IGCSE PHYSICS – REVISION NOTE

Measurement and Units

• SI Units:
o Mass: kilogram (kg)
o Length: meter (m)
o Time: second (s)
o Electric current: ampere (A)
o Temperature: kelvin (K)
• Prefixes:
o Kilo (k) = 10³
o Mega (M) = 10⁶
o Milli (m) = 10⁻³
o Micro (µ) = 10⁻⁶
• Physical Quantities:
o Scalar (magnitude only): speed, distance, mass, time
o Vector (magnitude + direction): velocity, displacement, force
2. Motion
• Speed and Velocity:
o Speed = Distance / Time
o Velocity = Displacement / Time
• Acceleration:
o a = (v - u) / t, where v = final velocity, u = initial velocity, t = time
• Graphs:
o Distance-time graph: Gradient gives speed
o Speed -time graph: Gradient gives acceleration, area gives distance traveled
3. Forces and Motion
• Newton’s Laws:
o 1st Law: An object will remain at rest or move with constant velocity unless acted
upon by an external force.
o 2nd Law: F = ma (Force = mass × acceleration)
o 3rd Law: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

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 • Weight and Mass:
o Weight (W) = mass (m) × gravitational field strength (g)
o W = mg (where g ≈ 9.8 N/kg on Earth)
• Elasticity:
o F = k x (k = spring constant)
o Hooke’s Law : Extension is directly proportional to the force within the limit of
proportionality
• Momentum:
o p = mv (momentum = mass × velocity)
o Change in momentum / Impulse
Ft = mv - mu
o Conservation of momentum: Momentum before = Momentum after (in a closed
system)
• Moment:
o p = F x d (moment = Force × Perpendicular distance from force to pivot)
o Principle of moment : Clockwise Moment = Anti -clockwise Moment (At Equillibrium)
4. Energy
• Energy Types: Kinetic, potential, thermal, chemical, nuclear, electrical
• Work Done:
o Work = Force × Distance (in the direction of force)
o Unit: Joule (J)
• Power:
o Power = Work / Time
o Unit: Watt (W)
• Kinetic Energy:
o K.E. = ½ mv²
• Gravitational Potential Energy:
o G.P.E. = mgh (where h = height, g ≈ 9.8 N/kg)
• Law of Conservation of Energy: Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only converted from
one form to another.

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5. Thermal Physics
• Temperature: Measure of the average kinetic energy of particles in a substance.
• Specific Heat Capacity:
o Q = mcΔT (where Q = heat energy, m = mass, c = specific heat capacity, ΔT =
temperature change)
• Thermal Expansion:
o Most substances expand when heated and contract when cooled.
• Conduction, Convection, and Radiation:
o Conduction: Transfer of heat through solids.
o Convection: Transfer of heat through fluids (liquids/gases).
o Radiation: Transfer of heat through electromagnetic waves (e.g., heat from the Sun).
6. Waves
• Types of Waves:
o Transverse waves: Oscillations are perpendicular to the direction of wave travel (e.g.,
light waves).
o Longitudinal waves: Oscillations are parallel to the direction of wave travel (e.g.,
sound waves, Seismic P Waves).
• Wave Properties:
o Amplitude: Maximum displacement from equilibrium.
o Wavelength: Distance between two consecutive crests or troughs.
o Frequency (f): Number of waves passing a point per second (Hz).
o Speed of Wave (v): v = f × λ (where λ = wavelength)
o Reflection: Angle of incidence = angle of reflection.
o Refraction: Bending of light as it passes from one medium to another (Snell's Law).
o Diffraction: Bending of waves around obstacles.
• Sound Waves:
o Travel faster in solids than in liquids or gases.
o Audible Frequency – 20Hz to 20 kHz
o Cannot travel in a vacuum (no medium).
o Hight Pich – High Frequency
o Louder – Larger Ampltude

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 • Light
o Light is a form of electromagnetic wave.
o Speed of Light: In a vacuum, light travels at approximately 3 × 10^8 m/s.
o Reflection: When light bounces off a surface.
o Law of Reflection: The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
o Specular Reflection: Reflection from a smooth surface (e.g., mirror).
o Diffuse Reflection: Reflection from a rough surface.
o Refraction: Bending of light as it passes from one medium to another due to a
change in speed.
o Critical Angle: The angle of incidence at which the angle of refraction is 90° (the light
travels along the boundary).
o Total Internal Reflection: Occurs when the angle of incidence exceeds the critical
angle.
Refractive Index

• Electromagnetic Waves:
o All EM waves travel at the same speed in a vacuum (approximately 3 x 10 8 m/s).
o Radio Waves: Used in communication (TV, radio).
o Microwaves: Used in cooking, radar, and satellite communications.
o Infrared (IR): Used in night vision and remote controls.
o Visible Light: The range of light visible to the human eye.
o Ultraviolet (UV): Causes sunburn and is used in sterilizing equipment.
o X-rays: Used in medical imaging and cancer treatment.
o Gamma Rays: Used in nuclear medicine and cancer treatment.

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7. Electricity
• Current, Voltage, Resistance:
o Ohm's Law: V = IR (Voltage = Current × Resistance)
Electric Current
• Definition: The flow of electric charge (usually electrons) through a conductor.
• Unit: Ampere (A)

Voltage (Potential Difference)

• Definition: The energy required to move a unit charge between two points in an electric
circuit.
• Unit: Volt (V)

Resistance
• Definition: The opposition to the flow of current in a circuit.
• Unit: Ohm (Ω)
• Resistance (R) depends on material, length, and cross-sectional area of the conductor.

Power
• Definition: The rate at which electrical energy is transferred or converted.
• Unit: Watt (W)

Series and Parallel Circuits

• Series Circuit:
o Current is the same throughout.
o Voltage is divided among components.

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Parallel Circuit:
• Voltage is the same across all components.
• Current is divided between branches.
Electrical Energy

Where:
• E = energy (Joules, J), P = power (W), I = current (A), V = voltage (V), t = time (s)
Fuses and Circuit Breakers
• Fuse: A safety device that melts and breaks the circuit if the current exceeds a safe level.
• Circuit Breaker: A switch that automatically cuts off the current when it gets too high.
8. Electromagnetism:
Magnetic Fields
• A magnetic field is a region around a magnet which experience a force
Electromagnetic Induction
• Faraday’s Law: The induced emf (electromotive force) is proportional to the rate of change
of the magnetic flux.
• Lenz’s Law: The direction of the induced current is such that it opposes the change in the
magnetic flux that caused it.
DC Motor
• Electric Motor: Uses the interaction between a magnetic field and current to produce
rotational motion. In a motor, forces act on current-carrying coils, making them rotate.
The Transformer
• Principle: A transformer operates on the principle of electromagnetic induction. When
alternating current passes through the primary coil, it creates a changing magnetic field,
secondary coil cuts the magnetic field lines and which induces a current in the secondary
coil.
• Transformer Equations

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In an ideal transformer, efficiency is 100%.

9. Nuclear Physics
• Structure of the Atom:
o Nucleus: Protons (+) and Neutrons (neutral).
o Electrons (-) orbit the nucleus.
• Radioactive Decay:
o Alpha (α) decay: Emission of a helium nucleus.
o Beta (β) decay: Emission of an electron (or positron).
o Gamma (γ) radiation: High-energy electromagnetic radiation.
• Half-life: Time taken for half of the atoms in a sample of a radioactive isotope to decay.
10. Space Physics
• The Universe: The universe contains billions of galaxies. Each galaxy contains billions of
stars, and our galaxy is called the Milky Way.
• The Solar System: Our solar system consists of the Sun, 8 planets, moons, dwarf planets,
comets, and asteroids. The planets orbit the Sun in elliptical paths due to gravitational force.
• Inner planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars (rocky and smaller).
• Outer planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune (gas giants and ice giants).
The Earth, Moon, and Sun
• Earth rotates on its axis every 24 hours, causing day and night.
• Earth orbits the Sun in a 365-day year.
The Moon:
• The Moon orbits Earth in about 28 days.
• Phases of the Moon (New Moon, First Quarter, Full Moon, Third Quarter) are due to the
changing positions of the Sun, Earth, and Moon.
• Orbital Speed

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 • Light Year
Distance travelled by the light in one year
The Life Cycle of Stars
• Stellar Formation:
• Stars form from clouds of gas and dust called nebulae.
• Gravity causes the particles to collapse, and nuclear fusion starts when the core becomes
hot enough and for proto star
• Main Sequence Stars: Stars like our Sun spend most of their life in this phase.
• Red Giant or Red Supergiant: As a star runs out of fuel, it expands and cools, becoming a
red giant or supergiant.
• Supernova: A massive star explodes in a supernova, creating heavier elements.
• End of Life:
• For stars of low to medium mass (like the Sun): They end as white dwarfs.
• For massive stars: They end as neutron stars or black holes.
The Big Bang Theory
• Big Bang Theory: The most widely accepted explanation for the origin of the universe. It
states that the universe began from an extremely hot and dense state and has been
expanding ever since.
• Evidence:
• Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation: The afterglow of the Big Bang.
• Redshift: The observed stretching of light from distant galaxies, indicating they are moving
away from us, supporting the expansion of the universe.
• Hubble Law ( Hubble Constant = 2.2 x 10-18 s -1)

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