Available online at www.sciencedirect.

com Current Opinion in

ScienceDirect Green and Sustainable Chemistry

Bio-based and biodegradable polymers - State-of-the-

art, challenges and emerging trends
Saranya RameshKumar1, P. Shaiju1, Kevin E. O'Connor3,4 and
Ramesh Babu P1,2,3

Frontiers of bio-based and biodegradable polymers are are emerging to develop next-generation bioplastics
constantly expanding in a view to achieve sustainability. derived from renewable waste streams, microbial/micro-
Hence, designing sustainable bioplastics made of either bio- algal cells and biomass which eventually fosters carbon
based or biodegradable polymers opens up opportunities to neutral infrastructure for bioplastics production and
overcome resource depletion and plastic pollution. This review management [4,5]. Moreover, sustainable production and
presents a broad perspective on state-of-the-art technologies recycling mechanisms for bioplastics are considered to
in bioplastics manufacturing along with the challenges under- have huge compliance with the policies/actions set by
lying their production, application and post-consumer waste United Nation’s sustainability development goals (UN
management. Recent scientific advances are catalysing the SDGs) and European circular economy strategy [6].
sustainable design of bioplastics to overcome the present
challenges of plastic waste and emerging end-of-life options The global bioplastics production capacities are difficult
are contributing to circular economy. As research insights into to estimate and are usually based on forecast because of
developing sustainable bioplastics are rapidly evolving, their continuously emerging range of bio-based and biode-
production and waste management approaches are not limited gradable polymers and rising interests on investing in
to those discussed in this review. bioplastics sector. Recent report published by Nova
Institute has predicted that global bioplastics produc-
tion capacity is growing at a considerable pace from
Addresses
1 around 2.11 million tonnes in 2018 to 2.62 million
AMBER, CRANN Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
2
School of Chemistry, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland tonnes in 2023 [7]. Europe ranks top in the research and
3
BEACON - Bioeconomy Research Centre, University College Dublin, development of bioplastics and stands next to Asia as
Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland major hub for bioplastics production and consumption
4
Earth Institute, University College Dublin, Belfield Campus, D4, [8]. With many innovative bioplastics entering the
Dublin, Ireland
market segments for diversified applications, industries
Corresponding author: P, Ramesh Babu ([email protected]) are interested in expanding the production capacity.
Acute relevance to sustainability and circular economy
has been indeed influencing the bioplastics industry to
Current Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry 2020, achieve substantial growth and technological maturity
21:75–81 with multiple production routes.
This review comes from a themed issue on New Synthetic Methods
Edited by Fabio Aricò and Ramón Moreno-Tost Progress and trends in commercial
Available online 19 December 2019 bioplastics
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogsc.2019.12.005 Naturally occurring polymers like cellulose derivatives,
2452-2236/© 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. thermoplastic starch (TPS) and their blends
stand highest in terms of production capacity as these
materials are replacing plastics particularly in flexible film
packaging sector [9,10]. Recent bioplastics market update
Introduction and market growth shows that polylactic acid (PLA) receives greater atten-
The 21st century is thriving with tremendous economic tion from both academia and industry due to its techno-
growth but at the same time facing an irrecoverable logical advances in productivity and functionality [11,12].
ecological damage. Plastic pollution is recently being PLA is known for its versatility featuring excellent barrier
highlighted as global crisis at every stage right from the properties thus gaining value to replace polystyrene (PS)
production of plastics to their disposal and incineration and polypropylene (PP) in packaging and other chal-
[1]. Bioplastics constituting both naturally and chemically lenging applications [13]. Next to PLA, polyhydroxy
derived materials from renewable or oil-based resources alkanoates (PHA) receive interest as evidenced by greater
are being designed to feature minimal carbon footprint, number of international patents [14]. However, in terms
high recycling value and complete biodegradability/ of global production capacity, PHA stands next to poly(-
compostability [2,3]. In order to ascertain no competition butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT) and poly-
with food and agricultural resources, recent advancements butylene succinate (PBS). As per recent market report,
current global production of PHA is about 25,320 tonnes,

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76 New synthetic methods

which accounts to 1.2% as against PBAT and PBS holding as completely biodegradable (in domestic composting
13.4% and 4.3%, respectively [15]. Polycaprolactone conditions) alternatives to conventional, petrochemical-
(PCL) and PBAT are fossil-based polymers but tend to based plastics [19]. Emerging bio-based polymers like
biodegrade, signifying that biodegradability is not always poly(ethylene 2,5-furandicarboxylate) (PEF)/poly(tri-
dependent on the source of origin or the polymer building methylene terephthalate) (PTT) and polypropylene
block. Schematic representation shown in Figure 1 clearly carbonate (PPC) produced from bio-based furan
demarcates various technological approaches specific to monomers and alcohols/epoxides respectively are char-
different classes of bioplastics. acterised by excellent thermal and barrier properties
comparable to their petroleum analogues [20]. For
Majorly used commodity polymers like polyethylene instance, blending PEF with PLA or PHA would ulti-
terephthalate, polyamide and polypropylene have also mately contribute to superior functional and biode-
been manufactured from bio monomers-derived glucose gradable properties enabling practical application in
fermentation or lignin fermentation, which facilitate the packaging applications [21]. The trade-off between
resurgence of Bio-PET, Bio-PA and Bio-PP respectively biodegradability and functionality brings huge research
[16]. Growing interest in novel bioplastics constituting scope on blending and compatibilisation of various bio-
two or more existing biodegradable polymers would based polymers to push their performance efficiency
eventually result in second-generation bioplastics, thus and versatility [22,23]. Table 1 shows the widely known
offering advantage of developing scalable counterparts bio-based and biodegradable polymers and their
to synthetic plastics [17]. Hence, the goal would be to respective starting materials and feasible end-of-life
design novel composites comprising only of bio-based options [18,24].
building blocks having specific desired functionalities
suitable for applications and at the same time State-of-the-art technologies for bioplastics
completely biodegradable and recyclable building innovations and production
blocks having specific desired functionalities suitable for The current bioplastic sustainable production model
technological applications [18]. For example, in a recent relies on design and development of novel valorisation
work, synergic blends of PLA and PCL were highlighted
Figure 1

Schematic representation of technological approaches in producing commercial bioplastics (shaded in blue: biodegradable polymers derived from oil-
based resources).

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 Bio-based and biodegradable polymers RameshKumar et al. 77

Table 1

Commercial bioplastics including both biodegradable and non-biodegradable polymers, their production source, capacity and end-of-
life options (adapted and modified from Ref. [18]).

Biodegradable polymers

Polymer name Source/Feedstock Production Trademark/Company Sustainable end-of-life

capacity (Kt/Year) options

TPS, Cellulose, Biomass, agro-residues, 384 Mater-Bi/Novamont, Agrana starke, HC, IC, AD
Cellulose acetate, lignocellulosic derivatives NaturePlast, Indochine Bio
Starch blends Plastiques
PLA and PLA blends Lactic acid from dairy whey, 225 Ingeo/NatureWorks, Luminy®/ IC, MR, CR
corn starch or organic residues Total Corbion, Lacty/Shimadzu
Cor. Vyloecol/Toyobo, Danimer
Scientific
PHA, PHB, PHO Volatile fatty acids, glucose/ 30 Minerv-PHATM/Bio-On, HC, IC, AD, CR
glycerol from fermentation of PHBH™/Kaneka, TephaFlex®/
municipal solid waste or any Tepha, Nodax™/Danimer
carbon feedstocks Scientific, AirCarbon®/Newlight
Technologies
PCL Chiral hydroxy acids, lactones – CAPA™/Perstorp (Ingevity) HC, IC, CR
PBS Succinic acid, 1,4-butanediol 97 GS PLA®/Mitsubishi CR, ED
Chemical, Bionolle™
1000/Showa Denko
K.K., Skygreen®/SK
Chemicals, Succinity,
BioPBS™/PTT MCC
Biochem
PBAT and PBAT blends Terephthalic acid, adipic acid, 152 Ecoflex®/BASF, IC, CR
hydroxymethyl furfurals Wango/Zhuhai Wango
(HMFs), butanediol Chemical Co.,
Ecoworld/JinHui
ZhaoLong, Eastar
Bio/Eastman,
Origo-Bi®/Novamont
Bio-based and non-biodegradable polymers
Bio-PE Bioethanol from sugarcane 200 Braskem MR
Bio-PET Furan dicarboxylic acid from 560 PlantBottle™/Coca Cola MR, CR, ED
HMFs
Bio-PTT 1,3-propanediol 45 DuPont Corterra™, Sorona®/Shell MR, CR
Chemicals
Bio-PEF HMFs – Synvina/Total-Corbion ED
Bio-PP Isobutanol – Technoform, LanzaTech MR
Bio-PA Volatile fatty acids, HMFs – Evonik VESTAMID® MR, CR
TERRA, Dupont, FKuR, BIOFED
Bio-polycarbonates Bioethanol/dialkyl carbonate/ – Asahi Kasei Corporation, Saudi CR
epoxides and carbon-dioxide Aramco Converge®

AD, Anaerobic Digestion; MR, Mechanical Recycling; CR, Chemical/Catalytic Recycling; ED, Enzymatic Depolymerisation; IC, Industrial
Composting; HC, Home Composting.
*Emerging options in bioplastics waste management with either limited or no evidence on technology commercialisation.

protocols of renewable resources derived from urban, converting biomass or renewable feedstocks into high-
agricultural and food wastes. Approaches to develop value building blocks or monomers [27]. Additionally,
monomers and biodegradable polymers from biomass engineering of consumer-grade bioplastics based on
feedstock received great attention in chemical in- monomers derived from waste residues represents a
dustries by leveraging on the innovative biocatalytic sustainable production value chain, which accounts for
transformation and synthetic chemistry [25,26]. Sus- establishing circular bioeconomy. Growing global
tainable bioplastic materials are currently under demand for bio-based and biodegradable polymers
development, and innovation relies either on devel- prompted investments in research to promote and
oping completely new types of polymers or drop-in establish large-scale production of bioplastics. Bio-
substitutes derived from renewable resources. Ad- based industries (BBI) consortium in partnership
vancements in industrial biotechnology offer various with European Union (EU) is investing about 3.7
chemo-enzymatic or bio-catalytic synthetic routes for billion on large-scale flagship projects to encourage

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78 New synthetic methods

new technologies for production of bio-based mono- Despite being resources-efficient and derived from
mers and polymers from waste biomass/renewable renewable bio-based feedstocks/residues, it is crucial to
feedstocks [28]. As one of the specific impacts of BBI’s look closely into environmental impacts of bioplastics
programme is to replace at least 30% of fossil-based waste. Disposal of bioplastics waste in landfill certainly
raw materials with bio-based and biodegradable ones contributes to management problems similar to those of
by 2030, potential scope for bioplastics manufacturing conventional plastic waste. Hence, advocating best end-
processes is foreseen in the coming decade [29]. life management of post-consumer bioplastics waste is
needed to achieve lower carbon footprint [37]. Sus-
Bioplastics production by utilising greenhouse gases tainable management of bioplastics waste is highly
like carbon dioxide is one of the sustainable carbon challenging as some of the bioplastics are designed to
upcycling approaches, which is gaining huge attention only biodegrade in specific managed conditions thus
[30]. Recent report by Nova Institute has highlighted creating huge ill effects when disposed in non-ideal
the projected estimation of directly converting 70% environments like soil, fresh water and marine.
CO2 for bioplastics manufacturing [31]. Breakthrough Indeed, scientists aim at developing bioplastics that
research in areas of selective copolymerisation process could achieve complete and quicker biodegradation in
has resulted in the commercial production of poly- any environment as per ASTM and ISO standards [38].
carbonates constituting about 30e50 wt.% of waste However, most of the reported biodegradability of
CO2 [32]. CO2 upcycling efforts are constantly various biodegradable polymers was demonstrated at the
evolving for meeting the predicted demand of pro- lab scale and it is essential to establish biodegradation of
ducing 450 million tonnes plastic by 2050, which are the commercial bioplastics and their blends at the
completely made from renewable carbon [31]. This appropriate industrial scale [39,40].
CO2 recycling approach holds benefit of being easily
retrofitted in the fossil fuel-based polymer- Recycling is considered the most preferred option to
manufacturing infrastructure thus exerting both eco- manage bioplastic waste similar to conventional plastic
nomic and environmental benefits. Indeed, lesser waste [41]. However, recycling can either be mechani-
dependence of agro-feedstocks, monomer extraction/ cal, chemical/catalytic and organic depending on
transformations and complex pre-treatments are whether the bioplastics are biodegradable and/or if the
considered highly advantageous against bioresources- considered polymeric material biodegrades only under
derived polymers [33]. managed conditions. The distinct recycling options
shown in Figure 2 represent the state-of-the-art on
Sustainability and end-of-life options for closed-loop management of post-consumer bioplastics
bioplastics waste. Prime challenges in recycling of post-consumer
On a global trend, plastic production from fossil-based bioplastic waste are attributed to its heterogeneity, low
resources and plastic waste incineration together ac- market volumes, diverse sources and high potential for
counts to about 400 million tonnes of CO2 every year plastics waste contamination. These challenges indicate
[34]. Replacement of fossil-based plastics with bio- a clear need for more efficient chemical and biochemical
based/biodegradable ones will certainly reduce carbon processes to valorise the bioplastics waste into perpet-
footprint at the production level. However, assessing ually reusable high-value end products. Implementing
their sustainability aspects in terms of end-of-life man- combined recycling and recovering concepts including
agement is vital to exert bioplastics as an environmen- extraction of high-value chemicals/monomers via
tally friendly alternative. Not all bio-based polymers are chemical recycling, solvent extraction [42] and cogen-
deemed biodegradable and in contrast, some of the eration of biofuel and volatile fatty acids through
biodegradable polymers could also be produced from anaerobic digestion [43] would certainly create positive
fossil-based raw materials. Indeed, popularly known impact towards a circular bioeconomy. Perhaps, some of
bioplastics families like PHB, PCL and starch and their the management approaches would not directly recycle
blends are proven to be biodegraded in both managed back the bioplastics into their starting monomer. How-
and specific unmanaged environments [19]; however, ever, it is worthwhile to invest on valorisation of post-
failing to manage their disposal would result in uncon- consumer bioplastic waste and provide incentives for
trolled biodegradation adding to existing plastic pollu- recycling or energy recovery for contributing to circular
tion [35]. Hence, it is of utmost importance to practice bioeconomy and sustainable management of bioplastics
specific end-of-life management considering the prop- waste [44].
erties and processing conditions of each bioplastics
rather than a generic waste management plan. Life cycle Future outlook
analysis (LCA) is an indispensable tool to gauge and Rationally designing the bioplastics to impart desired
quantify the benefits or impacts of any bioplastics, functionality and recyclability [45,46] and utilising
subjecting to the boundary conditions and assessment unaccounted biomass as a valuable resource would
considerations [36]. together establish a sustainable production value

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 Bio-based and biodegradable polymers RameshKumar et al. 79

Figure 2

Current Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry

Schematic representation of recycling strategies for sustainable management of bioplastics and contribution towards SDGs.

chain for bioplastics. Despite that some of the bio- Acknowledgements

plastics production technologies are lacking the scal- The authors thank Science Foundation Ireland (SFI) AMBER Grant No.:
12/RC/2278_P2 for research support and funding. RB acknowledges the
ability and productivity comparable to petroleum- funding support by SFI centre BEACON Grant No.: 16/RC/3889 and also
based routes, governmental regulations and consumer the financial support from BBI JU Biobased Industries Joint Undertaking
pressure have been fostering the bioplastics industry under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation
programme for AgriChemWhey project under grant agreement-744310.
to adopt and implement sustainable production
routes. Circular bioeconomy is also gaining global
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