GOVERNMENT ENGINEERING COLLEGE MADHUBANI

ELECTRICAL DEPARTMENT

SUBJECT - ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT

MODULE 2 NOTES

Prof. Poonam Kumari

 CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENTS

AC BRIDGES

2.1 General form of A.C. bridge

AC bridge are similar to D.C. bridge in topology(way of connecting).It consists of four arm
AB,BC,CD and DA .Generally the impedance to be measured is connected between ‘A’ and ‘B’.
A detector is connected between ‘B’ and ’D’. The detector is used as null deflection instrument.
Some of the arms are variable element. By varying these elements, the potential values at ‘B’ and
‘D’ can be made equal. This is called balancing of the bridge.

Fig. 2.1 General form of A.C. bridge

At the balance condition, the current through detector is zero.
. .
∴ I1 = I 3
. .
I2 = I4
. .
I1 I3
∴ = (2.1)
. .
I2 I4
At balance condition,

Voltage drop across ‘AB’=voltage drop across ‘AD’.

. .
E1 = E 2
. . . .
∴ I1 Z1 = I 2 Z 2 (2.2)
Similarly, Voltage drop across ‘BC’=voltage drop across ‘DC’
. .
E3 = E4

. . . .
∴I 3 Z3 = I 4 Z 4 (2.3)

. .
I1 Z2
From Eqn. (2.2), we have ∴ = (2.4)
. .
I2 Z1

. .
I3 Z4
From Eqn. (2.3), we have ∴ = (2.5)
. .
I4 Z3

From equation -2.1, it can be seen that, equation -2.4 and equation-2.5 are equal.

. .
Z2 Z4
∴ =
. .
Z1 Z3

. . . .
∴Z1 Z 4 = Z 2 Z 3

Products of impedances of opposite arms are equal.

∴ Z1 ∠θ1 Z 4 ∠θ 4 = Z 2 ∠θ 2 Z 3 ∠θ 3

⇒ Z1 Z 4 ∠θ1 + θ 4 = Z 2 Z 3 ∠θ 2 + θ 3

Z1 Z 4 = Z 2 Z 3

θ1 + θ 4 = θ 2 + θ 3
∗ For balance condition, magnitude on either side must be equal.

∗ Angle on either side must be equal.

Summary
For balance condition,
. . . .
• I1 = I 3 , I 2 = I 4
• Z1 Z 4 = Z 2 Z 3

• θ1 + θ 4 = θ 2 + θ 3
. . . .
• E1 = E 2 & E3 = E4

2.2 Types of detector

The following types of instruments are used as detector in A.C. bridge.

• Vibration galvanometer

• Head phones (speaker)

• Tuned amplifier

2.2.1 Vibration galvanometer

Between the point ‘B’ and ‘D’ a vibration galvanometer is connected to indicate the bridge
balance condition. This A.C. galvanometer which works on the principle of resonance. The
A.C. galvanometer shows a dot, if the bridge is unbalanced.
2.2.2 Head phones
Two speakers are connected in parallel in this system. If the bridge is unbalanced, the
speaker produced more sound energy. If the bridge is balanced, the speaker do not produced
any sound energy.

2.2.3 Tuned amplifier

If the bridge is unbalanced the output of tuned amplifier is high. If the bridge is balanced,
output of amplifier is zero.
2.3 Measurements of inductance

2.3.1 Maxwell’s inductance bridge

The choke for which R1 and L1 have to measure connected between the points ‘A’ and
‘B’. In this method the unknown inductance is measured by comparing it with the standard
inductance.

Fig. 2.2 Maxwell’s inductance bridge

L2 is adjusted, until the detector indicates zero current.

Let R1= unknown resistance
L1= unknown inductance of the choke.
L2= known standard inductance
R1,R2,R4= known resistances.
 CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENTS

Fig 2.3 Phasor diagram of Maxwell’s inductance bridge

. . . .
At balance condition, Z 1 Z 4 = Z 2 Z 3

( R1 + jXL1 ) R4 = ( R2 + jXL2 ) R3

( R1 + jwL1 ) R4 = ( R2 + jwL2 ) R3

R1R4 + jwL1R4 = R2 R3 + jwL2 R3

Comparing real part,

R1R4 = R2 R3

R R
∴ R1 = 2 3 (2.6)
R4

Comparing the imaginary parts,

wL1R4 = wL2 R3

L R
L1 = 2 3 (2.7)
R4

WL1 WL2 R3 R4
Q-factor of choke, Q = =
R1 R4 R2 R3

WL2
Q= (2.8)
R2
 CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENTS

Advantages

Expression for R1 and L1 are simple.

Equations area simple
They do not depend on the frequency (as w is cancelled)
R1 and L1 are independent of each other.

Disadvantages

Variable inductor is costly.

Variable inductor is bulky.

2.3.2 Maxwell’s inductance capacitance bridge

Unknown inductance is measured by comparing it with standard capacitance. In this bridge,

balance condition is achieved by varying ‘C4’.

Fig 2.4 Maxwell’s inductance capacitance bridge

 CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENTS

At balance condition, Z1Z4=Z3Z2 (2.9)

1
R4 ×
1 jwC 4
Z 4 = R4 || =
jwC 4 1
R4 +
jwC4

R4 R4
Z4 = = (2.10)
jwR4 C 4 + 1 1 + jwR4C 4

∴ Substituting the value of Z4 from eqn. (2.10) in eqn. (2.9) we get

R4
( R1 + jwL1 ) × = R2 R3
1 + jwR4 C 4

Fig 2.5 Phasor diagram of Maxwell’s inductance capacitance bridge

( R1 + jwL1 ) R4 = R2 R3 (1 + jwR4C 4 )

R1R4 + jwL1R4 = R2 R3 + jwC4 R4 R2 R3

Comparing real parts,

R1R4 = R2 R3
 CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENTS

R R
⇒ R1 = 2 3 (2.11)
R4

Comparing imaginary part,

wL1R4 = wC 4 R4 R2 R3

L1 = C 4 R2 R3 (2.12)

Q-factor of choke,

WL1 R
Q= = w × C 4 R2 R3 × 4
R1 R2 R3

Q = wC4 R4 (2.13)

Advantages

Equation of L1 and R1 are simple.

They are independent of frequency.
They are independent of each other.
Standard capacitor is much smaller in size than standard inductor.

Disadvantages

Standard variable capacitance is costly.

It can be used for measurements of Q-factor in the ranges of 1 to 10.
It cannot be used for measurements of choke with Q-factors more than 10.
We know that Q =wC4R4

For measuring chokes with higher value of Q-factor, the value of C4 and R4 should be
higher. Higher values of standard resistance are very expensive. Therefore this bridge cannot be
used for higher value of Q-factor measurements.
 CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENTS

2.3.3 Hay’s bridge

Fig 2.6 Hay’s bridge

.
E1 = I1R1 + jI1 X 1
. . .
E = E1 + E 3
. . I4
E 4 = I 4 R4 +
jwC 4
.
E 3 = I 3 R3

1 1 + jwR4C4
Z 4 = R4 + =
jwC4 jwC4
 CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENTS

Fig 2.7 Phasor diagram of Hay’s bridge

At balance condition, Z1Z4=Z3Z2

1 + jwR4C 4
( R1 + jwL1 )( ) = R2 R3
jwC 4

( R1 + jwL1 )(1 + jwR4C 4 ) = jwR2 C 4 R3

R1 + jwC 4 R4 R1 + jwL1 + j 2 w 2 L1C 4 R4 = jwC4 R2 R3

( R1 − w2 L1C4 R4 ) + j ( wC4 R4 R1 + wL1 ) = jwC4 R2 R3

Comparing the real term,

R1 − w 2 L1C 4 R4 = 0

R1 = w 2 L1C4 R4 (2.14)
 CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENTS

Comparing the imaginary terms,

wC4 R4 R1 + wL1 = wC4 R2 R3

C 4 R4 R1 + L1 = C 4 R2 R3

L1 = C4 R2 R3 − C4 R4 R1 (2.15)

Substituting the value of R1 fro eqn. 2.14 into eqn. 2.15, we have,

L1 = C 4 R2 R3 − C 4 R4 × w 2 L1C 4 R4

L1 = C4 R2 R3 − w 2 L1C4 2 R4 2

L1 (1 + w 2 L1C 4 2 R4 2 ) = C 4 R2 R3

C4 R2 R3
L1 = (2.16)
1 + w2 L1C4 2 R4 2

Substituting the value of L1 in eqn. 2.14 , we have

w 2C4 2 R2 R3 R4
R1 = (2.17)
1 + w 2C4 2 R4 2

wL1 w × C4 R2 R3 1 + w2C4 2 R4 2
Q= = ×
R1 1 + w2C4 2 R4 2 w2C4 2 R4 R2 R3

1
Q= (2.18)
wC4 R4
 CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENTS

Advantages

Fixed capacitor is cheaper than variable capacitor.

This bridge is best suitable for measuring high value of Q-factor.

Disadvantages

Equations of L1and R1 are complicated.

Measurements of R1 and L1 require the value of frequency.
This bridge cannot be used for measuring low Q- factor.

2.3.4 Owen’s bridge

Fig 2.8 Owen’s bridge

E1 = I1R1 + jI1 X1
I4 leads E4 by 900
 CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENTS

. . .
E = E1 + E 3
. I2
E 2 = I 2 R2 +
jwC 2

Fig 2.9 Phasor diagram of Owen’s bridge

. . . .
Balance condition, Z 1 Z 4 = Z 2 Z 3

1 jwC 2 R2 + 1
Z 2 = R2 + =
jwC2 jwC 2

1 (1 + jwR2C 2 ) × R3
∴ ( R1 + jwL1 ) × =
jwC 4 jwC 2

C 2 ( R1 + jwL1 ) = R3C4 (1 + jwR2C 2 )

R1C 2 + jwL1C2 = R3C4 + jwR2C 2 R3C4

Comparing real terms,

R1C2 = R3C4
 CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENTS

RC
R1 = 3 4
C2

Comparing imaginary terms,

wL1C 2 = wR2 C2 R3C 4

L1 = R2 R3C4

WL1 wR2 R3C4C 2

Q- factor = =
R1 R3C 4

Q = wR2C2

Advantages
Expression for R1 and L1 are simple.
R1 and L1 are independent of Frequency.
Disadvantages
The Circuits used two capacitors.
Variable capacitor is costly.
Q-factor range is restricted.
 CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENTS

2.3.5 Anderson’s bridge

Fig 2.10 Anderson’s bridge

.
E1 = I1 ( R1 + r1 ) + jI1 X 1
E3 = EC
. .
E 4 = I C r + EC

I 2 = I 4 + IC
− − −
E2+ E4 = E
− − −
E1 + E 3 = E
 CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENTS

Fig 2.11 Phasor diagram of Anderson’s bridge

Step-1 Take I1 as references vector .Draw I1R11 in phase with I1

1
R11 = ( R1 + r1 ) , I1 X1 is ⊥ r to I1R1

E1 = I1R11 + jI1 X 1
Step-2 I1 = I 3 , E3 is in phase with I 3 , From the circuit ,

E3 = EC , I C leads EC by 900

Step-3 E4 = I C r + EC
− − −
Step-4 Draw I 4 in phase with E4 , By KCL , I 2 = I 4 + I C
Step-5 Draw E2 in phase with I2
− − − − − −
Step-6 By KVL , E1 + E3 = E or E2 + E4 = E
 CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENTS

Fig 2.12 Equivalent delta to star conversion for the loop MON

R4 × r jwCR 4 r
Z7 = =
1 1 + jwC ( R4 + r )
R4 + r +
jwc

1
R4 ×
jwC R4
Z6 = =
1 1 + jwC ( R4 + r )
R4 + r +
jwc
R4 jwCR4 r
( R11 + jwL1 ) × = R3 ( R2 + )
1 + jwC ( R4 + r ) 1 + jwC ( R4 + r )

( R11 + jwL1 ) R4  R (1 + jwC ( R4 + r )) + jwCrR4 

⇒ = R3  2 
1 + jwC ( R4 + r )  1 + jwC ( R4 + r ) 

⇒ R11R4 + jwL1R4 = R2 R3 + jCwR2 R3 (r + R4 ) + jwCrR4 R3

 CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENTS

Fig 2.13 Simplified diagram of Anderson’s bridge

Comparing real term,

R11R4 = R2 R3

( R1 + r1 ) R4 = R2 R3
R R
R1 = 2 3 − r1
R4
Comparing the imaginary term,

wL1R4 = wCR2 R3 (r + R4 ) + wcrR3 R4

R RC
L1 = 2 3 (r + R4 ) + R3rC
R4

R 
L1 = R3C  2 (r + R4 ) + r 
 R4 
Advantages

Variable capacitor is not required.

Inductance can be measured accurately.
R1 and L1 are independent of frequency.
Accuracy is better than other bridges.
 CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENTS

Disadvantages

Expression for R1 and L1 are complicated.

This is not in the standard form A.C. bridge.

2.4 Measurement of capacitance and loss angle. (Dissipation factor)

2.4.1 Dissipation factors (D)

A practical capacitor is represented as the series combination of small resistance and

ideal capacitance.

From the vector diagram, it can be seen that the angle between voltage and current is slightly less
than 900. The angle ‘ δ ’ is called loss angle.

Fig 2.14 Condensor or capacitor

Fig 2.15 Representation of a practical capacitor

 CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENTS

Fig 2.16 Vector diagram for a practical capacitor

A dissipation factor is defined as ‘tan δ ’.

IR R
∴ tan δ = = = wCR
IX C X C

D = wCR
1
D=
Q

sin δ δ
D = tan δ = ≅ For small value of ‘ δ ’ in radians
cos δ 1
D ≅ δ ≅ Loss Angle (‘ δ ’ must be in radian)
2.4.2 Desauty’s Bridge
C1= Unknown capacitance

At balance condition,

1 1
× R4 = × R3
jwC1 jwC 2

R4 R3
=
C1 C 2

R C
⇒ C1 = 4 2
R3
CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENTS

Fig 2.17 Desauty’s bridge

Fig 2.18 Phasor diagram of Desauty’s bridge

 CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENTS

2.4.3 Modified desauty’s bridge

Fig 2.19 Modified Desauty’s bridge

Fig 2.20 Phasor diagram of Modified Desauty’s bridge

 CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENTS

R11 = ( R1 + r1 )

R12 = ( R2 + r2 )
1 1
At balance condition, ( R11 + ) R4 = R3 ( R12 + )
jwC1 jwC 2

R4 R3
R11R4 + = R3 R12 + )
jwC1 jwC 2

Comparing the real term, R11R4 = R3 R12

R R1
R11 = 3 2
R4
( R2 + r2 ) R3
R + r1 =
R4
Comparing imaginary term,
R4 R
= 3
wC1 wC 2

R C
C1 = 4 2
R3
Dissipation factor D=wC1r1
Advantages
r1 and c1 are independent of frequency.
They are independent of each other.
Source need not be pure sine wave.

2.4.4 Schering bridge

E1 = I1r1 − jI1 X 4

C2 = C4= Standard capacitor (Internal resistance=0)

C4= Variable capacitance.

C1= Unknown capacitance.

r1= Unknown series equivalent resistance of the capacitor.

 CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENTS

R3=R4= Known resistor.

Fig 2.21 Schering bridge

1 jwC1r1 + 1
Z1 = r1 + =
jwC1 jwC1

1
R4 ×
jwC 4 R4
Z4 = =
R4 +
1 1 + jwC 4 R4
jwC 4
 CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENTS

Fig 2.22 Phasor diagram of Schering bridge

. . . .
At balance condition, Z 1 Z 4 = Z 2 Z 3
1 + jwC1r1 R4 R3
× =
jwC1 1 + jwC 4 R4 jwC 2

(1 + jwC1r1 ) R4C 2 = R3C1 (1 + jwC 4 r4 )

R2C2 + jwC1r1R4C2 = R3C1 + jwC 4 R4 R3C1

Comparing the real part,

R C
∴ C1 = 4 2
R3

Comparing the imaginary part,

wC1r1R4C2 = wC4 R3 R4C1

C R
r1 = 4 3
C2

Dissipation factor of capacitor,

 CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENTS

R C C R
D = wC1r1 = w × 4 2 × 4 3
R3 C2

∴ D = wC4 R4

Advantages

In this type of bridge, the value of capacitance can be measured accurately.

It can measure capacitance value over a wide range.
It can measure dissipation factor accurately.

Disadvantages

It requires two capacitors.

Variable standard capacitor is costly.

2.5 Measurements of frequency

2.5.1 Wein’s bridge

Wein’s bridge is popularly used for measurements of frequency of frequency. In this bridge, the
value of all parameters are known. The source whose frequency has to measure is connected as
shown in the figure.

1 jwC1r1 + 1
Z1 = r1 + =
jwC1 jwC1

R2
Z2 =
1 + jwC 2 R2
. . . .
At balance condition, Z 1 Z 4 = Z 2 Z 3
jwC1r1 + 1 R2
× R4 = × R3
jwC1 1 + jwC 2 R2

(1 + jwC1r1 )(1 + jwC 2 R2 ) R4 = R2 R3 × jwC1

[1 + jwC R 2
2 2 + jwC1r1 − w C1C 2 r1R2 = jwC1]R2 R3
R4
CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENTS

Fig 2.23 Wein’s bridge

Fig 2.24 Phasor diagram of Wein’s bridge

 CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENTS

Comparing real term,

1 − w 2C1C 2 r1R2 = 0

w 2C1C 2 r1R2 = 1
1
w2 =
C1C2 r1R2
1 1
w= , f =
C1C 2 r1 R2 2Π C1C 2 r1 R2

NOTE

The above bridge can be used for measurements of capacitance. In such case, r1 and C1 are
unknown and frequency is known. By equating real terms, we will get R1 and C1. Similarly by
equating imaginary term, we will get another equation in terms of r1 and C1. It is only used for
measurements of Audio frequency.
A.F=20 HZ to 20 KHZ
R.F=>> 20 KHZ
Comparing imaginary term,
R R
wC 2 R2 + wC1r1 = wC1 2 3
R4
CR R
C2 R2 + C1r1 = 1 2 3 …………………………………..(2.19)
R4

1
C1 =
2
w C2 r1R2
Substituting in eqn. (2.19), we have
r1 R R
C2 R2 + = 2 3 C1
w2C2 r1R2 R4

R4
Multiplying in both sides, we have
R2 R3

R4 1 R
C2 R2 × + × 4 = C1
R2 R3 w2C2 R2 R2 R3
 CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENTS

C R R4
C1 = 2 4 +
R3 w2C2 R22 R3

w 2C1r1C 2 R2 = 1

1 1
r1 = =
2
w C 2 R2C1 C R R4 
w 2C 2 R2  2 4 + 
 R3 w 2C 2 R22 R3 

1
=
 w2C 2 R R 
2 2 4 + R4
 
 R3 R2 R3 

1
∴ r1 =
R3  2 2 1 
 w C2 R2 + 
R4  R2 

 
R  1 
∴ r1 = 3  
R4  ( w 2C 2 R + 1 ) 
 2 2
R2 

2.5.2 High Voltage Schering Bridge

Fig 2.25 High Voltage Schering bridge

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(1) The high voltage supply is obtained from a transformer usually at 50 HZ.

2.6 Wagner earthing device:

Fig 2.26 Wagner Earthing device

Wagner earthing consists of ‘R’ and ‘C’ in series. The stray capacitance at node ‘B’ and ‘D’ are
CB, CD respectively. These Stray capacitances produced error in the measurements of ‘L’ and
‘C’. These error will predominant at high frequency. The error due to this capacitance can be
eliminated using wagner earthing arm.

Close the change over switch to the position (1) and obtained balanced. Now change the
switch to position (2) and obtained balance. This process has to repeat until balance is achieved
in both the position. In this condition the potential difference across each capacitor is zero.
Current drawn by this is zero. Therefore they do not have any effect on the measurements.

What are the sources of error in the bridge measurements?

Error due to stray capacitance and inductance.

Due to external field.
Leakage error: poor insulation between various parts of bridge can produced this error.
Eddy current error.
Frequency error.
 CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENTS

Waveform error (due to harmonics)

Residual error: small inductance and small capacitance of the resistor produce this error.

Precaution

The load inductance is eliminated by twisting the connecting the connecting lead.
A∈0∈ r
In the case of capacitive bridge, the connecting lead are kept apart.(Q C = )
d
In the case of inductive bridge, the various arm are magnetically screen.
In the case of capacitive bridge, the various arm are electro statically screen to reduced
the stray capacitance between various arm.
To avoid the problem of spike, an inter bridge transformer is used in between the source
and bridge.
The stray capacitance between the ends of detector to the ground, cause difficulty in
balancing as well as error in measurements. To avoid this problem, we use wagner
earthing device.

2.7 Ballastic galvanometer

This is a sophisticated instrument. This works on the principle of PMMC meter. The only
difference is the type of suspension is used for this meter. Lamp and glass scale method is used
to obtain the deflection. A small mirror is attached to the moving system. Phosphorous bronze
wire is used for suspension.

When the D.C. voltage is applied to the terminals of moving coil, current flows through it. When
a current carrying coil kept in the magnetic field, produced by permanent magnet, it experiences
a force. The coil deflects and mirror deflects. The light spot on the glass scale also move. This
deflection is proportional to the current through the coil.

Q
i= , Q = it = ∫ idt
t

θ ∝ Q , deflection ∝ Charge
 CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENTS

Fig 2.27 Ballastic galvanometer

2.8 Measurements of flux and flux density (Method of reversal)

D.C. voltage is applied to the electromagnet through a variable resistance R1 and a reversing
switch. The voltage applied to the toroid can be reversed by changing the switch from position 2
to position ‘1’. Let the switch be in position ‘2’ initially. A constant current flows through the
toroid and a constant flux is established in the core of the magnet.

A search coil of few turns is provided on the toroid. The B.G. is connected to the search
coil through a current limiting resistance. When it is required to measure the flux, the switch is
changed from position ‘2’ to position ‘1’. Hence the flux reduced to zero and it starts increasing
in the reverse direction. The flux goes from + φ to - φ , in time ‘t’ second. An emf is induced in
the search coil, science the flux changes with time. This emf circulates a current through R2 and
B.G. The meter deflects. The switch is normally closed. It is opened when it is required to take
the reading.
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2.8.1 Plotting the BH curve

The curve drawn with the current on the X-axis and the flux on the Y-axis, is called
magnetization characteristics. The shape of B-H curve is similar to shape of magnetization
characteristics. The residual magnetism present in the specimen can be removed as follows.

Fig 2.28 BH curve

Fig 2.29 Magnetization characteristics

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Close the switch ‘S2’ to protect the galvanometer, from high current. Change the switch
S1 from position ‘1’ to ‘2’ and vice versa for several times.
To start with the resistance ‘R1’ is kept at maximum resistance position. For a particular value of
current, the deflection of B.G. is noted. This process is repeated for various value of current. For
φ
each deflection flux can be calculated.( B = )
A
Magnetic field intensity value for various current can be calculated.().The B-H curve can be
plotted by using the value of ‘B’ and ‘H’.

2.8.2 Measurements of iron loss:

Let RP= pressure coil resistance
RS = resistance of coil S1
E= voltage reading= Voltage induced in S2
I= current in the pressure coil
VP= Voltage applied to wattmeter pressure coil.
W= reading of wattmeter corresponding voltage V
W1= reading of wattmeter corresponding voltage E
W →V W1 E E ×W
= ⇒ W1 =
W1 → EP W V V
W1=Total loss=Iron loss+ Cupper loss.
The above circuit is similar to no load test of transformer.

In the case of no load test the reading of wattmeter is approximately equal to iron loss. Iron loss
depends on the emf induced in the winding. Science emf is directly proportional to flux. The
voltage applied to the pressure coil is V. The corresponding of wattmeter is ‘W’. The iron loss
WE
corresponding E is E= . The reading of the wattmeter includes the losses in the pressure
V
coil and copper loss of the winding S1. These loses have to be subtracted to get the actual iron
loss.
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2.9 Galvanometers

D-Arsonval Galvanometer

Vibration Galvanometer

Ballistic C

2.9.1 D-arsonval galvanometer (d.c. galvanometer)

Fig 2.30 D-Arsonval Galvanometer

Galvanometer is a special type of ammeter used for measuring µ A or mA. This is a

sophisticated instruments. This works on the principle of PMMC meter. The only difference is
the type of suspension used for this meter. It uses a sophisticated suspension called taut
suspension, so that moving system has negligible weight.

Lamp and glass scale method is used to obtain the deflection. A small mirror is attached
to the moving system. Phosphors bronze is used for suspension.
 CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENTS

When D.C. voltage is applied to the terminal of moving coil, current flows through it.
When current carrying coil is kept in the magnetic field produced by P.M. , it experiences a
force. The light spot on the glass scale also move. This deflection is proportional to the current
through the coil. This instrument can be used only with D.C. like PMMC meter.

The deflecting Torque,

TD=BINA
TD=GI, Where G=BAN
TC=KS θ =S θ
At balance, TC=TD ⇒ S θ =GI
GI
∴θ =
S
Where G= Displacements constant of Galvanometer
S=Spring constant

2.9.2 Vibration Galvanometer (A.C. Galvanometer )

The construction of this galvanometer is similar to the PMMC instrument except for the moving
system. The moving coil is suspended using two ivory bridge pieces. The tension of the system
can be varied by rotating the screw provided at the top suspension. The natural frequency can be
varied by varying the tension wire of the screw or varying the distance between ivory bridge
piece.

When A.C. current is passed through coil an alternating torque or vibration is produced. This
vibration is maximum if the natural frequency of moving system coincide with supply frequency.
Vibration is maximum, science resonance takes place. When the coil is vibrating , the mirror
oscillates and the dot moves back and front. This appears as a line on the glass scale. Vibration
galvanometer is used for null deflection of a dot appears on the scale. If the bridge is unbalanced,
a line appears on the scale
 CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENTS

Fig 2.31 Vibration Galvanometer

Example 2.2-In a low- Voltage Schering bridge designed for the measurement of
permittivity, the branch ‘ab’ consists of two electrodes between which the specimen under
test may be inserted, arm ‘bc’ is a non-reactive resistor R3 in parallel with a standard
capacitor C3, arm CD is a non-reactive resistor R4 in parallel with a standard capacitor C4,
arm ‘da’ is a standard air capacitor of capacitance C2. Without the specimen between the
electrode, balance is obtained with following values , C3=C4=120 pF, C2=150 pF,
R3=R4=5000Ω.With the specimen inserted, these values become C3=200 pF,C4=1000
pF,C2=900 pF and R3=R4=5000Ω. In such test w=5000 rad/sec. Find the relative
permittivity of the specimen?

capacitance measured with given medium

Sol: Relative permittivity( ε r ) =
capacitance measured with air medium
 CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENTS

Fig 2.32 Schering bridge

R
C1 = C2 ( 4 )
R3
Let capacitance value C0, when without specimen dielectric.
Let the capacitance value CS when with the specimen dielectric.
R 5000
C0 = C 2 ( 4 ) = 150 × = 150 pF
R3 5000
R 5000
C S = C 2 ( 4 ) = 900 × = 900 pF
R3 5000
C S 900
εr = = =6
C0 150

Example 2.3- A specimen of iron stamping weighting 10 kg and having a area of 16.8 cm2 is
tested by an episten square. Each of the two winding S1 and S2 have 515 turns. A.C. voltage
of 50 HZ frequency is given to the primary. The current in the primary is 0.35 A. A
voltmeter connected to S2 indicates 250 V. Resistance of S1 and S2 each equal to 40 Ω.
Resistance of pressure coil is 80 kΩ. Calculate maximum flux density in the specimen and
iron loss/kg if the wattmeter indicates 80 watt?
 CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENTS

Soln- E = 4.44 fφ m N

E
Bm = = 1.3wb / m 2
4.44 fAN

RS E2
Iron loss= W (1 + )−
RP ( RS + RP )

40 250 2
= 80(1 + )− = 79.26 watt
80 × 10 3 (40 + 80 × 103 )

Iron loss/ kg=79.26/10=7.926 w/kg.