measurement–variable pairs
𝑃̂𝑖, 𝜙 = 𝑃̂𝑖t ot ∑ . (3)
as having identical values whilst still maintaining consistency of the
𝜙∈{𝑎,𝑏,𝑐} |𝐼|𝑖,𝜙
̂
power flow equations.
An equivalent identity holds for a per-phase reactive power. Note that, The output of DSSE following the tap position update is plotted in
as discussed previously in Section 4.3, ideally in future work the meters Fig. 9(b), with the residuals having decreased significantly as compared
will be updated to enable the per-phase powers to be used directly, to the nominal MV/LV tap positions. It can be observed that changing
rather than requiring the use of the heuristic (3); as such, simulations
the tap positions did not result in a change in residuals for unobservable
conducted in Section 5 assume per-phase measurements. (Active and
nodes (as expected). The residuals are still too variable to consider a
reactive powers measurements are used rather than using the measured
good DSSE output. Nevertheless, they confirm in a statistical sense that
power factor and apparent power because of the non-linear relation
the updated network model improves the Digital Twin’s data quality.
between power factor and reactive power leading to poor measurement
error propagation). The uncertainty of (3) is not known, but is required
5. Case study: Using the digital twin for estimating benefits of a
for DSSE. This uncertainty is based on (1) and is estimated according
dynamic export limit
to
{ }
𝑃
𝜖𝑖,𝜙 = 0.01 × 𝑈𝑖Rt d. × max |𝐼|
̂ 𝑖,𝜙 , 0.2 × 𝐼 Rt d. ,
𝑖 (4) The SEND network is subject to a static maximum export limit, set
by the utility as a result of voltage congestion, following the UK stan-
leading per-phase powers to be distributed as
( 𝑃 )
dard G100 [26]. To meet this standard, the SEND energy management
𝜖𝑖,𝜙
system automatically reduces solar power output by several MW if the
𝑃𝑖,𝜙 ∼ 𝑃̂𝑖,𝜙 ; . (5)
3 power threshold is breached for a set time period. When this power
reduction occurs, the energy management system acts to increase de-
An equivalent distribution exists for per-phase reactive power mea-
mand from electric boilers and other flexible demand sources, then the
surements (with the exception that the operational tolerance of 1% is
solar export ramps back towards the available power export. However,
replaced with 2%, as in Table 6).
in general, the maximum solar generation is large in comparison to the
There are two general approaches to perform DSSE in unobservable
systems: providing pseudomeasurements at unobserved power injec- energy that can be absorbed by the flexible loads and electric boilers.
tions [9], resulting in a ‘pseudo-observable’ system, or solving the In this section, we use the SEND Digital Twin to consider a potential
underdetermined state estimation problem directly. Pseudomeasure- solution to address these high curtailment volumes. In particular, a dy-
ments have been the dominant approach historically, as they enable namic export limit is considered, with voltage control also provided by
the use of classical, well-established state estimation approaches that setting a non-unity power factor for the solar generator. In Section 5.1
are common in transmission system applications. However, several we explain the physical mechanism by which this approach would
authors have recently considered alternative approaches that question reduce curtailment, with the role of the Digital Twin in calculating
pseudomeasurements’ value, as there is a risk they can introduce signif- the potential benefits of this approach described in Section 5.2. The
icant noise and compromise estimation quality [32,33]. Proposed DSSE analysis is based on a synthetic test case, with results presented for
methods that avoid pseudomeasurements include the use of alternative September 17th (an exemplar day with significant curtailment) in
statistical metrics [33], matrix completion [32], and the identification Section 5.3.
of ‘‘observable islands’’ through the use of pseudo-inverses of singular
matrices [34]. In this work, we choose the latter approach for DSSE 5.1. Reducing curtailment with a dynamic export limit and reactive power
for two reasons. Firstly, whilst [32,33] present several advantages control
over pseudomeasurements, including reduced historical data require-
ments, they still rely on statistical assumptions on non-monitored users Changing the SEND connection agreement to have a dynamic export
for results to be valid; there is, however limited information at the limit would mean that exports will only be limited if relevant state
non-observed nodes within the SEND system on which to base those as- parameters have reached their operational limits at a given time,
sumptions. Secondly, as we demonstrate in Section 4.3.1, there are non- rather than having only been determined for a conservative, worst-
trivial observable islands—i.e., a non-trivial DSSE result can therefore case scenario (as is the case for the existing static export limit). As the
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M. Deakin et al. International Journal of Electrical Power and Energy Systems 162 (2024) 110302
5.2. Using the digital twin for network and curtailment modeling
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M. Deakin et al. International Journal of Electrical Power and Energy Systems 162 (2024) 110302
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M. Deakin et al. International Journal of Electrical Power and Energy Systems 162 (2024) 110302
might realistically be installed, their tolerance, or in non-trivial net- original implementation (15) is added for the SEND case. The DSSE
work modeling errors, each of which can have substantial effects on problem is then solved using Ipopt [41].
subsequent analysis. DSSE is performed in the AC-rectangular (ACR) variable space, with
State estimation has been proposed as an integral part of the Digital phase voltage phasors 𝐔 ∈ C𝑛×3 and lifted power variables 𝐒 ∈ C𝑛×3×3
Twin architecture. The SEND measurement data and network model represented within the optimization in real and imaginary components,
underlines the necessity of both correctly configured meters and a
network model with a very good accuracy to enable an adequate state 𝐔𝑖 = 𝐔Re Im
𝑖 + 𝑗𝐔𝑖 ∀𝑖 ∈ , (12)
estimation output. We hope that other researchers can use the model 𝐒𝑖𝑗 = 𝐏𝑖𝑗 + 𝑗𝐐𝑖𝑗 ∀(𝑖, 𝑗) ∈ ∪ , R
(13)
and data for development and validation of new algorithms to address
the challenges seen in this project. For example, future work could where is the set of buses, , R
are the sets of branches in forward
include integration of DSSE with model identification functionality to and reverse orientation, and bold math font indicating a variable which
address challenges seen in this work around identifying tap settings of can be indexed only via the first element (e.g., 𝐒𝑖𝑗 will return a 3 × 3
MV/LV transformers. matrix). Loads and generators are defined via
The Digital Twin has been used to explore the potential for dy-
𝐒𝑔𝑘 , 𝐒𝑑𝑘 ∀𝑘 ∈ ∪ , (14)
namic export limits and voltage control to minimize solar curtailment.
However, there is huge potential for a range of further applications where , are the sets of generators and loads respectively.
both in microgrid and grid-connected systems, such as the scheduling
SEND voltage measurements are line voltage magnitudes |𝑈 LL |,
of virtual power plant assets, developing consumer dynamic operating
which are not nominally included in the ACR variable space. These
envelopes, or preventive and corrective actions during stress events. We
can therefore be incorporated into the formulation via the equality
conclude that distribution system Digital Twins could be a cornerstone
constraint
technology for network operators, and that utilities, academia and
2
industry must work together to develop these as a holistic and flexible |𝑈𝑖,LLpq | = |𝑈𝑖, p − 𝑈𝑖, q |2
(15)
tool for the wide range of distribution grid characteristics seen around ∀𝑖 ↦ 𝑚 ∈ |𝑈 |pq , ∀pq ∈ {𝑎𝑏, 𝑏𝑐 , 𝑐 𝑎}.
the world.
As discussed in Section 4, the raw data from the power meters return
CRediT authorship contribution statement only total three-phase powers, rather than per-phase quantities. These
are split according to the heuristic (3), and can be linked directly to
Matthew Deakin: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original demand or generator variables (14).
draft, Methodology, Funding acquisition, Formal analysis, Data cura- The DSSE objective function is the weighted sum of the least squares
tion, Conceptualization. Marta Vanin: Writing – review & editing, of residuals,
Writing – original draft, Software, Methodology, Investigation, Formal ∑
minimize 𝜌𝑚 , (16)
analysis, Conceptualization. Zhong Fan: Writing – review & editing,
𝑚∈
Resources, Funding acquisition. Dirk Van Hertem: Writing – review &
editing, Resources, Funding acquisition. where weighted residuals 𝜌𝑚 are defined as
( )2
𝑥𝑚 − 𝑧𝑚
Declaration of competing interest 𝜌𝑚 = ∀𝑚 ∈ . (17)
𝜎𝑚2
The authors have no interests to declare. Here, 𝑥𝑚 is the system variable corresponding to the measured value 𝑧𝑚 ,
with 𝜎𝑚 representing the confidence on the measurement accuracy. The
Acknowledgments raw measurements are line voltages and (heuristic) per-phase powers
(used in Section 4.3), where the synthetic measurements used in the
The authors are grateful for extensive support in accessing data case study are phase voltage and per-phase powers for the synthetic
and developing the Digital Twin from Ashley Dean, Matthew Dean case study (used in Section 5.3).
and Ian Shaw at SEND, Keele University. The authors also thank Dr The power flow equations (Kirchhoff’s current law and generalized
Frederik Geth from GridQube for helpful discussions on observability Ohm’s law) complete the DSSE model:
and state estimation. The Smart Energy Network Demonstrator project
(ref: 32R16P00706) is part-funded through the European Regional De- 𝐒𝑖𝑗 = 𝐔𝑖 𝐔𝐻 𝑐 𝐻 𝐻 𝐻
𝑖 (𝐘𝑖𝑗 + 𝐘𝑖𝑗 ) − 𝐔𝑖 𝐔𝑗 𝐘𝑖𝑗 ∀(𝑖, 𝑗) ∈ , (18)
velopment Fund (ERDF) as part of the England 2014 to 2020 European 𝐒𝑗 𝑖 = 𝐔𝑗 𝐔𝐻 + 𝐘𝑐𝑗𝑖 )𝐻 − 𝐔𝐻 𝐻
∀(𝑖, 𝑗) ∈ , (19)
𝑗 (𝐘𝑖𝑗 𝑖 𝐔𝑗 𝐘𝑖𝑗
Structural and Investment Funds (ESIF) Growth Programme. It is also ∑ 𝑔 ∑ ∑
receiving funds from the Department for Business, Energy and Indus- 𝐒𝑘 − 𝐒𝑑𝑘 = diag(𝐒𝑖𝑗 ) ∀𝑖 ∈ . (20)
trial Strategy (BEIS), UK. M. Deakin was supported by the Centre for 𝑘∈𝑖 𝑘∈𝑖 (𝑖,𝑗)∈𝑖 ∪𝑖R
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M. Deakin et al. International Journal of Electrical Power and Energy Systems 162 (2024) 110302
Data availability [22] Sandell S, Bjerkehagen D, Birkeland B, Sperstad IB. Dataset for a Norwegian
medium and low voltage power distribution system with industrial loads. Data
Brief 2023;48:109121.
The data and code are available, as outlined in the introduction of
[23] Deakin M, Fan Z, Dean A, Dean M, Shaw I. Network model for a smart energy
the paper. network digital twin. 2023, http://dx.doi.org/10.25405/data.ncl.21618342.v1.
[24] Deakin M, Vanin M, Fan Z, Dean A, Dean M, Shaw I. Telemetry data for a
smart energy network digital twin. 2023, http://dx.doi.org/10.25405/data.ncl.
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