Hydrology

Chapter Four
Runoff
 Climate factors
Physiographic factors
Size of watershed

Storage characteristics
1
2
3
Metrological factors
4 1
5 2
6 3

4
 Characteristics of Runoff
• Excess rainfall is the rainfall remaining after all of the
hydrologic abstractions have been subtracted. Excess
rainfall becomes runoff and eventually streamflow.
• The most important characteristics of runoff are:
peak discharge, total runoff volume, and frequency of
peak flows.
• The peak discharge (peak flow) is the maximum flow
a given point as a result of a storm.
• For a given storm, the resulting peak flow determines
the size of the drainage structures.
• Peak flows depend on rainfall characteristics, and
watershed size and other features.
 Characteristics of Runoff
• The total runoff volume is equal to the area under
the hydrograph. It can be measured in cubic meters
or, cubic feet or, dividing by the watershed area in, in
mm or inches.
• The volume is used in design of storage facilities
which may be related to highway design.
• Similar to storm events, the exceedance probability
of peak flows is the probability that, in any one year,
a peak of given magnitude will be equaled or
exceeded.
• The return period is calculated as one over the
probability.
➢ In addition to the spatial and temporal characteristics of rainfall, the
physical features of the watershed also control the shape of the
runoff hydrograph.
Rainfall
directio
n Rainfall
directio
n
 Estimation of runoff
▪ To estimate the magnitude of a flood peak the following
alternative methods are available:
1. Unit-hydrograph technique
2. Empirical method
3. Semi-Empirical method (such rational method).
▪ There many empirical or Semi-Empirical formulae
used to estimate the runoff discharge from catchment
area.
 Estimation of runoff
▪ These formulae can be classify into three categories;
1. Formulae consider the area only into calculation, like Dickens,
Ryves, Ingles and others. The formulae take forms as 𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴𝑛
; n exponent is almost ˂1.
2. Formulae consider Area and some other factors such as Craig ,
Lillie and Rhinds (Taking velocity , and may be intensity, depth
or max, depth of rainfall).
3. Formulae consider the recurrence interval ,like Fullers ,
Hortons , Pettis and other.
 Estimation of runoff
▪ The use of a particular method depends upon
i. The desired objective,
ii. The available data, and
iii. The importance of the project.
▪ Above all , two methods depend on semi-empirical bases are
preferable for storm design ,and have a wide use by the designer.
1. The Rational method
2. The SCS-CN method
1. The Rational method
▪ Rational formula is only applicable to small-size (< 50
km2 ) catchments.
▪ Consider a rainfall of uniform intensity and duration
occurring over a basin in a time taken for a drop of
water from the farthest part of the catchment to reach
the outlet that called tc = time of concentration, it is
obvious that if the rainfall continues beyond tc, the
runoff will be constant and at the peak value.
▪ The peak value o f the runoff is given by;
𝑄𝑃 = 2.78𝐶 𝑖𝑡𝑐 . 𝑝 𝐴 ; 𝑓or 𝑡 > 𝑡𝑐 − − − − − − (1)
Where, 𝑄p = peak discharge (m3 /s)
C = coefficient of runoff = (runoff/rainfall),
A = area of the catchment in 𝑘𝑚2
𝑖𝑡𝑐 . 𝑝 = the mean intensity of precipitation (cm/ hr) for a duration equal
to tc and an exceedance probability P.
✓ This is the basic equation of the rational method for drainage basin
that assumed completely impervious.

▪ The use of this method to compute 𝑄p requires three parameters:

𝑡𝑐, 𝑖𝑡𝑐 .𝑝 , and C
Time of concentration(tc)
▪ It is defined as the time needed for water to flow from the most
remote point in a watershed to the watershed outlet.
▪ It is equal to the summation of travel times for each flow regime
along the hydraulic path or hydraulic length.

𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3
𝑡𝑐 = + +
𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉3

▪ Hydraulic length is the distance

between the most distant point in the
watershed and the watershed outlet.
▪ There are a number of empirical equations available for the
estimation of the time of concentration. One of these are described
below:
▪ Kirpich Equation (1940) This is the popularly used formula
relating the time of concentration of the length of travel and slope of
the catchment as;
0.01947𝐿0.77
𝑡𝑐 = − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(2)
𝑆 0.385

Where; L = maximum length of travel of water (m),

S = slope of the catchment = ΔH/L in which
ΔH =difference in elevation between the most remote point on the
catchment and the outlet.
Rainfall Intensity (𝒊𝒕𝒄 . 𝒑 )
▪ The rainfall intensity corresponding to a duration tc and
the desired probability of exceedance P, ( i.e. return
period T=1/P ) is found from the rainfall-frequency-
duration relationship for the given catchment area;

𝐾𝑇 𝑋
𝑖𝑡𝑐.𝑝 = − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(3)
(𝑡𝑐+𝑎)𝑛

in which the coefficients K. a, x and n are specific to a

given area.
Runoff Coefficient (C)
▪ The coefficient C represents the integrated effect of the
catchment losses and hence depends upon the nature of the
surface, surface slope and rainfall intensity.
▪ The effect of rainfall intensity is not considered in the
available tables of values of C. Some typical values of C
are indicated in Table (1) and Table (2).
▪ Equation (1) assumes a homogeneous catchment surface.
▪ If however, the catchment is non-homogeneous but can be divided
into distinct sub areas each having a different runoff coefficient, then
the runoff from each sub area is calculated separately and merged in
proper time sequence.
▪ Sometimes, a non-homogeneous catchment may have component
sub areas distributed in such a complex manner that distinct sub
zones cannot be separated.
▪ In such cases a weighted equivalent runoff coefficient 𝐶e as below is
used.
3

Where 𝐴𝑖= the areal extent of the sub area i having a runoff
coefficient Ci and N = number of sub areas in the catchment.
Home work
 2. The SCS-CN method
▪ SCS-CN method, developed by Soil Conservation Services (SCS)
of USA in 1969, is a simple, predictable, and stable conceptual
method for estimation of direct runoff depth based on storm rainfall
depth. It relies on only one parameter, CN.
▪ The SCS-CN method is based on the water balance equation of the
rainfall in a known interval of time Δt, referring to Fig.(2) and from
the continuity principle it can be expressed as;
P= 𝐼𝑎 + 𝐹𝑎 + 𝑄 −−−−−−− −5
Where
P = total precipitation,
Ia= initial abstraction,
Fa = Cumulative infiltration excluding Ia
Q = direct surface runoff (all in units of volume occurring in time Δt)
❑ Two other concepts as below are also used with Eq. (5).
▪ The first concept is that the ratio of actual amount of direct
runoff ,Q to maximum potential runoff (= P- Ia) is equal to
the ratio of actual infiltration (F ) to the potential maximum
retention (or infiltration), S.
▪ This proportionality concept can be schematically shown as
in Fig.

Fig. proportionality concept

-------------------6
▪ The second concept is that the amount of initial abstraction (Ia) is
some fraction of the potential maximum retention (.S). Thus ; 𝐼a =
𝜆𝑆 − − − − − − − − − − − − − (7)
▪ Combining Eqs. (6) and (7), and using (5)

(𝑃−𝐼𝑎)2 (𝑃−𝜆𝑆)2
𝑄= = ; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝 > 𝜆𝑆----------------8
𝑃−𝐼𝑎+𝑆 𝑃+(1−𝜆)𝑆
Q = 0 for 𝑝 ≤ 𝜆𝑆
▪ On the basis of extensive measurements in small size catchments
SCS (1985) adopted λ = 0.2 as a standard value, then Eq. (8)
becomes;
(𝑃 − 0.2𝑆)2
𝑄= ; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝 > 0.2𝑆
𝑃 + 0.8𝑆
▪ For operation purposes a time interval Δt = 1 day is adopted. Thus
P= daily rainfall and Q= daily runoff from the catchment.
Curve Number (CN)
▪ The parameter S representing the potential maximum retention
depends upon :
1. The soil-vegetation-land use complex of the catchment.
2. the antecedent soil moisture condition in the catchment just
prior to the commencement of the rainfall event.
▪ For convenience in practical application the Soil Conservation
Services (SCS) has expressed S (mm) in terms of a
dimensionless parameter CN (the Curve number) as;
25400 100
S= − 254 = 254( − 1)----------------9
𝐶𝑁 𝐶𝑁
Curve Number (CN)
▪ The curve number CN is now related to S as;
25400
CN=
𝑆+254
▪ The curve number CN has a range of 0 < CN< 100.
▪ CN = 100 represents zero potential retention (i.e. impervious
catchment)
▪ CN = 0 represents an infinitely abstracting catchment with S =∞.
▪ Curve number CN depends upon: a) Soil type , b) Antecedent
moisture condition , c) Land use/cover
a) Soils
▪ In the determination of CN, the hydrological soil
classification is adopted. Here, soils are classified into four
classes A, B, C and D based upon the infiltration and other
characteristics.
▪ The important soil characteristics that influence hydrological
classification of soils are effective depth of soil, average clay
content, infiltration characteristics and permeability.
Group-A:(Low Runoff Potential): Soils having high infiltration
rates even when thoroughly wetted. These soils have high rate
of water transmission. [Example: Deep sand, Deep loess and
Aggregated silt].
Group-B: (Moderately Low runoff Potential): Soils having
moderate infiltration rates when thoroughly wetted. These soils
have moderate rate of water transmission. [Example: Shallow
loess, Sandy loam, Red loamy soil, Red sandy loam and Red
sandy soil ].
Group-C: ( Moderately High Runoff Potential): Soils having
low infiltration rates when thoroughly wetted. These soils have
moderate rate of water transmission. [Example: Clayey loam,
Shallow sandy loam, Soils usually high in clay, Mixed red and
black soils].
Group-D: (High Runoff Potential): Soils having very low
infiltration rates when thoroughly wetted and consisting chiefly
of clay soils with a high swelling potential, soils with a
permanent high-water table, soils with a clay layer near the
surface.[Example: Heavy plastic clays, certain saline soils and
deep black soils].
b) Antecedent Moisture Condition (AMC)
▪ Refers to the moisture content present in the soil at the
beginning of the rainfall-runoff event under consideration.
▪ It is well known that initial abstraction and infiltration are
governed by AMC.
▪ For practical application three levels of AMC are recognized by
SCS as follows:
AMC-I: Soils are dry but not to wilting point. Satisfactory
cultivation has taken place.
AMC-II: Average conditions
AMC-III: Sufficient rainfall has occurred within the immediate
past 5 days. Saturated soil conditions prevail.
c) Land Use/cover
▪ The variation of CN under AMC-II, called CNII, for various land use
conditions commonly found in practice are shown in Table (4).
Table (4) Runoff Curve Numbers ( CNII ) for Hydrologic Soil Cover Complexes (
Under AMC-II Conditions
▪ The conversion of CNII to other two AMC conditions can be
made through the use of following correlation equations.
10

11

▪ The equations (10) and (11) are applicable in the CNII, range
of 55 to 95 which covers most of the practical range.

Notes about λ
▪ λ=0.1 valid for Black soils under AMC of Type II and III.
▪ λ=0.3 valid for Black soils under AMC of Type I and for all
other soils(excluding Black soil) having AMC of types I, II and
III.
Q

1m =1000mm
Q

1m =1000mm
Q

Q 70.81mm
❑Cause of floods
➢ Flooding is caused by the inadequate capacity within the banks
of the rivers to contain the high flows brought down from the
upper catchment due to heavy rainfall.
➢ Areas having poor drainage characteristics get flooded by
accumulation of water from heavy rainfall.
❑Result of flooding
➢ Flooding is emphasize by erosion and silting of the river beds
resulting in reduction of carrying capacity of river channel,
earthquakes and landslides leading to changes in river courses,
obstructions to flow, management of floods in the main and
tributary rivers and retardation due to tidal effects.
❑ Floods can be mainly categorized in two types:
a. Flash floods: occurs when heavy rainfall continues only for a short period
of time (usually only a few hours) yet can cause major damage and death
due to their sudden arrival. It can also be caused by dam brusts or
overflows.
b. Riverine floods: occurs when water rises above its natural banks, often
caused by prolonged and heavy precipitation. Riverine floods take days,
weeks or months to rise it maximum and return to normal.
❑Measurement of Flood Severity
There are six categories to measure the flood severity in a region as follows:
a) Depth of flow
b) Duration of flow
c) Velocity of flow
d) Rate of rise of water
e) Frequency of flood i.e. how often the floods occur in an area, which greatly
depends on the topography and climate.
f) Seasonality i.e. time of year in which flood often occurs.
❑Approach for Flood Management
➢ Structural Approach for Flood Management
• in the form of physical measures with a view to prevent the flood
waters from reaching potential damage centers. Eg.
a) Embankments, flood walls, sea walls.
b) Dams and reservoir
c) Natural detention basin
d) Channel improvement
e) Drainage improvement
f) Diversion of flood waters
➢ Non-structural Approach for Flood Management
• Inform the extent of flooding as a form of information without construct
any physical measure.
a) land use regulations
b) flood forecasting and warning
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