Physical Properties

of Solutions
Module 6
Chapter 12

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 Solutions
Solution is a homogenous mixture of 2 or more substances

Solute is(are) the substance(s) present in the smaller amount(s)

Solvent is the substance present in the larger amount

Solution = solute + solvent
(less) (more)

Table 12.1 Types of Solutions

State of Resulting
Component 1 Component 2 Solution Examples
Gas Gas Gas Air
Gas Liquid Liquid Soda water (CO2 in water)

Gas Solid Solid H2 gas in palladium

Liquid Liquid Liquid Ethanol in water
Solid Liquid Liquid NaCl in water
Solid Solid Solid Brass (Cu/Zn), solder (Sn/Pb)

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 Saturation
A saturated solution contains the maximum amount of a
solute that will dissolve in a given solvent at a specific
temperature.
An unsaturated solution contains less solute than the solvent
has the capacity to dissolve at a specific temperature.
A supersaturated solution contains more solute than is
present in a saturated solution at a specific temperature.
Sodium acetate crystals rapidly form when a seed crystal is
added to a supersaturated solution of sodium acetate.

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 Formation of a Solution
Three types of interactions in the solution process:
• solvent-solvent interaction
• solute-solute interaction
• solvent-solute interaction
Molecular view of the formation of solution
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∆𝐻soln = ∆𝐻1 + ∆𝐻2 + ∆𝐻3

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Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

“Like Dissolves Like”

Two substances with similar intermolecular forces are likely

to be soluble in each other.

• non-polar molecules are soluble in non-polar solvents

CCl4 in C6 H6
• polar molecules are soluble in polar solvents
C2 H5 OH in H2 O
• ionic compounds are more soluble in polar solvents
NaCl in H2 O or NH3 (l) 5
 Concentration Units
The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute present
in a given quantity of solvent or solution.
Percent by Mass
mass of solute
% by mass = x 100%
mass of solute + mass of solvent
mass of solute
= x 100%
mass of solution
Mole Fraction (X) is number of moles divided by total moles of solution
A + B + C = solution
moles of A
XA =
sum of moles of all components

XB =
moles of B moles of A
sum of moles of all components XA =
nT
moles of C
XC =
sum of moles of all components
XA + XB + XC = 1
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 Concentration Units Continued
Molarity (M) is moles of solute dissolved in Liter of solution

Moles of solute
M=
Liters of solution (L)

Molality (m) is moles of solute dissolved in Kg of solvent

Moles of solute
m=
Mass of solvent (Kg)

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Example 12.2
A sample of 0.892 g of potassium chloride (KCl) is dissolved in
54.6 g of water. What is the percent by mass of KCl in the
solution? Answer = 1.61%

Practice Exercise A sample of 6.44 g of naphthalene

(C H ) is dissolved in 80.1 g of benzene (C H ). Calculate the
10 8 6 6

percent by mass of naphthalene in this solution. Answer = 7.44%

Example 12.3
Calculate the molality of a sulfuric acid solution containing 24.4
g of sulfuric acid in 198 g of water.
The molar mass of sulfuric acid is 98.09 g/mol. Answer = 1.26m

Practice Exercise What is the molality of solution containing

7.78g of urea [(NH ) CO] in 203g of water?
2 2 Answer = 0.638m
Example 12.4
The density of a 2.45 M aqueous solution of methanol (CH3 OH)
is 0.976 g/mℓ. What is the molality of the solution? The molar
mass of methanol is 32.04 g/mol. Answer = 2.73m

Practice Exercise Calculate the molality of 5.86M ethanol

(C H OH) solution whose density is 0.927 g/mℓ. Answer = 8.8m
2 5
Example 12.5
Calculate the molality of a 35.4 percent (by mass) aqueous
solution of phosphoric acid (H3 PO4 ).
The molar mass of(H3 PO4 ) is 97.99 g/mol. Answer = 5.59m

Practice Exercise Calculate the molality of 44.6 percent

(by mass) aqueous solution of sodium chloride. Answer = 13.8m
 Temperature and Solubility
Solid solubility and temperature

solubility increases with

increasing temperature

solubility decreases with

increasing temperature

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 Temperature and Solubility (2)
O2 gas solubility and temperature
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

solubility of O2
decreases with
increasing temperature

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 Pressure and Solubility of Gases
Henry’s law: The solubility of a gas in a liquid is
proportional to the pressure of the gas over the solution.
c is the concentration (M) of the dissolved gas
𝑐 = 𝑘𝑃 P is the pressure of the gas over the solution
k is a constant for each gas (mol/L•atm) that
depends only on temperature

low P high P

low c high c
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Example 12.6
The solubility of N2 gas at 25°C and 1 atm is 6.8 × 10−4 mol/L.atm
What is the concentration (in molarity) of N2 dissolved in water
under atmospheric conditions? The partial pressure of nitrogen gas
in the atmosphere is 0.78 atm. (Answer = 5.3x10─4M)

Practice Exercise Calculate the molar concentration of O2

in water at 25°C for a partial pressure of 0.22 atm. The
Henry’s law constant for O2 is 1.3x10-3 mol/L.atm. (answer =2.9x10─4M)
 Colligative Properties of Nonelectrolyte Solutions
Colligative properties are properties that depend only on the
concentration of solute particles in solution and not on the
nature of the solute particles.
1. Vapor-Pressure Lowering (∆P)
Raoult’s law: states that the vapor pressure of solution is
equal to product of mole fraction of solvent and vapor
pressure of pure solvent.

𝑃1 = 𝑋1 𝑃10

If the solution contains only one solute:

𝑃10 = vapor pressure of pure solvent
𝑋1 = 1 –𝑋2 𝑋1 = mole fraction of the solvent
𝑋2 = mole fraction of the solute
𝑃10 − 𝑃1 = ∆𝑃 = 𝑋2 𝑃10 P1 = vapor pressure of solution
∆P = Lowering of Vapor pressure 16
Example 12.7
Calculate the vapor pressure of a solution made by dissolving 218 g of
glucose (molar mass = 180.2 g/mol) in 460 mL of water at 30°C. What is the
vapor-pressure lowering? The vapor pressure of pure water at 30°C is 31.82
mmHg. Assume the density of the solvent is 1.00 g/mℓ. (Answer = 1.4 mmHg)

Practice Exercise Calculate the vapor pressure of a solution made by

dissolving 82.4 g of urea (molar mass is 60.06 g/mol) in 212 mℓ of water
at 35°C. Vapor pressure of water at 35oC is 42.18 mm Hg. What is the
vapor-pressure lowering? (Answer = P1 = 37.78 mmHg and ∆P = 4.4 mmHg
2. Boiling-Point Elevation (∆Tb)
∆𝑇b = 𝑇b − 𝑇b0
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𝑇b0 is the boiling point of

the pure solvent
𝑇b is the boiling point of
the solution

𝑇b > 𝑇b0 ∆𝑇b > 0

∆𝑇b = 𝐾b 𝑚

m is the molality of the solution

Kb is the molal boiling-point
elevation constant (0C/m)
for a given solvent 18
3. Freezing-Point Depression (∆Tf)
∆𝑇f = 𝑇f0 − 𝑇f
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𝑇f0 is the freezing point of

the pure solvent
𝑇f is the freezing point of
the solution
𝑇f0 > 𝑇f ∆𝑇f > 0

∆Tf = Kf m

m is the molality of the solution

Kf is the molal freezing-point
depression constant (0C/m)
for a given solvent 19
 Boiling-Point Elevation and Freezing-
Point Depression Constants
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Table 12.2 Molal Boiling-Point Elevation and Freezing-Point Depression

Constants of Several Common Liquids

Normal Freezing 𝑲𝐟 Normal Boiling 𝑲𝐛

Solvent Point ℃ * ℃∕𝐦 Point ℃ * ℃∕𝐦
Water 0 1.86 100 0.52
Benzene 5.5 5.12 80.1 2.53
Ethanol -117.3 1.99 78.4 1.22
Acetic acid 16.6 3.90 117.9 2.93
Cyclohexane 6.6 20.0 80.7 2.79

*Measured at 1 atm.

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Example 12.8
Ethylene glycol (EG), CH2 (OH)CH2 (OH), is a common automobile antifreeze. It
is water soluble and fairly nonvolatile (b. p. 197°C). Calculate the freezing point
of solution containing 651 g of this substance in 2505 g of water. Would you
keep this substance in your car radiator during the summer? The molar mass
of ethylene glycol is 62.01 g/mol. The molar mass of water is 18.00 g/mol. Kf
for water = 1.86 °C/m and Kb for water = 0.52 °C/m (Ans = ─ 7.79 oC and 102.2 oC)
Practice Exercise Calculate the boiling point and freezing point of a
solution containing 478 g of ethylene glycol in 3202 g of water.
(Answer = ─ 4.464 oC and 101.28 oC)
4. Osmotic Pressure 𝜋
Osmosis is the selective passage of solvent molecules through a
porous membrane from a dilute solution to a more concentrated one.
A semipermeable membrane allows the passage of solvent molecules but
blocks the passage of solute molecules.
Osmotic pressure 𝝅 is the pressure required to stop osmosis.

more
dilute
concentrated

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Osmotic Pressure 𝜋 , Continued

time

High Low
P P

p = MRT

M is the molarity of the solution

R is the gas constant
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T is the temperature (in K)
Colligative Properties of Nonelectrolyte Solutions
Colligative properties are properties that depend only on the
number of solute particles in solution and not on the nature of
the solute particles.
Vapor-Pressure Lowering 𝑃1 = 𝑋1 𝑃10 and
∆𝑃 = 𝑋2 𝑃10

Boiling-Point Elevation ∆𝑇b = 𝐾b 𝑚

Freezing-Point Depression ∆𝑇f = 𝐾f 𝑚

Osmotic Pressure (𝛑) 𝜋 = 𝑀𝑅𝑇

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Example 12.9
The average osmotic pressure of seawater, measured in a
kind of apparatus, is about 30.0 atm at 25°C. Calculate the
molar concentration of an aqueous solution of sucrose
(C12 H22 O11 ) that is isotonic with seawater. (answer = 1.23M)

Practice Exercise What is the osmotic pressure (in atm) of

a 0.884 M urea solution at 16°C? (answer = 21atm)

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Example 12.10
A 7.85 g sample of a compound with the empirical formula C5 H4 is dissolved
in 301 g of benzene. The freezing point of the solution is 1.05°C below that of
pure benzene.
What are the molar mass and molecular formula of this compound? (Kf
Benzene = 5.12 °C/m) (Ans: molar mass =127 and molecular formula= C10H8 naphthalene)

Practice Exercise A solution of 0.85 g of an organic compound in 100.0 g of

benzene has a freezing point of 5.16°C. Freezing point of pure benzene is
5.5oC. What are the molality of the solution and the molar mass of the
solute? Kf = 5.12oC/mol. (Answer m = 0.066m and 128g/mol)

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