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Sensors 1 2 3 4 - Notes

Sensors and transducers (University of Calicut)

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A12 - Sensors & Transducers

Calicut University, BSc CS/BCA/IT/Electronics
All rights reserved. | www.teachics.org

Introduction
In This Lesson

1. Definition of Sensors
2. Principle of transduction
2.1. Mechanical input signal
2.2. Thermal input signal
2.3. Electrical input signal
2.4. Magnetic input signal
2.5. Radiant input signal
2.6. Chemical input signal
3. Further Reading

Definition of Sensorsteachics.org
A sensor or transducer is a device that gives a usable output (preferably, an electrical
quantity) in response to a specified measurand (physical quantity such as light, sound,
temperature…etc)

Daily life examples of sensors include microphones, thermometer, accelerometers,

infrared sensors, speakers…etc

Sensor produces a usable output in response to a specified quantity. it uses the

sensing principle, that is it senses or detects a physical phenomenon.

A transducer converts one form of energy to another form. The process of conversion
of energy from one form to another is called transduction.

Not all sensors are transducers, but all transducers contain sensors. Sensing is the first
stage of transduction.

Principle of transduction

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The input/output signals (in the form of energy) in a sensor can be divided into six.
They are,

1. Mechanical

2. Thermal

3. Electrical

4. Magnetic

5. Radiant

6. Chemical

Some of the physical and chemical transduction principles can be grouped according
to the form of energy in which signals are received and generated.

Mechanical input signal

Triggered by a mechanical force like stress or a push/pull

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May cause change in temperature (Friction effect, cooling effects)

May cause change in magnetic intensity (Piezomagnetic effect)

May cause change in electricity (piezoelectric effect, resistive, capacitive and

inductive changes)

May cause change in radiant energy (Photoelasticity, Doppler effect)

Thermal input signal

May cause change in mechanical energy (Thermal expansion)

May cause change in electricity (Seebeck effect, thermoresistance)

May cause change in radiant energy (Thermo optical effects)

May cause change chemical reaction (Thermal dissociation)

Electrical input signal

May cause change in mechanical energy (Electrokinetic effects)

May cause change in temperature (Peltier effect)

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May cause change in electricity (Charge controlled devices)

May cause change in magnetic intensity (Biot-Savart9s electromagnetic law)

May cause change in radiant energy (Kerr effect)

May cause change chemical reaction (Electrolysis)

Magnetic input signal

May cause change in mechanical energy (Magnetometers)

May cause change in temperature (Magnothermal effects)

May cause change in electricity (Galvanomagnetic effect)

May cause change in radiant energy (Magneto-optical effect)

Radiant input signal

May cause change in mechanical energy (Radiation Pressure)

May cause change in temperature (Bolometer)

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May cause change in electricity (Photoelectric effect)

May cause change in radiant energy ( Photorefractivity)

May cause change chemical reaction (Photosynthesis)

Chemical input signal

May cause change in mechanical energy (Photoacoustic effect)

May cause change in temperature (Thermal conductivity)

May cause change in electricity (Potentiometry, conductimetry)

May cause change in magnetic intensity (Nuclear magnetic resonance)

May cause change in radiant energy (Spectroscopy)

Some of the measurands corresponding to each energy type are given in the table.

ENERGY MEASURANDS

Mechanical Length, area, volume, force, pressure…etc

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ENERGY MEASURANDS

Thermal Temperature, heat flow…etc

Electrical Charge, current, voltage, resistance, capacitance…etc

Magnetic Field intensity, flux density, permeability…etc

Radiant Intensity,phase,refractive index, wavelength…etc

Chemical Concentration,reaction rate, pH…etc

Further Reading
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO SENSORS

LESSON 14: INTRODUCTION TO SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS

Intro to Sensors

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Classification of Sensors
Several criteria are adopted for the classification of sensors. Some of these include

Based on the principle of operation (transduction principle)

Based on energy requirements

Based on material and technology used

Application-based classification

Property-based classification

Based on transduction principles

The transduction principle is the basic criteria that should be followed for a systematic
approach to classification. This classification is based on the method used in the
process of converting measurand into usable output.

Active/Passive Transducers

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Based on the energy requirements of a transducer, they are classified as active
transducers and passive transducers.

Active transducers do not need any external power supply to operate and hence it is
also called self-generating transducers.
Eg: Thermocouple
Transducers that require an external power source to operate is called Passive
transducers.
Eg: LVDT

Based on material and technology

Another classification is based on the material and technology that have acquired
more importance lately. The following table shows the emerging sensor technologies
with its applications.

Sensor Image Sensor Motion detectors Bio Sensors Accelerometers

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Technology CMOS Based IR, ultrasonic, Electrochemical MEMS based

microwave,radar

Applications Traffic and security Obstruction detection Food testing Patient

surveillance Llight activation Water testing monitoring
Video conferencing Security detection Medical care device Vehicle dynamic
Blindspot detection Toilet activation Biological warfare agent system
Biometrics detection
Consumer electronics

Application based classification

Application based classification of sensors are represented as

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Property based classification
A much more elaborate classification is based on the properties like pressure,
displacement, temperature …etc. It is subdivided in technology scale. Pressure property
is used in technologies such as manometer and piezoelectricity. Semiconductors and
thermal conductance use gas and chemical properties.

Further Reading
LESSON 14: INTRODUCTION TO SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS

Sensors Types and Characteristics

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Characteristics of Sensors
In This Lesson

1. Static Characteristics of Sensors

1.1. Error
1.2. Precision
1.3. Resolution
1.4. Minimum detectable change
1.5. Threshold
1.6. Sensitivity
1.7. Selectivity and Specificity
1.8. Nonlinearity
1.9. Hysteresis
1.10. Output Impedance
1.11. Isolation and grounding
2. Dynamic Characteristics of Sensors
2.1. Transfer function

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2.2. Frequency response
2.3. Impulse response
3. Further Reading

General characteristics of sensors are two, namely

1. Static characteristics

2. Dynamic Characteristics

Static Characteristics of Sensors

Static characteristics of sensors describe the performance of a transducer with very
slow changes in the measurand. Static characteristics include accuracy, linearity,
precision, sensitivity…etc

Error

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Accuracy of a sensor is usually specified by error. it tells you how closely the measured
value matches the true value.

Error is given by

Where t stands for true value, m for measured value and x stands for the measurand.

For multi error systems, the overall error can be assessed either through finding the
linear sum of all errors (E1 + E2 +…+En) or through the root mean square approach
where total performance error can be assessed as,

Precision
Precision describes how close a measured value is to the true value and how far it is
reproducible.

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Repeatability is the defined as the capability of a sensor to provide the same output
repeatedly when used each time to measure the same input.

Resolution
Resolution is the smallest change in the input that is needed to produce a detectable
change in output. For a detectable output Δy, if the minimum change in x is Δxmin, then
the maximum resolution is

Minimum detectable change

It is the minimum signal level that produces a detectable output in the sensor. If the
input signal doesn9t contain any noise, the minimum detectable output from the
sensor is determined by its noise characteristics. For this, the equivalent noise source is
connected to the input of the sensor to produce an output which is the actual output
level of the sensor. The RMS equivalent input noise is then taken as the minimum
detectable change.

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Threshold
The threshold is the smallest input change that is needed to produce a detectable
output at the zero value condition of the measurand.

Sensitivity
It is the ratio of incremental output to incremental input, that is,

If the sensitivity of a sensor varies with ambient conditions like time, temperature,
humidity..etc without any change in input level, drift is said to occur in the system.

Selectivity and Specificity

The output of a sensor may change with environmental parameters or other variables.
Selectivity is the ability of a sensor to discriminate the response to input changes from

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other interfering quantities.

Nonlinearity
Non-linearity is the deviation of a sensor output value (real value) from its ideal output
value. The maximum nonlinearity is shown in the figure.

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Nonlinearity can be specified either by finding deviation from best fit straight line
obtained or by finding the deviation from a straight line joining the endpoints of the
scale.

Hysteresis
Hysteresis is the difference in the output of the sensor for a given input x when x
reaches this value in upscale direction and downscale direction.

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It is caused by the normal hesitance of a material to come back to its original state
after having a physical change. It depends on the hysteresis property of the sensor.

Output Impedance
Impedance is a measure of the overall opposition of a circuit to the current. The output
impedance of a transducer specifies the impedance across its output terminals.

Isolation and grounding

Isolation eliminates or at least reduces the undesirable coupling in the system.
Grounding establishes a common node among different parts of the system with
respect to which potential of any point in the system remains constant.

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Dynamic Characteristics of Sensors

Dynamic characteristics of a sensor tell us how fast a transducer responds to the
changes in input.

Transfer function
The transfer function is a measure of the magnitude of the input signal and the
magnitude of the output signal.

Frequency response
It is the relationship between the frequency of the input signal and the magnitude of
the output signal.

Impulse response
The output of a sensor for a brief input signal, called an impulse, is called impulse
response.
teachics.org
Further Reading
LESSON 14: INTRODUCTION TO SENSORS

LECTURE 2:SENSORS

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Requirements of a Sensor
The basic requirements of a sensor are

1. Accuracy: It is the level of exactness between the measured value and the true
value.

2. Hysteresis: It is the difference in the output of the sensor for a given input x when x
reaches this value in upscale direction and downscale direction.

3. Linearity: It is specified in terms of percentage of non-linearity. Non-linearity is the

deviation of a sensor output value (real value) from its ideal output value.

4. Range: It shows the minimum and maximum limits in which the input can vary.

5. Repeatability: Repeatability is the capacity of a sensor to deliver the same output

for various applications without changing the input value.

6. Response Time: It shows how fast the output changes on a stepwise change in
input.

7. Ruggedness: It shows how durable a sensor is when operated under extreme

conditions.

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8. Sensitivity: It is the ratio of incremental output to incremental input

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Resistance Transducers
Resistance transducer is one of the simplest and important groups of transducers.
These are transducers whose electrical resistance is varied in accordance with the
input quantity (measurand). Quantities like displacement, acceleration, force, pressure,
temperature etc. can be transduced using this type of transducers.

Basic Principle of Resistance Transducer

The basic principle of a resistance transducer is very simple.

Resistance of a conducting wire is given by

Where s is the resistivity of the material of the wire, l is the length of the wire and A is
the area of cross-section.

Any measurand which varies any of these quantities like s,l or a, will result in a change
in resistance of the wire. These change in resistance can be converted to a change in

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voltage by an electrical circuitry and thus a transducer is obtained.

Advantages

The advantages of using a resistance transducer are,

Quick response

Low cost

Suitable for both AC and DC

Available in different sizes

Easy operation

Disadvantages

Sliding contact can exhaust and may create noise in the output

Huge power is necessary for many sliders.

Examples

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Potentiometer: The resistance is varied with the variation in their length and hence is
used for measurement of displacement

Strain gauge: Resistance is changed when applying strain and this property is used
for measuring pressure, force etc.

Thermistors (Resistance thermometers): Resistance changes with change in

temperature and is used as thermometers.

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Potentiometer
A potentiometer is a device where a resistive wire is wound on an insulating core
provided with a sliding contact. It can be excited with a DC or AC voltage source. The
slider movement can be translational (straight) rotational or a combination of both.

Schematic diagram of a resistive potentiometer is shown in figure.

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Here, Xt is the total length between two endpoints and the resistance between these
two endpoints are always constant. The resistance between sliding point and endpoint
will change with respect to the input displacement X0.

If V is the excitation voltage, then the output voltage V0 can be expressed as

If the total resistance is Rt and the resistance between sliding point and the endpoint is
R0 then by voltage dividing rule V0 can be expressed as

It is clear that the output voltage in the potentiometer is proportional to the

displacement.

Loading effect on Potentiometer

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The output of a potentiometer is generally connected to an amplifier or a

meter(measuring device). The input impedance of this connected device acts as a
load of the potentiometer and it will affect the current between the sliding contact and
the end terminal. This situation is called the loading effect on a potentiometer.

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If the input resistance of the connected meter is Rm, and the resistance between sliding
point and the endpoint is R0 then the total effective resistance is given by

The effective voltage after connecting the load is

The error occured by connecting the load is

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Strain Guage
In This Lesson

1. Basic Principle
2. Gauge factor
3. Types of Strain gauges
3.1. Unbonded type Strain gauge
3.2. Bonded type Strain gauge
3.3. Fine wire strain gauge
3.4. Metal foil strain gauge
3.4.1. Advantages
3.5. Semiconductor strain gauge
3.5.1. Advantages
3.5.2. Disadvantages
3.6. Photo electric strain gauge
4. Further reading

teachics.org
A Strain gauge(resistance strain gauge) is an important type of resistance transducer
whose resistance varies with applied force. It can be used to convert force, pressure,
tension into a change in electrical resistance. The applied strain can be measured by
this change in resistance.

Basic Principle
We know that the resistance of a conductor is given by

Where ρ is the specific resistivity, L is the length and a is the area of cross-section of the
resistance material.

When this material is under a strain, the resistance R will change because of the
change in L, a or ρ.

Gauge factor

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The gauge factor of a strain gauge is defined as the unit resistance change per unit
strain. The resistance change is due to the change in length, the change in the area of
cross-section and the change in resistivity(piezoelectric change). The sensitivity of a
strain gauge is expressed in the gauge factor.

The strain that is applied to the gauge can be determined by the gauge factor and by
the measure of the resistance change.

Gauge factors of different gauge materials are given in the table.

GRID MATERIAL COMPOSITION GF

Nichrome 80% Ni, 20% Cr +2.0

Constantan 45% Ni, 55% Cu +2.0

Isoelastic 36% Ni, 8% Cr, 0.5% Mo, remaining Mn,Fe and Si +3.5

Iridium-Platinum 5% Ir, 95% Pt +5.10

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Types of Strain gauges
Based on the construction method used strain gauges are classified as

1. Unbonded type

2. Bonded type

Based on the type of resistance material strain gauges can be classified into

Fine wire strain gauge

Metal foil strain gauge

Semiconductor strain gauge.

Photo-electric strain gauge

Unbonded type Strain gauge

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A strain gauge which is not directly bonded on the surface under study is called an
unbonded type strain gauge. It has two frames P and Q with fixed insulated pins as
shown in the figure. These two frames are held together by a string loaded mechanism
and they can move relatively with respect to each other. A fine wire is stretched around
the insulated pins. To measure the strain, the gauge is connected to a Wheatstone
bridge.

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When a force is applied on the frames, frame P moves relative to frame Q, and the
length and area of cross-section of gauge will change, due to this strain. This strain
changes the resistance of strain gauge and this change in resistance is measured
using a Wheatstone bridge. It can be analysed to measure the applied force and
change in dimension of the structure under study.

Bonded type Strain gauge

These strain gauges are directly bonded on the surface of the structure under study.

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A fine resistance wire is made into a form of a grid and is cemented between the
carrier. Resistance wire with a high gauge factor is chosen. The wire is spread so that
the stress is uniformly distributed over the grid.

The carrier material should have high mechanical strength and good adherence to
cement used. For this purpose, a thin sheet of paper, Bakelite, Teflon sheet are

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commonly used. it is covered on top with a thin sheet of material and this prevents the
wire from any mechanical damage.

The carrier is bonded with an adhesive material and due to this, a good transfer of
strain from carrier to a grid of wires is achieved.

Fine wire strain gauge

A fine wire strain gauge is a type of bonded strain gauge. Resistive wire is bent like a
string and is packed in a plastic or paper bag. When a force is applied, the wires
change in dimension and the resistance is also changed. These change in resistance is
analysed to measure the applied force. Metal components like Nichrome, Constantan
are used as resistance materials.

Fine wire gauges have high accuracy and high reliability but it is costly.

Metal foil strain gauge

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A metal foil strain gauge is constructed by printing a resistive metal foil on a

nonelectrical base material such as PCB. When a force is applied, the gauge will
undergo a change in both length and area of cross-section resulting in the change in
resistance.

Advantages

Perfect binding is possible with the structure under study.

Can be manufactured in any shape.

Good sensitivity and stability even in high temperature.

Long life.

Semiconductor strain gauge

Semiconductor strain gauges make use of the piezoelectric property of the
semiconductors such as silicon and germanium. It is used where a high gauge factor
is required. It is constructed by bonding semiconductor filaments to a suitable

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insulating surface. They are very sensitive to temperature changes. But increasing
doping decreases sensitivity towards temperature as well. For electrical contact, Gold
leads are usually used.

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When the strain is applied, the filament undergoes a large change in resistance and
this change in resistance can be analysed to measure the strain applied.

Advantages

High gauge factor.

Can be used for measuring small strains.

Long life and high durability.

Disadvantages

Sensitive to change in temperature.

Difficult to attach with the structure.

Costly.

Photo electric strain gauge

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A photoelectric strain gauge generates an electric current which is proportional to the
applied strain by using a photocell detector, two fine gratings and a light beam. This
type of strain gauges is not commonly used. They are delicate and expensive.

Further reading
Wikipedia

All About Circuits

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Inductive Transducers
An inductive transducer works on the basic principle of change in inductance due to
any change in the measurand. A change in measurand changes the flux and this
change in flux changes the inductance. This change in inductance can be calibrated in
terms of measurand.

Inductive transducers works on one of the following principles

Change of self inductance

Change of mutual inductance

Production of eddy current

Change of self inductance

The self inductance of a coil is given by

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Where N is the number of turns and R is the reluctance of the magnetic circuit.

Also, the reluctance R is given by,

Then,

Where μ is the effective permeability of the medium, l is the length of the coil and A is
the cross-sectional area of the coil.

Let G=A/l, known as geometric form factor. Therefore

That is, the self-inductance can be changed by a variation in N, G or μ. If some physical

quantity is able to change any of these parameters, then that quantity can be directly
measured in terms of inductance.

Change of mutual inductance

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Mutually coupled multiple coils are used in this principle. The mutual inductance can
be then changed by varying the self-inductance of the coils.

Let9s take two coils and suppose their self-inductance are L1 and L2. Then mutual
inductance between these two coils is given by,

Where K is the coefficient of coupling.

It is clear that the mutual inductance can be changed if the self-inductance of the
coils or the coefficient of coupling is varied. The coefficient of coupling depends on
distance, separation and orientation between these two coils.

To measure displacement, one coil is fixed and the other coil is connected to the
moving object. The coefficient of coupling changes with varying distance and hence
the mutual inductance also changes. This change in mutual inductance can be
calibrated in terms of displacement.

Production of Eddy current

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When a coil is placed near to a coil carrying alternating current (AC), a circulating
current called Eddy current is induced in the coil. This circulating current produces its
own flux and tries to reduce the flux of the coil carrying the current which in turn
changes the inductance of the coil.

When the coils are nearer, the eddy current produced is higher and the reduction in
inductance also increases. So inductance can be varied by a variation of distance
between two coils.

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LVDT

In This Lesson

1. Construction of LVDT
2. Operation of LVDT
3. Advantages of LVDT

LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer) is a passive transducer, that works on

the principle of mutual induction and can be used to measure displacement, pressure,
and force.

Construction of LVDT
LVDT consists of one primary coil and two secondary coils wounded on a cylindrical
core. The core is made up of a ferromagnetic material such as iron core and is freely
movable inside the coil and this movement measures the physical quantity.

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The primary winding is connected to an AC source. The two secondary winding S1 and
S2 have an equal number of turns and are set up in series opposition. So the e.m.f
induced in these winding are 180° out of phase with each other and thus the net effect
is cancelled.

Operation of LVDT
When an alternating voltage input is given in the primary winding, an alternating emf is
induced in the secondary winding(S1 and S2).

Suppose V1 is the voltage induced across S1 and V2 is the voltage induced across S2.
The overall output voltage across the secondary winding(V0) is the difference between
V1 and V2.

So the differential output is

The value of V0 depends on the position of the core. Three possible cases are illustrated

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in the following figure.

When the core is positioned at the centre (Case 1), voltages induced across winding S1
and S2 are equal(but in reverse-phase). Then, the resultant voltage V0=0. In this case,
we say there is no displacement.

If the core is displaced from the central position to more in S1(Case 2), then more emf
generated in coil S1. That is V1>V2.

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Similarly, if the core is displaced from the central position to more in S2(Case 3), then
more emf generated in coil S2. That is V2>V1.

In case 2, we have upward displacement and in case 3, we have downward

displacement. In both cases, the magnitude of V0 will be proportional to the position of
the core relative to the centre.

The input output curve of a LVDT is shown in the figure.

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Advantages of LVDT
No physical contact between the core and the coils.

Easy to modify.

High accuracy.

Fast response.

Long operating life.

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RVDT
In This Lesson

1. Construction of RVDT
2. Operation of RVDT
3. Advantages of RVDT
4. Application of RVDT

RVDT (Rotary Variable Differential Transformer) is a passive transducer, that works on

the principle of mutual induction. It is used to measure the angular displacement. The
design of RVDT is similar to LVDT, except for the design of the core.

Read More: LVDT Construction,Principle and Advantages.

Construction of RVDT
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RVDT consists of one primary coil and two secondary coils wounded on a cylindrical
core. RVDT uses a cam-type core made up of a ferromagnetic material and it can be
twisted among the two windings using the shaft.

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The primary winding is connected to an AC source. The two secondary windings S1 and
S2 have an equal number of turns and are set up in series opposition.

Operation of RVDT
The working of RVDT is same as LVDT. When an alternating voltage is applied in the
primary windings of an RVDT, an emf is induced in the secondary windings.

Suppose V1 is the voltage induced across coil S1 and V2 is the voltage induced across
S2. The overall output voltage across the secondary winding(V0) is the difference
between V1 and V2.

So the differential output is

Based on the movement of the shaft, following three conditions will be occured.

When the core is in the centre position. (NULL Position)

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When the core rotates in a clockwise direction.

When the core rotates in the anti-clockwise direction.

When the core is placed at the centre position, voltages induced across secondary
windings are equal although reversed in phase. That is V1=V2. Then, the resultant
voltage V0=0.

When the shaft is rotated in the clockwise direction, then more emf is generated in coil
S1. That is V1>V2. Here V0 will have a positive value.

Similarly, anti-clockwise rotation of shaft leads to increase in voltage V1. That is V2>V1.
Here V0 will have a negative value.

Advantages of RVDT
Durable.

Low cost.

Easy to handle.

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High accuracy.

Long life.

Excellent linearity.

Application of RVDT
Robotics.

Modern machine tools.

The fuel control system of engines.

Fuel valve as well as hydraulics.

teachics.org

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Capacitive Transducers
In This Lesson

1. Construction of capacitive transducer

2. Working Principle of capacitive transducer
2.1. By changing the distance between two plates
2.2. By changing the permittivity of the dielectric medium
2.3. By changing the area of overlapping of plates
3. Advantages of capacitive transducer
4. Further Reading

A capacitive transducer is a passive transducer that works on the principle of variable

capacitances. It is used to measure physical quantities such as displacement,
pressure, etc.

Construction of capacitive transducer

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A capacitive transducer contains two conducting parallel metal plates separated by a
dielectric medium.

Working Principle of capacitive transducer

The capacitance between these two plates can be expressed as

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Where ϵ is the permittivity of the medium, A is the area of the plates and d is the
distance between two plates.

The capacitance of the transducer is measured using the bridge circuit. The output
impedance of the transducer is given by

Where C is the capacitance and f is the frequency of excitation. So a capacitive

transducer can be used to measure the mechanical vibrations.

The capacitance between two plates can be varied by any of the following methods.

By changing the distance between two plates (d)

By changing the permittivity of the dielectric medium (ϵ)

By changing the area of overlapping of plates (A)

By changing the distance between two plates

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The capacitance can be varied by changing the distance between two plates. From
the equation for C, we can observe that C and d are inversely proportional to each
other. That is, the capacitance value will decrease with increasing distance and vice-
versa. This principle can be used in a transducer by making the left plate fixed and the
right plate movable by the displacement that is to be measured as shown in the figure.

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The change in distance between two plates will vary the capacitance of the
transducer. Change in capacitance can be calibrated in terms of the measurand.
These types of transducers are used to measure extremely small displacements.

The distance capacitance curve is shown in the figure.

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By changing the permittivity of the dielectric medium
Another method to change the capacitance value is by changing the permittivity of
the dielectric material (ϵ). The permittivity and capacitance value are directly
proportional to each other.

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In this arrangement, a dielectric material is filled into the space between the two fixed
plates. It can be moved using the arm. This causes a variation in dielectric constant in
the region. The change in dielectric constant will vary the capacitance of the
transducer.
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By changing the area of overlapping of plates
The capacitance can also be changed by varying the area of overlapping of plates.

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As shown in the figure, one plate is kept fixed and the other movable. When the plate is
moved, the area of overlapping of plates changes, and the capacitance also changes.
The capacitance value and area are directly proportional to each other. These types of
transducers are used to measure relatively large displacements.

The distance-capacitance curve is shown in the figure.

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Advantages of capacitive transducer
Sensitivity is high.

Requires small power to operate.

Loading effect is low because of high input impedance.

Good frequency response.

Further Reading
Lesson 17. ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS: CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCERS

Elprocus – Capacitive Transducers

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Temperature Sensors
Temperature sensors are devices used to measure temperature that is generated by a
system. It allows us to detect any physical change to that temperature by producing
some output.

Classification of Temperature Sensors

Different types of Temperature sensors are available depending upon their
applications.

Two basic physical types of Temperature Sensors are

Contact Temperature Sensors.

Non-contact Temperature Sensor.

These two basic types can also be subdivided into following three groups

Electro-mechanical Temperature Sensors.

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Resistive Temperature Sensors.

Electronic Temperature Sensors.

Contact Temperature Sensors

Thermal sensors that require physical contact with the object to operate is called
contact thermal sensors. They use conduction to detect changes in temperature.

Non-contact Temperature Sensors

These types of sensors do not require physical contact with the object being sensed.
They use radiation to detect temperature changes.

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Resistance Temperature Detector

In This Lesson

1. Construction of RTD
2. Working Principle of RTD
3. Advantages
4. Dis-advantages

We know that the resistance of metallic conductors increases with temperature.

Thermal sensors using this property of metallic conductors are called Resistance
Temperature Detector(RTD).

Construction of RTD
The resistance temperature detector is constructed by wounding the resistance wire
on a mica base. The wire is wound like a helical coil on the support to reduce the

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inductance effect. The terminals(Leads) are brought out of the pipe. The coil is
protected by a stainless steel case. The structural view of a wire wound RTD is shown in
the figure.

Copper, Nickel and Platinum are the most used RTD materials. These metals have
positive temperature co-efficient and possess poor thermal sensitivity. Also, the
resistance-temperature characteristics of these materials are approximately linear.

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Another type of RTD is thin-film RTD that is constructed by depositing a thin layer of
resistive material onto a ceramic substance.

Working Principle of RTD

Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD) operates on the principle that the resistance
of a metal changes with changes in temperature.

The variation of resistance R with temperature t can be represented by the equation,

Where α is the temperature co-efficient at t0 and R0 is the resistance at t0.

Advantages
Can be operated in a wide temperature range.

Good stability at high temperature.

High accuracy.

Dis-advantages
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Low sensitivity.

More Expensive.

Affected by shock or vibration.

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Thermistor
In This Lesson

1. Construction of Thermistor
2. Working Principle of Thermistors
3. Types of Thermistors
3.1. NTC Thermistor
3.2. PTC Thermistor
4. Advantages of thermistors
5. Dis-advantages of thermistors
6. Applications of thermistors
6.1. NTC Thermistor Application
6.2. PTC Thermistor Application
7. Further Reading

The Thermistor or simply Thermally Sensitive Resistor is a temperature sensor that

works on the principle of varying resistance with temperature. They are made of

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semiconducting materials. The circuit symbol of the thermistor is shown in the figure.

Construction of Thermistor
A thermistor is made of oxides of metals such as Nickel, Manganese, Cobalt, Copper,
Uranium etc. It is available in a variety of shapes and sizes. Commonly used for
configurations are Disk type, Bead type and Rod type.

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The disc type thermistor and rod type thermistor is used when greater power
dissipation is required. The rod type thermistor has high power handling capacity.

The smallest thermistor in these configurations is the bead type thermistor. its
diameter is low as 0.15 mm. The measurement element is typically encapsulated in a
glass probe. It is commonly used for measuring the temperature of liquids.

Working Principle of Thermistors

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The thermistor works on the simple principle of change in resistance due to a change
in temperature. When the ambient temperature changes the thermistor starts self-
heating its elements. its resistance value is changed with respect to this change in
temperature. This change depends on the type of thermistor used. The resistance
temperature characteristics of different types of thermistors are given in the following
section.

Types of Thermistors
The two basic types of thermistors available are the NTC and PTC types.

NTC Thermistor
NTC stands for Negative Temperature coefficient. They are ceramic semiconductors
that have a high Negative Temperature Coefficient of resistance. The resistance of an
NTC will decrease with increasing temperature in a non-linear manner.

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Circuit symbols of NTC and PTC thermistors are shown in the following figure.

PTC Thermistor
PTC thermistors are Positive Temperature Coefficient resistors and are made of
polycrystalline ceramic materials. The resistance of a PTC will increase with increasing
temperature in a non-linear manner. The PTC thermistor shows only a small change of
resistance with temperature until the switching point(TR) is reached.

The temperature resistance characteristics of an NTC and a PTC is shown in the

following figure.

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Advantages of thermistors
Less expensive.

More sensitive than other sensors.

Fast response.

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Small in size.

Dis-advantages of thermistors
Limited Temperature range.

Resistance to temperature ratio correlation is non-linear.

An inaccurate measurement may be obtained due to the self-heating effect.

Fragile.

Applications of thermistors
NTC Thermistor Application
Digital Thermostats.

Thermometers.

Battery pack temperature monitors.

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In-rush-current limiting devices

PTC Thermistor Application

Over-current protection

In-rush-current protection

Further Reading
Thermistor – Wikipedia

NTC and PTC Thermistors

Advantages and Disadvantages of thermistors

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Thermocouple
A thermocouple is an active transducer that measures temperature. It works on the
principle of see back effect. They are extensively used for temperature measurement in
industrial applications.

Thermocouple Construction and Types

A thermocouple consists of two different types of metals joined together at one end
(hot junction) and terminated at another end (cold junction). When the hot junction is
heated or cooled, a voltage created can be correlated back to the temperature.

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Theoretically, any pair of dissimilar materials can be used for the construction of a
thermocouple. But practically, only a few materials have found useful for measuring
temperature. The following table shows common types of thermocouple materials with
their temperature range.

TYPE POSITIVE LEAD NEGATIVE LEAD TEMPERATURE RANGE

R Platinum-Rhodium (87% Pt,13% Rh) Platinum 0 – 1500 oC

S Platinum-Rhodium (90% Pt, 10% Rh) Platinum 0 – 1500 oC

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TYPE POSITIVE LEAD NEGATIVE LEAD TEMPERATURE RANGE

K Chromel (90%Ni, 10% Cr) Alumel (Ni94Al2Mn3Si) -200 – 1300 oC

E Chromel (90%Ni, 10% Cr) Constantan (57% Cu, 43% Ni) -200 – 1000 oC

T Copper Constantan (57% Cu, 43% Ni) -200 – 350 oC

J Iron Constantan (57% Cu, 43% Ni) -150 – 750 oC

Thermocouple Working Principle

The thermocouple works on the principle of see back effect. Thomas Johan Seeback
discovered that temperature difference(thermal energy) can produce electrical
energy. In a thermocouple, two conductors of different type of metals are connected
forming two common junctions. When these two junctions are exposed to two different
temperatures, a net thermal emf is produced. The value also depends on the materials

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used and is proportional to the temperature difference between hot and cold

The output of a thermocouple can be measured directly by a millivoltmeter. It can be

also measured with the help of a dc potentiometer or using amplifiers with an output
device.

Advantages of Thermocouple
Cheaper than resistance thermometers.

Can measure rapid changes in temperature.

Wide temperature range.

Offers good reproducibility.

Convenient for measuring the temperature at one particular point.

Dis-advantages of Thermocouple

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Lower accuracy.

The induced emf-temperature characteristics are non-linear.

Signal amplification is required in many applications.

Further Reading
Thermocuple – Wikipedia

Lesson 4: Temperature Measurement

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Radiation Pyrometer
When the temperatures being measured are very high, it is impossible to have physical
contact with the medium to be measured. Temperature sensors that work on
radiation methods and hence require no physical contact with the radiating system
are called Radiation Pyrometers.

Construction of Radiation Pyrometer

The radiation pyrometer have three basic components

The optical system.

The detector.

The signal processing/measuring unit.

Majority of thermometers of this type use a lens or mirror optics for the optical system.
Fibre optics are also being used in certain special systems.

Radiation pyrometer with lens optics is shown in the figure.

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The lens acts as an aperture of the system while the temperature detector acts as a
field stop determining the field of view.

The glare stop is used to suppress the reflected or scattered radiations(stray

radiations) from outside the target object.

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The temperature detector converts the radiant energy into a suitable form for an
indication of temperature. Two principles are used for the construction of these
devices.

Total Radiation Pyrometry: The total radiant energy from a heated body is
measured in this case (widest range of possible wavelengths).

Selective Radiation Pyrometry: The radiant intensity of the radiated energy from the
heated body at a given wavelength is only measured.

Devices such as a thermocouple, thermophile, bolometer and photo-electric

transducers are used for this purpose.

The pyrometer has to be in an enclosure to avoid dirt, dust and gases

present in an industrial environment. For this, a window is provided with some optical
materials to see the radiating body.

Working Principle of Radiation Pyrometer

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Thermal radiation sensors are guided by the basic laws of black body radiation. The
radiation pyrometers operate on the principle that the energy radiated from a hot
body is a function of its temperature. It measures the radiant heat emitted or reflected
by a hot object.

The heat radiated by the hot body is focused on the temperature detector as shown in
the figure above.

According to Stefan Boltzmann law, the heat radiated from body is

Where T1 is the absolute temperature of the hot body.

That is the heat received by the detector is proportional to the fourth power of the
absolute temperature of the hot body.

Types of Radiation Pyrometer

Total Radiation Pyrometers

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The total radiation pyrometer receives all the radiation (both visible light and infrared)
from a particular area of a hot body and focuses it on temperature detectors. It
consists of a radiation detection element and a measuring device to indicate the
temperature.

Infrared Pyrometers
Infrared pyrometers are selective radiation pyrometers. As the temperature of the
surface of the radiating body increased, the infrared energy is also increased. This
proportional increase in infrared energy with surface energy is the basic principle
behind the working of an infrared pyrometer. The photovoltaic cell is a commonly used
infrared transducer.

Optical Pyrometers
When the temperature of the heated body is high, the radiations from it fall within the
visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum. Within the visible region, the radiations

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have fixed colour and the energy of the radiations are interpreted as brightness. That is
to get the indication of temperature we have to measure the brightness of the light of
a given colour emitted by the hot object. It is how an optical pyrometer works.

Advantages of Pyrometers
High accuracy.

Simple assembling.

Direct contact is not needed with the object.

High temperature can be measured.

Dis-advantages of Pyrometers
Only useful for measuring high temperatures.

Higher cost.

Extra complicated design is involved in advanced pyrometers.

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Applications of Pyrometers
For measuring temperature from a greater distance.

Steam boilers.

To measure the temperature of liquid metals.

In smelting industries.

In metallurgy industries.

Further Reading
Pyrometer: Principle and Types

Pyrometer- Wikipedia

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Pressure Transducers
A pressure transducer is a device that converts pressure into an analog electrical
signal.

Measuring Pressure
Pressure is measured in three forms.

Absolute pressure is a pressure that is relative to the zero pressure in a vacuum.

Gage pressure is the pressure relative to atmospheric pressure.

Differential pressure is the difference in pressure at two different points of the

system.

Types of Pressure Transducers

Resistance Type Transducer

pressure transducers.
Eg: Strain Gauges.
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Transducer whose resistance varies with pressure applied is called resistance type

Read more: Resistance Type Transducers

Read more: Resistive strain gauges

Inductance Type Transducer

Pressure can also be measured using transducers like LVDT.

Read more: Inductive Transducers

Read more: LVDT

Capacitance Type Transducer

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Transducers whose capacitance value changes with applied pressure is called

capacitance transducers. Capacitance transducers are used for measuring very low
pressures.

Read more: Capacitance Transducers

Piezoelectric Transducers
Transducers use piezoelectric sensing elements for measuring pressure is called
piezoelectric transducers.

Manometer
There are many devices for measuring pressure. A manometer is an instrument that
uses a column of liquid to measure pressure. The measuring is done by balancing the
fluid in a column against another column of fluid of known specific gravity.
Manometers are used for measuring low pressure, especially in hydraulic laboratories.

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Manometers can be classified as

Simple manometer

U tube manometer

Well type manometer

Inclined manometer

Barometer

U Tube Manometer

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A manometer in which the manometric fluid is filled in a U shaped tube is called a U-

tube manometer. Water and mercury are commonly used manometric fluids.

An unknown pressure P1 is applied in one of the legs of the tube. It causes a movement

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of the manometric fluid in the tube to the other leg which is kept open. The movement
of the fluid is stopped when the height is sufficient to balance the pressure exerted by
the column of liquid. if P2 is the atmospheric pressure then h is a direct measurement
of P1 and is given by,

Then,

Where ρ is the density of manometric fluid and g is the acceleration due to gravity.

That is, the pressure applied can be measured by knowing the height of the column of
the liquid and density of the liquid.

Well Type Manometer

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A well-type manometer has a well of large crossectional area connected to a glass

tube. Normally, mercury is used as the manometric fluid.

The unknown pressure P is applied to the well. This applied pressure causes the liquid
level in the well to fall and the liquid in the tube to rise. A small change in the height of

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the well causes a large change in the liquid level of the tube. The difference in height
can be measured using a scale that is calibrated in terms of pressure.

Further Reading
Lesson 20: Pressure Transducers

Lesson 5: Manometer

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Level Transducers
A level transducer is a device that produces an electric signal with respect to a liquid
level.

Level transducers are classified based on following measurement methods

Direct and indirect level measurements.

Continuous and discrete level measurements.

In direct method of measurement, the liquid level is converted directly to electrical

signal. This can be done with the help of some indicators. In indirect method, liquid
level is first converted to displacement and this displacement is then converted to
electrical signal.

Continuous Level Transducer

Continuous level transducers measure the exact position of liquid level. It can monitor
the entire system. Different types of continuous level transducers are

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Ultrasonic level transducers

Float element type-level transducers

Capacitive level transducers

Pressure type-level transducers

Inductive level transducers

Resistive level transducers etc.

Float Element Type Level Transducers

A float element type liquid level transducer is the most common simple method to
measure liquid levels.

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As the liquid level rises in the tank, the float rises. It causes to move the wiper over the

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potential divider. The output terminals of the potential divider are connected to a
voltmeter. The output voltage is increased as the float rises. That is the voltage will be
proportional to the liquid level.

Advantages

Simple in construction.

Easy to operate.

Works at large temperature range.

Disadvantages

Not suitable in moderate pressure.

Design of float should be selected properly.

Ultrasonic Level Transducers

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The ultrasonic level transducers work by the time-of-flight principle. It is a method

used for measuring the distance between a sensor and an object.

The ultrasonic transmitter emits an ultrasonic pulse beam towards the liquid. This
pulse is reflected back to the ultrasonic receiver by the liquid surface. The time
difference between the transmission and reception is measured and is calibrated to
distance.

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It can be used for both continuous and discrete level measurements.

Advantages

Reliable.

There are no moving parts.

Can be used in high humidity.

Material density or conductivity is not affected.

Disadvantages

Dust particle may create distortion.

Vibration or high noise will affect result.

Manometer Type Level Transducers

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Pressure Type Level Transducers

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Capacitive Level Transducers
Capacitive transducers can also be used to measure liquid levels.

Measurement of non-conductive material

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The two concentric cylinders act as electrodes and the non-conducting liquid act as
the dielectric medium.

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Non contacting Measurement

One plate is kept fixed as other plate moves with the liquid level.

Point (Discrete) Level Transducer

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Discrete level transducers are used to detect a single discrete liquid height. It is
normally used for detecting overflow or below the required level conditions.

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Flow Meters
Flow meters are the devices used for measuring the flow rate of liquids or gases. They
work on Bernoulli9s principle and continuity equation.

The Continuity equation

The continuity equation represents that the product of the cross-sectional area of the
pipe and the velocity of the fluid at any point is always a constant.

Consider the fluid flows from end A, having a cross-sectional area A1, to end B with a
cross-sectional area A2 in the pipe. Then we can write,

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In general form, we can say

Bernoulli’s Principle
Bernoulli’s principle states that,

The total mechanical energy of the moving fluid comprising the gravitational
potential energy of elevation, the energy associated with the fluid pressure and the
kinetic energy of the fluid motion, remains constant.

The formula for Bernoulli9s principle is given by

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Where,
P – Pressure exerted by the fluid.
v – Velocity of the fluid.
ρ – Density of the fluid.
h – Height of the container.

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Flow meters are the devices used for measuring the flow rate of liquids or gases. Flow
rate can be defined as the volume of fluid flowing through an area in unit time. In a
pipe, the flow rate can be expressed in terms of speed of the fluid and the cross-
sectional area of the pipe.

Obstruction Type Flow meter

Different types of flow measuring techniques are used based on the requirements and
depending upon the situation. Common types of flow meters include

Obstruction type.

Inferential.

Electromagnetic.

Anemometer.

In an obstruction type flow meter, an obstruction is created in the flow passage and

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the pressure drop across the obstruction is measured. This change in pressure is
calibrated in terms of flow rate.

Depending upon the type of obstruction, different types of obstruction flow meters
such as Orifice meter, Venturimeter, Flow nozzle, etc. are available.

Orifice meter

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In an orifice type flow meter, an orifice plate is placed in the pipe as shown in the figure.
The pressure is dropped suddenly when the fluid passes the orifice and continues to
drop until 8vena contracta8 is reached. It is a result of the increase in velocity of the fluid

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passing through the reduced area.

Vena contracta is the point in a fluid stream where the diameter of the
stream is the least.

After vena contracta, the pressure increases gradually until a maximum pressure point
is reached that will be lower than the pressure P1. The flow rate can be obtained by
measuring the pressure difference (P1-P2).

The major advantages of the orifice plate that it is simple in construction, low-cost
device and easy to install. The main disadvantage of using the orifice plate is the
permanent pressure drop occurred in the orifice plate. This problem can be overcome
by using Venturimeter or Flow nozzles.

Venturimeter

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A venturimeter is constructed in such a way that change in the flow path is gradual. As
a result, no permanent pressure drop has occurred in the flow path.

The middle portion of the venturimeter is called the throat. The crossectional area of
this area is too small. Here pressure decreases and velocity increases.

The starting section of venturimeter where the crossectional area starts to decrease is
called converging section. The end of the converging section is attached with the
throat.

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The last part of the venturimeter is called the diverging part. The crossectional area of
this section increases continually.

Venturimeter works on Bernoulli9 equation. That is pressure decreases with increasing

velocity. Since the crossectional area of the throat section is smaller, the velocity of
flow will be higher in this area. This happens according to the continuity equation. This
increase in velocity results in a decrease in pressure. This change in pressure is
measured to calculate the flow rate of the fluid.

The main disadvantage of venturimeter is that the cost of making is high.

Flow nozzle

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Flow nozzles are a compromise between the orifice plate and venturimeter both in cost
and performance. Typical construction of a flow nozzle is shown in the figure.

The shape of the flow nozzle provides lesser resistance to flow when compared to an
orifice meter. It has no divergent cone for pressure recovery as in a venturimeter.

Flow nozzles are compact, cheaper and easy install as compared to venturimeter.
Since there is no divergent cone pressure recovery is low when compared to
venturimeter.

Rotameter
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The orifice meter, Venturimeter and flow nozzle work on the principle of constant area
variable pressure drop. Here the pressure drop changes with flow rate and the area of
obstruction are always constant. The rotameter works as a constant pressure drop

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variable area meter. That is the pressure drop is always constant and the area of
obstruction is changed.

Typical construction of a rotameter is shown in the figure. It consists of a tapered pipe

and a floating element. The float has specific gravity higher than the fluid. When the
fluid starts to flow through the pipe, the float rises due to the buoyancy, increasing the
area for passage of the fluid. The movement of the float will directly proportional to the
flow rate of the fluid. Flow rate can be measured when the float reaches a stable
position where the force exerted by the fluid equals the gravitational force exerted by
the float.

Rotometers are simple to operate, easy to handle and the cost of making is low. It
doesn9t require external power or energy for its operation.

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Anemometer
A hot wire anemometer is a temperature transducer used for measuring flow rate.

When the electrically heated temperature sensor is placed in a flowing fluid, heat is
transferred from the sensor to the fluid. Hence the temperature of the sensor reduces
resulting in a change in resistance of the wire. The amount of cooling of the wire

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depends on the flow velocity and hence the resistance variation can be used to
measure the flow rate of the fluid.

Hot wire anemometer are connected in two methods for measuring flow rate.

Constant current method

Constant temperature method.

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In the constant current method, the current of the wire is kept fixed and is exposed to

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flow velocity. Then the change in temperature of the wire becomes a measure of flow

In constant temperature method we maintain the temperature and resistance of the

wire at a constant level. So the current through the wire is increased and it is a
measure of flow velocity.

Advantages

Can be used for fluids with rapidly fluctuating velocity.

Relatively low cost.

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Electromagnetic Flowmeter
Electromagnetic flow meters are suitable for measuring the flow of electrically
conducting liquid.

Schematic diagram of an electromagnetic flowmeter is shown in the figure. It consists

of a pair of electrodes fixed in the opposite sides of a pipe carrying the fluid whose flow

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is to be measured. A pipe with non-conducting and non-magnetic property is used.
The pipe is surrounded by some material to produce a magnetic field.

An electromagnetic flowmeter works on the Faraday9s Law of Electromagnetic

induction. A voltage is produced inside the pipe which is proportional to the velocity of
the medium and it is captured by electrodes. The voltage is given by

Where B=Magnetic flux * Density, l=Length of the conductor and v= Velocity of the
conductor.

That is if the magnetic field is kept constant then voltage produced across the pipe will
be proportional to the velocity of the fluid.

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Radiation is the emission of energy from matter in the form of rays or high-speed
particles. Broadly, it can be thought of as either electromagnetic radiation (like radio
waves or visible light) or particle radiation (like alpha particles or beta particles).

Radiation Sensors or Radiation Detectors are devices that can sense and measure
radiation. The radiation sensors discussed here are mostly based on the photoelectric
effect. The phenomenon of emission of electrons from a material when
electromagnetic radiation, such as a photon of visible light, falls on them is called the
photoelectric effect.

Common Types of Radiation Sensors are

Gas-filled radiation detectors.

Scintillation radiation detectors.

Solid-state radiation detector.

Gas-filled radiation sensors

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A chamber filled with air or special gas is given a high voltage potential difference
which causes ionization and as a result, positive ions gets collected to the cathode and
free electrons to the anode which in turn causes a small current flow. The level of
current indicates the level of radiation. A common type of gas-filled radiation detector
is Geiger-Muller Detector, filled with helium, neon, or argon.

Scintillation radiation sensors

Solid or liquid material is hit with radiation which releases photons into a
photomultiplier tube. The tube consists of multiple dynodes each one having higher
electrical potential than the previous one. The released photon strikes the first dynode
and an electron is emitted as a result of the photoelectric effect. The electron freed hits
the next higher potential dynode and more electrons are emitted and are repeated
forward. Hence, the output pulse from the tube is proportional to the light entering the
tube.

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Solid-state radiation sensors

A semiconductor device that contains two materials, n-type and p-type, are used in
this detector. The n-type semiconductor material has electrons as majority carriers
and the p-type has holes(positively charged) as majority carriers. When these two are
joined, electrons from the n-region migrate to the p-region creating a depletion region
between them. When radiation hits the depletion region, free electron-hole pairs are
created. These charge carriers travel within the detector and the current pulse they
cause is proportional to the level of radiation.

Photoconductive cells(LDR), Photovoltaic cells, Photo emissive cells are all

transducers that work on the basis of the photoelectric effect. They all can convert
light energy into electrical energy.

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LDR
A light dependent resistor(LDR) is used to detect the presence or level of light. They
work on the basic principle of photo-conductivity. It is also called a photoresistor,
photoconductor or photocell. The circuit symbol of an LDR is shown in the figure.

LDR Circuit Symbol

LDR consist of a resistor made up of semiconductor material. Cadmium sulphide and

cadmium selenide are the most commonly used materials for constructing these
resistors. They have high resistivity and their resistance value varies according to light
intensity. Photons from the fallen light are absorbed by the material lattice and some

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electrons gain this energy to break the bond and be free. As a more light strike, more
free electrons are emitted that can conduct electricity thereby decreasing the
resistance.

A snake-like track is formed using cadmium sulphide on the surface as shown in the
figure. This structure provides maximum surface and reduces resistance.

Structure of LDR Internal Structure of LDR

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Advantages of LDR
Low cost.

Ease of manufacture.

Ease of use.

Disadvantages of LDR
High response time.

Applications
Automatic Street Lighting.

Burglar Circuits.

Cameras, Alarm Clocks.

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Photovoltaic Cell
A photovoltaic cell is a device that generates an electric current when exposed to light.
The basic principle behind its working is the photovoltaic effect.

Construction teachics.org
Layers – Conducting material on top surface and backside collects produced
electricity. The material on the top doesn9t cover the surface fully to allow penetration
of radiation to the depletion region on the p-n semiconductor. The anti-reflection layer
traps maximum light rays to be occupied by the p-n semiconductor.

Materials Used : Silicon, Gallium Arsenide, Cadmium Telluride, Gallium Selenide.

Working of Photovoltaic cell

The photoelectric cell is formed of a p-type and an n-type semiconductor. The n-type
semiconductor material has electrons as majority carriers and the p-type has
holes(positively charged) as majority carriers. When these two are joined, electrons
from the n-region migrate to the p-region creating a depletion region between them.

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When light falls on the depletion region, the energy from photon is transferred to
electrons, creating free electron-hole pairs that can move freely and conduct
electricity.

Advantages
Fast response.

High efficiency.

Generate voltage without any bias.

Disadvantages
Powe generation depends on weather conditions.

Easily damaged.

Applications
Solar farms.
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Telecommunication and Signalling.

Standalone systems including solar lamps, parking meters, trash compactors.

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Photodiode
The photodiode is a p-n junction diode that converts light energy into electrical energy.
It is also known as a photodetector, photosensor or light detector.

Photodiode circuit symbol

Working
A photodiode always works in reverse biased condition. That is the n region of the
semiconductor is connected to the battery9s positive terminal and the p region of the
semiconductor is connected to the negative terminal of the battery.

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When the photodiode is exposed to light, the electrons from n region moves towards
the positive terminal and holes from the p region move towards the negative terminal.
Thus a photocurrent is produced which is proportional to the intensity of light. It is
called the photoelectric effect.

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Types
1. PN Junction Diode

It is formed with a p-type and an n-type semiconductor and creates a depletion

region where the incidence of photons generates free electrons that can conduct
electricity.

2. PIN Diode

It has a thin layer of intrinsic(pure form of semiconductor)material between two

extrinsic(n-type and p-type) materials. The added layer has high resistivity and
electric field strength. It also increases the depletion region thereby increasing the
possibility of a larger amount of photons hitting the region.

3. Avalanche Photodiode(APD)

High reverse biased voltage is applied to create an avalanche effect, which is the rapid

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increase of current when enough electric force is applied to the material. This happens
because photoexcited electrons have high energy to excite other atoms and free more
electrons.

Modes of Operation
1. Photovoltaic modes

Also known as a zero-bias mode. It is forward biased, i.e., the positive terminal is
connected to the p-region and the negative terminal to the n-region. This
arrangement decreases the width of the depletion region and the voltage produced
when photon hits will have a small dynamic range.

2. Photoconductive mode

It works on reverse biased condition, increases the width of the depletion region and
therefore is fast by having a low response time.

3. Avalanche Mode

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Under the high reverse biased condition, the avalanche effect is initiated which
produces internal gain which in turn increases device response by producing a larger
current per photon.

Applications
Optical communication system

Used in solar cell panels

Smoke detectors, Remote controls in VCR , Street lights

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Photoemissive cell
A photoemissive cell is also known as a phototube that operates on the photoelectric
effect. It consists of a photosensitive cathode(negative) from which electrons are
emitted when hit by light. It also contains an anode(positive) that attracts these free
electrons. Both cathode and anode are enclosed in glass or quartz. When the electrons
are drawn from cathode to anode, an electric current is generated proportional to the
fallen light.

Types of Photoemissive cell

Vacuum type cell
In a vacuum phototube, a rod anode and curvature cathode are housed in a vacuum
glass. The current is generated immediately on light incidence and is proportional to
the brightness of the light.

Gas-filled cell
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A similar arrangement as the vacuum tube except, inert gas like argon is filled in the
tube and emitted electrons by the light are accelerated by the electric field and cause
ionization thereby increasing the current due to high collision.

Photomultiplier cell
It contains evacuated glass which is occupied by multiple dynodes in addition to
anode and cathode. Each dynode has a higher electrical potential than the previous
one. Electrons emitted from the cathode strike the first dynode that emits multiple
electrons which in turn hits the next higher potential dynode and more electrons are
emitted and is repeated forward. The anode is placed at the end and a large number
of electrons reaching the anode results in a current pulse which is detected easily. It is
highly sensitive and has a high-frequency response.

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Hall effect Transducers

Hall effect transducers can measure the magnetic field strength. Direct measurement
of magnetic field intensity is impracticable and hence, this kind of transducer uses the
Hall effect for this purpose. Hall effect is the production of e.m.f or voltage difference
across a current-carrying conductor in the presence of a magnetic field, which is
perpendicular to both the current and magnetic field.

teachics.org Hall effect Transducer

The magnitude of voltage depends on the strength of the magnetic field, current and
properties of the conductor material used. A voltmeter can be used to measure the
magnitude of the produced voltage.

The voltage developed due to Hall effect or the Hall Effect e.m.f is given as

Where,
KH is a constant of proportionality known as the Hall Effect Coefficient.
B is the magnetic field intensity.
I is the current through the conductor.
T is the thickness of the conductor.

Advantages

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Long life.

High-speed operation.

Disadvantages
May be affected by an external magnetic field.

High temperature affects the sensitivity of the transducer.

Applications
Position sensing.

Magnetometer.

Automotive fuel level indicator.

Encoded Switches.

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