PLANTS TISSUES AND FUNCTIONS

Plants are multicellular eukaryotes with tissue systems made of various cell types that carry
out specific functions. Plant tissues are composed of cells that are similar and perform a
specific function. Together, tissue types combine to form organs. Each organ itself is also
specific for a particular function. Plant tissue systems fall into one of two general types:
meristematic tissue, and permanent (or non-meristematic) tissue. Cells of the meristematic
tissue are found in meristems, which are plant regions of continuous cell division and
growth. Meristematic tissue cells are either undifferentiated or incompletely differentiated,
and they continue to divide and contribute to the growth of the plant. In contrast, permanent
tissue consists of plant cells that are no longer actively dividing. Meristematic tissues consist
of three types, based on their location in the plant. Apical meristems contain meristematic
tissue located at the tips of stems and roots, which enable a plant to extend in length. Lateral
meristems facilitate growth in thickness or girth in a maturing plant. Intercalary
meristems occur only in monocots, at the bases of leaf blades and at nodes (the areas where
leaves attach to a stem). This tissue enables the monocot leaf blade to increase in length from
the leaf base; for example, it allows lawn grass leaves to elongate even after repeated
mowing. Meristems produce cells that quickly differentiate, or specialize, and become
permanent tissue. Such cells take on specific roles and lose their ability to divide further.
They differentiate into three main types: dermal, vascular, and ground tissue. Dermal tissue
covers and protects the plant. The ground tissue serves as a site for photosynthesis, provides a
supporting matrix for the vascular tissue, and helps to store water and sugars. The vascular
tissue transports water, minerals, and sugars to different parts of the plant. Ground tissue is
a simple tissue, meaning that each ground tissue consists of only one cell type. Dermal and
vascular tissues are complex tissues because they consist of multiple cell types.
Dermal Tissue
Dermal tissue covers the plant and can be found on the outer layer of roots, stems and leaves.
Its main functions are transpiration, gas exchange and defense. The epidermis is an example
of dermal tissue. It is composed of a single layer of epidermis cells. It may contains stomata
and guard cells that allow gas exchange. It may contain root hairs that increase surface area
or trichomes used in transpiration or defense. It may contain a waxy cuticle if found on the
upper surface of leaves, to aid with lowering transpiration. In woody plants, the epidermis
breaks apart into a thick periderm as secondary growth allows the plant to grow in girth. The
cork cambium, which makes cork cells, the cork cells (which are dead at maturity), and the
phelloderm (parenchyma cells on the inside of the cork cambium) together make up the
periderm). The periderm functions as the first line of defence for the plant, protecting it from
fire or heat injury, dehydration, freezing conditions, and/or disease.

Openings called stomata (singular: stoma) allow a plant to take up carbon dioxide and release
oxygen and water vapor. The (a) colorized scanning-electron micrograph shows a closed
stoma of a eudicot. Each stoma is flanked by two guard cells that regulate its (b) opening and
closing. The guard cells are more curved when the stoma is open compared to when it is
closed. The (c) guard cells sit within the layer of epidermal cells (credit a: modification of
work by Louisa Howard, Rippel Electron Microscope Facility, Dartmouth College; credit b:
modification of work by June Kwak, University of Maryland; scale-bar data from Matt
Russell)

Cross section of a woody stem. The periderm is composed of the cork cambium, cork cells, and
phelloderm. Credit: Kammy Algiers .

Ground Tissue
Often times, tissues that are not considered dermal or vascular tissue are noted as ground tissue. These
cells store molecules (such as starch), photosynthesize (such as mesophyll cells), or support the plant.
There are three types of ground tissue: collenchyma, sclerenchyma, and parenchyma.

 Collenchyma is living supportive tissue that has elongated cells and an unevenly thickened
primary cell wall. Its main function is the mechanical support of young stems and leaves.
 Sclerenchyma is a dead supportive tissue that consists of long sclerenchyma fibers
Sclerenchyma fibers occur in groups (bundles). Sclereids may be branched or not and
occur individually or in small clusters. Each cell has a uniformly thick secondary wall
that is rich in lignin. Its main function is a support of older plant organs, and also
hardening different parts of plants (for example, make fruit inedible before ripeness so
no one will take the fruit before seeds are ready to be distributed). Without
sclerenchyma, if a plant isn’t watered, the leaves will droop because the vacuoles will
decrease in size which lowers the turgor. Fibers inside phloem are sometimes
regarded as a separate sclerenchyma.
 Parenchyma are spherical, elongated cells with a thin primary cell wall. It is a main
component of young plant organs. The basic functions of parenchyma are
photosynthesis and storage. They are also important in regeneration because they are
totipotent (capable of differentiating into any cell type). Parenchyma cells are
widespread in plant body. They fill the leaf, frequent in stem cortex and pith and is a
component of complex vascular tissues.
Vascular Tissue

The plant's plumbing system is its vascular tissue. It permits the passage of water,
minerals, and carbohydrates that have been dissolved during photosynthesis via the
plant's roots, stems, and leaves, among other sections. The two main types of
conducting tissue that make up this structure are xylem and phloem. Similar to how
blood arteries transmit nutrition throughout our bodies, the veins on leaves are an
example of vascular tissue, carrying material through the plant. The phloem and
xylem are next to each other. Also, phloem tissues combine to form a structure known
as a vascular bundle in stems; in roots, this structure is known as a vascular stele or
vascular cylinder. Water and minerals are transported by xylem tissue from the roots
to various areas of the plant. Tracheary elements are the xylem's conducting cells. The
xylem contains parenchyma cells as well as occasionally sclereids and sclerenchyma
fibers. Vessel elements and tracheids are the two types of tracheary elements. Both
cell types have thicker secondary cell walls and are dead at maturity. Water can go
through these cells since they are connected to one another. The vessel elements have
perforated plates between neighbouring vessel elements and are structurally wider
than tracheids. Water can move vertically between vessel elements through wide gaps
(slits or pores) between perforation plates, creating a continuous tube. Pits, spaces in
between the tracheary components of both kinds. Therefore, water flows through both
perforation plates and pit pairs in vessel elements but only through pit pairs in
tracheids. While water can move more quickly through vessel elements, they are more
susceptible to air bubbles. An air bubble disrupts cohesion in the column of water
moving up the tube of vessel elements preventing use of that particular pathway. In
tracheids, an air bubble would only decommission a single tracheid rather than an
entire column of vessel elements. Vessel elements are found only in angiosperms, but
tracheids are found in both angiosperms and gymnosperms.
 Phloem tissue transports organic compounds such as sugars from the site of
photosynthesis to rest of the plant. The conducting cells of the phloem are called sieve
elements. In comparison to tracheary elements, sieve elements have only primary cell
walls (and thus thinner cell walls overall) and are alive at maturity; however, they
lack certain organelles, including a nucleus. Sieve-tube elements are the sieve
elements found only in angiosperms while sieve cells are found only in gymnosperms
while. Both types of sieve elements have pores in their cell walls (sieve areas) that
 allow transfer of materials between adjacent cells, but these are concentrated at sieve
plates in sieve-tube elements and evenly distributed in sieve cells. Because they lack
essential organelles, sieve elements rely on specialized parenchyma cells to support
them. Companion cells support sieve-tube elements in angiosperms, and albuminous
cells support sieve cells in gymnosperms. Additionally parenchyma cells and
sclerenchyma cells (phloem fibers) are also found in the phloem. Phloem transports
sugars and other items. In angiosperms, sieve-tube elements contain the sugar
solution. Sieve-tube elements are the conducting cells of the phloem in angiosperms.
Sieve plates allow sieve-tube elements stacked on top of each other to connect. Sieve-
tube cells are surrounded by various support cells. Companion cells are narrower than
sieve-tube elements and each contain a nucleus. They are connected to sieve-tube
elements via plasmodesmata and provide them with the molecules they need to
function (energy molecules, proteins, etc.) Some companion cells are specialized as
intermediary cells, which are between the bundle sheath and sieve-tube element.
Transfer cells are parenchyma cells with cell wall ingrowths, which increase surface
area for transport. The bundle sheath cells form the bundle sheath, which surrounds
vascular bundles (where the xylem and phloem are located). Within the bundle sheath
cell are oval chloroplasts, a nucleus and the central vacuole, which fills most of the
cell.

Cambium

The layer of cells in a plant called cambium tissue supplies unspecialized cells to aid in
growth. The meristemic cells found in cambium tissues are also unspecialized cells, and they
play a vital role in their production. The plant's xylem and phloem components are separated
by the cambium tissue layer of cells.
Types of Cambium Tissue

One type of cambium tissue does not fulfil all of the needs of every type of plant. There are
three types of cambium tissue:

 vascular cambium
 cork cambium
 unifacial cambium

Although each of these cambium tissue types has distinct qualities of its own, they all have
some collective traits that classify them as members of the cambium group. They are all
composed of stem cells. Furthermore, they are all involved in the development of the
epidermis of a plant. An organism's epidermis is its outermost layer of skin, which shields the
internal plant components from harm.
The deepest layer of a plant's epidermis is called the unifacial cambium. It is crucial to the
upkeep of the centre portion of the plant, which it rests immediately above. The next layer of
the plant's cambium tissue is called the vascular cambium, and the outermost layer is called
the cork cambium. It lies right beneath the bark that it helps to produce.

Similarities between xylem and phloem are:

 Xylem and phloem both are involved in the movement of various substances through
the plant.
 They both have vascular bundles which is a conductive tissue in plants.

ASSIGNMENT
Enumerate the differences between xylem and phloem?