Unit - II Transmission Media And Switching

2.1 Communication Media:

Transmission media is a means by which a communication signal is carried from
one system to another.
Transmission media refers to the physical medium through which data is
transmitted from one device to another within a network. These medium can
be wired or wireless. The choice of medium depends on factors like distance,
speed, and interference.
it is the channel through which data is sent from one device to another.
Transmission Media is broadly classified into the following types:
• A transmission medium can be defined as anything that can carry information
from a source to a destination.
• The transmission medium is usually free space, metallic cable or fibre – optic
cable.

Figure: Transmission of data from sender to receiver through a medium

Categories of transmission media

Guided Transmission Media –
Guided Media is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media.
Signals being transmitted are directed and confined in a narrow pathway by
using physical links.

Features:
●​ High Speed
●​ Secure
●​ Used for comparatively shorter distances
There are 3 major types of Guided Media:

1. Twisted-Pair Cable
2. Coaxial Cable
3. Fiber-OpticCable

1.​Twisted Pair Cable

It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each other.

Generally, several such pairs are bundled together in a protective sheath.

Figure: Twisted Pair Cable

 ●​ The wires is twisted twisted together in pairs.
●​ Each pair would consist of wire used for the +ve data signal and a wire
used for the —ve data signal. Any noise that appears on +ve/—ve wire of
the pair would occur on the other wire.
•​ Because the wires are opposite polarities, they are 180 degrees out of
phase (180 degree phases or definition of opposite polarity) when the noise
appears on both wires, it cancels or nulls itself out at the receiving used.
•​ Twisted pair cables are most effectively used in a system that uses a
balanced line method of transmission.

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):

UTP consists of two insulated copper wires twisted around one another. This
type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend on a
physical shield for this purpose. It is used for telephonic applications.

Fig. Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable

Advantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair

●​ Least expensive
●​ Easy to install
●​ High-speed capacity
Disadvantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair
●​ Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP
●​ Short distance transmission due to attenuation

Shielded Twisted Pair Cable

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) cable consists of a special jacket (a copper braid
covering or a foil shield) to block external interference. It is used in fast-data-rate
Ethernet and in voice and data channels of telephone lines.
Fig-Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
Advantages of Shielded Twisted Pair
●​ Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP
●​ Eliminates crosstalk
●​ Comparatively faster
Disadvantages of Shielded Twisted Pair
●​ Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture
●​ More expensive
●​ Bulky

2.​ Co-Axial Cable

Coaxial cable consists of 2 conductors.

• The inner conductor is contained inside the insulator with the other conductor
weaves around it providing a shield.
• An insulating protective coating called a jacket covers the outer conductor.

Fig- Coaxial cable

•​ The outer shield protects the inner conductor from outside electrical
signals.
•​ The distance between the outer conductor (Shield) and inner conductor
plus the type of material used for insulating the inner conductor determine
the cable properties or impedance. The excellent control of the impedance
characteristics of the cable allow higher data rates to be transferred than
twisted pair cable

Advantages of Coaxial Cable

●​ Coaxial cables has high bandwidth .
●​ It is easy to install.
●​ Coaxial cables are more reliable and durable.
●​ Less affected by noise or cross-talk or electromagnetic inference.
●​ Coaxial cables support multiple channels
Disadvantages of Coaxial Cable
●​ Coaxial cables are expensive.
●​ The coaxial cable must be grounded in order to prevent any crosstalk.
●​ As a Coaxial cable has multiple layers it is very bulky.
●​ There is a chance of breaking the coaxial cable and attaching a “t-joint” by
hackers, this compromises the security of the data.

3.​Fibre Optic Cable

Optical fiber consists of thin glass fiber that can carry information at frequencies
in the visible light spectrum.
• The typical optical fiber consists of a very narrow strand of glass called the
cladding.
• A typical core diameter is 62.5 microns.

•​ Typically cladding has a diameter of 125 minors. Coating the cladding is a

protective coating consisting of plastic, it is called the jacket.
•​ The device generating the message has it in electromagnetic form (electrical
signal); this has to be converted into light (i.e. optical signal) to send it on
optic fiber cable. The process of converting light to electric signal is done on
the receiving side.
Advantages:
1. Small size and light weight: The size of the optical fibers is very
small.Therefore a large number of optical fibers can fit into a cable of small
diameter.

2. Easy availability and low cost: The material used for the manufacturing of
optical fibers is ―Silica glass‖. this material is easily available. So the optical
fibers cost lower than the cables with metallic conductors.

3. No electrical or electromagnetic interference: Since the transmission takes

place in the form of light rays the signal is not affected due to any electrical or
electromagnetic Interference.

4. Large Bandwidth: As the light rays have a very high frequency in GHz range,
the bandwidth of the optical fiber is extremely large.

5. Other advantages: - No cross talk inside the optical fiber cable. Signal can be
sent up to 100 times faster.

. Applications of Optical Fibre Cable

●​ Medical Purpose: Used in several types of medical instruments.
●​ Defence Purpose: Used in transmission of data in aerospace.
●​ For Communication: This is largely used in formation of internet cables.
●​ Industrial Purpose: Used for lighting purposes and safety measures in
designing the interior and exterior of automobiles.

2.2 UNGUIDED (WIRELESS) TRANSMISSION MEDIUM

Unguided media transport data without using a physical conductor. This type of
communication is often referred to as wireless communication.
• It uses wireless electromagnetic signals to send data.
• There are three types of Unguided Media
(i) Radio waves
(ii) Micro waves
(iii) Infrared.

Before understanding the different types of wireless transmission medium, let us

first understand the ways in which wireless signals travel. These signals can be
sent or propagated in the following three ways:
1. Ground-wave propagation
2. Sky-wave propagation
3. Line-of-sight propagation

1.​Ground-wave propagation-
Ground wave propagation is a type of radio propagation which is also known as
a surface wave. These waves propagate over the earth’s surface in low and
medium frequencies. These are mainly used for transmission between the
surface of the earth and the ionosphere. These are made up of several
constituent waves.

Figure : Ground Propagation of waves

It is known as a ground wave because it is the sum of the waves that are
reflected by the earth’s surface or any hills. The waves follow the earth’s
curvature, enabling them to cover beyond the horizon. Beyond the horizon, the
waves get blocked by the earth’s curvature, and the signals are produced by the
diffracted surface wave.
Characteristics of Ground-wave propagation are as follows:
i. Follows contour of the earth
ii. Can Propagate considerable distances
iii. Frequencies up to 2 MHz
 Advantages of Ground Wave Propagation
●​ These waves have the tendency to bend around the corners or obstructions
during propagation which makes them more efficient and also, these are
not affected by the change in atmospheric conditions.
Disadvantages of Ground Wave Propagation
●​ High-frequency waves cannot be transmitted as the energy losses are more
because of the energy absorption in the earth’s atmosphere.
●​ These are used to cover short ranges and also involves attenuation of
waves as they interact with the eddy currents produced by the surface of
the earth.
Applications Ground Wave Propagation
●​ These can be used for one-way communication from the military to
submerged submarines as they penetrate to a significant depth into
seawater.
●​ AM, FM and television broadcasting can be done with the help of ground
waves.

1.​Sky-wave propagation
Sky wave propagation is a type of radio wave propagation that uses the
ionosphere to transmit radio waves over long distances. It's also known as skip
propagation.
●​ Radio waves are transmitted from a transmitter antenna
●​ The waves are reflected or refracted by the ionosphere, an electrically charged
layer of the upper atmosphere
●​ The reflected waves travel back to Earth, allowing radio signals to travel beyond
the horizon
●​ Sky wave propagation is used for long-distance communication, such as
shortwave broadcasts
●​ It's not limited by the Earth's curvature, so it can transmit radio waves across
continents

What layers of the ionosphere are involved?

●​ F2 layer: The highest and thickest layer, which is responsible for most sky wave
propagation
●​ E layer: A layer that can reflect frequencies up to 50 MHz and higher

Characteristics of Sky Propagation are as follows:

i. Signal reflected from ionized layer of atmosphere back down to earth
ii. Signal can travel a number of hops, back and forth between ionosphere and
earth‘s surface
iii. Reflection effect caused by refraction

Skywave propagation applications:

●​ Satellite communications take place with the help of skywave propagation
as it is dependent on the upper atmospheric conditions
●​ Mobile communications

Line-of-sight propagation
Line-of-sight (LOS) propagation is the transmission of electromagnetic radiation
or sound waves in a direct path from a source to a receiver. It's a characteristic
of radio waves with frequencies above 2 MHz.
 How it works
●​ The transmitter radiates electromagnetic energy in nearly all directions.
●​ Some of the energy follows the shortest path between the transmitter and
receiver.
●​ This direct path is called the line-of-sight path.

Examples
●​ Light: Light travels in a straight line from a transmitter to an eye.
●​ Radio waves: Radio waves can propagate through space as spherical
wavefronts.
●​ Microwave and millimeter-wave communication: These types of
communication are often used in cellular networks and point-to-point
communication.
Applications
●​ Cell phones: LOS propagation is used in cell phones, cordless phones, and
walkie-talkies.
●​ Satellite communication: LOS propagation is used in satellite television and
other satellite communication.
●​ Radar: LOS propagation is used in radar.
●​ Wi-Fi: LOS propagation is considered when placing Wi-Fi access points.
Factors that affect LOS propagation
●​ Obstacles
Obstacles like walls, furniture, fog, and rain can block or degrade LOS
propagation.
●​ Wavelength
Shorter wavelengths can transmit more data, but they can't go through
obstructions as well.

UNGUIDED (WIRELESS) TRANSMISSION MEDIUM

Wireless transmission is a form of unguided media. Wireless communication
involves no physical link established between two or more devices,
communicating wirelessly. Wireless signals are spread over in the air and are
received and interpreted by appropriate antennas.
When an antenna is attached to electrical circuit of a computer or wireless
device, it converts the digital data into wireless signals and spread all over within
its frequency range. The receptor on the other end receives these signals and
converts them back to digital data.
A little part of electromagnetic spectrum can be used for wireless transmission.

Radio waves:
• Electromagnetic wave ranging in frequencies between 3 KHz and 1GHz are
normally called radio waves.

• Radio waves are omni-directional when an antenna transmits radio waves they
are propagated in all directions. This means that sending and receiving antenna
do not have to he aligned. A sending antenna can send waves that can be
received by any receiving antenna.
• Radio waves particularly those waves that propagate in sky mode, can travel
long distances. This makes radio waves a good candidate for long-distance
broadcasting such as AM radio.

• Radio waves particularly those of low and medium frequencies can penetrate
walls. It is an advantage because; an AM radio can receive signals inside a
building. It is the disadvantage because we cannot isolate a communication to
first inside or outside a building.
Radio waves at lower frequencies can travel through walls whereas higher RF
can travel in straight line and bounce back.The power of low frequency waves
decreases sharply as they cover long distance. High frequency radio waves have
more power.
Lower frequencies such as VLF, LF, MF bands can travel on the ground up to
1000 kilometers, over the earth’s surface.

Radio waves of high frequencies are prone to be absorbed by rain and other
obstacles. They use Ionosphere of earth atmosphere. High frequency radio waves
such as HF and VHF bands are spread upwards. When they reach Ionosphere,
they are refracted back to the earth.

2. Microwaves:
• Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called
microwaves.

• Microwaves are unidirectional; when an antenna transmits microwaves they

can be narrowly focused. This means that the sending and receiving antennas
need to be aligned. The unidirectional property has an obvious advantage. A pair
of antennas can be aligned without interfering with another pair of aligned
antennas.
• Microwaves propagation is line-of-sight. Since the towers with the mounted
antennas needs to be in direct sight of each other, towers that are far apart need
to be very tall, the curvature of the earth as well as other blocking obstacles do
not allow two short towers to communicate using microwaves, Repeaters are
often needed for long distance communication very high frequency microwaves
cannot penetrate walls.

• Parabolic dish antenna and horn antenna are used for this means of
transmission

3. Infrared
• Infrared signals with frequencies ranges from 300 GHz to 400 GHz can be used
for short range communication.

• Infrared signals, having high frequencies, cannot penetrate walls. This helps to
prevent interference between one system and another. Infrared Transmissionin
one room cannot be affected by the infrared transmission in another room.

• Infrared band, has an excellent potential for data transmission. Transfer digital
data is possible with a high speed with a very high frequency. There are number
of computer devices which are used to send the data through infrared medium
e.g. keyboard mice, PCs and printers. There are some manufacturers provide a
special part called the IrDA port that allows a wireless keyboard to communicate
with a PC.

Types of Transmission Technology : ​

Transmission media is basically divided into two categories: Point-to-Point
Networks and Broadcast Networks. These are explained as following below.
Point-to-point (P2P) transmission-
•​ Point-to-Point Networks or Point-to-Point Connection is type of private
data connection that is connecting securely two or more locations for
private data services.
•​ It might also be configured to usually carry voice, internet, and data
services together all over same point-to-point network. It simply refers to
type of communication connection among two endpoints or nodes of
communication. It is connection among pairs of machines.
Transmission from point-to-point with one sender and receiver is
commonly known as unicasting.
This network is generally used for two locations that are required to securely
send data that is very sensitive and confidential among each of locations.

•​ A point-to-point or P2P (Data Link) also gives or provides path from one
point that is fixed to other point being fixed. It is very closed network data
transport service that does not travel through public Internet.
•​ This network includes various connections among individual pairs of
machine. A packet present on these types of networks might be needed to
go through intermediate computers before they reach desired or
destination computer. The packets also need to follow multiple routes of
different length sizes.
Therefore, routing algorithms are very essential and important in point-to-point
connection. This network is generally available in range of bandwidth speeds
along with point-to-point T1, point-to-point Ethernet, or many more.
Advantages of Point-to-Point Networks –
●​ It increases productivity.
●​ It generally uses leased lines so that speeds are guaranteed.
●​ It provides better security so that data can be transferred securely with
confidence. ​

Disadvantages of Point-to-Point Networks –

●​ With this network, we can only connect two sites.
●​ It is very expensive for distant locations.

Broadcast transmission-
Broadcast networks are also known as terrestrial networks. It is basically a
group of radio stations, television stations, or any other electronic media outlets
that simply generate agreement to air, or broadcast, content generally from a
centralized source. Broadcasting is simply a method of transferring messages to
all the recipients simultaneously.
In this network, a message that is sent by a node is received by all the other
nodes connected to the network and share a common medium of
communication. Broadcast networks also avoid procedures of complex routing
of switched network by simply confirming and ensuring that each transmission
of nodes is basically received by all the other nodes in the network. This is the
reason why the broadcast network has single communications channel.
In this network, each receiving station just receives all signals that are sent by
transmitters. Even routing of signals is highly affected passively. These networks
generally have single communication that is shared by all machines present on
the network. Short messages also are known as packets that are sent by any of
the machines present are received by all of the others present over there. Some
of the systems of broadcast also support transmission to subset of machines also
known as multicasting. It just links, in contrast, communication channel that is
basically shared by all of machines in network.
Advantages of Broadcast Networks –
●​ In this network, packets are generally transmitted and received by all of
computers.
●​ It allows multicasting in the network.
●​ It has no limit. Even events can also run as long as required.
●​ It ensures better utilization of all resources available. ​

Disadvantages of Broadcast Networks –

●​ It cannot accommodate huge number of devices.
●​ It doesn’t allow personalization of message.

Satellite Communication
Satellite communication is transporting information from one place to
another using a communication satellite in orbit around the Earth.
Watching the English Premier League every weekend with your friends would
have been impossible without this. A communication satellite is an artificial
satellite that transmits the signal via a transponder by creating a channel
between the transmitter and the receiver at different Earth locations.
Telephone, radio, television, internet, and military applications use satellite
communications. Believe it or not, more than 2000 artificial satellites are
hurtling around in space above your heads.
Need for Satellite Communication
We know that there are different ways to communicate, and the propagation of
these waves can occur in different ways. Ground wave propagation and skywave
propagation are the two ways communication takes place for a certain distance.
The maximum distance covered by them is 1500 km, which was overcome by the
introduction of satellite communication.
How Satellite Communications Work?
The communication satellites are similar to the space mirrors that help us
bounce signals such as radio, internet data, and television from one side of the
earth to another. Three stages are involved, which explain the working of
satellite communications. These are:
●​ Uplink
●​ Transponders
●​ Downlink

Example-
Let’s consider an example of signals from a television.
•​ In the first stage, the signal from the television broadcast on the other side
of the earth is first beamed up to the satellite from the ground station on
the earth. This process is known as uplink.
•​ The second stage involves transponders such as radio receivers,
amplifiers, and transmitters. These transponders boost the incoming
signal and change its frequency so that the outgoing signals are not
altered. Depending on the incoming signal sources, the transponders vary.
 •​ The final stage involves a downlink in which the data is sent to the
other end of the receiver on the earth. It is important to understand
that usually, there is one uplink and multiple downlinks.
Advantages of Satellite Communication
The following are the advantages of satellite communication:
●​ Installations of circuits are easy.
●​ The elasticity of these circuits is excellent.
●​ With the help of satellite communication, every corner of the earth can
be covered.
●​ The user fully controls the network.
Disadvantages of Satellite Communication
The following are the disadvantages of satellite communication:
●​ Initial expenditure is expensive.
●​ There are chances of blockage of frequencies.
●​ Propagation and interference.
Applications of Satellite Communication
●​ Telephone
●​ Television
●​ Digital cinema
●​ Radio broadcasting
●​ Amateur radio
●​ Internet access
●​ Military
●​ Disaster Management

Wired media Wireless media

 The signal energy is contained and The signal energy propagates in
guided within a solid medium the form of unguided
electromagnetic waves.
Twisted pair wires, coaxial cable, Radio and infrared lights are the
optical fiber cables are the examples of examples of wireless media.
wired media.
Used for point to point communication Used for radio broadcasting in all
direction
Wired media lead to discrete network Wireless media leads to
topology continuous network topology
Additional transmission capacity can It is not possible procure
be procured by adding more wire additional capacity.
Installation is costly and time Installation needs less time and
consuming money
Attenuation depends exponentially on Attenuation is proportional to
the distance square of the distance.

Twisted pair cable Co-axial cable Optical fiber

Transmission of signals Transmission of signals Signal transmission
take place in the take place in the inner takes place in an
electrical form over the conductor of the cable optical form over a
metallic conducting wires. glass fiber.
Noise immunity is low. Higher noise immunity Higher noise
Therefore more distortion than the twisted pair immunity as the light
cable due to the presence rays are unaffected
of shielding conductor by the electrical
noise.
Affected due to external Less affected due to Not affected by the
magnetic field external magnetic field external magnetic
field.
Short circuit between the Short circuit between the Short circuit is not
two conductor is possible two conductor is possible possible
Cheapest Moderately expensive Expensive
 Can support low data Moderately high data rate Very high data rates.
rates
Low bandwidth Moderately high Very high bandwidth
bandwidth
Easy to installed Installation is fairly easy Installation is
difficult

S.
N Point to point communication Multipoint Communication
1. Point to point communication means Multipoint Communication means
the channel is shared between two the channel is shared among
devices. multiple devices or nodes.
2. In this communication, There is In this communication, link is
dedicated link between two nodes. provided at all times for sharing
the connection among nodes.
3. In this communication, the entire In this communication, the entire
capacity is reserved between these capacity isn’t reserved by any two
connected two devices with the nodes and the network bandwidth
possibility of waste of network is maximum utilized.
bandwidth/ resources.
4. In this communication, there is one In this communication, there is
transmitter and one receiver. one transmitter and many
receivers.
5. In point-to-point connections, the In Multi-point connections, the
smallest distance is most important to smallest distance is not important
reach the receiver. to reach the receiver.
6. Point-to-point communication provides Multi-point communication does
security and privacy because not provide security and privacy
communication channel is not shared. because communication channel
is shared.
 1.4​ Multiplexing:

Multiplexing is the sharing of a medium or bandwidth. It is the process in

which multiple signals coming from multiple sources are combined and
transmitted over a single communication/physical line.

Uses of Multiplexing
Multiplexing is used for a variety of purposes in data communications to
enhance the efficiency and capacity of networks. Here are some of the main
uses:
●​ Efficient Utilization of Resources: Multiplexing allows multiple signals to
share the same communication channel, making the most of the available
bandwidth. This is especially important in environments where bandwidth is
limited.
●​ Telecommunications: In telephone networks, multiplexing enables the
simultaneous transmission of multiple telephone calls over a single line,
enhancing the capacity of the network.
●​ Internet and Data Networks: Multiplexing is used in internet
communications to transmit data from multiple users over a single network
line, improving the efficiency and speed of data transfer.
●​ Satellite Communications: Multiplexing helps in efficiently utilizing the
available bandwidth on satellite transponders, allowing multiple signals to be
transmitted and received simultaneously.

MULTIPLEXING TECHNQUIES:
There are three basic multiplexing techniques:
Frequency-division multiplexing,
Wavelength-division multiplexing, and
Time-division multiplexing.
The first two are techniques designed for analog signals, the third, for digital
signals.

Types of Multiplexing
There are five different types of multiplexing techniques, each designed to handle
various types of data and communication needs. These techniques include:
●​ Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
●​ Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)
●​ Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
●​ Code-division multiplexing (CDM)
●​ Space-division multiplexing (SDM)

1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM):

Frequency division multiplexing is defined as a type of multiplexing where the

bandwidth of a single physical medium is divided into a number of smaller,
independent frequency channels.
Frequency Division Multiplexing is used in radio and television transmission.
In FDM, we can observe a lot of inter-channel cross-talk, due to the fact that in
this type of multiplexing the bandwidth is divided into frequency channels. In
order to prevent the inter-channel cross talk, unused strips of bandwidth must
be placed between each channel. These unused strips between each channel are
known as guard bands

Application of FDM:
1.​ In the first generation of mobile phones, FDM was used.
2.​ The use of FDM in television broadcasting
3.​ FDM is used to broadcast FM and AM radio frequencies.

Advantages of Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM):

Efficient Use of Bandwidth: FDM allows multiple signals to be transmitted over

a single communication channel, which can lead to more efficient use of
available bandwidth.​
No Time Synchronization Required: FDM does not require precise time
synchronization between the transmitting and receiving devices, making it easier
to implement.​
Low Implementation Cost: FDM is a relatively simple technique that does not
require sophisticated hardware or software, making it less expensive to
implement.

2. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM):

Time-division multiplexing is defined as a type of multiplexing wherein FDM,
instead of sharing a portion of the bandwidth in the form of channels, in TDM,
time is shared. Each connection occupies a portion of time in the link.
In Time Division Multiplexing, all signals operate with the same frequency
(bandwidth) at different times.

Advantages of Time Division Multiplexing (TDM):

High Capacity: TDM can support a large number of signals over a single
communication channel, making it ideal for applications where many signals
need to be transmitted.​
Simple Implementation: TDM is a relatively simple technique that is easy to
implement, making it a cost-effective solution for many applications.​
Precise Time Synchronization: TDM requires precise time synchronization
between the transmitting and receiving devices, which can help ensure accurate
transmission of signals.

Parameters TDM FDM

Full-Form The term TDM is an acronym for The term FDM is an acronym for
Time Division Multiplexing. Frequency Division Multiplexing.

Basic For all the signals it deals with, it For all the signals it works with, it
shares the overall timescale. It shares the overall frequency. It
means that it shares the time for means that it shares the
available signals. frequency for the available
signals.

Types of It works with both- digital as well It only deals with analog signals.
Signals as analog signals.

Circuitry It consists of a very simple type of The circuitry, in this case, is

circuitry. comparatively more complex.

Wiring Used The Chip or Wiring of TDM is FDM has a comparatively much
comparatively much simpler. more complex Chip or Wiring.

Conflict This technique has very low This technique has a

conflict. comparatively higher conflict.

Input The synchronization pulse is a The guard band is a prerequisite

Required prerequisite in the case of the in the case of the FDM technique.
TDM technique.

Interference The TDM technique has a very low The FDM technique has a very
or negligible interference. high level of interference.
Efficiency This technique is way more This technique is quite inefficient
efficient than FDM. as compared to TDM.

1.5​ Switching
•​ Switching is the process of transferring data packets from one device to
another in a network, or from one network to another, using specific
devices called switches.
•​ A computer user experiences switching all the time for example, accessing
the Internet from your computer device, whenever a user requests a
webpage to open, the request is processed through switching of data
packets only.
•​ Switching takes place at the Data Link layer of the OSI Model. This means
that after the generation of data packets in the Physical Layer, switching is
the immediate next process in data communication.
Switch
•​ A switch is a hardware device in a network that connects other devices, like
computers and servers. It helps multiple devices share a network without
their data interfering with each other.
•​ A switch works like a traffic cop at a busy intersection. When a data packet
arrives, the switch decides where it needs to go and sends it through the
right port.
•​ Some data packets come from devices directly connected to the switch, like
computers or VoIP phones (A VoIP phone is a device or software application
that uses "Voice over Internet Protocol" (VoIP) technology to make and receive
phone calls over the internet, essentially allowing you to make phone calls
using your broadband internet connection instead of a traditional phone
line). Other packets come from devices connected through hubs or routers.
•​ The switch knows which devices are connected to it and can send data
directly between them. If the data needs to go to another network, the
switch sends it to a router, which forwards it to the correct destination.

Network Switching
 •​ A switch is a dedicated piece of computer hardware that facilitates the
process of switching i.e., incoming data packets and transferring them to
their destination. A switch works at the Data Link layer of the OSI Model.
•​ A switch primarily handles the incoming data packets from a source
computer or network and decides the appropriate port through which
the data packets will reach their target computer or network.
•​ A switch decides the port through which a data packet shall pass with the
help of its destination MAC(Media Access Control) Address. A switch does
this effectively by maintaining a switching table, (also known as forwarding
table).
•​ A network switch is more efficient than a network Hub or repeater because
it maintains a switching table, which simplifies its task and reduces
congestion on a network, which effectively improves the performance of the
network.

Process of Switching
The switching process involves the following steps:
●​ Frame Reception: The switch receives a data frame or packet from a
computer connected to its ports.
●​ MAC Address Extraction: The switch reads the header of the data frame and
collects the destination MAC Address from it.
●​ MAC Address Table Lookup: Once the switch has retrieved the MAC
Address, it performs a lookup in its Switching table to find a port that leads to
the MAC Address of the data frame.
●​ Forwarding Decision and Switching Table Update: If the switch matches
the destination MAC Address of the frame to the MAC address in its switching
table, it forwards the data frame to the respective port. However, if the
destination MAC Address does not exist in its forwarding table, it follows
the flooding process, in which it sends the data frame to all its ports except
the one it came from and records all the MAC Addresses to which the frame
was delivered. This way, the switch finds the new MAC Address and updates
its forwarding table.
●​ Frame Transition: Once the destination port is found, the switch sends the
data frame to that port and forwards it to its target computer/network.
●​
Types of Switching
There are three types of switching methods:
●​ Message Switching
●​ Circuit Switching
●​ Packet Switching

Message Switching:

●​ Message Switching is a switching technique in which a message is

transferred as a complete unit and routed through intermediate nodes at
which it is stored and forwarded.
o​ In Message Switching technique, there is no establishment of a dedicated
path between the sender and receiver.
o​ The destination address is appended to the message. Message Switching
provides a dynamic routing as the message is routed through the
intermediate nodes based on the information available in the message.
o​ Message switches are programmed in such a way so that they can provide
the most efficient routes.
o​ Each and every node stores the entire message and then forward it to the
next node. This type of network is known as store and forward network.
o​ Message switching treats each message as an independent entity.

Advantages Of Message Switching

o​ Data channels are shared among the communicating devices that improve
the efficiency of using available bandwidth.
o​ Traffic congestion can be reduced because the message is temporarily
stored in the nodes.
 o​ Message priority can be used to manage the network.
o​ The size of the message which is sent over the network can be varied.
Therefore, it supports the data of unlimited size.
Disadvantages Of Message Switching
o​ The message switches must be equipped with sufficient storage to enable
them to store the messages until the message is forwarded.
o​ The Long delay can occur due to the storing and forwarding facility
provided by the message switching technique.

Circuit Switching: Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a

dedicated path between sender and receiver.
o​ In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established
then the dedicated path will remain to exist until the connection is
terminated.
o​ Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the telephone
works.
o​ A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication takes
place.
o​ In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to send the
data, voice, video, a request signal is sent to the receiver then the receiver
sends back the acknowledgment to ensure the availability of the dedicated
path. After receiving the acknowledgment, dedicated path transfers the
data.
o​ Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is used for voice
transmission.
o​ Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology.

o​
Communication through circuit switching has 3 phases:
 o​ Circuit establishment
o​ Data transfer
o​ Circuit Disconnect
Advantages Of Circuit Switching:
o​ In the case of Circuit Switching technique, the communication channel is
dedicated.
o​ It has fixed bandwidth.
Disadvantages Of Circuit Switching:
o​ Once the dedicated path is established, the only delay occurs in the speed
of data transmission.
o​ It takes a long time to establish a connection approx 10 seconds during
which no data can be transmitted.
o​ It is more expensive than other switching techniques as a dedicated path is
required for each connection.
o​ It is inefficient to use because once the path is established and no data is
transferred, then the capacity of the path is wasted.
o​ In this case, the connection is dedicated therefore no other data can be
transferred even if the channel is free.

o​ Packet Switching: The packet switching is a switching technique in which

the message is sent in one go, but it is divided into smaller pieces, and they
are sent individually.
o​ The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets are
given a unique number to identify their order at the receiving end.
o​ Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source
address, destination address and sequence number.
o​ Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as possible.
o​ All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
o​ If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to
resend the message.
o​ If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the acknowledgment
message will be sent.
Advantages Of Packet Switching:
o​ Cost-effective: In packet switching technique, switching devices do not
require massive secondary storage to store the packets, so cost is
minimized to some extent. Therefore, we can say that the packet switching
technique is a cost-effective technique.
o​ Reliable: If any node is busy, then the packets can be rerouted. This
ensures that the Packet Switching technique provides reliable
communication.
o​ Efficient: Packet Switching is an efficient technique. It does not require
any established path prior to the transmission, and many users can use
the same communication channel simultaneously, hence makes use of
available bandwidth very efficiently.
o​ Disadvantages Of Packet Switching:​
Packet Switching technique cannot be implemented in those applications
that require low delay and high-quality services.
o​ The protocols used in a packet switching technique are very complex and
requires high implementation cost.
o​ If the network is overloaded or corrupted, then it requires retransmission of
lost packets. It can also lead to the loss of critical information if errors are
nor recovered.