Map Projection and Coordinate System in GIS

(by J. D. Das, Dept. of Earthquake Engg, IIT Roorkee)

A map of all or part of Earth's surface is a flat representation of a curved surface. Therefore
a map projection must have been used to create the map, and, conversely, maps could not
exist without map projections.

Maps can be more useful than globes in many situations: they are more compact and easier
to store; they readily accommodate an enormous range of scales; they are viewed easily on
computer displays; they can facilitate measuring properties of the terrain being mapped;
they can show larger portions of the Earth's surface at once; and they are cheaper to
produce and transport.

A map projection is a device for reproducing all or part of a round body on a flat sheet.
Since this cannot be done without distortion, the cartographer must choose the
characteristic that is to be shown accurately at the expense of others, or a compromise of
several characteristics.

There is literally an infinite number of ways in which this can be done, and several
hundred projections have been published, most of which are rarely used novelties.

It cannot be said that there is one "best" projection for mapping. It is even risky to claim
that one has found the "best" projection for a given application, unless the parameters
chosen are artificially constricting.

Even a carefully constructed globe is not the best map for most applications because its
scale is by necessity too small, a straightedge cannot be satisfactorily used on it for
measurement of distance, and it is awkward to use in general.

Many properties can be measured on the Earth's surface. Some of these properties
are: Area, Shape, Direction, Bearing, Distance, Scale

Map projections can be constructed to preserve one or more of these properties, though not
all of them simultaneously. The purpose of the map determines which projection should
form the base for the map.

Another consideration in the configuration of a projection is its compatibility with data sets
to be used on the map. Data sets are geographic information; their collection depends on
the chosen datum (model) of the Earth.

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Different datums assign slightly different coordinates to the same location, so in large scale
maps, such as those from national mapping systems, it is important to match the datum to
the projection.

Projection construction is also affected by how the shape of the Earth is approximated.
Selecting a model for a shape of the Earth involves choosing between the advantages and
disadvantages of a sphere versus an ellipsoid.
Spherical models are useful for small-scale maps such as world atlases and globes, since
the error at that scale is not usually noticeable or important enough to justify using the
more complicated ellipsoid.

The ellipsoidal model is commonly used to construct topographic maps and for other
large- and medium-scale maps that need to accurately depict the land surface.

A third model of the shape of the Earth is the geoid, a complex and more accurate
representation of the global mean sea level surface that is obtained through a combination
of terrestrial and satellite gravity measurements.
This model is not used for mapping because of its complexity, but rather is used for control
purposes in the construction of geographic datums. A geoid is used to construct a datum by
adding irregularities to the ellipsoid in order to better match the Earth's actual shape.

Map Projections

Map projections are used to transfer or

“project” geographical coordinates onto a
flat surface.
The easiest way to try to transfer the
information onto a flat surface is to convert
the geographic coordinates into an X and Y
coordinate system, where x is longitude
and y is latitude.
This is an example of “projecting” onto a
plane.

Projection: The system used to transfer locations from Earth’s surface to a flat
map.
– A projection of an image onto another surface
either a cylinder, a flat plane or a cone

– 3 basic types of projections

–
– cylindrical projection
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 – conical projection
– azimuthal projection

Cylindrical Projection
A cylindrical projection usually places the earth inside a cylinder with the equator tangent
or secant to the inside of the cylinder.

This is used by navigators to show direction and meteorological chart Meridians run north
& south, Parallels run east & west.

Cylindrical Maps are conformal maps, They conform to the correct shape

Cylindrical or conformal projections preserve right angles between lines of latitude and
longitude and are primarily used because they preserve direction. Areas are always
distorted on cylindrical projections.

Examples are the Mercator projection. The U.S. Geological Survey uses a conformal
projection for many of its topographic maps.

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Conical Projection
In a conic projection, a cone is placed over the earth, normally tangent to one or more lines
of latitude. It is used for Mid-Latitude Maps and also referred to as an equal area map.

Example : Lambert Conformal Conic projection

Conical or equal area projections preserve the property of area. On an equivalent projection
all parts of the earth’s surface are shown with the correct area. Latitudinal distances are
never accurate. Survey of India Topographical Maps use Polyconic projection.

Azimuthal Projection

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An azimuthal or planar projection is usually tangent to a specific point on earth’s surface,
but may also be secant. This point, or focus, may be a pole, the equator, or other oblique
point.

The azimuthal projection is used for polar charts due to distortion at other latitudes.
Azimuthal projection only preserve correct distance relationships along a few lines on the
map.

Robinson Projection
A Compromise projection
The Robinson projection was specifically created in an attempt to find a good
compromise to the problem of readily showing the whole globe as a flat image.

The Robinson projection is neither equal-area nor conformal, abandoning both for a
compromise.

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The meridians curve gently, avoiding extremes, but thereby stretch the poles into long lines
instead of leaving them as points. The projection effectively meets the goal to produce
appealing depictions of the entire world.

Geographic Coordinate Systems

A geographic coordinate system is a reference system that uses a three-dimensional

spherical surface to determine locations on the earth.

Any location on earth can be referenced by a point with longitude and latitude coordinates.

For example, figure shows a geographic coordinate

system where a location is represented by the
coordinates longitude 80 degree East and latitude 55
degree North.

Geographic Coordinate Systems

The latitude and longitude lines can cover the globe to form a grid, called a graticule.
The point of origin of the graticule is (0,0), where the equator and the prime meridian
intersect.

The equator is the only place on the graticule where the linear distance corresponding to
one degree latitude is approximately equal the distance corresponding to one degree
longitude.

Because the longitude lines converge at the poles, the distance between two meridians is
different at every parallel. Therefore, as you move closer to the poles, the distance
corresponding to one degree latitude will be much greater than that corresponding to one
degree longitude.

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It is also difficult to determine the lengths of the latitude lines using the graticule.
The latitude lines are concentric circles that become smaller near the poles.
Form a single point at the poles where the meridians begin.

At the equator, one degree of longitude is approximately 111.321 kilometers, while at 60

degrees of latitude, one degree of longitude is only 55.802 km (this approximation is based
on the Clarke 1866 spheroid).

Therefore, because there is no uniform length of degrees of latitude and longitude, the
distance between points cannot be measured accurately by using angular units of measure.

UTM : Universal Transverse Mercator Coordinate System

UTM is a grid-based method of specifying locations on the surface of the Earth.

It is used to identify locations on the earth, but differs from the traditional method of
latitude and longitude in several respects.

The UTM coordinate system is commonly used in GIS for larger scale areas within a
certain UTM zone.

The UTM projection is formed by using a transverse cylindrical projection, i.e., the
standard line runs along a meridian of longitude.

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The effect is to minimize distortion in a narrow strip running pole to pole.

UTM divides the earth into pole-to-pole zones 6 degrees of longitude wide.
The first zone starts at the International Date Line (180 degrees east) and the last zone, 60,
starts at 174 degrees east.

Northings are determined separately for the areas north and south of the equator.
Because distortion becomes extreme at northern latitudes, UTM is not normally used
above 80 degrees North or South.

Easting and Northing in UTM Grid

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 Easting is a measure of how far east or
west the location is from a reference
longitude.
Northing is a measure of how far north or
south the location is from the equator.
Any point can then be described by its
distance east of the origin (its ‘easting’
value).
By definition the Central Meridian is
assigned a false easting of 500,000 meters.
Any easting value greater than 500,000
meters indicates a point east of the central
meridian.
Any easting value less than 500,000
meters indicates a point west of the central
meridian.
Distances (and locations) in the UTM
system are measured in meters, and each
UTM zone has its own origin for east-west
measurements.

To eliminate the necessity for using negative numbers to describe a location, the east-west
origin is placed 500,000 meters west of the central meridian. This is referred to as the
zone’s ‘false origin’. The zone doesn't extend all the way to the false origin.

The origin for north-south values depends on whether you are in the northern or southern
hemisphere. In the northern hemisphere, the origin is the equator and all distances north (or
‘northings’) are measured from the equator. In the southern hemisphere the origin is the
south pole and all northings are measured from there.

Once again, having separate origins for the northern and southern hemispheres eliminates
the need for any negative values. The average circumference of the earth is 40,030,173
meters, meaning that there are 10,007,543 meters of northing in each hemisphere. UTM
coordinates are typically given with the zone first, then the easting, then the northing.