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GROUP DYNAMICS IN ORGANIZATIONS

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Department of Distance and Continuing Education

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 GROUP DYNAMICS IN ORGANIZATIONS

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 Syllabus
Group Dynamics in Organizations

Syllabus Mapping
Unit - I: Understanding Work Teams Lesson 1: Understanding
Groups and Teams; Stages of Group Development (Tuckman Model); Work Teams
Characteristics of effective teams; Types of teams; High-Performing Work (Pages 3–18)
Teams; Team-effectiveness model; Team-building.
Unit - II: Organizational Communication Lesson 2: Communication
Functions of communication; Communication model; Direction of com- (Pages 21–40)
munication; Informal communication network; Electronic communication;
Lesson 3: Organizational
Barriers to effective communication; Enhancing communication effectiveness.
Communication
(Pages 41–57)
Unit - III: Power and Politics in Organizations Lesson 4: Organizational
Classifications of Power (French & Raven); Power Tactics; Sexual Harass- Power
ment; Causes and consequences of Political Behavior. (Pages 61–78)
Lesson 5: Organizational
Politics and Harassment
(Pages 79–100)
Unit - IV: Conflict and Negotiation Lesson 6: Organizational
Nature of conflict in organizations; Conflict process; Negotiation (Process, Conflict and Negotiation
Bargaining strategies); Conflict management; Indian approach to resolving (Pages 103–120)
conflicts.

Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,

School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
 Contents

PAGE
UNIT-I
Lesson 1: Understanding Work Teams 3–18

UNIT-II
Lesson 2: Communication 21–40
Lesson 3: Organizational Communication 41–57

UNIT-III
Lesson 4: Organizational Power 61–78
Lesson 5: Organizational Politics and Harassment 79–100

UNIT-IV
Lesson 6: Organizational Conflict and Negotiation 103–120

Glossary 121–124

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 UNIT - I

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Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,
School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
L E S S O N

1
Understanding
Work Teams
Dr. Nidhi Mishra
PhD IIM Ahmedabad
Assistant Professor, HRM & OB
IIM Bodhgaya
Email-Id: [email protected]

STRUCTURE
1.1 Learning Objectives
1.2 Introduction
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1.8 $QVZHUV WR ,Q7H[W 4XHVWLRQV
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1.10 References
1.11 Suggested Readings

1.1 Learning Objectives

In this lesson you shall be able to:
‹ Define groups and teams.
‹ Learn about the roles of social identity and social categorisation.
‹ Know how groups shape up and disperse.

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 GROUP DYNAMICS IN ORGANIZATIONS

Notes ‹ Identify characteristics of groups.

‹ Describe group norms and outcomes.
‹ Find how group processes and characteristics affect decision-
making.

1.2 Introduction
In this subject, Group Dynamics and Organization, you are going to
understand about the concept of Group, differentiating between a group
and a team and understand the different dynamics that are involved in
organization. Before we begin, do you think employees in an organization
can work in isolation? Think about it, why are teams popular? In brief,
because we believe they make an organization effective. “A team of
people happily committed to the project and one another will outperform
a brilliant individual every time,” writes the publisher of Forbes, Rich
Karlgaard. So how can organizations leverage the benefits of teamwork
to make their organizations effective and efficient? In this module, we
will explore the answers to these questions and many more. We begin
by defining teams and groups and explore what motivates people to be
part of groups. Further, we will discuss the process of group development
and several group properties such as role, norms, status, size, cohesion
and diversity. Next, we discuss the group decision-making process, tech-
nique and the important concepts of Groupthink and Groupshift. The
final section of this module discusses the summary and implications for
managers.

1.3 Defining Teams and Groups

When two or more than two individuals work together to achieve the
common objective, it is understood as a team. It can either be formal or
informal in nature. Teams are groups of two or more individuals, inter-
acting and interdependent, who have come together to achieve particular
objectives. Groups can be either formal or informal. Formal groups are
those that are defined by the organization’s structure, with designated
work assignments establishing tasks. The behaviours that one should

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 UNDERSTANDING WORK TEAMS

engage in are stipulated by and directed toward organizational goals. Notes

Examples of formal groups include the various departments one might
find in an organization including the accounts section, finance committee,
hospitality committee etc.
Informal groups are the ones that do not have any official designations
nor are formally structured. They often occur due to social contact, prox-
imity, shared interests or other personal variables and are often termed as
natural formations in the work environments. An example of an informal
group will be a group of employees from different departments having
lunch together because they get along.

ACTIVITY 1
Look around you and try to assign whether the groups you are a part
of are either formal or informal. Write an example of at least one of
each below from your personal observations and give reasons why
you think so. It shouldn’t take you more than 5 minutes.

1.3.1 Social Identity

Everyone has a perception of themselves that tells them who they are in
relation to other groups and organizations. This perception is known as
social identity, deriving from social psychology. Tajfel and Turner (1974)
gave the social identity theory that proposed that the groups we are a part
of give us a sense of belonging, purpose and self-worth. It explains why
we have emotional reactions or feelings, whether positive or negative,
when as a group one achieves or loses something.
For example, think of a sport or competitive show you watch. When
your team/player wins, you and others who support them feel a sense
of joy and likewise, you may also experience “schadenfreude”, that is a
feeling of satisfaction by seeing the loss of the rival team. Similarly, in
organizations people may experience joy or satisfaction when their team
performs well in an organization. A healthy sense of social identity leads
to better health, lesser internal attribution to failure and lower levels of
depression according to research.

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 GROUP DYNAMICS IN ORGANIZATIONS

Notes How do we develop this social identity, specifically in organization?

Within our organizations and workgroups, we can develop many identities
through: (1) relational identification, which is when we are able to relate
to each other due to similar roles and responsibilities, and (2) collective
identification, which when we identify with other people on the basis of
overarching aggregate characteristics of a group.

1.3.2 Social Categorisation

Social categorization theory explains how people’s group behaviours
are related to how they perceive their group. In social categorization,
people are divided into groups based on shared social identities, such as
nationality, religion, or class.
A group that a person identifies with and belongs to, along with any-
one else who is perceived to belong to that group. Ingroup favouritism
results in tendencies to see members of our group as better than other
people, giving them preferential treatment, and people not in our group
as all the same. For example, students from the same class may be more
likely to gather and talk with each other than with students from other
classes.
The presence of an ingroup, by default, implies the existence of an
outgroup. An outgroup could refer to a known group apart from one’s
own but in essence can be used to describe anyone other than our own
group’s members. For example, a person from an Indian sub-team of a
Global team of a multinational organization might view members of their
sub-team as part of their ingroup, and members of sub-teams in other
countries as part of their outgroup.
Ingroup and outgroup mentality can often lead to animosity, prejudice
and hostility between them. This can lead to an “us vs. them” mentality,
where people favour their in-group and discriminate against out-groups.

1.3.3 Social Identity Threat

The presence of ingroup and outgroup perception makes the way for
social identity threat. This can be triggered by conversations or other
interactions with peers and colleagues and can also occur in situations
where a person’s social group is underrepresented, devalued, or referred to

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 UNDERSTANDING WORK TEAMS

as inferior. When people experience social identity threat, they may start Notes
feeling that they are being evaluated negatively due to their association
with a devalued group leading to compromised performance.

1.4 Stages of Group Development

In an organization, groups are consistently formed and disbanded in an
organization with various kinds of projects, events and so on. However,
some groups may be short-termed, only limited to a specific task or dead-
line and some may be long-term or even permanent to the functioning
of the organization.
Gersick (1988) has given a sequence of stages that are relevant for tem-
porary groups with deadlines or short-term projects. The first stage is
marked by inertia, where there is time devoted to finding the direction of
activities and discussion of the group. The end of this phase is marked
by a transition into the second stage. The transition is a time when major
changes take place, and the group performs its functions. Towards the
end of the second stage there is accelerated functioning until the goal is
reached and completion is achieved. This model of group functioning is
called the punctuated equilibrium model, as shown in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1: Punctuated Equilibrium Model of

Group Development, Gersick (1988)
Tuckman (1965) proposed that teams go through several stages: a formation
stage, a conflict resolution or “storming” stage, a “norming” stage where

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 GROUP DYNAMICS IN ORGANIZATIONS

Notes members establish roles and make decisions, and a “performing” stage
where collaboration begins. These stages of forming, storming, norming,
and performing can happen in the initial phase of punctuated equilibrium,
while a second performing and conforming stage may follow in the next
phase, after a brief period of redefining group norms and expectations.
The final stage, adjourning, marks the end of task-related activities and
the disengagement from personal relationships. A planned closure typ-
ically involves recognizing contributions and achievements, as well as
providing members with the chance to say personal goodbyes. Ending
a group can create some anxiety, akin to a minor crisis, as it involves
moving from relinquishing control to losing inclusion in the group. This
model is suited to understanding longer-term groups.

ACTIVITY 2
You have been assigned as a member of a cross-functional task force
that has to develop enhanced product features for retail consumers
of a mobile phone manufacturer. The team includes representatives
from marketing, production, design, customer service, and finance.
The entire team will move to the headquarters in Mumbai for three
months. Describe the stages according to the model you find suitable
with the end goal of developing a new mobile phone model.

1.5 Group Properties

1.5.1 Roles
Role refers to as the set of expected behaviour patterns attributed to the
person’s position and responsibilities in the group or organization. A person
usually belongs to several groups in their personal and professional life,
all of which will have their own respective roles. How one views these
roles is known as UROHSHUFHSWLRQ. 5ROHH[SHFWDWLRQV, likewise, refer how
one feels they should act in a situation, the role expectation depends on
how clearly the role in itself is defined. Sometimes, UROH FRQIOLFW occurs
when role expectations of two or more roles clash with each other. We
will be discussing role conflicts in much detail in the last lesson on
organizational conflict.

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 UNDERSTANDING WORK TEAMS

1.5.2 Norms Notes

Norms refer to the acceptable standards of behaviour within a group.
They tell us how one should behave or not behave in a given situation.
All groups follow norms to mediate their day-to-day functioning, emo-
tional character and performance. Norms can influence groups by creating
pressure to conform expected values, beliefs and behaviours of the group.
People conform accordingly to the various groups they are a part of re-
spectively. This is the reason why we say people act differently around
different people, as they are following the norms of that respective group
or social equations. Norms don’t affect everyone in a group equally, as
the pressure to conform varies across positions, seniority and personal
differences. In the organizational context group norms can be about dress
code, communication and meeting etiquette.

Positive Norms and Group Outcomes

Positive group norms refer to shared standards of behaviour that drive
an organization’s’ members towards cooperation, mutual respect and
productivity. Such norms are concerned with fostering accountability,
collaboration, active communication and constructive feedback amongst
the employees. For example, an organization which is concerned with
keeping its work environment socially congenial with frequent non-work
activities that focus on collaboration and practices effective grievance
redressal can be observed to be working upon developing positive social
norms.

Negative Norms and Group Outcomes

Workplace behaviours that intentionally violate established norms and
that result in negative consequences for the organization, its members, or
both are termed negative group norms. Examples of such norms include
gossiping, blame flinging, disrespectful or foul communication, intimi-
dation tactics, social loafing and so on. It is cautionary to note that no
organization will openly admit or address condoning negative norms,
however, certain factors in the organization such as rigid hierarchies,
unclear communication, presence of harassment and workplace conflict
perpetuate negative norms.

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 GROUP DYNAMICS IN ORGANIZATIONS

Notes 1.5.3 Status

Status refers to the position or rank that someone holds in a group, and
this rank is defined by how others view them. Status may be rooted
material assets (such as trustees and board members of an organization)
or socially assigned labels (such as a queer employee receiving differ-
ential treatment from the management). Sources of status can be largely
assigned to two major things:
1. Power: The ability to influence or control others, especially in
decision-making or resource distribution, gives a person higher status.
We will learn more about power and its effects in later chapters.
2. Contribution to Group Goals: If a person can help the group achieve
its objectives—whether through their skills, ideas, or actions—they
are more likely to be assigned a higher status. Thus, people who
may not be able to be productive in a traditional sense have a
higher likelihood of being assigned a lower status.
Status Inequity
Groups tend to agree on status rankings, so there’s usually consensus on
who holds higher status. Usually, people in central managerial positions
have more power and influence due to their higher status. In groups with
large status differences, lower-status members may feel left out or looked
over and even feel resentment, which can result in poorer performance,
lower health, and higher turnover rates. When groups with differing status
systems work together, it can cause conflict and needs to be addressed
accordingly with empathy.

1.5.4 Size
The size of the group refers to how many members belong to it. It can
have an immense impact on a group’s overall behaviour. Smaller groups
(often refer to groups with less than seven members) have been seen to
be more productive, however, there is a tendency for complacency or
interpersonal conflict here. Larger groups (usually more than seven to a
dozen or so members) are great for gaining diverse opinions, however,
they might not be as productive. Anything beyond often results in sub-
division into smaller groups when we consider an even larger number
of members.

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One phenomenon we strongly associate with group size is that of social Notes
loafing. Social loafing refers to when members don’t put in appropriate
effort as they think their individual effort will go unnoticed or is avoid-
able in group outcome resulting in lower productivity. Research has
shown social loafing is observed more in individualistic cultures than
collectivistic cultures. Think about it, why do you think it would be so?

1.5.5 Cohesiveness
The degree to which members feel affiliated to each other and are mo-
tivated to stay in the group is known as cohesiveness. Cohesiveness is
important because it affects how productive a group can be. The link
between cohesiveness and productivity depends on the group’s perfor-
mance standards. When performance standards are high, a cohesive group
will be more productive. However, if the group is cohesive but has low
performance standards, productivity will be low.

1.5.6 Diversity
Diversity refers to the degree to which members of the group are simi-
lar to, or different from, one another. A great deal of research is being
done on how diversity influences group performance. Research argues
that “The mere presence of diversity you can see, such as a person’s
race or gender, actually cues a team that there’s likely to be differences
of opinion.” Thus, even a surface level awareness of diversity enhances
the group’s resources and decision making. In diverse teams, especially
those with differences in things like gender, race, age, work experience,
or education, a phenomenon called faultlines can occur. Faultlines are
divisions that split the group into smaller subgroups based on such
differences. Research shows that these splits usually harm the group’s
performance, however, when managed well, faultlines can actually also
be used strategically to improve performance.
ACTIVITY 3
Imagine you have been assigned a group project with 5 other students
in your class. However, you see that only two other students seem
to be doing all the planning and execution with little to no effort by
other students. What phenomenon are you observing here? And to
what group characteristics would you ascribe it? Come up with at
least 3 possible ideas to make each member’s contribution equitable.

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 GROUP DYNAMICS IN ORGANIZATIONS

Notes
1.6 Group Decision Making
Groups provide a great vehicle for effective decision making if harnessed
properly. They can democratise important decision making while increas-
ing the breadth and depth of the information which is employed for the
same. However, it can result in more time consumption, interpersonal
conflicts and reduced effectiveness.
Strengths of Group Decision-Making
Groups bring together more information and knowledge, leading to a wider
range of ideas and solutions. This diversity of views and suggestions open
up opportunities to consider more alternatives. Additionally, decisions
made by groups are more likely to be accepted by everyone involved
as they all were a part of the process, making further processing easier.
Weaknesses of Group Decision-Making
On the downside, group decision-making can be cumbersome. There’s
often pressure to conform, and sometimes one or a few members can
dominate the discussion. Also, it can be unclear who is responsible for
the final decision, as it is a collective process.

1.6.1 Groupthink and Groupshift

Groupthink and groupshift are phenomena that occur when group deci-
sion making takes a turn for the worse. They make the group wary of
indulging in critical appraisal of unusual, unpopular or minority views
while evaluating arguments. We will look at both of these interrelated
errors in detail.
In groupthink, people feel pressured by the group to actively suppress
disagreement and dissent in order to support the majority position. This
is done so as to avoid alienation, arguments or dismissal from the group.
By agreeing with the majority position, one is able to be a part of the
group and enjoy its benefits. For example, Ananya is part of the finance
committee for an event. She feels hesitant over the budget reserved for
team member’s refreshment as being too extravagant, however, she might
censor such opinions as they might not be taken positively by her su-
periors and in the end, she would be the recipient of the group’s better

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 UNDERSTANDING WORK TEAMS

refreshment arrangements. Thus, the initial position of the group remains Notes
unchallenged here.
Now let us see how groupshift happens. Groupshift primarily refers to
the manner in which a group discusses alternatives or opinions. Here,
people hold onto their initial positions in an exaggerated way to display
their affinity towards the group, leading to an overall heightened initial
position that carries ingenuity.
As it can be understood both of these processes hinder the decision-mak-
ing process and its effectiveness. Can you think of some ways through
which this could be avoided? Think, while we get back to this question
towards the end of the section.

1.6.2 Group Polarisation

Group decisions differ from individual choices because discussions with-
in a group often push members toward more extreme versions of their
initial views. This process exaggerates the group’s original stance. This
phenomenon is known as group polarization, where the decisions made
by the group are often more extreme than those of its individual members
before the discussion.
Group polarization is closely related to groupthink, a situation where
the desire for consensus or harmony within the group leads to irrational
or dysfunctional decision-making. In groupthink, the group’s overriding
desire for agreement often prevents individuals from voicing dissenting
opinions or critically evaluating alternatives. Group polarization can be
seen as a specific form of this—where, instead of balancing the group’s
views or reaching a middle ground, the group’s collective decision is
exaggerated based on the dominant norm that emerges during discussions.

1.6.3 Group Decision-Making Techniques

So far, we have discussed the various pitfalls that can happen in the group
decision making process which arise from the pressure to conform and
self-censorise. Now, we shall look at some techniques that can be used to
combat the occurrence of group polarisation, groupthink and group shift.
Brainstorming: It refers to the practice of encouraging creative thinking
and problem solving without judgement or the need to conform. This

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 GROUP DYNAMICS IN ORGANIZATIONS

Notes could be facilitated by omitting the manager from discussions or hanging

job roles. It allows for more divergent and free flowing conversations.
Nominal Group Technique: This technique focuses on individual thinking
by limiting direct discussion. It can be useful in situations where peo-
ple have heightened personal differences so as to not hinder the initial
discussion process. The process often unfolds like this -
Idea Generation: Each member writes down their ideas individually.
Sharing: Members share their ideas with the group.
Discussion: The group clarifies and evaluates the ideas.
Ranking: Each member silently ranks the ideas, often anonymously.
Outcome: The idea with the highest ranking becomes the decision.
Electronic Meetings: With increased usage of online platforms since covid
pandemic, having electronic or online discussions can often prove to be a good
alternative as well as it decreases the pressure of conformity in face-to-face
interactions.
Role of Managers: To prevent faulty decisions, managers can adopt some
precautionary initiatives and rules when engaging in group decision making.
Control Group Size: Groups larger than 10 members may lead to
hesitance and less personal responsibility.
Impartial Leadership: Leaders should avoid expressing opinions
early and encourage input from everyone.
Appoint a Devil’s Advocate: A member should challenge the
majority opinion and present alternative views.
Stimulate Discussion: Use exercises to promote discussion of
diverse ideas and perspectives without threatening the group’s
unity.

ACTIVITY 4
Suppose you have been put in charge of a remote team whose mem-
bers are from different cities around the world. What tactics could
you use to build and maintain team trust and performance as well
as minimise the decline in trust and performance that often occurs
in teams?

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IN-TEXT QUESTIONS Notes

1. What is a characteristic that differentiates a formal group from

an informal group?
(a) Formal groups are based on social contact and form naturally
(b) Formal groups are defined by the organization’s structure
and have designated tasks
(c) Informal groups are strictly organized and goal oriented
(d) Informal groups have official work assignments from the
organization
2. According to social identity theory, why do individuals take
pride in the accomplishments of their group?
(a) Because their self-esteem is tied to the group’s performance
(b) Due to their desire to lead the group
(c) Because they benefit financially from the group’s success
(d) To create competition among group members
3. Ingroup favouritism occurs when:
(a) People treat everyone equally regardless of group affiliation
(b) Members of a group see others in the group as superior
to those outside the group
(c) Groups deliberately avoid any form of bias
(d) Individuals work alone without associating with any group
4. The punctuated-equilibrium model of group development suggests
that:
(a) Groups develop gradually in a linear manner
(b) Major changes occur at the midpoint of the group’s timeline
(c) Groups do not experience any periods of inactivity
(d) Groups are most productive during the first meeting
5. According to Tuckman’s stages of group development, which stage
is characterized by the resolution of conflicts and establishment
of roles?
(a) Forming
(b) Storming

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 GROUP DYNAMICS IN ORGANIZATIONS

Notes (c) Norming

(d) Performing
6. Which of the following statements about roles in groups is
accurate?
(a) Role perception is what others believe you should do in a
specific position
(b) Role expectations and role perceptions are always the same
(c) Role conflict occurs when there are contradictory role
requirements
(d) Role expectations are set only by the individuals themselves
7. What is a common consequence of high-status members in a group?
(a) Increased conformity pressures
(b) Increased creativity and diversity of ideas
(c) Freedom to deviate from group norms
(d) Higher participation from lower-status members
8. Diversity in a group may initially lead to:
(a) Higher satisfaction and cohesion
(b) Increased creativity without any challenges
(c) More conflict and less satisfaction
(d) Automatic acceptance of different viewpoints
9. Social loafing is most likely to occur when:
(a) The group is small, and tasks are highly visible
(b) Individual contributions are hard to measure
(c) Members receive individual rewards
(d) The group is homogeneous in the background
10. Which of the following can enhance group cohesiveness?
(a) Increasing the size of the group
(b) Focusing on individual rewards over group rewards
(c) Encouraging intergroup competition
(d) Assigning tasks with minimal interaction among members

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Notes
1.7 Summary
The dynamics of groups and teams in organizations are essential to un-
derstand effective collaboration. Formal groups are structured to achieve
specific tasks, while informal groups form through personal interactions.
Social identity theory shows us how group membership influences emotions
and performance, fostering a sense of belonging or rivalry depending on
the context. Social categorization theory explains the concept of ingroups
and outgroups, which can lead to biases and conflicts. Group properties,
including roles, norms, status, size, cohesiveness, and diversity, affect
behavior and performance. In group decision-making, the strengths in-
clude greater information and participation, while weaknesses arise from
conformity pressure and domination by certain members. Phenomena
such as groupthink, groupshift, and group polarization if not dealt with
effectively, can hinder decision-making. Strategies for improving group
decisions include brainstorming, nominal group technique, and impartial
leadership to reduce biases and promote balanced input from all members.

1.8 Answers to In-Text Questions

1. (b) Formal groups are defined by the organization’s structure and
have designated tasks
2. (a) Because their self-esteem is tied to the group’s performance
3. (b) Members of a group see others in the group as superior to those
outside the group
4. (b) Major changes occur at the midpoint of the group’s timeline
5. (c) Norming
6. (c) Role conflict occurs when there are contradictory role requirements
7. (c) Freedom to deviate from group norms
8. (c) More conflict and less satisfaction
9. (b) Individual contributions are hard to measure
10. (c) Encouraging intergroup competition

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Notes
1.9 Self-Assessment Questions
1. Explain the key differences between formal and informal groups and
provide examples of each from an organizational context.
2. Describe social identity theory and discuss how it can impact an
individual’s behaviour within a group setting.
3. Outline Tuckman’s five stages of group development and provide
examples of behaviours that may be observed at each stage.
4. Discuss the concept of groupthink, including its causes and potential
consequences for group decision-making.
5. Compare and contrast different group decision-making techniques,
such as consensus, majority rule, and the nominal group technique.
Describe a scenario where each technique would be most effective.

1.10 References
‹ McShane, S. L., Von Glinow, M. A., and Himanshu Rai. (2022).
Organizational Behaviour. McGraw Hill Education.
‹ Robbins, S. P. and Judge, T. A. (2022). Organizational Behaviour.
18th edition, Pearson, Boston.

1.11 Suggested Readings

‹ Aswathappa K. (2013). Organizational Behaviour: Text, Cases &
Games. Himalaya Pub. House.
‹ Fred Luthans. (2017). Organizational Behaviour: An Evidence-Based
Approach, McGraw Hill Education.

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Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,
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 UNIT - II

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Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,
School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
L E S S O N

2
Communication
Dr. Nupur Gosain
Assistant Professor
Department of Psychology
School of Open Learning
University of Delhi
Email-Id: [email protected]

STRUCTURES
2.1 Learning Objectives
2.2 Introduction
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2.13 References
2.14 Suggested Readings

2.1 Learning Objectives

In this lesson, you shall be able to:
‹ Define the term communication.
‹ Explain the functions of communication.
‹ Describe the process of communication.

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 GROUP DYNAMICS IN ORGANIZATIONS

Notes ‹ Identify the various models of communication.

‹ Analyse the barriers to effective communication.

2.2 Introduction
In the previous lesson, you have understood how a team functions in an
organization. As mentioned before, this course will allow you to under-
stand the various dynamics involved in organizations.
Before we delve into this lesson, let us revisit some aspects of social
psychology. In social psychology, we have understood the vital role of
communicating within groups. Commination helps us understand how
individuals interact with each other, form relationships, influence decision
making etc. Similarly, within organizations as well, communication holds
a very important role as it is useful to understand how people commu-
nicate within organizations, behave socially, understand information and
deliver information to get the work done within the organization. This
lesson will help us understand the basics of communication and the var-
ious functions of communication. It will help us to relate to how people
behave, especially in an organizational context. This will also be helpful
for us to understand the upcoming lessons where we will discuss details
about organizational communication, various networks of communication,
the concept of power and politics etc.
Let us begin with an example you can relate the most with, imagine your
mother hires a house helper to manage and get a helping hand for her
household chores. The helper has joined and is clueless about where to
start. He/she has not ‘communicated’ the necessary tasks that are essential
to be performed by him/her. As vague as the instructions are, the work
to be done will remain undone or shall be performed inappropriately. On
the other hand, if your mother instructs him/her on all necessary tasks
with instructions on how to do them, what details and precision are re-
quired to be taken care of, and constant feedback for improvement the
tasks done will become better and meet the expectations of your mother.
This lesson will elaborate on all necessary aspects of communication
including, functions of communication, models of communication, bar-
riers to effective communication etc. By the end of this lesson, you will
be able to understand the concept of communication and how we can

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 COMMUNICATION

ensure its effectiveness. This will also help you to apply this knowledge Notes
to practical situations when you are a part of an organization, especially
after reading the next lesson as well.

2.3 What is Communication?

Firstly, it is important to note that communication is not linear, it is a
dynamic and interactive process. When one person transmits an idea,
information, feeling or thought to another person it is understood as com-
munication. It does not occur in isolation, but a minimum of people is
required to complete this process of communication. The message (idea,
information, thought, feeling etc.) being communicated is transmitted from
one person to another through various modes as deemed suitable by the
sender, who chooses a channel to communicate the message.
Let us take an example, your results are out, and you have scored 8.5
CGPA. You are excited to inform your friends. You can give them a call
and express your excitement, you may choose to send them a screenshot
of your results along with it, or maybe you will post something on social
media to share it with your friends. So many ways that can be used to
communicate. One thing to note in this example is that in each different
way you choose to communicate, there are chances your message will
be understood differently. In this case, your level of excitement may not
be captured by all in the same way.
Thus, it is important to understand that different people interpret messages
differently. Messages or various forms of communication may become
deceptive to some. The meaning of language may change depending on the
context. Often people misinterpret the underlying. Hence, it is important
to understand that sometimes what we don’t communicate becomes more
important than what we do communicate and most of the time, how we
say is more important than what we say. At present, this learning material
is also acting as a method of communication, to make you understand this
concept and help you gain clarity. Every learner will understand the written
material differently. Communication as defined by Keith Davis, can be
understood as a process of sharing or passing information, messages etc.
and understanding from one person to the other. Apart from this, Rogers
also defined communication as “Communication is a process by which
people create and share information to reach a common understanding”.
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 GROUP DYNAMICS IN ORGANIZATIONS

Notes To make it easier for you to understand, you may have heard or seen
our Ancient Indian Scripture %KDJZDW *LWD. Shri Krishna can be said
as one of the best communicators, his clear and precise vision given to
Arjuna depicts the strength that lies in effective communication. Also,
this effective communication is incomplete without the active listening
skills of Arjuna despite various external barriers to communication. His
dedication and focus towards the sender and message made it easy to
comprehend and apply the message to real-life situations. Wherever he
felt doubtful, he asked questions for further clarification. The continuous
feedback asked and provided at regular intervals left no scope for misun-
derstanding. Similar to this, you will find various examples of effective
communication across books and past events. Reflect on your own life
and think of examples of communication to get a better understanding.
Speaking psychologically, communication can also be understood by how
people interact with each other within social settings such as organizations.
Activity 2.1: Reflect upon your style of communication by listing down
some of the habits that you do while communicating with your family
and/or friends. Write relevant incidents to support your answer. (This
activity will help you self-introspect on your communication style; it
shall not take more than 5-10 minutes)

2.4 Functions of Communication

There are various important functions of communication in both profes-
sional and personal life. Human beings are known as social animals, who
survive on communication. If there is effective communication, a healthy
discussion with peers will certainly make someone’s day, or a hearty
conversation with a loved one will relieve your stress. While on the other
hand, negative communication will lead to more stress and anxiety. The
role of communication in anyone’s life can be endless.
The functions of communication can also be known as the goals or objectives
of communication. Some of the important functions are:
‹ Understanding one another
‹ Connecting or socialising
‹ Sharing information
‹ Interacting

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 COMMUNICATION

‹ Sharing emotions Notes

‹ Influencing
‹ Persuading
‹ Motivating
‹ Negotiating
‹ Resolving conflicts
‹ Encouraging etc.

2.5 Process of Communication: Linear Model of

Communication
The process of communication, as explained in Figure 2.1, is that the
sender or source is depicted as ‘A’ and the receiver is depicted as ‘B’.
The sender (A) wishes to communicate some information to the receiv-
er (B) which is ‘Encoded’ as a message form and through a designated
channel is passed to the receiver (B), here B decodes the message and
applies his/her understanding to interpret the meaning of the message. As
you can see from the figure, across the entire process of communication,
there is a lot of noise which creates a barrier to effective communication.
Here, the sender/source, message, channel, receiver, noise etc. are various
elements involved in the process of communication.

Figure 2.1: Process of Communication

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 GROUP DYNAMICS IN ORGANIZATIONS

Notes 2.5.1 Elements of Communication

Let us deeply understand the various elements of the communication
process:
‹ Source/Sender: The process of communication takes place between
the sender and the receiver. The sender also known as the source
of information first initiates the information to be sent ahead by
encoding the information. The credibility of the source is highly
imperative to make the message easy to comprehend.
‹ Encoding: Encoding is understood as the process of framing the
information which is easy to interpret by the receiver.
‹ Message: A message is any kind of information, idea, thought,
feeling etc.
‹ Channel: Channel or medium of transferring the message is
understood as how the sender decides to encode the information.
This can include formal and informal channels of communication.
‹ Formal Channel: When a professional message or information is
to be transferred in an organization, they choose to communicate
formally using a formal mode of communication. This may
include emails, memos, letters, notices etc.
‹ Informal Channel: Any kind of personal or social communication
mode is understood as Informal or Social Channel. It can include
WhatsApp, social media etc.
Apart from these types of channels for communication, we also have:
‹ Verbal: Verbal Channel of communication includes transferring
information in any written, oral or face-to-face form, where
there has been use of language.
‹ Non-Verbal: Non-verbal channel indicates any form of
silence, gestures, expression of feeling, etc. to communicate
what you feel.
Let us understand these with the help of some examples:
1. When an employee mails his/her boss about the medical leave he/
she shall be availing, this is a form of formal verbal channel.
2. The facial expression you make when you dislike the food the
restaurant sent for your order is a form of informal non-verbal
communication.
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 COMMUNICATION

The above process is also known as the Linear Model or Shannon and Weaver Notes
Model of Communication. It is known as the linear model as it directly de-
scribes the message given by a sender to the receiver.
Activity 2.2: Similar to the example mentioned above, give some examples of:
‹ Formal Non-Verbal Communication, and
‹ Informal Verbal Communication
(This activity will not take more than 2-3 minutes of your time)

2.6 Models of Communication

In this section, you will learn various models of communication. These
models of communication will help you to identify the concept of how you
communicate with each other. These models will allow you to replicate
in social settings, especially when it comes to organizations, you will
enhance your communication leading to better organizational efficiency
and productivity.

2.6.1 Aristotle Model of Communication

First, let us begin with one of the basic models of communication. As
the name suggests, the Aristotle Model was given by Aristotle itself, it
dates back in history, nearly 300 B.C. This model pays attention to the
sender/source who is responsible for passing the message to the receiver.
Here, Aristotle describes the sender/source as an active member, while
the receiver is a passive recipient.
For instance, to explain this model, imagine a classroom setting. Here,
the teacher who is a sender or source of the communication process is
an active member, whereas the passive receivers are the students who
are taking the message.
Aristotle elaborates on his model by suggesting three core elements,
namely:
‹ Ethos: This explains that the sender must have credibility, having
expertise in the given subject of the message, which gives the
sender/source the power and authority to deliver the message with
confidence.

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 GROUP DYNAMICS IN ORGANIZATIONS

Notes ‹ Pathos: This explains the emotional content of the message used
to persuade the receiver. This helps in connecting with the sender/
source with the help of using emotional expression.
‹ Logos: This signifies logic in communication, it suggests that merely
an interesting speech won’t capture the interest of the receiver, but
the content also needs to have logic.

Figure 2.2: Aristotle’s Model of Communication

2.6.2 Lasswell’s Model of Communication

Next, we come to Lasswell’s Model of Communication, this model was
given by Harold D. Lasswell, which views the transmission of the mes-
sage with the effect as the result. In simple terms, it elaborates upon, the
following questions in a communication channel, namely:
‹ Who was the sender of the message?
‹ What did they say?
‹ To whom did they say it?
‹ How was the message transferred?
The focus of communication lies in the impact of the communication
on these above-mentioned components. As suggested by this model, the
impact of the message must provide some measurable or obvious change
towards the receiver of the message.
To explain the model let us take this example, a training programme is
organised in your organization. Here, the trainer focuses on the topic of
making a productive and efficient workspace for the employees through
interactive activities and training sessions to reduce the stress of dead-
lines amongst employees.

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 COMMUNICATION

Notes

Figure 2.3: Lasswell’s Model of Communication

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Activity 2.3: Based on the above example, elaborate on what/who are
the different components as per Lasswell’s Model. (This activity will not
take more than 2-3 minutes)
‹ Who was the sender of the message?
‹ What did they say?
‹ To whom did they say it?
‹ How was the message transferred?

2.6.3 Shannon Weaver’s Model of Communication

This model is one of the most famous and prominent models of com-
munication. Surprisingly, Shannon and Weaver were mathematicians,
during World War II while they were working for the Bell Telephone
Laboratories, they worked on this model to understand communication
in a better and comprehensible manner. Their motive was to understand
the various channels of communication, highlighting which is the most
effective channel. This model also popularly came to be known as the
Process of Communication (Figure 2.4).

Figure: 2.4: Model of Communication

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,QWHUSHUVRQDOBFRPPXQLFDWLRQBSURFHVVSQJ

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 GROUP DYNAMICS IN ORGANIZATIONS

Notes IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. __________ refers to how the sender decides to decode the
information in the message during communication.
2. There are two channels of communication, namely, __________and
__________.
3. Linear model of communication is also known as the __________
model.
4. Lasswell’s model of communication focuses on 4 questions
or attributes of the message in communication __________,
__________, __________ and __________.
5. __________ is not part of the Aristotle model of communication,
traced back to 300 BC.
(a) Ethos
(b) Kronos
(c) Logos
(d) Pathos

2.7 Types of Interpersonal Communication

Let us now define and learn about various types of communication. These
types are used as per the requirement of the sender or source who decides
how to encode the message for better understanding and interpretation
by the receiver.
Three main types of interpersonal communication include:

2.7.1 Verbal Communication

Verbal communication is using oral communication to convey the mes-
sage. It is one of the most widely used forms of communication in both
formal and informal settings. Informally, verbal communication will in-
clude talking, or precisely using words/language. Formal mode is used
in organizational settings, to convey messages or information to the
concerned person. For instance, it includes lectures, speeches, one-on-one
discussions with the employees etc.

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 COMMUNICATION

Let us take a look at an example, imagine yourself as a manager in an Notes

organization. You have to present a detailed sales report in front of the
client. You have prepared a PowerPoint Presentation to explain all the
necessary numbers of sales. When you present it across the team and ‘ver-
EDOO\¶elaborate them it is understood as a type of Verbal Communication.
This type of communication is a speedy method of delivering information
in minimal time. One of the major advantages of this type of communi-
cation is that it has a scope of giving and taking feedback. Referring to
the above example itself, if the client has issues and wishes to clarify
any point, it will get easier for them to ask the manager there to seek
further clarity.
While this may seem the best way of communication, it also has a lot
of disadvantages. Often this communication occurs when there are many
people which leads to a lot of distortion in communication. For instance,
in the above scenario, in the presentation given by the manager, there
are many people sitting across the table. It is a possibility that noise,
lack of attention, tiredness etc. may lead to distortions and reduce the
effectiveness.
There is also a lot of scope for misinterpretations at the end of both
sender and receiver. Firstly, the sender has their way of encoding the
information, they may choose to provide the information as per their
understanding and knowledge. Likewise, the receiver has their way of
interpreting the information or message.

2.7.2 Written Communication

Written communication is an essential part of organizational communi-
cation. In this type of communication, an organization uses the written
method of conveying information to the receiver. It includes letters, memos,
notices, emails etc. This ensures clarity of information and often has less
scope for interpretation if the message conveyed has proper clarity and
precision. The advantage of this method is that it is available to both the
sender and receiver. Especially when the message to be conveyed requires
immediate attention, organizations prefer written communication to also
ensure record keeping and make it official.
However, this also has a drawback if the content is lengthy, it might be
difficult to comprehend and it also lacks feedback.

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 GROUP DYNAMICS IN ORGANIZATIONS

Notes 2.7.3 Non-Verbal Communication

Again, let us revisit the above example of the manager. Now, in the
same scenario let us assume a participant was not present. You made
the minutes of the meetings and submitted them to them. Do you think
it will carry the same weightage of understanding as it was when it was
being delivered verbally to them?
Think about it, written communication alone lacks effectiveness. Simi-
larly, only verbal without incorporating non-verbal communication will
not hold any importance.
Nonverbal communication includes all kinds of information or messag-
es shared where there is no use of language. It will include messages
conveyed in the form of gestures, facial expressions, movements, body
language and so on. When someone has to communicate their likes and
dislikes, often instead of speaking, they prefer to convey the information
nonverbally. You may also have heard it various times ³$FWLRQV VSHDN
ORXGHU WKDQ ZRUGV´ hence it is important to enhance your communi-
cation skills by equipping yourself with appropriate use of non-verbal
actions. Also, it is important to note that silence is also a great tool for
non-verbal communication.
You must have seen it, especially in your household setting, if you wish
to seek permission from your parents to go on a trip, often they won’t say
‘No’ but simply give you a silent treatment. You understand from their
non-verbal gestures that they are not willing to permit you for the same.

2.8 Barriers to Effective Communication

So far in this lesson, we learnt about different types of communication,
now let’s discuss the most important component of communication. No
matter what, it is impossible to avoid barriers that are faced in effective
communication, which affects the information being sent by distorting its
true message. The presence of any kind of external noise, distractions, lack
of interest by the receiver etc. are a few of the many causes of distortion.
Before we deeply understand the various types of barriers, let’s discuss
an age-old game you might have played during your childhood to reflect
upon the example of how barriers impact effective communication.

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 COMMUNICATION

You may have heard about µ&KLQHVH:KLVSHUV¶ where all the players form Notes
a circle, one of the players who initiates the game shares a story with
the other player in their ear and they are supposed to follow through and
share the message with others one by one.
It was observed that when the last player’s turn came, they had to share
the message loudly to all, it was found that the meaning, context, and
essence of the message completely changed.
For instance, if the message started with something like “Sujata was go-
ing to a mall in her Red Maruti when she met with an accident with a
White Innova near the roundabout near MG Road and was taken to the
hospital”, this message got changed into “Savita met with an accident
with a car, and she went to the mall after to buy a red dress.”
Observe, how Savita became Sujata, the red car became a red dress, an
accident remained in the message and so did red. But do you think the
meaning was conveyed?
Obviously not, this is how communication is affected in the presence of
barriers that impact it, and to note it, oftentimes the receiver in itself
poses lots of barriers as in this case.
Let us now understand the various types of barriers, especially in the
context of organizational communication:
‹ Distractions Present in the Physical Environment: Most of the
time, the environment where communication is taking place has lots
of barriers. Let us take the example of the organization, while you
are discussing an important agenda with your clients, there may
be cell phone ringing, a peon offering water or asking for tea or
coffee, another employee coming over to get the files signed, traffic
noise from the surroundings, maybe some construction work going
around and so on and so forth. The examples can be countless.
‹ The Attitude of the Sender and Receiver: Since we have understood
so far that the sender and receiver are very important in the message
being shared, the mannerisms followed by them are equally important.
The attentiveness they show in sending or receiving the message
impacts the communication process. If they are constantly fidgeting,
being distracted, using too much emotional context in their message
etc. will lead to discrepancies in the communication process.

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Notes ‹ Language of Communication: The language chosen by the sender

is one of the greatest barriers to communication, if the receiver is
unable to understand the language due to lack of knowledge or
awareness, the meaning of the message won’t be communicated.
Let us assume for example, if you are a manager communicating
with your employees in English, there may be a possibility that
others are not well versed in the language. Especially these issues
arise when an organization is culturally rich and diverse or when
we talk about internal communication, like in MNC Culture.
‹ Using too much Jargon, Slogans etc.: Similar to the above barrier,
if a sender is using too much jargon or specific terminologies
relative to a particular language or a field these are not understood
by all. For instance, a manager says to its tech team, “&KHFN WKH
8;8, RI WKH ZHEVLWH DQG PDNH LW XVHUIULHQGO\ “Now this might
not be understood by all. Here, the manager is talking about the
User Experience and User Interface.
‹ Psychological Barrier: Imagine yourself being emotionally driven at
present, you are mentally exhausted, feeling drained out, or stressed,
do you think your understanding of this topic will be as effective?
So, if we consider this text as a written formal communication
method, you as a sender are affected by your psychological state
right now. This acts as a barrier to effective communication.
‹ Cultural Barrier: As mentioned previously as well, we have a
diverse set of employees with different cultural backgrounds, ethnicity,
gender etc. When the sender uses too much cultural context in the
message, its interpretation may differ as the receiver’s cultural
background may differ. For instance, a thumbs up can have different
meanings across cultures, in certain regions of the Middle East, it
means insult while in most others it seems approval or satisfaction
of some work.
‹ Excess of Information: When the sender pairs load of information
together or mixes up different types of information relevant to
different contexts together, it leads to information overload. This
information overload leads to the content being misunderstood,
leading to confusion in the mind of the receiver.

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‹ Silence: As explained before, silence is one of the crucial ways Notes

of communicating, while it does impact the process, it can be
misinterpreted most of the time. Silence simply means absence of
information; it is on the sender to interpret the information based
on their previous exposure to silence with the same sender. Often,
it is an act of disrespect towards the receiver, which leads to a
negative work environment. If treated in silence, an employee starts
to feel disrespected which drastically reduces their motivation and
productivity.
These are some of the many ways in which information can be distorted
leading to a lack of clarity in the message being shared. It deeply impacts
the process of communication, often either the encoding of the message
is done inappropriately, or the receiver is unable to decode the message.

2.9 Effective Communication Skills

So far in this lesson, we have understood the importance of effective
communication. You must be wondering how communication can be made
effective and what must one do to enhance their skills. Let us now discuss
some skills that are necessary to acquire to make yourself an effective
communicator and a better leader for tomorrow.
Some of the skills necessary are:
‹ Active Listening: Do you think you can deliver the information
ahead if you have not heard it correctly? Well, not. To pass on the
correct message, it is essential to first pursue active listening. Active
Listening suggests paying heed to the information being shared.
It is important to note here that information of all types can be
shared, active listening includes understanding and observing every
type of information, verbal, written or non-verbal. The receiver
must carefully observe every type of information and focus on the
sender’s attitude and emotions while sharing the information since
all of these aspects help to decode the message in a better manner.
‹ Effective Speaking: As the above-mentioned skill is important for
the receiver, effective listening is important for the sender. You must
have observed some personalities are good in oration skills. You
enjoy listening to them and feel awed when they speak. This is a

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Notes skill set one needs to excel in. The sender needs to be skilful in
speaking effectively by managing their tone, pitch, and amplitude
of voice while being master at the content. You may have observed
when someone is not too good at their content, you get to know
they are simply bluffing or wandering around the topic. A skilful
communicator who masters effective communication knows the
effectiveness of content and language along with the modulation of
voice. They know when to pause, focus on some topic, use jargon
or slogans or communicate with their receiver non-verbally with
gestures, actions etc.
‹ Confidence: Confidence is the key to expressing yourself. When an
individual expresses self-confidence, the receiver gains confidence
in the sender. It clearly indicates that the sender is aware of what
he/she is talking about, it expresses their assertion in the message.
Let us take for instance when you go shopping but you are not sure
what type of garment you are looking for, you keep on wandering
in the shop and often the shopkeeper gets confused about what
you really need.
‹ Assertiveness: From the above point, you can relate that when
an individual holds confidence, they can showcase assertiveness
more clearly. It showcases the sender as clear, direct and respectful
towards the receiver. Being assertive also enables one to be able to
take feedback and give feedback, which enhances communication.
‹ Being Emotionally Intelligent: Emotional Intelligence is a skill
everyone must have; this allows you to be sensitive towards others’
feelings and emotions. It does not mean to be sympathetic towards
others, but it suggests that you are able to understand, perceive,
manage and control your and others emotions in a better manner.
When the sender has control over his/her emotions and understands
those of the receiver more clearly, it becomes easier to communicate
effectively.
Activity 2.4: Imagine your friends made a plan for a trip, they have
decided on a date and have started the planning. They asked you to ac-
company them. What are the ways you will reply to them if you have
to say no as you cannot be available during those dates? (This will help

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 COMMUNICATION

you to introspect what are the ways you can choose to reply to enhance Notes
your communication skills, this shall not take more than 5-7 minutes)
Assertive Reply: _________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Non-Assertive Reply: _____________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
6. One of the drawbacks of written communication is that it lacks
__________, making the sender unable to see the receiver’s
reaction.
7. Non-verbal communication would not include __________.
(a) Affirmations
(b) Gestures
(c) Facial expressions
(d) Body movements
8. __________ are specific terminologies used in various fields that
might not be understood by all.
9. When a person pays heed to the incoming messages while
focusing on attitudes, emotions and non-verbal cues of the
sender, it is known as __________ __________.
10. __________does not facilitate effective communication.
(a) Clear speech
(b) Confidence
(c) Obscure vocabulary
(d) Assertiveness

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 GROUP DYNAMICS IN ORGANIZATIONS

Notes
2.10 Summary
So far in this lesson, you have learnt about communication. Communica-
tion acts as a way in which people share and pass relevant information
or messages to each other. To understand one another, it is important
to communicate effectively. It is a way in which people interact with
each other to share their thoughts, feelings and emotions. To understand
the concept of communication, we also need to understand the process
of communication, often known as the linear model of communication.
When any message or information is to be passed to the receiver, first,
the sender encodes the information into easily understandable and com-
prehensible statements, once done, the sender decides a channel to pass
the information, after which the sender receives the information which
they decode, to gather the information more clearly. This entire process
is understood as a linear model of communication. Thus, it is important
to note that the main elements useful in the process of communication
include, a sender, receiver, encoding of information, message, channel
etc. This is not the only model of communication, further in this lesson,
the other models of communication including the Aristotle model of
communication, the Lasswell model of communication, and the Shannon
and Weaver model of communication are also explained in detail. Each
of these models has an important role in the message which can further
be classified into interpersonal communication types including verbal,
non-verbal and written. It emphasises how each one of these types of
communication is relevant and a combination of these is important to
understand the effectiveness of communication. Apart from this, various
psychological, social and environmental factors drastically impact com-
munication styles among people.
With this lesson, we have gathered the brief about the concept of com-
munication, in the upcoming lesson, we will apply the concept of com-
munication to an organizational setting to explain and elaborate on the
topic of organizational communication.

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 COMMUNICATION

Notes
2.11 Answers to In-Text Questions
1. Channel
2. Formal; Informal
3. Shannon and Weaver and Aristotle
4. who; what; whom; how
5. Kronos
6. Feedback
7. (a) Affirmations
8. Jargon
9. Active listening
10. (c) Obscure vocabulary

2.12 Self-Assessment Questions

1. What do you understand by communication? Explain any one model
of communication.
2. What are the various types of communication? Cite suitable examples
to illustrate what are the ways communication is affected.
3. Explain the models of communication.
4. Elaborate on strategies to enhance communication.
5. Reflect on a suitable example of communication to explain the
barriers involved in communication.

2.13 References
‹ Aswathappa, K. (2017). “Organizational Behaviour: Text, Cases,
Games” (12th ed.). Himalaya Publishing House.
‹ Robbins, S. P. and Judge, T. A. (2013). Organizational Behaviour.
15th edition, Pearson, Boston.
‹ Pareek, U. N. (2004). Understanding Organizational Behaviour.
India: Oxford University Press.

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 GROUP DYNAMICS IN ORGANIZATIONS

Notes
2.14 Suggested Readings
‹ Carnegie, Dale. The Quick and Easy Way to Effective Speaking.
New York: Pocket Books, 1977.
‹ Taylor, S. (2000). Essential communication skills: The ultimate guide
to successful business communication. Boston: Pearson Educational.

40 PAGE
Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,
School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
L E S S O N

3
Organizational
Communication
Dr. Nupur Gosain
Assistant Professor
Department of Psychology
School of Open Learning
University of Delhi
Email-Id: [email protected]

STRUCTURE
3.1 Learning Objectives
3.2 Introduction
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3.11 References
3.12 Suggested Readings

3.1 Learning Objectives

In this lesson, you shall be able to:
‹ Define the concept of organizational communication.
‹ Describe the functions of organizational communication.

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 GROUP DYNAMICS IN ORGANIZATIONS

Notes ‹ Examine the various types of communication networks.

‹ Investigate ways to enhance communication in organizations.
‹ Reflect on the Johari window model of effective communication.

3.2 Introduction
So far, from the previous lesson on communication, you have learnt
the basics surrounding the topic. You must have understood that com-
munication is important in every sphere of life, may it be personal or
professional. There is a lot that can be affected if communication is not
done effectively. In this lesson, we shall be laying focus on the topic of
organizational communication.
An organization comprises a group of two or more people who work
towards achieving a common goal or objective for the benefit of the
organization. Its core is the human resource working within the orga-
nization, i.e. its employees who are the major stakeholders. Now, when
we say that they are working together to achieve a common goal, it is
important to note that this common goal must be communicated to the
employees clearly to achieve its objective. For the employees to pursue
their assigned tasks appropriately, it is necessary to instruct them on the
task appropriately.
Can you imagine an organization without communication? How do you
think the managers or employees would communicate? How will the
organization achieve its objectives without communication? Well, the
answer is it is impossible to achieve any of these without understanding
communication.
Let us take an instance, from the moment a position is advertised the
role of effective communication begins. The employer must mention a
detailed job requirement notice to be circulated in print or digital forms,
which communicates to the potential employees what the job is all about.
It should list the job eligibility and job specifications. If not done cor-
rectly, a suitable candidate will be difficult to hire. Moving further, when
communicating with them at the time of recruitment, the right questions
need to be asked to ensure the selection process meets the requirements of
the employer. Post selection, clear instructions should be given, to make

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 ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION

them aware of the job profile they are about to begin. The organizational Notes
culture needs to be communicated to them, and rules and regulations they
must take into consideration should be listed for them. Can you imagine
if any of this is lacking effective communication how it can adversely
affect the organization? Well, that is the main reason why it is important
to understand organizational communication.
This unit will make you understand the basics of organizational communi-
cation which will help you to enhance your strategies of communication.
By the end of this lesson, you will be able to learn about the different
networks of communication, both formal and informal and analyse some
of how you can enhance your communication strategies.

3.3 Organizational Communication

Communication as we have learnt by now is passing necessary information
from the sender to the receiver. When this information is passed in an
organization setting, we understand it as organizational communication.
For the smooth functioning of the organization, this holds high relevance
to understanding how the information will flow within an organization,
making it easier and comprehensible to the relevant stakeholders. Stake-
holders can be anyone who has some relevant interest or profit within the
organization. It can be the higher authorities, the bosses, the employees,
the clients, the staff etc. of any organization. To further add to this, any
kind of communication that happens within an organization amongst
these stakeholders is understood as organizational communication, it can
include talking on the phone, writing letters or memos, sending emails,
conducting meetings etc. all are different ways organizations communicate
within organizations.
Imagine an organization as a container, what flows within is commu-
nication, just as a liquid will take the shape of a container, similarly,
communication takes the shape of an organization symbolically. It deeply
influences how one interact with each other in different positions. This
is how organizations get the work done, irrespective of the type of or-
ganization, may it be government, private, etc. If the right information
is not communicated to the right person at the right time in the right
way it may lead to chaos in the organization, thus it is easy to say that

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 GROUP DYNAMICS IN ORGANIZATIONS

Notes it is an extremely critical point. Hence, we say effective communication

is essential.
But do you think knowing how to communicate is sufficient? Well, I
doubt it. Communication will only be beneficial for the organization when
done effectively. Thus, it becomes a vital component in organizations. To
avoid any misunderstandings, ensure the delivery of proper and appropri-
ate information, provide clear instructions and lay organizational mission
and objectives to all employees, the stakeholders of the organization must
pursue effective communications.
Activity 3.1: Imagine yourself working as a manager of an organization,
if you have to communicate feedback to your team on the recent pre-
sentation what are the different ways you can communicate it to them?
(This activity should not take more than 5-7 minutes of your time)

3.4 Functions of Organizational Communication

Communication performs various important functions, especially in organi-
zational settings. Effective communication leads to achieving organizational
objectives, high motivation amongst the employees, clarity about the job
they are supposed to perform, better and enhanced leadership, enhanced
expression of emotions, etc. Let us reflect upon this more deeply. As
it was mentioned previously, communication shapes an organization, it
takes the role of creating a positive work environment for the employees.
When employees have clarity of their roles and jobs to be performed in
the organization, their performance becomes effective and productive.
Hence it can be said that communication in the organization has a lot
of important functions.
The functions of communication can be mentioned as:
1. Motivating: It is the responsibility of the manager to ensure that
his/her employees are motivated at all times. There are often when
employees feel a lack of motivation while working in the organization.
2. Leading and Directing: Every organization needs a visionary leader
in their organization, one that can take the organization forward
successfully. As per different types of leadership styles, a leader or
manager will choose to take up the organizational responsibilities.

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ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION

Either way, their competence in communicating with their employees Notes

is imperative to ensure their directions and leadership are understood.
3. Controlling: The organizational processes followed within the
organization need to be controlled, the manager or leader must
ensure the organizational rules and regulations are followed by all
members and that there is no miscommunication between them. This
is only possible if all necessary information is provided to their
employees at the right time in the right manner in the appropriate
way.
4. Expressing: If you calculate the number of working hours one spends
in an organization, it can be said that an employee spends most of
their time in the organization than with their family members. This
gives importance to the fact that colleagues most of the time are
like family members. Considering organizational pressure, work-life
balance, and personal and professional hardships, it becomes necessary
for the leader or manager to ensure there is an outlet of emotions
amongst the employees. They should feel safe and comfortable
sharing their emotions with others, ensuring a positive organizational
workspace. Hence, apart from professional communication, personal
communication is equally important within an organization.

Figure 3.1: Functions of Organizational Communication

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Notes
3.5 Communication Networks
Networks can be understood as any kind of linkage or interconnectedness
between two or more things. Similar to this, communication networks
can be understood as linkage or interconnectedness between two or more
people amongst which communication is taking place. These communi-
cation networks have structures which are followed to make a pattern
of communication.
In organizational settings, these structures are patterns which even define
the culture of the organization. There is no consistent network followed
across organizations, but each leadership/authority of the organization
along with its stakeholders decides which network they must follow to
suit the demand of the organization according to the sector, area, branch
etc. of the organization.
These structures may vary based on the type of organization, such public
sector organizations may have different communication networks, while
private sector organizations might have different ones. Nowadays, start-up
culture is growing up which follows their kind of communication network,
all of which largely depends on the vision and idea behind the organiza-
tion. Various studies and research suggest that having a proper network
in organizations leads to productivity and efficiency among employees.
The communication network can be broadly divided into three main categories,
based on:
‹ System

‹ Direction

‹ Channel

Figure 3.2: Communication Networks

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 ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION

3.5.1 Based on System Notes

‹ Formal Communication Network: As the name suggests is
prevalent in formal setups of organizations. When there is a
presence of a superior or boss and subordinates there are various
ways, communication may flow amongst them. Oftentimes, there
are combinations of these networks which are required especially in
large organizations where there are sub-teams or structures within
the organization.
‹ Informal Communication Network: This is popularly known as
the grapevine kind of communication. Here, information flows
spontaneously. There is no structure or set pattern of communication,
hence it is an informal communication network. This type of network
often breeds gossip and rumours which affects the communication
process within the organization. Even though it may be said that,
unlike many other types of communication, information flow from
sender to receiver may be faster in this, it comes with various barriers
to effective communication by circulating inaccurate information
to the sender.

3.5.2 Based on Direction

‹ Upward Network: This type of network suggests that the communication
pattern only flows upwards. This suggests that the subordinates share
the information from down to up to their supervisors and bosses.
This allows them to generate problem-solving skills and showcase
their creativity to their bosses.
‹ Downward Network: Opposite to the upward communication, in this
the communication flows from top management to the subordinate
employees. In this, employee feedback on work performance can
be shared clearly, though it gives less liberty to the employees to
showcase creativity as they often follow instructions that come from
the top management.
‹ Vertical Network: As the name suggests, in this type of network,
the communication flows vertically from top to bottom or bottom
to top. The communication which a boss or a superior does with its
employees or vice versa is understood as vertical communication.

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 GROUP DYNAMICS IN ORGANIZATIONS

Notes This type of network can either be upward, with a boss delivering
an important instruction or downward, with an employee informing
the boss about an important development at work. Most of the
time, when an important instruction needs to be delivered to the
employees, vertical communication takes place.
‹ Horizontal Networks: This type of communication is mostly held
across the employees, generally where there lies no hierarchy, and
all are at the same level. Such as between two employees who hold
the same position within the organization.
‹ Diagonal Networks: When organizations communicate across
boundaries both vertically and horizontally at the same time, it is
understood as a diagonal network. Often private sector organizations
are said to be following this network to include all employees in
the decision-making process and it increases feelings of support
amongst the employees, leading to high productivity and reduced
absenteeism.

3.5.3 Based on Channel

‹ Chain Network: As the name suggests, it is a type of sequential
chain which is followed to communicate. If you see Figure 3.3
mentioned below, the network is following a proper chain of sequence.
Imagine if E wishes to communicate important information to A,
they can only follow a proper sequence of chains going from D to
C to B to A. They cannot straightaway jump to A to communicate
the information. It can be said that the chain of command is set
in this type of network and cannot be broken in this kind of
communication network. Thus, if you observe this is a very time-
consuming process of communication.
This type of communication mostly occurs in high-security organizations
such as the army or military in which a proper formal chain of command
is to be followed to give or take instructions.

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Notes

Figure 3.3: Chain Network Communication

‹ Wheel Network: In this network, as you may see in Figure 3.3,
‘A’ is the only one who is responsible for sending and/or receiving
information or messages amongst others. In this network, the
responsibility lies on the boss or supervisor who acts as a core
person in the middle of the wheel to circulate information across
to its employees. It is necessary that the boss or supervisor is
completely aware of the information to be delivered in a clear
and concise manner. The entire responsibility of communication is
dependent on the boss or supervisor to ensure correct information
is shared for the effectiveness of the organization. Even though it
is an efficient manner of communication as it is direct and does
not involve many people as a part of the communicating process to
distort the meaning, it has its disadvantages. Since the boss or the
manager is entirely responsible, a lack of effective communication
skills will fail the process of communication. Also, it is effective
when the size of the organization is small, and there is a smaller
number of people or employees with the information that needs to
be shared. When the size increases, one person disseminating the
information to many of them is not possible or efficient.

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 GROUP DYNAMICS IN ORGANIZATIONS

Notes For instance, in a new start-up with around 15-20 employees, it is

possible to pursue a wheel network. The boss shares the vision behind
the organization, has clarity on what is the needs and requirements
and accordingly monitors and shares relevant information with the
employees directly himself with no one in between. On the other
hand, when the same company reaches a company size of 15000 plus
employees with different branches and sectors across the country,
do you think following Wheel Network will be possible?

Figure 3.4: Wheel Network Communication

‹ Circle Network: This type of network is similar to a chain network
which follows a proper sequence of relationships for communication,
but, unlike a chain network, follows in a circular manner, hence
it is known as circular network communication. In comparison to
the chain network, the advantage is that in this one person has the
opportunity to communicate with two people at the same time. Such
as, as explained in Figure 3.5 below, A can communicate to both
B and E, B can communicate to both C and A and so on.

Figure 3.5: Circular Network Communication

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 ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION

‹ Star Network: This is also known as an all-channel network. In Notes

this type of communication, information can be passed freely across
all members of the organization. As Figure 3.5 explains, it is one
of the informal communication networks. This is more structured
than the grapevine form of communication, as it follows a single
path of communication and information flows in a proper channel.

Figure 3.6: Star Communication

Activity 3.2: Assume yourself as a manager, think about which commu-

nication type would you prefer in your team and why.
(This is a reflection activity; it shall take around 7-10 minutes to reflect
upon a situation and answer the question.)

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. According to research, it is found that a proper network of
communication in an organization leads to __________ and
__________in employees.
2. The __________function of organizational communication ensures
no miscommunication or ignorance of rules and regulations
within organizations.
3. __________, __________ and __________ are three broad categorisations
of communication networks.
4. Vertical networking can have both __________ and __________
flow of communication.

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 GROUP DYNAMICS IN ORGANIZATIONS

Notes 5. When organizations communicate across boundaries vertically

or horizontally, it is known as __________.
6. A network which follows a sequential chain of relaying messages
is known as __________.
7. __________, also known as an all-channel network, is a network
where communication is done freely across all members of
organizations.

3.6 Enhancing Communication in Organizations

In the previous lesson, we learnt about various skills we must acquire to be
H൵HFWLYHLQFRPPXQLFDWLRQ,QDGGLWLRQWRWKRVHZKHQZHWDONDERXWFRPPX-
nication in organizational settings, there are 7C’s of Communication which are
highly important to be taken care of by the employees and managers of the
RUJDQL]DWLRQ7KLVHQVXUHVWKHLUH൵HFWLYHQHVVDQGUHVXOWVLQSURGXFWLYHDQGVXF-
cessful organizations.
6FDQWKHFRGHWROHDUQH൵HFWLYHFRPPXQLFDWLRQVNLOOVXVHGLQ
the workplace setting. This video will help you to gain clarity
on the above topic as well.
(Video Length: Approximately 4 Minutes)

3.6.1 7Cs of Effective Communication

In an organization or any social setting, when communicating, these 7Cs
are extremely relevant to ensure the effectiveness of communication.
When managed properly, there is less possibility of any kind of miscom-
munication caused due to distorted communication. Let us learn each of
these Cs in detail.
‹ Clarity: The message being delivered to the receiver by the sender
should have clarity of information. It should not be confusing for
the receiver to understand and be crisp, simple and to the point.
‹ Concise: Most of the time, the sender wraps up the message with
various other irrelevant information that confuses the receiver
about the important parts to be communicated. Thus, it is said that
the sender should encode the message in a concise manner not
overloading the receiver with irrelevant information.

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ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION

‹ Concrete: Abstract or vague information is not easy to decode or Notes

comprehend. The sender must send the information which is concrete
and to the point. Especially when delivering factual information,
the sender must ensure the concreteness of the information.
‹ Correct: The sender should send accurate information both in
context and in language. As already discussed, language can lead
to misinterpretation, the choice of language by the sender should
not make the message to be sent incorrect.
‹ Courteous: In the previous lesson, while detailing the skills necessary
for effective communication, we discussed the relevance of being
emotionally intelligent. Similar to that, the sender must be courteous
to the feelings of the receiver. It should be respectful to the sender
and foster positive work relationships.
‹ Complete: The information being sent to the receiver must be
complete not should not have any missing information. It must provide
a detailed explanation without missing any relevant information.
‹ Coherent: The communication must follow a precise flow of
information to be followed by the receiver. The message being
circulated must have consistency and a logical structure to be
followed.

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 GROUP DYNAMICS IN ORGANIZATIONS

Notes Activity 3.3: Imagine yourself as a manager of an organization, you have

to instruct the employees to make a presentation for the boss to share
the progress of the company in the last quarter. Share brief messages
that you must include to inform the boss about the work update. Give
relevance to each of the 7Cs to understand the concept better.
(This activity shall take around 5-7 minutes)

3.7 Johari Window: A Model for Effective Organizational

Communication
The concept of Johari Window was given by Joseph Luft and Harry In-
gham in 1955 as a model to understand how relationships work within
different people. With the combination of the two names, the name of the
model came out to be called ‘Johari’ and as you can see in Figure 3.8
mentioned below, from the four quadrants the name ‘Window’ was given.
The agenda of this model was to allow people to understand themselves
better, and also improve relationships with those around them with the
method of introspection, disclosure and feedback. It acts as a great tool
of exercise or communication to be used amongst social groups to un-
derstand each other better.
Let us understand what will come in each of these quadrants. As you may
see, the first quadrant known as Arena explains the traits of people that
are known to others and yourself, such as, let us assume you are extrovert
in nature, and when gathering feedback from your near and dear ones
they also mention your extrovert nature, hence this is in ‘Arena’ as it is
known to both self and others. The second quadrant is ‘Facade’, which
constitutes traits known to you, but others are unaware of, it may include
examples such as, you might be a very good speaker, but probably due
to lack of exposure, others never got to see that side of yours, hence,
that might be known to you, but others are unaware about it. The third
quadrant is the ‘Blind Spot’, which includes traits which are known to
others, but unknown to you, there might be instances where others have
seen you being very resilient, but you may have never thought about
it in that aspect yourself. But others strongly believe in your resilient
nature, hence, this is a trait others are aware of but you on the other

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 ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION

hand are unaware of it. Lastly, we have the fourth quadrant which is the Notes
‘Unknown Area’, as seen in the figure, all traits which you have not been
exposed to, and those which even others have never observed in you in
their social interactions will come under this quadrant.

Figure 3.8: Johari Window

6RXUFHKWWSVIUHHVYJRUJMRKDULZLQGRZ
When such interactive exercises are performed in organizations, it al-
lows the employees to get to know each other more, hence enhancing
communication. It also provides feedback when others share incidents of
what they observe in your behaviour at the workplace which may often
be neglected by you.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
8. Which of the following is not of the 7Cs of effective communication?
(a) Clarity
(b) Correct
(c) Courteous
(d) Candid
9. Given by Luft and Ingham (1955), Johari Window helps people
understand how __________ works within themselves.

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 GROUP DYNAMICS IN ORGANIZATIONS

Notes 10. Match the following quadrants of the Johari window with their
nature.

QUADRANT NATURE
Arena Known to self but not to others
Blind Spot Not known to self as well as not others
Facade Not known to self but known to others
Unknown Known to self as well as others

3.8 Summary
In this lesson, we have discussed the concept of organizational communi-
cation. We learnt in the previous lesson that communication is important
to understand individuals, organizations are any place where two or more
people work to achieve a common objective, and in order to achieve this
goal, we must understand the concept of organizational communication.
This reflects the fact that organizational communication plays an essential
role in understanding the employees and other relevant stakeholders in
a better manner.
To reflect further on the concept, various networks of communication
were elaborated, based on system, direction and channel. Each of these
can be used in different ways in organizations depending upon the type
and the network of employees and the chain of command followed in
the organization. The 7Cs of communication, including clarity, concise,
correct, concrete, courteous, coherent and complete are also important to
reflect upon ways organizations can achieve organizational communication
appropriately.

3.9 Answers to In-Text Questions

1. Productivity; efficiency
2. Controlling
3. System, direction and channel
4. Upward and downward

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Notes
5. Diagonal network
6. Chain network
7. Star network
8. (d) Candid
9. Relationships
10. Arena is known to self as well as others, Blind spot is not known
to self but is known to others, Facade is known to self but not
to others, Unknown is neither known to self nor others.

3.10 Self-Assessment Questions

1. What is organizational communication? Explain the various types
of organizational communication.
2. Explain the different types of communication networks. Suggest
suitable examples.
3. What are the ways in which organizational communication can be
achieved effectively?

3.11 References
‹ Aswathappa, K. (2017). “Organizational Behaviour: Text, Cases,
Games” (12th ed.). Himalaya Publishing House.
‹ Robbins, S. P. and Judge, T. A. (2013). Organizational behaviour.
15th edition, Pearson, Boston.
‹ Pareek, U. N. (2004). Understanding Organizational Behaviour.
India: Oxford University Press.

3.12 Suggested Readings

‹ Carnegie, Dale. The Quick and Easy Way to Effective Speaking.
New York: Pocket Books, 1977.
‹ Taylor, S. (2000). Essential communication skills: The ultimate guide
to successful business communication. Boston: Pearson Educational.

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 UNIT - III

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L E S S O N

4
Organizational Power
Dr. Nupur Gosain
Assistant Professor
Department of Psychology
School of Open Learning
University of Delhi
Email-Id: [email protected]

STRUCTURE
4.1 Learning Objectives
4.2 Introduction
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4.12 References
4.13 Suggested Reading

4.1 Learning Objectives

In this lesson, you shall be able to:
‹ Define the concept of Power.
‹ Recognise the concept of Power in an organization.
‹ Explain the idea of various classifications and sources of Power.
‹ Describe the types of Power and Power Tactics.

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Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning,
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 GROUP DYNAMICS IN ORGANIZATIONS

Notes
4.2 Introduction
In the above lessons, you have learnt about various important dynamics
in organizations including work teams, communication and organizational
communication. Understanding the dynamics of organizations will be
incomplete without discussing the concept of Power and Politics. When
a group of people works together to achieve a common objective, there
exist various structures or hierarchies. Some may be superior to the other
in various ways, either position-wise, status-wise or authority-wise. It
depends on different organizational structures what form of hierarchies
exists. Whenever these hierarchies are present, it refers to that someone
has ‘power’ over the other. This leads to one person in authority con-
trolling the one subordinate to them. Power in layman’s terms would
mean exerting pressure on something, in the same manner, when a person,
manager, or boss exerts pressure towards the subordinate or employee to
influence them is understood as power.
Let us take an example, there might have been days when your parents
had to make you perform a certain task, when they exerted pressure on
you to get it done, this is power. In this scenario, the parent is in au-
thority and exerts pressure on the child.
In this lesson, we will learn about the concept of power and connect
it to understand what is organizational power and its different sources.

4.3 Understanding Power

When one or more than one individual holds authority over the other,
they gain the capacity to influence or control them. Both in personal and
professional life, one or the other holds power over the other. You might
have observed the same even in relationships. One spouse always is more
powerful than the other one, and this is not dependent on physical strength.
It is psychological that the words or actions of one make the other feel
less in authority or power, and they gain the ability to manage and control
your actions, for one’s personal or professional gain. This power is often
not static, it may keep on changing as and when the position, hierarchy,
status, wealth etc. change. Thus, it is easy to state that there are a lot of
factors that depend on making the other person powerful.

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 ORGANIZATIONAL POWER

According to Bass and Stogdill, power can be understood as a capacity Notes

where a person influences the other to make them do a particular task,
which they may not do otherwise. Let us assume there are two people,
namely Arun and Kavita working in an MNC organization. Assuming that
Arun wanted Kavita to make his presentation for the upcoming event,
Kavita did not want to do the task as it was not her work area and she
was already overloaded, but since Arun was in ‘Power Position’ with
Kavita, she could not deny, and she had to abide by the decision made
and make his presentation.
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Have you ever observed your family dynamics, there must have been
situations when you would have left others’ power over you and made
you change your decision. For instance, you wanted to go on a trip to
Goa with your friends, you had everything planned and you went to seek
permission from your parents. It is their decision to look into the matter
and give you final approval on whether you can go along with them or
not. It is important to note here that when you have to seek someone’s
approval before pursuing something, you are giving them the power to
control you. Though it is not suggested that you don’t seek permission,
in this example factors such as your age, family setup etc. are dependent
on making the positions of power.
Apart from personal examples, there can be many other examples from
organizational setup as well. Simply the person in power makes the oth-
er do what they want to do in their way. Ideally, in organizations, it is
required to pursue power not to gain personal satisfaction or individual
gain but to achieve the organizational goals and objectives and enhance
the employees’ productivity.

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 GROUP DYNAMICS IN ORGANIZATIONS

Notes
4.4 Power and Leadership
While power is synonymous with the term leadership, it also holds negative
connotations. When we say power over others, we automatically mean
someone is ‘in charge’ of the other person, like a puppet in the hands of
a puppeteer. But power is highly relevant for organizational settings and
holds various benefits. It is said that only when power is misused by a
person unethically, the organization’s benefit is not achieved.
As mentioned above, power is often relational to the position, status, and
authority one possesses, while a leader is not necessarily someone who
has a position, status or official authority. Many leaders have existed
for a long time in history and today who do not have or need any kind
of official authority or position. But they are natural-born leaders. They
have traits and skills that draw them apart from others and make them a
successful leader. That is the reason why leaders and managers are also
different from each other. Power on the other hand can only be exerted
by someone who holds a strong position. Hence, despite these two terms
being often used interchangeably, they are very different from one another.
Let us understand the difference between a leader and power with some
examples of leaders. Mother Teresa was a natural leader and did not hold
any official position in any organization. She was of a transformational
nature guided and mentored people around and was a true visionary. In
terms of the type of leadership, she can be understood as an Authentic
Leader, with her selflessness and passion to work towards his people
with compassion and love.
Steve Jobs on the other hand co-founded Apple and was officially the
CEO. While he held a position of authority, he was also a transformational
leader who aimed to impact the technology industry. He was known to
be a great leader being an effective decision-maker.
Among many others, there was also Adolf Hitler, an autocratic leader,
assertive and highly controversial. He was highly controlling and was
driven by narcissism. Many claim that he was a ruthless leader. If we
take his example as a leader in the power position, he has made certain
militaristic decisions which have highly impacted their nation histori-
cally. His power exerted on his own people made him a decisive and
aggressive leader.

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 ORGANIZATIONAL POWER

From the three instances mentioned above, it is easy to comprehend that Notes
having a position of power is not always correlated with a leadership
position. Managers take the help of power to exert pressure, and con-
trol and oftentimes manipulate the team members to get the work done.
When a manager is knowledgeable enough to use it for the advantage
of the organization, it is very helpful for the organizational benefit, and
it also enhances the capacity and capability of the leader to be impact-
ful and effective for the team and these become leaders of a successful
organization.
Activity 4.1: Reflect upon examples from an Indian setting to draw a
comparison between an effective leader and a powerful manager, as ex-
plained in the above example.
(This shall not take more than 7-10 minutes)

4.5 Importance of Power in Organizations

There are various reasons why power is highly important and relevant
in organizations, first and foremost when a manager or leader exerts
power onto their employees, the motive behind that should be to make
critical decisions for the organization’s benefit and growth. The person
in control has the authority to take charge and look into the future of
the organization. They have the ability to influence those around them
to ensure the execution of the decisions made in the organization. Often
at times this capacity of influencing is beneficial especially when there
exists disagreement amongst employees to work as per the direction of
the person in power. Another important factor to explain the importance
of power in an organization is the appropriate utilisation and distribution
of resources amongst the employees. The manager or the leader’s duty is
to ensure the employees have ample resources to work in order to fulfil
the organizational goals and objectives. In most of the scenarios, there is
a lack of sufficient resources within the organization, hence it becomes
the responsibility of the manager or leader to ensure equal distribution
of resources among the employees and the teams. Often this leads to
conflicts amongst each other as well, even though in organizations it
is natural to have conflicts with each other for healthy competition, it

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 GROUP DYNAMICS IN ORGANIZATIONS

Notes becomes the duty of the manager or leader to ensure that these conflicts
do not harm the organization’s productivity and efficiency.
The manager or leader plays a core role in creating and developing an
organizational culture as per their need and requirements. This culture
clarifies to the entire team what are their expectations from the job and
how they are supposed to perform to fulfil the organizational objectives.
The hierarchy created in the organizations, necessary disciplinary mea-
sures to be taken by the employees and the organization etc. are outlined
by the manager or leader which creates an organizational culture. The
manager and leader also have the power to change the existing culture
and create a new and improved one for the benefit of the organization,
helping them to adapt and equip themselves with the changes caused due
to innovations and developments in the market. Overall, the manager or
leader ensures their vision is replicated and brought to reality with the
institutional goals being met, thereby motivating the employees.

4.6 Sources of Power

Power is not of one type or nature, it does not only exist in organizations
in one form, but there are various ways in which power emerges. To
discuss this, we will first talk about two renowned social psychologists,
namely John R. P. French and Bertaram Raven who worked together on
the concept of power and leadership. Their research in the year 1959
elaborated upon the different forms of power which are relevant in the
organizations. In their study on the topic of social influence, they divided
power sources into different forms, which can broadly be divided into
two main types, namely, Formal and Informal Power.
According to them, social influence is understood as an attitude or belief
that a person has (being influenced), resulting from the action or behaviour
of another person (influencing others). Let us break this down further
with the help of an example. You are my student and as a teacher, I have
authority over you. If I wish to make you perform certain actions, such
as writing an article in two days, I influence you to perform this task
by influencing you. Now, in this scenario, it is a type of power where
I am using authority over you to make you perform a certain task or
action, for your benefit as a student by introducing a method of teaching
pedagogy of writing an article to assess your learning.

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In a similar way, there are various types of power or sources of power Notes
used in organizations to exert pressure on the teams to get the work
done. Let us elaborate further on the types of formal and informal power.

4.6.1 Formal Power

As the name suggests, formal power is influencing in formal settings
where there exists an organizational structure and hierarchy. As higher
the position of an authority figure, they use and enjoy power more. This
power is given officially to a particular person to ensure the team performs
the desired tasks, duties and responsibilities in the required manner. This
is considered a higher power position than informal power.

Types of Formal Power:

‹ Legitimate Power
As the word suggests, it is an official power position one holds
given by any assigned legal authority. They have the power to
allocate duties, resources, responsibilities and task to ensure the
organizational objectives are met. It is a common and most powerful
source of power present in every organization. The employees have
to accept the position of the person in legitimate authority.
For instance, parents have legitimate authority to control the lives
of their children. They can control every aspect of their life, from
what to do, what to wear, who to meet and so on. Even though
it is also a type of personal power which we explain below in
informal power sources, since their children are dependent on their
parents and rely on them for decision-making, they are provided
with legitimate power over them.
Let us also take an example of an organization. A boss or a manager
holds legitimate power over its team members or employees, and
he gains the authority over the other employees. Let us take an
example of a school, where a principal holds authority over the
teachers. If the principal instructs the teachers and staff members
to be present in school on time or instructs them in ways in which
they need to perform for their future promotions, it is a legitimate
power. They hold the decision-making power to control and manage
their actions.

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 GROUP DYNAMICS IN ORGANIZATIONS

Notes ‹ Reward Power

We all are excited the moment we know we are getting rewarded
for our work. Employees in organizations are often motivated by the
presence of rewards as it extrinsically motivates them to perform
better and achieve their goals. Reward power as the name suggests
is when the employees get rewarded for their work, this reward
can be of any form, promotion, bonus, raise, appreciation, leave
or any other kind of advantage that they get as per their personal
preference. Even though this is often only valued till the time the
employees are getting rewarded, it is seen when the rewards are
stopped or tapered the employees lose the influence of the power
position to manage or control their behaviour. Also, the degree of
power is dependent upon the degree to which the employees are
being rewarded in the organization.
To explain with the help of an example, employees often get regular
promotions and increments in the organization, if these increments
are reduced or are stopped, the employees also stop performing.
‹ Coercive Power
Coercive suggests that an individual applies force to influence or
persuade the other’s behaviour. It is majorly dependent on the concept
of fear, punishment or any kind of negative outcome that the person
in power can put on you. The employees are often fearful of the
outcome that may be put upon them if they do not adhere to or abide
by the person in power position. They often put restrictions and
instil deep fear which leads to negative behaviour. Psychologically
it impacts the employees and even though they perform the tasks,
its effectiveness may drastically be reduced. Using this power also
leads to a negative work environment, reduced motivation and a
lack of emotional support among the employees. The employees
fear they might be thrown out, get a suspension, memorandums,
notices or be terminated from the job.
‹ Information Power
When one individual or employee has access to or control of relevant
information from the organization that may largely impact the
work of others, they can exert information power. This information

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 ORGANIZATIONAL POWER

acts as a tool for them to influence others around them, the more Notes
information they possess more control they can have over others.
It develops a sense of dependency amongst the employees of the
person who has information. This is not highly effective as it may
depend on the type of information, and when the type of information
becomes obsolete or redundant, the power they have over others
will also change. They can use this information to manipulate
and control others. One such common example is different media
centres or channels, you may have observed that when they have
some information which they can use to manipulate and create a
negative media image, they often can make them do as they please.

4.6.2 Informal Power

In the above topic, we discussed how when a person is formally engaged,
they exert power over their employees. Informal Power on the other
hand is when the person does not rely on official or formal authority or
position to exert power over others. They ought not to be in a position
like that of a manager or boss, but they still hold a power position over
the others they need to influence. This kind of power is not existing as
a part of organizational structure as an assigned position, but it does not
mean they are not as powerful as formal power. It often depends on the
person’s attitude, skill set, personality and nature that they assume the
informal power position and those around them adhere to them accordingly.
The various types of informal power can be listed as:
‹ Expert Power
This is an informal way of power which may not exist in every
organization as a part of its structure or hierarchy. It generally exists
when an individual has expertise or knowledge in a certain area, or
a specialised skill set which makes them powerful over others. It
is one of the powerful sources of power which uses influence and
control over others. With increasing technological advancement,
this source is gaining more momentum.
Let us explain with an example, assume you are working in a
company in the social media department with a team of 5 people,
among all of them you have expertise in Instagram, unlike all others.
You have your own professional account and many followers. This

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 GROUP DYNAMICS IN ORGANIZATIONS

Notes makes you an expert in the field. Others automatically feel you
have power over others when it comes to making decisions in the
area of Instagram for organizations.
‹ Referent Power
This is common practice in various organizations, when someone
is brought by reference or is identified as a part of a known circle
with those who are in a power position or someone who is desirable
in the organization, the one with reference gets referent power. It
is quite similar to the next source of power i.e., Charismatic Power
which we are going to discuss below.
An example of referent power could be, if your mother is a teacher
in the same school you are studying, in most cases, you can showcase
referent power with your friends and classmates. A similar workplace
example could be when an employee comes with the reference of the
boss, probably his close friend or a family member. The employee
automatically feels referent power, they might be at the same level
in the hierarchy or maybe lower but still, it is felt as if he is more
powerful than the others. It often is psychological, and it affects
how employees think and behave in the presence of an individual
with referent power.
‹ Charismatic Power:
You must have felt at times that someone’s charisma appeals to you.
To take a few examples, you might be appealed by the charisma of
a political leader such as Narendra Modi, or you feel the charisma
of a movie star like Akshay Kumar or a spiritual leader etc. You
may have felt in awe of the charisma of Shri Krishna himself.
Think about who you feel charismatic about and ponder on why
you think they are so charismatic.
Often, we feel someone’s way of talking, oration, personality, way
of living, body language anything can appeal to us, that makes the
person charismatic to us. This is based on our perception, emotions
and feelings about the other person and similarly, we feel their
charismatic power over us. It is our subjective opinion that feel they
have some characteristics that make them special and expectational,
which makes us their follower. It is often experienced that in the

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 ORGANIZATIONAL POWER

presence of charismatic power, even other formal sources of power Notes

such as legitimate, reward, coercive etc. are not effective, as the
follower in this source of power follows and believes the leader
completely, which often results in neglecting ones’ responsibilities
and duties towards the organization while pursuing the same.
For instance, you must have seen organizations have unions where
one person acts as their leader. Generally, they are elected members,
and the employees are blind followers of the union leader. In such
a scenario when the authority or hierarchy of the organization i.e.
the person holding the legitimate power instructs something that
might be disagreed by the union leader, the employees stand by
the union and oppose the legitimate power as well.
Activity 4.2: You might have encountered various people who have
showcased power to you, reflect upon personal incidences and explain
which type of power were they.

4.7 Power Tactics

When someone needs to achieve something, there are often they use
different strategies or tactics to achieve their goals and objectives. For
the same purpose, to achieve power in organizations, different people
employ strategies and methods to achieve their goals. These are known
as Power Tactics. Each individual might have their own way of using
these power tactics. When people use these tactics within their own group
of people it is understood as intragroup power tactics, while when ap-
plied between different groups it is known as intergroup tactics. As the
word may suggest tactics are negative, but it is not necessarily. Power
Tactics when applied for the benefit of the organization to influence the
employees can be positive.
You have experienced that when your parents wish to convince you of
something out of your comfort zone, they often employ some kind of
persuasion strategies or tactics. One such common example you might
have always encountered is when your parents tell you to get good grades
in your exams in exchange they promise to give you your favourite bi-
cycle, toy etc. That acts as a strategy to convince you to work hard to
achieve the desired result.

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 GROUP DYNAMICS IN ORGANIZATIONS

Notes As explained by Kipnis and his colleagues in 1984, they gave seven tactics
used in organizations. Let us now discuss these strategies of power tactics:
‹ Assertiveness
Assertiveness can be understood as informing about your decision in
a clear and direct manner, when someone showcases assertiveness,
they respectfully without aggression inform about the decision
they want to make in the organization. Often when managers are
assertive, it helps in clear communication of the objective which
gives the employees clarity about the work to be done and ensures
compliance towards the task. In this, the manager might have to
repeatedly inform the team about the decision to increase motivation.
Let us take an example, in an organization a manager has been
designated a project, and he along with his team is working hard on
the same. The deadline is approaching and there are a lot of tasks to
be completed, for smooth conduction and completion of the project,
the manager ‘DVVHUWLYHO\¶informs the team that they have to work extra
time to complete the task well in time. While addressing his team, the
manager might say, “$V ZH DOO NQRZ WKH GHDGOLQH IRU WKH SURMHFW LV
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‹ Friendliness or Ingratiation
As in the above example, we explained how assertion is used to
get the work done, let us now understand how friendliness will be
used as a tactic. Friendliness or Ingratiation is when the manager
uses friendliness with their team or employees or uses praise to
flatter them in getting the task done. Often managers praise their
team members sometimes also exaggerating their work only to make
them comply with the work they want them to pursue. They can be
too humble towards them, and friendly ask them to comply. Taking
the above example further, when a work needs to be delivered,
they might become extra sweet, and considerate towards others. A
manager using this tactic might say, “<RX KDYH PDGH VXFK D QLFH
VHOIH[SODQDWRU\SUHVHQWDWLRQLWPDGHP\ZRUNVRPXFKHDVLHU<RX
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ORGANIZATIONAL POWER

‹ Rationality Notes
As the word suggests, when using rationality as a power tactic, a
manager will use logical arguments and facts to make you comply
with the designated tasks. With the supportive rational argument,
the manager clearly mentions what is needed from the employee.
The one stating facts becomes the person of power. In the example
mentioned above, the manager using rationality would state, “:HDOO
NQRZ LQ WKH ODVW DVVLJQPHQW ZKHQ ZH DOO FRQWLQXHG RYHU WLPH RXU
ZRUN ZDV FRPSOHWHG  GD\V EHIRUH WKH GHDGOLQH DQG ZH KDG WKH
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‹ Sanctions
When the person in power uses coercive power to ensure compliance
it is known as sanctions. In this, the manager may use any kind
of reward or punishment to ensure work is completed. It could
include rewards such as compensatory leave, salary for overtime,
dinner or lunch with colleagues, etc., punishments on the other hand
would include instances such as reduced appraisal, no bonus etc.
A manager using sanctions would probably state, “7KLV SURMHFW LV
H[WUHPHO\ FUXFLDO IRU DOO RI XV ,I ZH DUH QRW DEOH WR VXFFHVVIXOO\
DFKLHYHRXUWDUJHWWKHPDQDJHPHQWZLOOKDYHWRUHWKLQNWKLV\HDU¶V
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‹ Higher Authority
As human beings, we always seek approval from our superiors to
gain appreciation. Similarly, when using higher authority as a power
tactic, you ensure the employees that support from the officials
and the leadership will be provided if we comply with the tasks.
Showcasing this tactic, a manager might state, “7KLV LV WKH GUHDP
SURMHFW RI RXU KLJKHU DXWKRULWLHV DQG WKH\ DUH SHUVRQDOO\ ORRNLQJ
LQWR LW <RXU HIIRUWV ZLOO EH UHSRUWHG GLUHFWO\ WR WKHP´
‹ Bargaining
As the word suggests, we bargain in this power tactic. In order
to gain something, we offer something in return as a part of the
negotiation. It may also be used when the person is reminded of

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 GROUP DYNAMICS IN ORGANIZATIONS

Notes any previous bargains that may have been given to them. A manager
might state, “3RVW WKH VXFFHVV RI WKLV SURMHFW ZH DOO ZLOO EH JRLQJ
IRU D QRQZRUN WULS WR *RD :H QHHG WR IRFXV QRZ WR FRPSOHWH WKLV
SURMHFW VRRQ´
‹ Coalition
Coalition suggests when we need help from those around us or build
alliances or partnerships with others. Union in the organization
is one example of understanding coalition. They often team up
together to threaten the organization to strike if the demands are
not met. It may also include instances when the entire organization
comes together to offer support to ensure compliance with the task.
A manager using coalition would probably state, “We are getting
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DUH DOVR WHDPLQJ XS OHW XV QRZ SXVK KDUGHU WR DFKLHYH WKH
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Activity 4.3: Mention some of the power tactics you observed around
you. Explain which tactic was used in the scenario.

You can scan this QR code for a brief video on Power

and Power Tactics. It shall not take more than 8 minutes.

4.8 Use and Misuse of Power

As much as power is relevant and useful for the organization, it often
comes with many ill effects on the employees and the organization. It
can have both positive and negative effects on the organization. Let us
now delve into the use and misuse of power in an organizational setting.
Ethical Use of Power
‹ Interdependence on One another: Power often makes employees
in an organization rely on and depend on each other. It helps
create a synergy of togetherness amongst the employees so that
they can work together to achieve the goals and objectives of the

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organization. This helps in creating a shared vision and aids in better Notes
teamwork.
‹ Empowered Employees: When the employees work together and have
a strong vision, their growth is guaranteed. They feel empowered and
ensure the success of the organization. It often helps them create an
expertise of themselves, an area where they excel and are able to
showcase their strengths, this is often showcased in expert power.
‹ Enhances Credibility: The employees showcasing power in an
appropriate manner are able to enhance their credibility with the
employees, which makes them more reliable and trustworthy. This
ensures a healthy and positive environment for the organization
having a leader who is reliable for the employees.
‹ Resolving Conflicting Situations: Even though conflicts help the
organization grow, one of the best uses of power is using effective
strategies for resolving conflicts and dealing with such situations
in an empathetic and positive manner.
Abuse of Power
‹ Superiority: When a person uses power negatively, it may lead
to feelings of egoistic behaviour in them. They may start to feel
superior to all around them. This superiority may humiliate others
around them.
‹ Harassment at the Workplace: Negative Power may lead to
bullying or harassment at the workplace. This may be physical,
verbal or sexual harassment. It is a highly negative form of abuse
of power. When managers have higher superiority, it often leads
them to harass employees around them throwing their power onto
others, they might intimidate their subordinates and influence them
negatively. It largely reduces productivity at the workplace and
increases absenteeism.
‹ Bullying or Unfair Attitude towards the Employees: It has been
observed in organizations that power amongst selective employees
leads to bullying behaviour with others, it also impacts attitudes
towards others. Bias measures are taken with the employees, those
who are favoured get most of the advantage in the organization.

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 GROUP DYNAMICS IN ORGANIZATIONS

Notes IN-TEXT QUESTIONS

1. __________ is based on personal relationships and reputation,
rather than formal authority.
2. __________ power is derived from a person’s position or role
in an organization.
3. __________ of power can include such things as titles, office
size and location, special parking privileges, special eating
facilities, automobiles, aeroplanes, and office furnishings.
4. The __________ view of power emphasises top-down control
of the organization.
5. The distribution of power within organizations is always based
on formal hierarchies and job titles. (True/False)
6. Power can be exercised without the explicit consent of those
being influenced. (True/False)
7. The concept of “soft power” is based on coercion and threats.
(True/False)
8. Resistance to power is often caused by:
(a) A lack of understanding of organizational goals
(b) A feeling of being unfairly treated
(c) A desire for more autonomy
(d) All of the above
9. The key difference between power and authority is:
(a) Power is legitimate, while authority is not
(b) Authority is based on position, while power is based on
relationships
(c) Power is formal, while authority is informal
(d) Authority is coercive, while power is persuasive
9. The key difference between power and authority is:
(a) Power is legitimate, while authority is not
(b) Authority is based on position, while power is based on
relationships

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 ORGANIZATIONAL POWER

(c) Power is formal, while authority is informal Notes

(d) Authority is coercive, while power is persuasive

10. The concept of “reciprocal relationship” in power dynamics
refers to:
(a) The idea is that power is always used for personal gain
(b) The fact that power is a zero-sum game
(c) The understanding that power is both given and received
(d) The belief is that power should be distributed equally

4.9 Summary
In this lesson, you learnt about the concept of Power. Power is inevi-
table in any organization; it gives an employee the ability to influence
and impact the behaviour of others within the organization. There are
different sources from which power may emerge including formal, which
are authorised by the organization and informal which is due to individ-
ual characteristics and traits. While power can change the organization
moving it towards success and growth if managed properly, it also has
various negative effects. When misused or abused, power can lead to
reduced motivation amongst employees, promoting biases and a negative
atmosphere. Hence, it is essential to understand the concept of Power in
Organization and manage it within the organization effectively.

4.10 Answers to In-Text Questions

1. Informal power
2. Legitimate
3. Symbols
4. Autocratic
5. False, there could be informal sources of power as well
6. True, power can also be exercised subtly and implicitly
7. False, soft power is based on attraction and persuasion

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Notes
8. (d) All of the above
9. (b) Authority is based on position, while power is based on
relationships
10. (c) The understanding that power is both given and received

4.11 Self-Assessment Questions

1. Explain the concept of Power and elaborate on various tactics of
power used in the Organization.
2. Differentiate between the concept of power and leadership. Explain
the need and use of power in the organization.
3. “Power can strongly benefit the organization’s growth and development”
Comment on the statement citing valid arguments.
4. Explain the different sources of power.

4.12 References
‹ Robbins, S. P. and Judge, T. A. (2022). Organizational Behaviour.
18th edition, Pearson, Boston.
‹ Aswathappa K. (2013). Organizational Behaviour: Text, Cases &amp;
Games. Himalaya Pub. House.
‹ Fred Luthans. (2017). Organizational Behaviour: An Evidence-Based
Approach, McGraw Hill Education.

4.13 Suggested Reading

‹ McShane, S. L., Von Glinow, M. A., and Himanshu Rai. (2022).
Organizational Behaviour. McGraw Hill Education.

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L E S S O N

5
Organizational Politics
and Harassment
Dr. Nupur Gosain
Assistant Professor
Department of Psychology
School of Open Learning
University of Delhi
Ms. Nisha Bajaj
Research Scholar
Department of Commerce
University of Delhi
Ms. Aastha Gupta
Academic Counsellor
Department of Psychology
School of Open Learning
University of Delhi
Email-Id: [email protected]

STRUCTURE
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5.2 Introduction
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5.13 Suggested Reading

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 GROUP DYNAMICS IN ORGANIZATIONS

Notes
5.1 Learning Objectives
In this lesson, you shall be able to:
‹ Describe Political Behaviour in an Organization.
‹ Identify various characteristics related to Political behaviour in an
Organization.
‹ Illustrate the various consequences of Political behaviour.
‹ Articulate the causes of Political behaviour on Employees in
Organization.
‹ Criticize Political behaviour within an organization.

5.2 Introduction
In the previous lesson, we captured the meaning and understood the con-
cept of organizational power. We gathered an understanding that when an
individual holds authority over another person, it gives them the power
to pursue things as they want. This can either be pursued formally or
informally in an organization. While power gives the authority to influ-
ence the situation, politics can be understood as indulging in behaviour
that produces desired results for an individual or an organization.
You may have heard about politics in everyday life. At a country’s level,
politics help in understanding how they can be governed, making neces-
sary norms, rules and regulations for the country’s benefit and deciding
who holds the power to make these changes at the country’s level.
Similarly, politics within an organization decides the important decisions
within the organization, such as who should be getting a promotion, what
kind of rewards should be given to the employees, how should resource
allocation be done, who is deserving of benefits and opportunities to
other major and minor decision about the workforce and organization.
In this lesson, we shall be elaborating on the definition of organization-
al politics, characteristics related to political behaviour, and causes and
consequences of politics in an organization.

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Notes
5.3 Politics in an Organization
The term politics is closely related to the concept of power, in simple
terms it is the way power can be used. Despite the negative connotation
it has, it is unavoidable in the organization and individuals may be un-
knowingly engaged in politics. It can be understood as ways in which
people gain or use power in any kind of organization.
To get a detailed view of the concept of politics, let us use an example. You
must have seen many societies have welfare associations. For instance, you
live in a society, and you have a fully functional welfare association, with
all necessary position holders. Let us assume the association has decided to
install a Garden Gym in the lawn area. However, the funds are not sufficient,
and all stakeholders do not agree with the decision to install a Garden Gym.
The President of the association is himself a fitness freak and its installa-
tion is a personal motive as well. This is a power play; his position gives
him the authority to make the decision as per his own interest. Similar
to the president, those who have a common interest become allies and
support the decision. Those in opposition argue that instead of a Garden
Gym, they can utilize the money on installing benches and repairing the
existing set-up. But, since they are not in power, they remain unheard.
Despite the fact that the repair will benefit a majority of the members,
the power dynamics and politics played in this example are evident which
leads to the decision being forced onto other members. This is how the
concept of Politics can be understood. As you can observe with the help
of the example, it works closely with the concept of Power.
In this example, the Association acts as an Organization. So, it can thus be con-
cluded that an organization, an individual or a group uses its power or authority
to influence the decisions, rules, norms, direction etc. of the general masses.
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 GROUP DYNAMICS IN ORGANIZATIONS

Notes ‹ ³3ROLWLFV LQ DQ RUJDQL]DWLRQ UHIHUV WR WKRVH DFWLYLWLHV WKDW DUH QRW
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GLVDGYDQWDJHVZLWKLQWKHRUJDQL]DWLRQ´JLYHQE\)DUUHODQG3HWHUVRQ
The above definitions give a clear understanding of the concept of pol-
itics in an organization. It is also important to note that it is not only
formal or sanctioned by the organization as a part or structure of the
organization. But it can be outside of the hierarchical structure of the
organization. The employees make extra efforts in the organization to
achieve their desired goals and objectives, which may or not be in favour
of the organization. Hence, it becomes even more important to identify
the political structure in the organization.
Activity 5.1: You may have seen political behaviour in different people.
Reflecting upon your own experiences, list some of the political behaviour
you have come across citing suitable references to support your answer.
(This shall not take more than 7-10 minutes)

5.3.1 Characteristics of Political Behaviour

Let us now understand the different features of political behaviour in an
organization.
Self-Serving
The employee/s showcasing political behaviour will be self-serving i.e.,
the employee/s shall work for his/her benefit or to favour someone else.
In this, the employees often manipulate the situation and misuse the
resources of the organization.
Let us capture some minute differences in the concept with this example.
Scenario 1: You are a manager in an organization, all the employees are
expecting a good raise this year since the team was able to complete a
big project. All the employees have worked extremely hard days and
nights for the success of the project. This year, all of them have huge
expectations from the organization.
Explanation: The above example elaborates on the self-serving behaviour
of the employees as they expect a pay raise. This in itself is not associ-
ated with power or any political behaviour.

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 ORGANIZATIONAL POLITICS AND HARASSMENT

Scenario 2: Adding to the above examples, one of the employees started Notes
to threaten you and your superiors to leave the company if the pay is not
increased as per his demand. He starts to gather people in his favour to
stand up against the organization, approaching the union and striking if
necessary if the demands and wishes are not met.
Explanation: As you may now be able to differentiate since the em-
ployee has power over the superiors, he is trying to get his wishes and
desires fulfilled by the organization and influencing others around him
showcasing high political behaviour. This is a misuse of power.
Uses Power and Authority
The employee cannot use political behaviour without having power. The
relationship between power and politics is strongly related to each other.
Without power, the employee will not be able to pursue any kind of po-
litical behaviour. Power or authority is necessary to influence activities,
decisions, actions etc. to get the desired results. This can be clearly
explained in the above scenario.
Informal or Unofficial
It has been observed that often politics is informal or illegitimate. It does
not abide by the organizational role and expectations as an official be-
haviour, but it may be outside of the organizational hierarchical purview.
Even though such behaviour is not appreciated by the authorities, it may
still negatively affect the organization.
Positive
While we have captured the negative effects of organizational politics so
far, it is important to note that organizational politics can also be positive.
If you remember the epic episode from our sacred scripture 0DKDEKDUDWD
where at the battlefield, Shri Krishna successfully convinced %KLP to
announce the death of $VKZDWKDPD - who was an elephant in real, but
they politically moulded & created a situation where *XUX 'URQDFKDU\D
assumed that announcement was his $VKZDWKDPD¶V death to swiftly turn
the odds in the favour of dharma. Likewise, sometimes these organiza-
tional politics may be backed by reasons that have a positive impact on
organizational success.

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Notes Activity 5.2: Think of some of the examples where organizational politics
can prove to be positive.
(This shall not take more than 10 minutes)

5.4 Causes of Political Behaviour within the Organization

Now it’s quite possible that you might have thoughts about what are the
core causes behind the political behaviour in an organization. So now
we’ll discuss some of the crucial causes of political behaviour.
Scarce Resources
As you studied economics in your class 12th, try to recall that the foun-
dation of economics revolves around a problem and that is the resources
are scarce and the wants are unlimited. Have you remembered? Similarly,
in an organization, the supply of resources like money, projects, etc. are
presented in limited form over its demand. This will create a pathway
for the employees to compete with each other for these scarce resourc-
es which ultimately results in the arising of political behaviour among
them. However, if the resources are available more than its demand, even
in that scenario the characteristic of competitiveness among employees
results in political activities in an organization that directly impedes the
organizational growth.
Ambiguity:
Any kind of unclarity that may prevail in an organization will result in
the initiation of political behaviour. For example, XYZ Corporation framed
a promotion policy wherein they stated that promotion would be based
on employees’ performance and contributions to the company. But here,
they did not mention the parameters for the performance and contribu-
tions due to which at the time of promotion, employees were involved in
various political activities and even, organization indulged in favouritism
activities that directly influenced the organization environment. Organi-
zational ambiguity in terms of roles allocated to employees, delegation
of authority or even the improper alignment of employees’ expectations
and management expectations results in employee bargaining. Thus, this
is how ambiguity provides a space for politics in an organization.

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Power Structure Notes

As mentioned earlier as well, power and politics are two sides of the
same coin. Likewise, to acquire, maintain or elevate power, employees
will intentionally involve themselves in organizational politics.
Organizational Change
Greek philosopher Heraclitu once mentioned “The only constant in life
is change” which is apt, but change brings uncertainty with it and un-
certainty serves politics on a plate.
Have you remembered those online classes during the pandemic? Online
classes were the only solution during the pandemic which educational
institutes had to adopt for that change. So, have you encountered an
event, or you might have been involved in activities where your friends
or you just put yourself on mute and off your video and playing video
games, watching TV, etc.? This is nothing but an example of politics.
Likewise, with a new organizational change, employees find out the ways
to play tactics for self-interest.
Individual Factor: Every individual is different in terms of their per-
ceptions, personalities, communication, thought processes, etc. These
differences could be one of the causes of the emergence of politics in an
organization. For say, some people have a high internal locus of control,
i.e. they believe that they can change their environment, thus they are
proactive and change situations in their favour. Moreover, some people
like to do gossips and manipulations. They tend to spread unreliable and
inaccurate information or rumours in an organization. These individual
differences result in politics in an organization environment.
Activity 5.3: Think of some of the other causes that may result in po-
litical behaviour among employees
(This shall not take more than 7-8 minutes)

5.5 Antecedents of Political Behaviour within the

Organization
Before an individual initiates a political behaviour in their nature, various
antecedents lead to it. Various factors are involved at both individual and
organizational levels that drastically affect politics in an organization.

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Notes You take your example to understand this more clearly, do you think there
are aspects of your life that will impact your behaviour at the workplace?
Think about it, if you are working in an organization, your personality
will determine the kind of behaviour you pursue in an organization. These
are your factors, apart from this, various organizational factors such as
organizational culture, your position in the organization and many more
factors affect your behaviour and performance at the workplace.
Activity 5.4: Before reading the antecedents, reflect on some of the factors
(individual and organizational) that you think will affect your political
behaviour in an organization.
(This shall not take more than 7 - 8 minutes)
Let us understand some of the factors:
1. Individual Factors:
(a) Political Skill: Every individual has their own way of interpersonal
style and social skills as every individual’s personality is different.
The way one communicates with other people coordinates
with others to manage work and allocate responsibilities
depends on the individual’s way of behaving. You might have
observed with individuals having good communication skills,
manipulating or managing the work is easier than those who
are not able to do the same.
(b) Locus of Control: Every individual has a belief regarding the
amount of power and control they have over their actions to
change or shape the future as per their needs and requirements.
If you have a high locus of control, you will be well aware of
how to change your actions for the benefit of the organization,
you will take charge of the situation and work head-on to
achieve the organization’s goals and objectives, not leaving
anything in the hands of the destiny.
(c) Attachment and Investment in the Organization: An individual’s
attachment to the organization either emotionally or financially
will affect the level of investment you make within the
organization. If you are highly attached or invested, there is
a high likelihood you will invest in political behaviour as
you will be driven to meet the organizational objectives for
the success of the organization. You might have heard in the

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selection of employees for the organization, employers look Notes

forward to hiring not the best but the most suitable candidate,
who abides by the organizational objectives.
(d) Expecting Success: Similar to the above factor emerges the
expectation of success in an organization. If an employee
expects success in an organization and works hard to achieve
desired outcomes, they are driven to pursue political behaviour.
2. Organizational Factors:
(a) Availability or Scarcity of Resources: Organizational Politics
increases drastically when the resources available within
an organization are either in abundance or are scarce. The
allocation of resources becomes crucial. These resources are
crucial for the performance of the employees which affects
their rewards, incentives, promotions and other benefits. When
limited, everyone strives to get these benefits, creating a
breeding ground for political behaviour.
(b) Ambiguity: When an organization is ambiguous about the
roles of the employees, allocation of work, and expectations
from the employees, these lead to employees bargaining
and redefining roles at their level. Hence, those in political
positions get the authority to manipulate and change the roles
and responsibilities as per their requirement, effective growth
and success in the organization.
(c) Evaluation of Performance and Strategies for Promotion:
When employers pursue biased appraisal of the employees
based on favouritism or any other preference which was not
well informed to the employees, it creates ambiguity. Such
practices lead to political behaviour giving preference to those
in power or authority.

5.6 Consequences of Political Behaviour

When we talk about organizational politics, there will be a blend of both
positive and negative consequences that may directly or indirectly have
an impact on organizational performance and longevity. A few of these
consequences are as follows:

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Notes

1. Negative Consequences:
For Individuals:
‹ Lack of Motivation: When there is an organizational politics and
the organization follows a favouritism approach or is intentionally
biased towards some employees in terms of promotion, incentives,
etc. it will have a direct impact on those who honestly contribute
towards the achievement of organizational goals but haven’t been
recognised. They have a lack of motivation and emerging an intention
of employee disengagement.
‹ Challenging the Mental Peace: Politics due to ambiguity of roles
and tasks at the workplace will result in the arising of organizational
conflicts among groups and management that prominently impact the
mental peace and well-being of an employee. Thus, organizations
must keep an eye on political activities and people who are involved
in such activities.
‹ Impact on Collaboration: Presence of political behaviour, employees
feel reluctant to work on team-based projects and start to prefer
work on individual tasks and duties. This will further impact their
leadership qualities and teamwork learning. Thus, it will have a
direct impact on team performance.
‹ Job Dissatisfaction: The percentage of Job dissatisfaction and
employee active disengagement will be increased due to political
behaviour in an organization. Employees have a feeling of lack of

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motivation and no sense of belongingness which further results in Notes

poor work performance.
‹ Redundant Career Growth: Active disengagement and poor work
performance due to political activities lead to the emergence of
stagnant career growth and will indirectly result in an untapped
potential of an employee.
For the Organization:
‹ Increased Turnover: As mentioned above employees do not have a
feeling of a sense of belongingness at the workplace due to political
activities carried out in the organization. This will result in employees’
separation from the organization and employee turnover increases.
‹ Biased Decision-making: Political activities result in biased decision-
making on an organization and management’s part.
‹ Lack of Innovation: Biased decisions and unrecognised employees’
efforts impact the employees’ innovation and creativity as now they
will not actively participate in organizational interactions due to
lack of proper recognition, rewards, appreciation, etc.
‹ Unhealthy Work Environment: Negative Politics created an
unhealthy work environment that might be unfit for the holistic
growth of employees and the organization as a whole.
2. Positive Consequences (if managed well):
For Individuals:
‹ Innovation: Positive organizational politics foster innovation by
motivating employees to think out of the box and enhance their
critical thinking ability. It is so because when individuals and groups
are involved in organizational political activities then it poses a
challenge towards existing power structures. This may further result
in proposing new creative solutions for the problems to channel a
positive change.
‹ Enhanced Employee Engagement: Organizational politics challenges
the employees’ response towards a situation. This encourages them
to invest their time and energy more in the organizational goals
and raise their voice when things deviate from standard goals. This
further motivates them to have a feeling or sense of belongingness
which ultimately results in increasing employee engagement.

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Notes ‹ Improved Critical Thinking: Positive politics contributes to

enhancing critical thinking among employees. Now, an employee can
think in a 360-degree direction which will ultimately improve their
performance and attain problem-solving skills in their behaviour.
For the Organization:
‹ Development of Leadership Qualities: Positive politics allows the
employees to develop crucial skills of influencing, negotiations,
communication, problem-solving, etc. and as such enhances their
leadership within the organization.
‹ Resolving Conflict: Political behaviours allow individuals to negotiate
and work towards creating solutions and resolving disputes that
are mutually beneficial to all. Thus, it helps the organization to
mitigate the chance of conflicts and contribute towards improving
relationships.
‹ Welcoming Changes: When facing situations of conflict, turning
them towards negotiations for new roles, responsibilities discussions
around power dynamics, etc. helps the organization to adapt itself
to change and navigate ways to work together while creating a
positive work environment.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. We can reduce organizational politics but __________ uncertainty.
2. Often political activity increases during times of __________.
3. __________ can be particularly damaging when they result in
undermining the organization’s goals.
4. Organizational politics can be reduced by delegating tasks based
on efficiency and work experience. (True/False)
5. Organizational politics are always a result of negative intentions.
(True/False)
6. To effectively combat organizational politics, top authority/
management should:
(a) Focus solely on individual performance
(b) Avoid addressing conflict directly

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 ORGANIZATIONAL POLITICS AND HARASSMENT

(c) Create clear expectations and reward systems Notes

(d) Promote a culture of secrecy and ambiguity

7. An organization should do the following to create a more
positive and ethical work environment:
(a) Promote a culture of individualism and competition
(b) Encourage employees to form cliques and factions
(c) Foster a sense of shared purpose and community
(d) Avoid addressing conflict directly
8. The role of middle managers in combating organizational politics
is to:
(a) Ignore the issue and focus on their own goals
(b) Promote a culture of fear and intimidation
(c) Model positive behaviour and encourage ethical conduct
(d) Engage in political behaviour themselves
9. Following is a political technique:
(a) Communication
(b) Control
(c) Teamwork
(d) Delegation
10. The most negative effects of organizational politics are:
(a) Decreased productivity
(b) Reduced employee morale
(c) Increased employee turnover
(d) All of the above

5.7 Sexual Harassment at Workplace

So far, you have understood about the concept of power and politics.
You have understood various positive and negative causes of power and
politics. Let us first understand this example: Anil is a senior manager in

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Notes an organization and is close to the authorities. He holds a strong position

in the organization and can influence other’s promotion or benefits. He
has a team of subordinates working with him including many female staff
members as well. Often, he touches them inappropriately while working
with them. It has been observed that in meetings he asks them to sit next
to him at all times, staring at them awkwardly, passing comments about
their look and clothes etc. Deliberately he asks them to stay over late
and sends her inappropriate late-night texts and many other such acts.
With the above example, it is understood that the behaviour pursued by
Anil was inappropriate and unwelcomed and Divya felt unsafe, humil-
iated and uncomfortable with his actions and behaviour. This is sexual
harassment at the workplace, the power Anil had in the organization and
his authority in the organization to influence things at the workplace
made him misuse his position and authority and harm the well-being of
his employees in the organization.
It is important to note, that it might occur even when the person is out
of the organization even then it is understood as sexual harassment in
the workplace. Such as, when Anil behaved in this way with one of his
clients, even though she is not a part of the same organization. Hence,
when any stakeholder related to the organization is harmed it is under-
stood as sexual harassment at the workplace.
Let us take another example, your organization organised a get-together
at the silver jubilee celebration in a banquet outside the organization. All
members of the organization have come together to enjoy and celebrate
the achievement. One of the male employees while dancing and enjoying
touches a female colleague inappropriately. This is also sexual harass-
ment in the workplace. This means, that the inappropriate act doesn’t
need to only occur in the organization, it can also take place outside the
premises, and it may still be sexual harassment at the workplace. It is
not necessary that sexual harassment has to be only ‘sexual’ in nature,
it can exist in various forms. It is also important to note that it does
not matter what the offender thinks about the situation, but the victim’s
experience is more relevant.
Some of the forms of sexual behaviours existing in organizations can be
direct and indirect in nature, including:

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‹ Sending inappropriate and offensive texts or mail Notes

‹ Verbally passing sexual comments about their body or remarks
about them
‹ Cracking inappropriate jokes around them which carry double meaning
‹ Touching them physically
‹ Asking for sexual favours
‹ Stalking them over the social media websites
‹ Sending them abusive pictures
‹ Flirting with them and so much more
In 2017, on International Women’s Day, this campaign was released to
create awareness of the concept of sexual harassment in the workplace.
(Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UF_aVatyxH8)
To curb this act and to penalise and punish the offender various legal
acts came into the limelight. It is essential to understand these to stop
sexual harassment in the workplace. One such act is Vishakha Guidelines
and Prevention of Sexual Harassment at Workplace Act. Before we learn
about these, we need to discuss the landmark case which was a stepping
stone in the creation of the act.
Way back in 1992, Bhanwari Devi was working as a Social Worker in
Bhateri District for the Government of Rajasthan on various important
issues of the society such as providing hygiene for women, educating the
girl child, preventing female foeticide, stopping dowry, child marriage etc.
under the Women Development Programme. As a part of her duty and
work under this programme, she stopped the marriage of a nine-month-old
baby girl. It was opposed by the family and other social groups of the
village, and she was subjected to social punishment for her act, resulting
in gang-rape by a member of the family and his friends while she was
returning from her duty on one of the days. She filed a case against the
offender, but they were acquitted by the court as everyone dismissed her
case and there was no support.
It is important to note that before this case, there was no legal arrange-
ment for any such issue. After the dismissal of her case, many NGOs
and other women’s groups came together in support of her. They all

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 GROUP DYNAMICS IN ORGANIZATIONS

Notes together initiated a Public Interest Litigation to pursue her case further.
This led to the landmark case in 1997 of 9LVKDNKD DQG 2UV YV WKH 6WDWH
of Rajasthan to ensure the rights of working women in India.
After the PIL, the court pursued the case and it was decided that as per
the “International Conventions and Norms”, to ensure gender equality
and ensure the dignity of working women Articles 14, 15, 19(1) and
21 of the constitution will safeguard and protect women against sexual
harassment at workplace.
This led to the Vishakha Guidelines which are imperative for all organizations
to follow for the benefit of their employees. This was later superseded by
the Prevention of Sexual Harassment at Workplace Act in 2013.

5.8 Guidelines for Sexual Harassment

The Supreme Court’s landmark judgement to protect Women in the Work-
place was stated under the Vishakha Guidelines. This guideline aimed to
ensure the fundamental rights: *HQGHU(TXDOLW\ and the Right to Life and
/LEHUW\The Guidelines were defined as procedural responses to such acts
when occurred at the workplace. These included the following points:
Vishakha Guidelines
(Source: https://cag.gov.in/uploads/cms_pages_files/Vishkha-Guide-
lines-against-Sexual-Harassment-in-Workplace-061de8308de91c7-65164897.pdf)
1. It shall be the duty of the employer or other responsible persons in
workplaces or other institutions to prevent sexual harassment and
to provide for the resolution and settlement mechanism.
2. The court defined what constitutes sexual harassment. For this purpose,
sexual harassment includes such unwelcome sexually determined
behaviour (whether directly or by implication) as:
(a) Physical contact and advances;
(b) A demand or request for sexual favours;
(c) Sexually coloured remarks;
(d) Showing pornography;
(e) Any other unwelcome physical verbal or non-verbal conduct
of a sexual nature.

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3. Preventive Steps: All employers should take appropriate steps to Notes

prevent sexual harassment. Without prejudice to the generality of
this obligation, they should take the following steps:
(a) Express prohibition of sexual harassment as defined above at
the workplace should be notified, published and circulated in
appropriate ways.
(b) The Rules/Regulations of Government and Public Sector
bodies relating to conduct and discipline should include rules/
regulations prohibiting sexual harassment and provide for
appropriate penalties in such rules against the offender.
(c) As regards private employers’ steps should be taken to include
the aforementioned prohibitions in the standing orders under
the Industrial Employment (Standing Orders) Act, of 1946.
(d) Appropriate work conditions should be provided with respect to
work, leisure, health, and hygiene to further ensure that there
is no hostile environment towards women in workplaces.
4. Criminal Proceedings: Where such conduct amounts to a specific
offence under the Indian Penal Code or under any other law the
employer shall initiate appropriate action as per the law. The employer
should file or assist the aggrieved in filing the complaint with the
appropriate authority. In particular, it should ensure that victims or
witnesses are not victimized or discriminated against while dealing
with complaints of sexual harassment.
The victims of sexual harassment should have the option to seek
the transfer of the perpetrator or their own transfer.
5. Disciplinary Action: Where such conduct amounts to misconduct in
employment as defined by the relevant service rules, appropriate
disciplinary action should be initiated by the employer in accordance
with those rules.
6. Complaint Mechanism: Whether or not such conduct constitutes an
offence under law or a breach of the service rules, an appropriate
complaint mechanism should be created in the employer’s organization
for effective redressal of such complaints. Such a complaint mechanism
should ensure the time-bound treatment of complaints.

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Notes 7. Complaints Committee: The complaint mechanism, referred to in

point (6) above, should be adequate to provide, where necessary,
a Complaints Committee, a special counsellor or other support
services, including the maintenance of confidentiality. The Complaints
Committee should be headed by a woman and not less than half of
its members should be women. Further, to prevent the possibility of
any under pressure or influence from senior levels, such a Complaints
Committee should involve a third party, either an NGO or other
bodies who are familiar with the issue of sexual harassment.
8. Workers’ Initiative: Employees should be allowed to raise issues
of sexual harassment at workers’ meetings and in other appropriate
forums and it should be affirmatively discussed in Employer-Employee
Meetings.
9. Awareness: Awareness of the rights of female employees in this
regard should be created in particular by prominently suitably
notifying the guidelines.
10. Where sexual harassment occurs as a result of an act or omission by
any third party or an outsider, the employer and person in charge
will take all steps necessary and reasonable to assist the affected
person in terms of support and preventive action.
11. The Central/State governments are requested to consider adopting
suitable measures including legislation to ensure that the guidelines
laid down by this order are also observed by the employers in the
Private Sector.
This case laid a foundation for curbing sexual harassment at the work-
place. It clearly states that if an organization has 10 or more employees,
they must constitute an Internal Complaints Committee to deal with such
issues and complaints. Regular training programs, awareness sessions, and
other related activities must be carried out to create awareness amongst
the employers about their rights and duties within the organization and
to maintain a healthy environment at the workplace.
Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition,
and Redressal) Act, 2013 (POSH Act, 2013)
(Source: Department of Women and Child Development, GoI)

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 ORGANIZATIONAL POLITICS AND HARASSMENT

(Link: https://wcd.delhi.gov.in/wcd/sexual-harassment-women-workplace- Notes

prevention-prohibition-and-redressal-act-2013sh-act-2013#:~:text=Em-
powerment-,Sexual%20Harassment%20of%20Women%20at%20Work-
place(Prevention%2C%20Prohibition%2C%20and,2013(SH%20Act%2C%20
2013)&text=Objective%3A%20The%20Act%20aims%20to,complaints%20
related%20to%20such%20harassment.)
Objective: The Act aims to prevent and address incidents of sexual ha-
rassment of women at their place of work and provide a mechanism for
the redressal of complaints related to such harassment.
Key Provisions:
1. Definition of Sexual Harassment: The Act provides a clear definition
of sexual harassment, encompassing unwelcome acts or behaviour
that are sexually coloured, creating a hostile or intimidating work
environment.
2. Applicability: The Act applies to all workplaces, including government,
private, and non-governmental organizations, as well as any organization,
institution, undertaking, or establishment.
3. Internal Committee (IC): The Act mandates every workplace employing
more than ten persons to constitute an Internal Complaints Committee.
This committee is responsible for addressing complaints of sexual
harassment and ensuring a safe working environment.
4. Local Committee (LC): In cases where the workplace does not have an
IC (e.g., in organizations with less than ten employees or in certain
specific circumstances), the district officer shall constitute a Local
Committee to receive and redress complaints. In GNCTD District
Magistrate is nominated as District Officer for the constitution of
the Local Committee at the District Level in GNCTD.
5. Complaint Procedure: The Act lays down a specific procedure for
making complaints, conducting inquiries, and resolving cases of
sexual harassment. It ensures confidentiality and timely resolution
of complaints.
6. Protection against Retaliation: The Act prohibits retaliation or adverse
actions against the complainant for filing a complaint in good faith.

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Notes 7. Penalties: If found guilty, the Act provides for penalties, which may
include a monetary fine or termination of employment, depending
on the severity of the offence.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
11. The traditional factual definition sees harassment as repeated
and persistent _________ acts.
12. Derogatory comments of a sexual nature, obscene phone calls,
comments about clothing and intent and so forth come under
the _________ form of sexual harassment.
13. A hostile environment at the workplace, even when not obvious
is equally as pervasive and damaging to the organization’s
environment and the safety of its employees. (True/False)
14. Sexual harassment can lead to various consequences for the
victim including self-blame, anxiety, insomnia, and physical
and emotional withdrawal. (True/False)
15. Sexual harassment’s blame only lies with the intentions and
character of the offender and there is no role of the organization
amongst it. (True/False)

5.9 Summary
In this lesson, you have learnt about the concept of politics and sexual
harassment. Political Behaviour is common in every organization, and it
is highly important to understand the various factors, causes and conse-
quences of political behaviour. This lesson creates a foundation around
the concept of political behaviour, which is highly common in any orga-
nization. This lesson also emphasized the concept of sexual harassment
which often is a cause of power and politics in an organization. It ex-
plained different behaviours that are seen at the workplace which require
legal attention and readdressal. To curb these behaviours, the Vishakha
Guidelines and POSH Act aid in reducing and taking necessary action
against the offender to protect the rights and dignity of the employee.

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Notes
5.10 Answers to In-Text Questions
1. Reducing
2. Change
3. Organizational change
4. True, delegation can help reduce dissatisfaction and competitiveness
5. False, organizational politics can arise from misunderstandings,
individual differences, resource scarcity and so forth as well
6. (c) Create clear expectations and reward systems
7. (c) Foster a sense of shared purpose and community
8. (c) Model positive behaviour and encourage ethical conduct
9 (b) Control
10. (d) All of the above
11. Negative
12. Hostile work environment
13. True, a hostile work environment can make working and co-existing
detrimental to the employee’s safety
14. True
15. False

5.11 Self-Assessment Questions

1. What is Organizational Politics? Explain its causes.
2. Elaborate on the consequences involved with Organizational Politics.
3. What is sexual harassment in the workplace? Explain the guidelines
available for curbing sexual harassment.

5.12 References
‹ Robbins, S. P. and Judge, T. A. (2022) Organizational Behaviour.
18th edition, Pearson, Boston.

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 GROUP DYNAMICS IN ORGANIZATIONS

Notes ‹ Aswathappa K. (2013). Organizational Behaviour: Text, Cases &amp;

Games. Himalaya Pub. House.
‹ Fred Luthans. (2017). Organizational Behaviour: An Evidence-Based
Approach, McGraw Hill Education.

5.13 Suggested Reading

‹ McShane, S. L., Von Glinow, M. A., and Himanshu Rai. (2022).
Organizational Behaviour. McGraw Hill Education.

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 UNIT - IV

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L E S S O N

6
Organizational Conflict
and Negotiation
Ms. Aastha Gupta
Academic Counsellor
Department of Psychology
School of Open Learning
University of Delhi
Email-Id: [email protected]

STRUCTURE
6.1 Learning Objectives
6.2 Introduction
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6.12 References
6.13 Suggested Reading

6.1 Learning Objectives

In this lesson, you shall be able to:
‹ Define the concept of conflict.
‹ Recognize the nature of conflict in an organization.

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Notes ‹ Explain the process of conflict.

‹ Elaborate on the importance of conflict management.
‹ Describe the process and strategies of negotiation.

6.2 Introduction
In the previous lessons, we have learnt the nature and importance of
communication in organizations and groups. When done efficiently it
makes everything smooth, however, that is not always the case. There
would be times when missteps in communication can cause friction and
disagreements. This friction or disagreement is termed as “conflict”.
Let us take an example to understand the same. Suryansh and Barkha work
in a product design team together. They’re tasked to design a portable
water cooler. Barkha wants to focus on making the product lightweight
but retain its cold temperature for less time, thus, making it more portable.
However, Suryansh is willing to make the product heavier in order to
keep the water cool for longer, even if not as easy to move around. The
preference of different product features makes it hard for them to arrive
at a final design. Since neither of them are willing to come to a common
conclusion, their difference in preference can soon turn into a conflict.

6.3 Organizational Conflict

Conflict can be broadly understood as a process in which one party
(could be an individual or group) sees that the other party (again, could
be an individual or group) is affecting them negatively. Mack and Snyder
(1957) described conflict as “a particular kind of social interaction process
between parties who have mutually exclusive or incompatible values”.
%RXOGLQJ   GHVFULEHV FRQÀLFW DV ³D VWUXJJOH RYHU YDOXHV DQG FODLPV
to scarce status, power and resources”.

6.3.1 Nature of Conflict

In the early 20th century Western world, conflict in organizations was
often viewed negatively. It was commonly believed that conflict indicated
that something was wrong with the organization. The presence of con-
flicts was seen as a sign of dysfunction and discord. It meant that people

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 ORGANIZATIONAL CONFLICT AND NEGOTIATION

weren’t getting along, and the organization was suffering because it. It Notes
was believed to be arising from issues like poor communication, lack of
trust, and unresponsiveness by managers to their employees’ needs and
so on and so forth. Thus, experts said that conflict should be avoided
at all costs.
However, since then our view of organizational conflict has significantly
changed. With more research done in the field of group relations and
organizational behaviour, we have recognised that some degree of conflict
is inevitable in any group. In fact, we now emphasise that some level
of conflict is actually good for the overall wellbeing of the organization
and its people. A complete lack of conflict may indicate faulty or absent
channels of communication where employees aren’t able to voice their
opinions or concerns to each other and their superordinate or subordinates.
This shift has led to an increased focus on understanding the causes of
conflict, how it operates and affects everyone and how group performance
can be enhanced through harnessing conflict. Let’s look at these varied
perspectives in detail in the next section.

6.3.2 Approaches to Understanding Conflict

Before discussing the popular perspectives on conflict, let’s try to un-
derstand how conflict can differ in making the organization work better
or worse. The distinction between IXQFWLRQDO DQG G\VIXQFWLRQDO FRQIOLFW
largely depends on the nature of the conflict and its origins. Functional
conflict helps everyone to look at the shortcomings or bad consequences
that maybe making the organization less productive and harder to work
in. On the other end, dysfunctional conflict simply disrupts the organiza-
tional functioning without any positive impact and can make organization
objectives less achievable. Thus, functional conflict is desirable whereas
dysfunctional conflict is not.
According to the currently popular interactionist perspective, it is said that
an optimum level of conflict should be encouraged in the organization.
Why? Because a completely harmonious and cooperative group is at risk
of becoming complacent, unresponsive, and resistant to innovation. We
have learnt in Lesson 1 about the pitfalls of these tendencies that can lead
to “groupthink” where group members avoid challenging ideas, leading
to a lack of critical thinking and creativity. The main takeaway of the

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Notes interactionist view is that a low to moderate level of conflict can stim-
ulate group members to be more engaged, self-reflective, and adaptable.
Conflict that aligns with the group’s goals and enhances its performance
is considered “functional” or constructive conflict. In contrast, “dysfunc-
tional” conflict disrupts the group’s objectives and hinders performance.
Psychosocial approach examines conflict from both psychological and
sociological perspectives. Psychologically, it considers conflict within and
among individuals, including factors like personal differences and group
behaviour. From a sociological perspective, it deals with can deal with
the overarching organizational cultures, ways of expressing emotions and
cultural factors of a particular area or group of people.
Economic approach uses economic models to analyse situations of in-
terdependence, where parties make rational choices based on options
and preferences. Game Theory is often applied here to study strategic
behaviour in conflict.
These approaches provide a range of perspectives, offering insight into
how conflict arises and how best to manage it within organizations.

6.4 Types of Organizational Conflict

Let’s break down the different types of conflict that often arise in the
workplace. There sources and effects occur in a lot of variety and un-
derstanding them is essential for future managers and professionals, as
it helps them identify, address, and potentially prevent disruptive issues
within organizations.

6.4.1 Conflict Due to Frustration

Take an example, Vikram is a talented sales associate at an IT firm.
Despite his hard work, he feels blocked in his career due to his firm’s
rigid policies and a lack of promotion opportunities. Out of frustration,
he begins to show up late and keeps on missing sales targets, expressing
dissatisfaction with his job.
Frustration-based conflict occurs when something blocks a person from
achieving a desired goal. This barrier can be “overt”, i.e. clearly observable
like a physical limitation or organizational policy, or “covert,” involving
internal psychological struggles, like doubt or stress. For instance, incidents

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of aggression in workplaces can stem from frustration over unresolved Notes

issues with supervisors or perceived unfairness in workload distribution
amongst employees. Besides aggression, employees might respond to
frustration by withdrawing or becoming apathetic, often called “retiring
on the job” as mentioned in the above example. However, we should also
note that frustration is not always negative—some employees can channel
it into motivation for effort to overcome obstacles, benefitting both indi-
vidual and organizational goals. Needless, frustration with organization
or its subparts needs to be addressed before it can turn into conflict.

6.4.2 Goal Conflict

There are often times when an individual has to decide whether to do one
task or another where both can be seen equally important. For instance,
Nagma has to decide between two project deadlines for two projects
of her architect firm, both of whose deadlines are falling on the same
date, in such a situation one has to prioritise to one task over the other
depending on their consequences. Here, Nagma might be able to choose
project A over B as the B’s clients might be more flexible with the proj-
ect completion deadline. However, if both the projects’ clients were not
budging, it would eventually lead to a goal conflict.
Goal conflict arises when an individual has competing goals. It can entail
positive and negative feelings toward the same goal. This type of conflict
has three common forms:
1. Approach-approach conflict occurs when two desirable, but mutually
exclusive goals compete. Such goals often revolve around avoiding
opportunity cost and choosing the alternative which would offer the
most satisfaction. The above example can be categorised under this
heading if Nagma was benefitting from both the project completions.
2. Approach-avoidance conflict involves a single goal that has both
positive and negative aspects, leading to hesitation or indecision as
the negative aspects become more prominent. If Nagma found project
A’s aesthetic choices more enjoyable to work when compared to
project B at then it might be categorised under this type of conflict.
3. Avoidance-avoidance conflict happens when a person must choose
between two undesirable outcomes. Conflicts of such nature often
get put off due to procrastination and apprehension of the actual

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Notes task. Taking the example further, if Nagma equally disliked the
clients of both the project, she would have this type of conflict at
hand.
Among these, approach-avoidance conflicts are particularly relevant in the
workplace. For instance, a manager may feel excited about implementing
a new project plan (positive aspect) but simultaneously fear the financial
or operational risks (negative aspect), causing stress and indecision.

6.4.3 Role Conflict

Role conflict refers to the conflict that may arise because of the compet-
ing demands an individual faces due to different roles they must fulfil.
This usually happens as different roles require the responsibilities which
might differ in nature and magnitude of importance. Also, it can occur
when the responsibilities of the role may not align with their own per-
sonal values. Keeping the idea of this clashing of roles we have three
primary types of role conflict:
1. Person-role conflict happens when an employee’s personal values
or personality factors conflict with their job role. For example,
someone who thrives in solo writing projects might not fit in the
role of a team-screenwriter where they have to work with 4 other
people.
2. Intrarole conflict arises from contradictory expectations within a single
role. For instance, a team leader maybe required to be supportive to
its members while simultaneously enforcing strict discipline. 5ROH
DPELJXLW\, where employees are unclear about their responsibilities,
can add to this conflict. This type of conflict usually leads to
confusion and stress if not provided with appropriate clarity.
3. Interrole conflict involves clashes between work and non-work
roles, as seen when long work hours negatively affect personal
relationships. Can you come up an example for this one from your
own day-to-day life?

6.4.4 Interpersonal Conflict

Think back to the first example we discussed about the water cooler
design. Interpersonal conflict occurs between individuals, often due to

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misunderstandings, differences in personal values, or competition. Four Notes

main sources we can discuss are:
1. Personal differences in backgrounds, values, or beliefs.
2. Information deficiency due to poor communication or lack of
communication altogether.
3. Role incompatibility, where differing roles or responsibilities of two
individuals clash, overlap or intervene each other.
4. Environmental stress, where a high-stress workplace amplifies
interpersonal conflict. Other factors can also include temperature,
ventilation, workspace organization, etc.
Interpersonal conflicts can be really stressful in the workspace as people
within the team or different teams rely on each other to get things done.
When there is friction between two individuals, the whole mechanism
of the organization suffers, making the productivity and the social atmo-
sphere dip down. Feelings of hostility and gossip-mongering could add
on to this already charged atmosphere. Swift and satisfactory resolution
is much needed in such instances. We will get to the resolution later in
the chapter.

6.4.5 Intergroup Conflict

In organizations, conflicts also occur between groups. For instance, the
finance team led by Suhail and the production team led by Anmol in a
consumer goods company can have ongoing friction. Suhail’s team may
feel pressured to meet targets, while Anmol’s team may often overspend
to enhance product quality. This difference in departmental goals within
their company creates regular conflict between the two groups. Such
conflicts often arise from:
1. Competition for resources within organizations where departments
vie for limited funds (as in the case of above example), space, and
personnel.
2. Task interdependence, where groups rely on each other to complete
tasks, creating tension if one team fails to meet its deadline, resulting
in a chain reaction of negative outcomes.
3. Jurisdictional ambiguity, or unclear boundaries of responsibility, often
results in conflicts over “turf” where roles and responsibility may

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Notes be left unattended or there may be over claiming of the same to

establish more power.
4. Status struggles, where groups compete for recognition or resources
attached to a certain social status within the organization. For instance,
there might be an overall better perception of the IT department in
comparison to the HR department in a firm.
Intergroup conflicts can disrupt productivity and cooperation, making it
vital for organizations to address them through team building, mediation,
and creating clear boundaries and roles.
Activity 6.1: Read through the scenarios mentioned below. Write the type
of conflict for each scenario from the 5 types we learned about in the
preceding section. It shouldn’t take you more than 5 minutes.
Scenarios:
1. Rahela often has to complete admin tasks that distract her from her
project coordinator role, making her frustrated. __________
2. Naina in marketing wants brand campaigns, while Ishan in sales
pushes for quick sales results. __________
3. Arjun feels his colleague Nikhil isn’t carrying his weight in their
shared project. __________
Now pick one scenario and jot down at least two pointers through which
that conflict could be addressed.
IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
1. Organizational conflict is often due to __________ wherein
people engage in faulty communication, misinformation or no
communication at all, leading to misunderstanding.
2. The __________ perspective suggests that a low to moderate
level of conflict can stimulate group members to be more
engaged, self-reflective, and adaptable.
3. __________ conflict arises when an individual has competing
goals, such as when both tasks or outcomes are equally
important or desirable.
(a) Role
(b) Goal

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(c) Status Notes

(d) Responsibility
4. Intergroup conflict in organizations often stems from __________
for resources, task __________, or jurisdictional ambiguity,
which involves unclear boundaries of responsibility.
5. Which type of conflict occurs when an individual must choose
between two undesirable outcomes?
(a) Approach-approach conflict
(b) Approach-avoidance conflict
(c) Avoidance-avoidance conflict
(d) Goal conflict

6.5 Process of Conflict

The way conflict can originate and manifest in an organization is often
a step-by-step process. We’ll be looking at these five steps or stages in
detail in this section:
Stage 1: Recognition
Whenever someone observes or experiences the conflict, the first thing
they try to look for is “why”. This “why” covers recognising the var-
ious issues or reasons which have caused the conflict; we can classify
the reasons for the conflict into three main categories: communication,
structure, and personal factors.
1. Communication: Miscommunication, faulty communication when it
is too little or too much or lack of all communication altogether
can be often recognised. If such behaviour continues, it can also
lead to escalation of the conflict. Disrespectful or problematic use
of language can also worsen the situation.
2. Structure: Structural factors include group size, task specialisation,
leadership, goals, and dependencies. Larger groups with more
specialised roles have a higher likelihood of conflict, as do groups
with high turnover. An organization where roles maybe unclear for
individuals can lead to disagreements, confusion and discord which

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 GROUP DYNAMICS IN ORGANIZATIONS

Notes can take up the form of conflict. Likewise, structures that allow
exploitation of other individuals can definitely lead to harmful
consequences as we discussed in the last chapter on power and
its misuse. Another factor that can be brought up is the overall
organizational culture, high-stress environments can bring up more
conflicts in the organization than more harmonious ones.
3. Personal Variables: Personal characteristics, like personality traits,
emotions, and values, can make individuals more likely or less like
to engage in conflict. The emotional state one is in also influences
personal interactions, thus, individuals who might be experiencing
chronic stress and/or mental health disorders become more likely
to experience conflict as well.
All of these variables of origin of conflict are interconnected and play
into one another. For instance, an organization which has a high stress
environment, highly competitive employees and one way communication
from the top-down will likely have more instances of organizational conflict
in comparison to an organization which prioritises collaborative problem
solving with open channels of communication amongst the hierarchy.
Stage 2: Cognition and Personalization
In this stage, the conflict and its origin have already been recognised.
Now the parties involved proceed to become aware of their potential in-
compatibilities. From an “observed conflict”, it becomes a “felt conflict”
now where people assign what kind of emotions they are experiencing
such as frustration, guilt, irritation, etc.
Stage 3: Intended Response Making
Here, the people try to formulate the kind of response they will be making
in-response to the conflict towards the other party. This response will
decided upon by the nature, reason and affect of the conflict they have
perceived.
Stage 4: Behaviour
The conflict now becomes visible through actions, statements, or reactions.
The intended responses decided in the earlier stage are now expressed
and it acts to further the dialogue between the two or more parties in-
volved. This may lead to resolution of the conflict if handled well (we’ll

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learn about the strategies for this in the next section) or it may lead to Notes
escalation of the conflict.
Stage 5: Outcome
Depending on how the conflict was handled by the parties involved, we
may observe two types of outcomes. First will be that resolution may
lead to better understanding of each other’s motivation and vantage point
and a healthy discourse of reasoning and intention. However, it may also
result in worsening of individual or group dynamics with loss of trust,
frustration, suspicion and a need of “payback” or “revenge” depending
on how satisfactorily it was resolved. Low to moderate conflict levels
can stimulate critical thinking and prevent groupthink, but high-intensity
conflict often hinders group functioning and can lead disastrous conse-
quences.
Now, we shall look at how to avoid the second kind of outcome for a
better resolution of the organizational conflict.

6.6 Conflict Management

As we have discussed in the above sections, conflict in the organizational
setup, especially when in concerned groups is often inevitable in daily
life and operations. We also discussed that if we manage these conflicts
effectively, it can lead to innovation, growth and productivity.
Conflict can take multiple forms such as interpersonal disagreements,
rivalries, groupism, favouritism and organizational disputes and can arise
from a varying number of factors. The key to effective conflict manage-
ment is to accurately identify the sources and its type and effects along
with the perspective of the individuals or groups involved in it.
People’s responses to conflict generally align with five main intentions,
as given by Thomas and Kilmann:
1. Competing: Prioritising one’s own interests over others.
2. Collaborating: Working together to satisfy all parties.
3. Avoiding: Recognizing the conflict but choosing to step back.
4. Accommodating: Placing another’s interests above one’s own.
5. Compromising: Finding a middle ground where all give up something.

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Notes

Figure 6.1
6RXUFH:LNLPHGLD&RPPRQV7KRPDV.LOPDQQ
FRQIOLFWPRGHLQVWUXPHQW

6.7 Negotiation
Negotiation in today’s time is an essential managerial skill. As Neale
and Bazerman have observed, “Everyone negotiates. In its various forms,
negotiation is a common mechanism for resolving differences and allo-
cating resources.” In this view, the process of negotiation is carried out
amongst people who do not share “identical preferences”.
Let’s take, for example, that you have UX designers working under you
together to create a website for your home equipment business and they
disagree on how to display your catalogue on the home page. As the
employer, it will then become your responsibility to mediate the dialogue
between the two designers to arrive at a common design preference that
ultimately aligns with your business’s goal, which here is to attract cus-
tomers to your products as much as possible.
This mediation of dialogue is essentially what negotiation is. Through
time the type of methods used in negotiation has evolved. In this chapter,
we will discuss two main groups of these techniques, one is traditional
and the other one is more emerging and newer. We don’t consider one

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unanimously better than the other and it is recommended a balanced ap- Notes
proach should be taken which makes the use of both types of approach.

6.7.1 Traditional Negotiation Approach

Traditional strategies focus on maximising benefit for oneself or their
own group to the maximum. These strategies are often divided into two
types of bargaining strategies. First one is referred to as distributive bar-
gaining, here, it is assumed that there is a fixed number of resources or
a “fixed pie” and aims to make the distribution equitable. On the other
hand, the second type known as SRVLWLRQDO EDUJDLQLQJ involves taking
small, sequential steps towards a feasible compromise rather than an
equitable solution.
There are a number of common mistakes or errors associated with the
traditional approach as it often fails to address biases and irrational
decision-making on the part of the negotiators. Some of these errors
may include being overly influenced by selective information, anchoring
judgement to irrelevant or easily available information, escalating the
matter instead of settling down assuming gains at the expense of the
other parties rather than aiming for mutually beneficial gains.

6.7.2 Contemporary and Emerging Negotiation Approach

In contrast to the rather self-centred or in-group centered approach,
modern negotiation techniques lay more emphasis on collaboration and
problem-solving. Here, as opposed to the “fixed pie” of traditional tech-
niques, people are required to work together on “expanding the pie”.
Whetten and Cameron have given a few ways for the same:
1. Forming superordinate goals
2. Emphasising on common interests over positions/seniority
3. Generating options for mutual gains
4. Separating personal and organizational goals
5. Trying to use objective/unbiased criteria
To achieve such options for negotiation, we approach strategies by di-
viding them into low-risk and high-risk techniques. The risk level, here,
refers to the extent one is willing to assert or compromise oneself to
resolve the conflict. /RZULVN WHFKQLTXHV include subtle flatter, strategic
silence, inflated opening stance and addressing easy conversation points

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 GROUP DYNAMICS IN ORGANIZATIONS

Notes to kickstart the negotiation process and build momentum. +LJKULVNWHFK-

niques would include high balling, proposing “take it or leave it” offers,
more assertive arguments. It is advised to resolve conflict ideally with
only low-risk techniques and use high-risk techniques only when needed
as they may strain relationships and can counter-productively escalate
conflict if not used cautiously.
Harvard Negotiation project has developed the concept SULQFLSOHG QHJR-
tiation that highlights the importance of the discussion in the negotiation
process. It has four key elements - (a) people; (b) interests; (c) options
and (d) criteria whereby they suggest taking all of these elements into
consideration when approaching the source of the conflict and its res-
olution. It encourages exploring common interests and multiple options
based on the criteria of shared success for all the people involved. It
also encourages the idea of stepping away from the conflict to look
at the broader picture of existing interpersonal connections, individual
characteristics, possible ripple effects and overall organization objectives.

6.8 Cultural Differences in Conflict Management

Social context is important to be considered when employing negotiation
strategies as they vary according to the organizational culture and global
factors.
Table 6.1: Variations in Conflict Management Styles in Western and
Eastern Cultures
Western Perspective Eastern Perspective
Conflict is seen to be originating from Conflict is seen to emerge from
not being able to achieve personal the harmony of the organization
goals because of another individual, being broken up or thwarted.
group or other.
Negotiation is done to combine diver- Negotiation is done to achieve the
gent interests of the parties involved. overarching organizational goals.
Personal interests are extremely im- Personal interests take a backseat.
portant.
Conflict resolution outcome is based Conflict resolution outcome is
on win-lose situation. based on the most acceptable po-
sition for all the parties involved.

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 ORGANIZATIONAL CONFLICT AND NEGOTIATION

Conflict is seen as a competitive ex- Conflict is often avoided as it is Notes

ercise. believed to disrupt harmony.
Horizontal and vertical hierarchal con- Vertical conflict where it goes up
flict may both be expressed. the hierarchy may not be openly
expressed.

While these are some common features across both cultures, these aren’t
all-or-none cultural characteristics. Not all western and eastern organi-
zations are alike and follow the same norm for conflict perception and
management. With globalisation and increased cross cultural interaction,
the organizational cultures undergo constant change.

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS
6. According to Thomas and Kilman, which conflict response
involves working together to satisfy all parties?
(a) Competing
(b) Collaborating
(c) Avoiding
(d) Accommodating
7. What is a key characteristic of distributive bargaining in the
traditional negotiation approach?
(a) Expanding the pie of resources
(b) Prioritising personal interests
(c) Assuming a fixed number of resources
(d) Generating options for mutual gains
8. Which of the following is an example of a low-risk negotiation
technique?
(a) High balling
(b) Strategic silence
(c) Proposing “take it or leave it” offers
(d) Assertive arguments

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Notes 9. The concept of principled negotiation, as developed by the

Harvard Negotiation Project, includes which of the following
key elements?
(a) Interests, positions, power, and compromise
(b) People, interests, options, and criteria
(c) Anchoring, escalation, bias, and judgement
(d) Collaboration, superordinate goals, risks, and gains
10. In what stage does the conflict go from an observed one to a
felt one?
(a) Recognition
(b) Cognition and Personalisation
(c) Outcome
(d) Response making

6.9 Summary
Organizational conflict refers to disagreements or misunderstanding that
may arise within individuals or groups in an organization. It can stem
from a variety of reasons including incompatibility of roles, goals, in-
terpersonal interests, group interests and frustration due to personal or
organizational factors. We looked at the five stages of how the conflict
occurs, is recognised, how responses are formulated and put into actions
and how they lead to specific outcomes. We looked at how we can manage
conflicts using traditional as well as contemporary strategies along with
an Indian perspective for the same. Conflict management styles differ
across cultures in how they approach and deal with the various kinds
of organizational conflicts. The popular view supports that some form
of functional conflict is necessary to keep up the collaborative, creative
and innovative flair to productivity. Whereas dysfunctional conflict which
hinders group relations and organizational objectives should be avoided
and resolved effectively and efficiently.

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Notes
6.10 Answers to In-Text Questions
1. Miscommunication
2. Interactionist
3. (b) Goal
4. Competition, Interdependence
5. (c) Avoidance-avoidance conflict
6. (b) Collaborating
7. (c) Assuming a fixed number of resources
8. (b) Strategic silence
9. (b) People, interests, options, and criteria
10. (b) Cognition and Personalisation

6.11 Self-Assessment Questions

1. What do we mean by organizational conflict?
2. What types of conflict are popularly observed in an organizational
context? Discuss with examples.
3. What is the overall process of an organizational conflict?
4. Can the outcome of organizational conflict differ? If so, what factors
are responsible for it?
5. Discuss the concept of conflict management in detail.
6. What are the two major approaches to negotiation strategies for
conflict in an organization?

6.12 References
‹ Luthans, F., Luthans, B. & Luthans, K. (2021). 2UJDQL]DWLRQDO
%HKDYLRXU$Q(YLGHQFHEDVHG$SSURDFKWKHGInformation Age
Publishing, Charlotte.
‹ Parikh, M. & Gupta, R. (2010). 2UJDQL]DWLRQDO %HKDYLRXU. Tata
McGraw Hill, New Delhi.

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 GROUP DYNAMICS IN ORGANIZATIONS

Notes ‹ Robbins, S., Judge, T. & Brewer, K. (2018). (VVHQWLDOVRI2UJDQL]DWLRQDO

%HKDYLRXU  HG Pearson. Ontario.

6.13 Suggested Reading

‹ Aswathappa K. (2013). Organizational Behaviour: Text, Cases &
Games. Himalaya Pub. House, New Delhi.

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 Glossary

Assertiveness: It can be understood as informing about your decision clearly and directly,
when someone showcases assertiveness, they respectfully without aggression inform about
the decision they want to make in the organization.
Chain Network: The information is shared in a sequential manner where the message
passes through each link/individual and is usually common in high-security organizations.
Channel: It is the medium through which the sender decides to encode the message for
communication. It can be either formal or informal.
Circle Network: Similar to a chain network, the flow of information has to pass through
all links but here it follows a circular path with no termination ends.
Cohesiveness: Cohesiveness is the degree to which group members feel connected and
motivated to remain part of the group.
Communication Network: It refers to any kind of linkages or interconnectedness present
between/amongst two or more people/groups.
Communication: The process of interaction involved between two or more people.
Conflict: A situation where individuals or groups experience disagreements or incompat-
ibilities in goals, values, or expectations within an organization.
Decision Making: Decision Making is the process of identifying and choosing among
alternative courses of action.
Diagonal Networks: The flow of information is both vertical and horizontal at the same
time. This type of communication is said to be the most inclusive.
Diversity: Diversity encompasses the range of differences within a group, including but
not limited to cultural backgrounds, perspectives, skills, experiences, and personalities.
Downward Network: The flow of information is from top management down to their
subsequent subordinates.
Dysfunctional Conflict: A type of conflict that disrupts organizational processes, hampers
performance, and negatively impacts group dynamics.
Encoding: Encoding is understood as the process of framing done by the sender of the
information which is easy to interpret by the receiver.

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Notes Expert Power: This is an informal way of power which may not exist
in every organization as a part of its structure or hierarchy.
Formal Communication Network: Based on the formal structure of the
organization, this form of communication follows a set pattern.
Functional Conflict: A type of conflict that improves organizational
outcomes by fostering critical thinking, creativity, and problem-solving.
Goal Conflict: Conflict arising when an individual faces competing
goals, which may involve choosing between desirable, undesirable, or
mixed-outcome options.
Group Development: Group Development is the process through which
a group progresses and evolves.
Group: A group is a collection of individuals who interact with each
other, share common goals, and may have interdependent roles.
Groupthink: A phenomenon where group members avoid challenging
ideas, leading to a lack of critical thinking and innovation and reliance
on a unitary position.
Horizontal Networks: The information flows horizontally or side-by-side
across employees at the same level/position.
Hostile Work Environment: Showcasing unwelcoming or unwanted
behaviour which creates a sense of fear, dislike, and offensive behaviour
with the victim.
Informal Communication Network: Also called grapevine network,
this type of communication is spontaneous doesn’t follow a set pattern
prescribed by the organization and has a lot of barriers to effective com-
munication.
Ingratiation: It is when the manager uses friendliness with their team or
employees or uses praise to flatter them in getting the task done.
Intergroup Conflict: Conflict that arises between groups within an
organization due to resource competition, unclear boundaries, or status
struggles.
Interpersonal Conflict: Conflict between individuals caused by differ-
ences in values, poor communication, or incompatible roles.

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 GLOSSARY

Jargon: Refer to technical terms unique to specific fields and understood Notes
by field members/experts.
Message: Any kind of information, idea, thought, feeling etc. that is
sent during communication.
Negotiation: A dialogue between parties aimed at resolving differences
and achieving mutually beneficial outcomes in conflict situations.
Non-verbal Communication: It includes all kinds of information accom-
panying the message through gestures, facial expressions, body language,
etc.
Norms: Norms are the unwritten rules and shared expectations within a
group or team that dictate appropriate behaviour.
Organizational Communication: Communication that occurs within an
organization to achieve organizational objectives.
Politics: Politics within an organization decides the important decisions
within the organization.
Power: The ability to influence organizational decisions, behaviours etc.
Referent Power: When someone is brought by reference or is identified
as a part of a known circle with those who are in a power position or
someone desirable in the organization.
Role Conflict: Conflict arising from competing demands or expectations
within or between roles that an individual must fulfil.
Roles: Roles refer to the specific responsibilities or expected behaviours
of individuals within a group or team.
Sexual Harassment: Unwanted or unwelcome behaviour with the employ-
ees or stakeholders of the organization within or outside the organization.
Source/Sender: The sender or source is where the information of the
message is initiated, encoded and sent through a channel for further
communication.
Star Network: Also known as an all-channel network, here the flow
of information moves freely across levels and directions. It is a more
structured form of the informal grapevine network.

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Notes Status: Status refers to the perceived social standing or rank of individ-
uals within a group, often influenced by their roles, skills, experience,
or contributions.
Team: A team is a specific type of group, often organized to achieve a
common purpose or objective.
Upward Network: The flow of information is from subordinates to su-
periors at various levels.
Verbal Communication: A widely used form of communication done
orally by using words/language.
Vertical Network: The information may flow either up or down a vertical
pathway between subordinates and superiors.
Wheel Network: It is mediated by a central person/superior through
whom the information flows from one employee to another. However, it
can be taxing on the mediator.
Written Communication: Written methods of conveying information
and usually the most clear, precise and structured. It may include letters,
notices, emails, etc.

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