2.8.1. 2.8. 2.7.6. |2.

28
will Note:
members
DURABILITY
DEFINITION methods. element Some NON
are Such makethe
action, The beingThere The
classified service conditions.
to
carbonation, reinforcing
with It half-cell
steel.detect the
The Positive in If
durability tests
DESTRUCTIVE
that These greater
thatpotentials
used are tests
corrosion corrosion is concrete
chemical on invalid.
results other often
a which which
contain additional corrosion
OF to life area, than
number as conducted readings
OF evaluate of data,
necessary
CONCRETE
of non-destructive potential and at over
attack,
DURABILITY do these the
activity rate test the 90%
cement epoxy-coated
of not tests such indoes that an
TEST structure. usually time
probability
causes tests on of post-tensioned
abrasion, concrete.
non-destructive as, to the area
concrete hardened survey of are
corrosion not of
are supplement readings are
embeddedneeded resistivity indicate measurement.mean
tests. any done. reinforcementshould that
numerically
or is Section destruction
any concrete that
defined toresults, of strands the are reinforcing
tests not steel
formulate the invalid.
insufficient Repair
other concrete,
4.2 rate
be half-cell greater
terioraaton and of do steel. and and or of Rehabilitation
Structuresand
rocess ofits as discusses carried
testing the not corrosion, steel
ability its solid chloride corrosion
structure affect The environmental potential
probable moisture than
out corrosion
to about
techniques epoxy conclusions -0.35
resist the on content, in nor
some or concrete measurementsdiscontinuOue is is V,
coating effect can available of.
the structure in
exposure depth there
weathering ofthat elemen relative
on the prOcess
aiv the test is
NDT or of i
Srength and Durability of Concrete 2.29
Durable concrete will retain its original form, quality,and serviceability when
exposed to its environment.
2.8.2. SIGNIFICANCE OFDURABILITY
When designing a concrete mix or designing a concrete structure, the
exposure condition at which the concrete is supposed to withstand is to be
assessed in the beginning with good judgment.
In case of foundations, the soil characteristics are also required to be
investigated.
At present, consideration of the use of concrete has been extended to more
adverse environmental conditions, having already used up all good, favorable
sites.
Even the good materials such as aggregate, sand are becoming short supply.
No doubt that the cement production is modernized, but sometimes the second
grade raw materials such as limestone containing excess of chloride is being
used for pressing economic reasons.
Earlier specifications of Portland cement permitted a maximum chloride
content of 0.05 per cent. Recently, maximum permissible chloride content in
cement has been increased to 0.1 per cent.
This high permissible chloride content in cement demands much stricter
durabilityconsiderations in other aspects of concrete making practices to keep
the total chloride content in concrete within the permissible limits,
In other words, considerations for durability of modern concrete constructions
assume much more importance, than ordinary practices.
To improve the quality and durability of concrete it must have low water
cement ratio and proper cement content. Higher the water cement ratio lower
the quality of concrete

2.8.3. IMPACT OF WATER-CEMENT RATIOON DURABILITY .

The volume change results in cracks and cracks are responsible for
disintegration of concrete.
Permeability is the contributory factor for volume change and higher W/C
ratio is the fundamental cause of higher permeability.
2.30 Repair and Rehabilitation of Structures

The below given cyclic process in concrete for failure:

Higher Volume Failure of

Permeability Cracks Disintegration
WIC Ratio Change Concrete

Therefore, for a durable concrete, use of lowest possible W/C ratio is the
fundamental requirement to produce dense and impermeable concrete.
with
There is a tremendous change in the micro structure of concrete made
high W/Cratio and low W/Cratio.
With low W/C ratio the permeability decreases to such a level that these
concretes are inmpervious to water.
network of
This does not mean that they do not contain interconnected
capillaries, but these capillaries are so fine that water cannot flow any more
through them.
When such concretes are tested for chloride ions permeability test, it is found
that chloride ions diffuse such concretes at a rate 10 to 50times slower than
that of high W/Cratio concrete.
It has been proved beyond doubt that low W/Cratio concrete are less sensitive
to carbonation, external chemical attack and other detrimental effects that
causes lack of durability of concrete.
It has been reported that it become impossible to corrode unprotected steel
reinforcement in accelerated corrosion test of a concrete with very low W/C
ratio.
From this it could be inferred that the best way to protect reinforcing Ste
against corrosion is to use low W/C and adequate cover, rather than usiny
higher W/C ratio and then protecting the steel by epoxy coating.
In actual practice for many years it has been found almost impossible
reduce the W/C ratio below 0.4. The advent and use of superplasticize
making durable concrete by greater reduction in the W/C ratio of concrete.
The modern superplasticizers are so efficient that it is now possible to mas
flowing concrete with a W/C as low as 0.25 or even as low as 0.20.
fun
This technological breakthrough, in conjunction with the use of silica
to develop
and other secondary cementitious materials, has made it possible
referred as nig
new family of high-strength concrete which is generally
performance concrete- -aconcrete which is very durable.
Strength and Durability of Concrete 2.31
In most of these new low W/C ratio concretes, there is not enough water
available to fully hydrate all the cement particles.
The water available can only hydrate the surface of cement particles and there
exist plenty of unhydrated particles which can play an important role as they
constitute strength in reserve.
If for any reasons, structural or environmental, concrete gets cracked, the
unhydrated cement particles begin hydrating as soon as water or moisture
starts penetrating through cracks. This is to say that unhydrated cement
particles offer self healing potential to improve durability of concrete.
2.9. PERMEABILITY

2.9.1. GENERAL
W/C ratio is the fundamental point for concrete durability and another
important point for consideration is the permeability of concrete.
Durability of concrete, generally start from the permeability of concrete as it
has much wider and direct repercussion on durability than that of W/C ratio.
For example, microcracks at transition zone are a consideration for
permeability whereas W/C ratio may not get involved directly.
G It may be mentioned that microcracks in the initial stage are so small that
they may not increase the permeability.
G But propagation of mnicrocracks with time due to drying shrinkage,
thermal shrinkage and externally applied load will increase the
permeability of the system.

Permeability is the case with which liquids or gases can travel through
concrete. This property is of interest in relation to the water-tightness of
liquid-retaining structures and to chemical attack.
2.9.2. COEFFICIENT OF PERMEAB0LITY
Permeability can be measured by means of a simple laboratory test, in such
test the sides of a concrete specimen are sealed and water under pressure is
applied to the top surface only.
2.32| Repair and Rehabilitation of Structures
When steady state conditions having been reached the quantity of water
flowing through a given thickness of concrete in a given time is measured,
The water permeability is expressed as a coefficient of permeability (k), the
drop in the hydraulic head using Darcy's equation
1 Ah
dg =
kx
dt* A L

where,
dq is the rate of flow of water
dt

A isthe cross sectional area of sample

Ah is the drop in hydraulic head through the samp
Lis the thickness of the sample
k is the coefficient of permeability (m/s)
2.9.3. PERMEABILITY OF CEMENT PASTE
The cenment paste consists of C-S-H gel, Ca(OH), and water filled or empty
capillary cavities. Although gel is porous to the extent of 28 per cent, the gel
pores are so small that hardly any water can pass through under nomal
conditions.
The permeability of gel pores is estimated to be about 7 x 10l6 m/s. That is
approximately about 1/100 of that of paste. Therefore, the gel pores do not
contribute to the permeability of cement paste.
The extent and size of capillary cavities depend on the WICratio. It is one o>
the main factors contributing to the permeability of paste.
At lower W/Cratio, not only the extent of capillary cavities is less but the
diameter is also small.
within a
The capillary cavities resulting at low W/C ratio, will get filled up
few days by the hydration products of cement.
Only unduly large cavities resulting from higher WIC ratio (say mo
than 0.7) will not get filled up by the products of hydration, and will remain
unsegmentedcavities, which isresponsible for the permeability of paste.
Srength and Durability of Concrete 2.33

The higher permeability of mortar or concrete in actual structures is due to the

following reasons:
Formation of microcracks developed due to long term drying shrinkage
and thermal stresses.

The large microcracks generated with time in the transition zones.

Cracks generated through higher structural stresses.
Due to volume change and cracks produced on account of various minor
reasons.

Existenceof entrapped air due to insufficient compaction.

Fig. 2.15 shows the relation between permeability and capillary porosity of
cement paste.
m/s
100
10-13
90
-Permeability
80
70
60

of 50
Coefficient
40
30
20
10

0 10 20 30 40

Capillary Porosity - per cent

Fig. 2.15. Relation between permeability and cupillary porosity of cement
From Fig. 2.23, it can be seen that coefficient of permeability increases more
than 100 times from W/Cratio of 0.4 to 0.7.
 Repair and Rehabilitation of
|2.34|
Struct
the maximum W/C ratio at 0.4 so
ure,
Therefore, many codes of practices fix
restriction of W/C
the ingress of aggressive chemicals is restricted. The
is also imposed in liquid retaining structures.
m/s
10-14140
120
-Permeability
100

80

of 60
Cocfficicnt
40

20

0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

Water /Cement Ratio

Fig. 2.16. Relation between permeability and water/cement ratio

Jor matured of cement paste
2.9.4. PERMEABILITY OF CONCRETE
When excess of water in concrete evaporates, it leaves voids inside ti
concrete element creating capillaries which are directly related to the concre
porosity and permeability as shown in Fig. 2.4.

Å.

Fig. 2.17. Creation of capillarypores

The volume of moisture which may pass through the concrete depends on
permeability.
2.35 of the a by its the aggressive
in to can
consequence indicates paste.filled
reasons: and concrete
result
following hence affect
obtained. steel,
cement
be and following
the will
adversely action.
to
direct
and 2.5
be space concrete
and air ofvolume the
permeability)
Fig. hardened and frost
if
the out, and
can
proportioning,
in of moisture permeability
to
a
is
concrete
shown amount of
for mayleaches the vulnerable
turn of
matrix structure zeroimportant
solution in
increase
in
which mix
impervious
concretethe (almost Ca(0H)2of
a
ingresscover. more
mix.
intoreducedpore on
and is in
concrete
concrete an depends
porosity,
concrete materials to concreteis
Example,concrete,
of locked
ingredients
construction
almost
practices leads it
the water
slice has
Concrete
ofDurability is improve Permeability concrete.
of
penetration
which
of
by the
of mix
aggregate permeability
by
concrete,reinforced
spallingwith
governed
of
ratioof
paste. penetration saturated
image
aggregate the steel
selection to moisture
cement well-packed
cementhelped 2.18. of attack of and
is magnified permeability. durability
of corrosion
cracking
Permeability well-graded Fig. of liquids
case become
proper and has
study The The
water
and
Srength In
good
The ThewaterThis The
the By
 INTRODUCTION
2.10.1. 2.10. |2.36|

material differentials THERMAL In is filled

For lower Forspace.
water With
age,permeability. Fig.
2.5in
the Thehigher Incement . Since
is Such size The body. The
The the Thermal permeability. particles
inherent general, the degree rocks flowinteriorliquid The
properties
thermal of the permeability 20 which pores
water-cement to the pores The
because same pastes paste
the 100
capillary permeability
PROPERTIES th e of are in
pores of
retaining
properties th higher
e give of
heatoccur water-cement
A hydration. pores times
is concrete water the
permeability
hydrated not
these of durablehigher of a in
than controlled pores dams.
including
hydration. ratio are considered
honeycomb cement through
cement more
as
structures is
are are that fewer also
concrete the or to are a
affected
concreteare important OF permeable result paste
strength with ratiohigher thedecreases paste in by larger concrete of
those CONCRETE here. and
finer the same number, the structure consist of interest
should cement also the
by due permneability capillary inincomplete
of
cement. than size Repair
moisture in degree, because varies of
isproblem
in
more to cement
be but similar
content. th e than leading gel connection
solar
structures relatively being
complex with porosity and
content
the gel gel gel compaction pores of
paste, to to
radiation of the pores, hydrostatic Rehabilitation
permeability
paste gradually
fills
the of itself, concrete and flow
than which in impervious. age larger of with
and the and capillary through
with of th e th e are
porosity.those during lower water-tightness
concrete paste the of
coarser
size permeability voids pressure
is cement low pores. any of
of they
casting will lower as of Structures
most temperature original
strength
be cemenl or lead shown larger porous in
wi th paste
tne with to of
the nf
other
 2.10.3. D.2. "ngth
T ¢ The
tensions.
Three induce
remains cracking.resulting
The cause The temperature
concrete THERMAL and
Thermal Residual
cooled termperature
temperature Stressed loaded
Ünstressed temperature
These to This internalconditions.
member.
The heat
the THERMAL
readily Thermal second surface atmospheric process Durability
body and are types
structural tO until move temperature temperature temperature
than conductivity room
unstressed tests, the of of
conductivity when is the tests, on of CHARACTER
measured is is effect temperature
light CONDUCTIVITY reached, where
following: tests that concrete.
hydration of
th e temperature, point the gradients
concrete applied- where Concrete
weight temperature stress are of
operates is has
in tests, a of connecting wil raised
depends British is the fractionfailure. specimens commonly toThis of
concrete. a and produce is OF
containing measure where load strain may reach cements
and as heat
dependent above CONCRETE
upon Thermal
difference OF then sustained
is of th e occur
the
increased th e ar
properties
e members tensions equilibrium must
CONCRETE of used mean th e materials
normal the loaded
specimens compressive heated
composition is Units the to on surface or be
ability during study temperature in develop
1°F until until of and the the lost
aggregate' per under wi th releases
per the concrete the surface temperature to
hour of the are heating. the material
of foot the pointheated point
strength no subsequent in a the
per
effect lo ng
concrete.
conducts thickness concrete initial under of and the atmosphere heat
square of
without of
When the
of may in concrete of
term which
failure. failure. capacity stress
compressión. transient member contract.
offoot to
cooling be
the atmosphere
heat any the raises
body. conduct at and stiffness concrete and
area as
more load, target room then high will and The |2.37
of the the the
2.38 Repuir and Rehabilitation of Structures
the
Lower the water content of the mix, the higher the conductivity of
hardened concrete.
conductivity of
The density of the concrete does not appreciably affect the
of concrete with
ordinary concrete. The variation of thermal conductivity
tenperature is shown in Fig. 2.19.
CONDUCTIVITY.WIM°C
THERMAL
2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

500 1000 1500 2000

TEMPERATURE°C

Fig. 2.19. Variation of thermalconductivity of concrete

2.10.4. THERMAL EXPANSION OF CONCRETE
Coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete is an important property which
affects the stability and durability at different temperature conditions.
The coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete depends on the composition
of the mix and on the values of the coefficient of expansion of cement paste
and aggregate.
For ordinary cured concrete the coefficient decreases slightly with age but thiS
is not the case in the concrete cured under high pressure steam. For ordinary
concrete the value of coefficient ofthermal expansion varies from 9 x 107C
to 12 x 10c
2.10.5. FIRE RESISTANCE ON CONCRETE
Even concrete is not a refractory material but a good combustible and has
good fire resisting properties.
Fire resistance of concrete is determined by three factors.
Srengthand Durability of Concrete 2.39

The capacity of concrete itself to withstand heat

The subsequent action of water without losing strength unduly without
cracking or spelling
V The conductivity of the concrete to heat and coefficient of thermal
expansion of concrete
Fire on concrete building damages the concrete as well as steel reinforcement,
causing disintegration of the concrete and buckling of steel.
The temperature gradient is extreme 30 to 40° Con the outer face and above
800° C on the interface (near the source of fire).
In the initial stage (half an hour) as the heat inside builds up, some aggregate
expand suddenly, spelling the adjacent concrete.
Moisture in concrete rapidly changes to steam, causing localized bursting of
small pieces of concrete. Extreme heat near the sources of fire causes spalling
rapidly expanding concrete surfaces.
In the next 30 minutes a temperature inside reaches 400 C, the cement matrix
converts to quick time causing disintegration of concrete.
The reinforcing steel loses the tensile capacity at such temperature. Deflection
of beams and slab increases beyond their limit.
Beyond one hour of fire, as the concrete disintegrates, the exposed steel
expands, more rapidly than the surrounding concrete causing buckling, loss of
bond to adjacent concrete.
The fire introduces high temperature gradients and as a result of it, the surface
layers extent to separate and spall off from the cooler interior.
The heating of reinforcement mkes the expansion both laterally and
longitudinally of the reinforcement base resulting in loss of bond and loss of
strength of reinforcement.
2.11. CRACKING OF CONCRETE
Cracks are developed when the stresses are exceeds its cracking strength in
the structure.
These are likely to spoil the internal finish of building due to penetration of
moisture and thus increase the cost of maintenance.
 concrete 2.11.2. or 2.11,1. 2.40
durability
concrete.of create
materials.
Classification Fig. Structural
Non Cracks
Non Structural
overloading Structural
Cracks
Thin The Based 2.20 an TYPEScrackingcarefulCracks
cracks compared called CLASSIFICATION impression Structural
occurrence These
crackscrazing. on follows cracks due
in and observation
OF and
WideMediumn Thin the cracks
Fig. of to CRACKS to
a width, the of cracks these are adopt
concrete fewer are cracks different
2,21 ofcracks step faulty
even closely cracks
normally occur may those the
and number cracks OF of
- - by the
cracks closely mnore less step
work endanger which remedial
Fig. -1 CRACKS mostly causes
spaced are do characteristics
of to than and or not result
2.22. has than give
e
widspaced 2classified due the treatment. have
given fine 2 mm mm 1 describes endanger
mm
a to safety from
cracks. in in feeling varying Repair
are cracks inwidth into internally that
to width the incorrect
ofa
width three
the
explain less of one and
at cracks
instability.safety building characteristics.
damaging the broad induced design, Rehabilitation
can
the surface in but
and diagnose
types classes concrete maystresses
theirfaulty
to of look It
and the a are: inmates. the is of
which in construction
causes material unsightly.building cause Structures
by
struclu
affect only
of
 Srengihandof
Concrete Cracks
in

Durability
Fig.
Hardening Hardening
After Before
2.20.

Vurious Concrete
Construc
tional -Drying
types

and + +
Chemical movements
Moisture
Transition
zone Thermal Long-term
shrinkage Unsound
drying Materials damage
Early
frost
Corrosion Structural
Biological
causes
vibration
Excess
movement
Formwork Bleeding
’ Delayed
+curing + +
settlenent
Finishing grade
Sub shrinkage
Scttlement
shrinkage Plastic
of design
reinforcement
of
cracks
deficiencies
attack
Acid ’
in Carbonation
Chloride water
atck Akali-aggregate
Sea reaclion
Sulphate
atack termperature
Elevated
Freezing
thawing External
Joints
and Concrete inhydration
Heatof dust
mudand Cement
Aggregates
Excess
concrete
silt,
temperature

|2.41|
 2.42

Prehardening

1.Primary Constructional Movement Settlement Shrinkage Setting Shrinkage

Classification

2. Secondary Subgrade Formwork Reinforcement or Plastic Drying

for1mwork obstructions shrinkage shrinkage
Classification

Settlement Movement of Settlement of concrete Chemical Rapid drying

3. Cause formwork reactions while setting occurs
of subgrade during setting
Repair

Moisture changes Swelling of Settlement of around |Cracking of exposed

4. Example or wood or
Cracks occur surfaces due to high and
in Subgrade or obstruction mix too fluid Soon after
wind, low humidity
Contributing lack of compaction pressure of placing and under
Condition
of subgrade wet concrete moist conditions Rehabilitation
or temperature
differential

Dense mixes with low Proper protection

Control of Construction of Remedy not
S. Remedy water Ontent && clear but refloating
subgrading adequate forms
adequate compaction eliminates cracks
of low lifts of
Structo.
cracks
Fig. 2.21. Types and ca IESes ofconcrete
 Strength

Aner hardening and

Durability

1. Primary Drying Cheniical Structural

Tcmperaturc failurc
Classification Srinkage action

of
2. Secondary C'oncretc Steel Internal External Concrete
Classification

3. Cause
Loss of Expansion of internal Climatic Irost and ice Excessivc Tensile
Water mass resulting in barg:s stresscs due
cracking of cxternal skin to loads

4. Example or Cracking of Reactive Corrosion ofllcal of hydration Large slabs or Spaling Building setlement,
Contributing building slabs aggrcgales 1einforcement cf cement; wails without CXcessivc loads,
Condition and walls aggregales of adequatc joints surlace vibration, carthquakes.
abnormal thermal and insufficient
expansion reinforccment

Dense mixes Low alkali Thick and densc Low-hcat

with low cement and layer of
Adcquate Air Corrcct
cement and control Cxpansion entrainment design of
5. Remedy cement and nonrcactive protective of temperaturc contraction and sound structure
water content; aggregatcs Concrete rise; aggregatcs joints concrete
adequate curing of normal thermal
CXpansion

Fig. 2.22. Other properties, types and causes of concretecracking

2.43
 2.11.4.
SETTLEMENT
CRACKS
2.11.3. 2.44

Stress
cracking. Fig. durability.
structuraloperators
Revibration, avoided.Concrete
Sometimes,
compacted. settlementlarger IfsettlePlastic
SHRINKAGE there
concrete
strength
Tensileof
Fig. relaxation
stress
Predicted
cracking
without
shows
2.2th3e pieceuniformly,
isconcrete
2.23. to shouldcracks. any
integrity of
seal the Building
Influence if
OF aggregate,
obstruction then when
possible themsettlement beThis
CONCRETE of
influenceof off. up
poured there
vibrated
the generally
of of
shrinkage beam is cracks large
then to is
an in uniform no
it crack. or
tensile
Actual
relaxation stress
stress
after shrinkageand or
effective and quantity
layers
happenscreates otherwise
and restrainedPredicted
strains
shrinkage tensile
stresselastic
arewhen
any
voids settlement Repair
creep Time other and some
in
cracking
Delay in step. of
a settles.
on are concrete each deep and
member voids
concrete creep Otherwise, so by Rehabilitation
layer beam. If
severe orway
relaxationon over the
cracking Stress
relief and should cracks. ofconcrete
a
badly they needs it beam reinforcement
This
be of
affect affect should is Structures
(b) (a) concrete grouting properly is free
called
the the be or to
 SHRINKAGE
PLASTIC
2.11.5.
Sirength
e
V
eliminate InRatConcrete. The When
This water formwork Water shrinkage When The Cracks creep.
generally relaxation From
predicted relaxation such The larger
Shrinkage
durability
e words, upon concrete and
Moisten such above aspect
porary
Erect Erect of magnitude creates from the Fig. as
ambient
it from we can magnitude Durability
evaporation is magnitude
temporary plastic
a depends loss and are shrinkage
discuss by point, of of
situation, still interior fresh situation be 2.23 by of
the moisture of in required creep, concrete
creepcracking concrete.
temperature, of in avoided but it
subgrade
shrinkage
cracks. plastic water
hydration concrete or of
plastic to
roof towind in upon aboutcauses is thecan and of minor
Concrete
theexcess the to is at
from shrinkage, in is
the gradient
condition. surface,
shrinkage be the all-time
not only cracking be at Shrinkage
one
breakers and following seen what nicrocracks.
concrete
protect rate surface
process. canconsidered. cracks
formworks. of relative be shrinkagehappening if of
1 of the is that age
concrete
green to kg/m´ which the lost in less extensibility isthe
and concrete. delayed the mainly
reduce measures evaporation humidity surface of by than stress the is important
per plastic concrete of shrinkage very
results evaporation, in the cracking
hour concrete, most induced because complex,
the dries tensile responsible
wind could shrinkage
ofand is factors
is is of
from
sun.hot in up.faster of
considered water wind surface the strength by ofdoes concrete,
appearing,
velocity be absorption
subgrade,by the
than following shrinkage stress not involving contributing
for
taken from cracks cases
velocity. causing
over cracking the
critical.
to the are concrete.
of relaxation take etc..extent
migration and place many
reduce surfacedepending aspects strain,
concrete. In of cracks to
as
other while due at stressfactors lack
such after 2.45
or of of of to the of of
 2.12. SHRINKAGE
DRYING
2.11.6. |2.46|

The
As The freeze moisture EFFECT the cemnent
llaries
temperatures. The cracking
shrinkage and be content, content:
At about It shrinkage At But in In concrete. aTheshrinkage Minimize
cracks inDrying compound.
is function
practical
water gel capillary most forgotten
suchsurface therefore lower concreteReduce
mentioned at mechanism
when 35
pores OF an days a shrinkage
is
severe inspite shrinkage
W/C even given, of is evaporation
has when subjected CLIMATE stress early even terms
the more that cement one with the
to are pores or ratio
freezing ambient climatic of earlier. earlier
age, decreases involved time
move. so andconsiderable stronger workability, at of
stress microcracks. a in polyethylene
small in the concrete is content, the between
to constant by
e (FREEZING therefore
thcycles that unaffected concrete
expands temperature attack relaxation concrete concrete, because fundamentalis covering
that cement 50 too
amount per is which water placing
water of on stronger W/Ccomplex. sheets.
freezing the of is
by are concrete AND by will by content
ratio,
cent creeps
lower an concrete
in is concrete not of approximately
% thembelow of high of the reasons
inherent
and Repair
to shrinkageGenerally
of such andTHAWING) haveshrinkage
shrinkage W/C and finishing.
creep less,resist increase with
its does 0°C.thawing.occurs and
a attained
is ratio. for
volume, size at there
shrinkage. W/C property burlap,Rehabilitation
not much the initial If
when low will will meansincreases ratio.
freeze that is in there
good have less
pattern fog
excess
strength. more
have cement
water concrete induction of is
at strength taken stress But a with spray
constant of concrete. delay
normal vulnerable taken it of
water in content, shrinkage
an and
themcontaininy place relaxationshould of coverStructures
to place increase curing
in wintel resist water micro
tn wil near not The the
to in or is
Strength and Durability of Concrete 2.47

Since the cement paste is relatively impermeable, high pressures are necessary
to move the excess water even over quite smalldistance.
For normal strength concrete it has been found that movement of the order of
0.2mm is sufficient torequire pressures which approach the tensile strengthof
the paste.
Concrete can be protected from freeze and thaw damage, by the environment
of appropriate quantities of air distributed through the cement paste with
spacing between bubbles of not more than about 0.4mm.
The air bubbles must remain partially empty so that they can accommodate
the excess water moved to them.
This will generally be the case since the bubbles constitute the coarsest pore
system and are therefore the first to lose moisture as the concrete dries.
Fully saturated concrete if permanently submerged will not need protection
against freezing, but concrete which has been saturated and is exposed to
freezing, as for example in the tidal range, may not be effectively protected by
air-entrainment.

2.13. EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE

The temperature difference within a concrete structure results in differential
volume change.
When the tensile strain due to differential volume change exceeds the tensile
strain capacity of concrete, it will crack.
The temperature differentials associated with the hydration of cement, affect
the mass concrete such as in large columns, piers, footings, dams, etc.,
whereas the temperature differentials due to changes in the temperature can
affect the whole structure.
The liberation of the heat of hydration of cement causes the internal
temperature of concrete to rise during the initial curing period, so that it is
usually slightly warmer than its surroundings.
In thick sections and with rich mixes the temperature differential may be
considerable. As the concrete cools it will try to contract.
Any restraint on the free contraction during cooling will result in tensile
stresses which are proportional to the temperature change, coefficient of
thermal expansion,effective modulus of elasticity and degree of restraint.
2.48 Repair and Rehabilitation of Structures

for temperature
The more massive the structure, the greater is the potential
differential and degree of restraint.
the maximum
Thermally induced cracking can be reduced by controlling
by insulating the formwork
internal temperature, delaying the onset of cooling
exposed surfaces, controlling the rate of cooling, and increasing the
and
tensile strain capacity of the concrete.
precautions need to be taken in the design of structures in which some
Special portions of
changes while the other
portions are exposed to temperature
protected.
structures are either partially or completely
temperature may result in the cracking of theexposed element while
A drop in
in the protected portion of the
increase in temperature may cause cracking
structure.
and rotation in structural
Temperature gradient may cause deflection
can result.
members: if these are restrained serious stresses
contraction joints and
Allowing for movement by using properly designed
the cracks do form.
correct detailing will help alleviate these problems, if
after a structure in
Remedial measures are similar to those for cracks that form
service.
2.14. EFFECT OF SUSTAINED ELEVATED TEMPERATURE

2.14.1. GENERAL

Concrete, at elevated temperatures, undergoes significant physicochemical

changes. These changes cause properties to deteriorate at elevated temperatures and
introduce new complexities, such as spalling in concrete. Thus, thermal, mechanical,
and deformation properties of concrete change substantially within the temperature
range associated with building fires. Furthermore, many of these properties a
temperature dependent and sensitive to testing (method) parameters such as heating
rate, strain rate, temperature gradient, and so on.
2.14.2. THERMAL PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE AT ELEVATED
TEMPERATURE
concrete
Thermal properties that govern temperature dependent properties in
structures are thermal conductivity. specific heat or heat capacity, and nma
loss. These properties are significantly influenced by the aggregate ypes
moisture content, nd composition of concrete mix.
Srength and Durabiliy of Concrele 2.49

Thermal Conductivity
V Thermal conductivity of concrete at room temperature is in the range of
1.4and 3.6 W/m°K and varies with temperature. Overall thermal conductivity
decreases gradually with temperature and this decrease is dependent on the
concrete mix properties, specifically moisture content and permeability. This
decreasing trend in thermal conductivity can be attributed to variation of
moisture content with increase in temperature.
Thermal conductivity of High Strength Concrete (HSC) is higher than that of
normal concrete due to low w/c ratio and use of different binders in HSC.
Generally, thermal conductivity of HSC is in the range between 2.4 and
3.6 W/m°K at room temperature.
Thermal conductivity for fiber-reinforced concretes with both steel and
polypropylene fibers almost follow a similar trend as that of plain concrete
and closer to that of HSC. Therefore, it is deduced that there is no significant
effect of fibers on thermal conductivity of concrete ina 20-800°C temperature
range.
SpecificHeat
V The specific heat of concrete at room temperature varies in the range of
840 J/kg K and 1800 J/kg K for different aggregate types. The specific heat
property is sensitive to various physical and chemical transformations that
take place in concrete at elevated temperatures. This includes the vaporization
of free water at about 100°C, thedissociation of Ca(OH), into CaO and H;0
between 400-500°C, and the quartz transformation of somne aggregates above
600°C. Specific heat is therefore highly dependent on moisture content and
considerably increases with higher water to cement ratio.
The specific heat of concrete type remains almost constant up to 400°C,
followed by increases of up to about 700°C and then remains constant
between 700 and 800°C range. Of the various factors, aggregate type has a
significant influence on the specific heat of concrete.
Carbonate aggregate concrete has higher specific heat in 600-800°C
temperature range and this is caused by an endothermic reaction, which results
from decomposition of dolomite and absorbs a large amount of energy. This
high heat capacity in carbonate aggregate concrete helps to minimize spalling
and enhance fire resistance of structural members.
 Repair and Rehabilitation of:
2.50
Structures
(HSC) exhibi,
As compared to normal concrete, High Strength Concrete
range.
slightly lower specific heat throughout the 20-800°C temperature
specific heat of
The presence of fibers also has a minor influence on the
burning of
concrete. For concrete with polypropylene fibers, the
and henoe
polypropylene fibers produces micro channels for release of vapor;
chernically bound
the amount of heat absorbed is less for dehydration of
range of 600-800°c
water; thus its specific heat is reduced in the temperature
400-800°C
Concrete with steel fibers displays ahigher specific heat in the
additional heat absorbed for
temperature range, which can be attributed to
dehydration of chemically bound water.
Mass loss
subdivided into two major
V Depending on the density, concretes are usually
groups:
(1) Normal-weight concretes with densities in 2150 to 2450 kg/m' range
(2) Lightweight concretes with densities between 1350 and 1850 kg/m
The density or mass of concrete decreases with increasing temperature due to
loss of moisture. The retention in mass of concrete at elevated temperatures is
highly influenced by the type of aggregate. The variation in mass of concrete
as a function of temperature for concretes made with carbonate and siliceous
aggregates.
The mass loss is minimum in both carbonate and siliceous aggregate concrels
up to about 600°C. However, the type of aggregate has significant
influence
on mass loss in concretes beyond 600°C.
In the case of siliceous aggregate concrete, mass loss is insignificant eve
above 600°C. However, beyond 600°C, carbonate aggregate siliceous
col
experiences a larger percentage of mass loss as compared to carbonate
aggregate concrete. This higher percentage of mass loss in carbonate
in
aggregate concrete is attributed to dissociation of dolomite
aggregate at around 600°C.
ELEVATED
2.14.3. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE AT
TEMPERATURE
desigt
+ The mechanical properties that are of primary interest in fire resistance
Stress-strain
are compressive strength, ternsile strength, elastic modulus and
Strength and Durabiliny ofConcrete |2.51
response in compression. High temperature mechanical property tests are
generally carricd out on concrete specimens that are typically cylinders or
cubes of different sizes. Unlike room temperature property measurements,
where there are specified specinmen sizes as per standards, the high
temperature mechanical properties are usually carried out on a wide range of
specimen sizes for undertaking high temperaturce mechanical property tests.
N Compressive Strength
A larger variation in compressive strength of High Strength Concrete (HSC)
with a temperature in the range of 200°C to 500°C and less variation above
500°C. This is mainly because fewer test data points were reported for HSC
for temperatures higher than 500°C, either due to the occurrence of spalling in
concrete or due to limitations in the test apparatus.
A wider variation is observed for nomal concrete in this temperature range
above 500°C vhen compared to HSC. This is mainly because of the higher
number of test ata points reported and also due to the lower tendency of
normal concrte to spall under fire.
Overall the variation in compressive strength mechanical properties of
concrete at high-temperatures is quite high. These variations from different
tests can be attributed to using different heating or loading rates, specime.A
size and curing, condition at testing like moisture content and age of specimen
and the use of admixtures.
Tensile Strength
The tensile strength of concrete is much lower than that of compressive
strength, and hence tensile strength of concrete is often neglected in strength
calculations at room and elevated temperatures. But from fire resistance point
of view, it is an important property, because cracking in concrete is generally
due to tensile stresses and the structural damage of the member in tension is
often generated by progression in micro cracking. Under fire conditions,
tensile strength of concrete can be even more crucial in cases where fire
induced spalling occurs in concrete member.
The decrease in tensile strength of normal concrete with temperature can be
attributed to weak microstructure of normal concrete allowing initiation of
microcracks.
At 300C, concrete loses about 20% of its initial tensile strength. Above
300°C,the tensile strength of normal concrete decreases at a rapid rate du: to
2.52 Repair and Rehabilitation of
Structure,
a more thermal damage in the form of microcracks and reaches to about 200
of its initial strength at 600°C.
High Strength Concrete (HSC) experiences a rapid loss of tensile strength a
higher temperatures due to development of pore pressure in dense micr
structured HSC. The addition of steel fibers to concrete enhances its tensile
strength and the increase can be up to 50% higher at room temperature. This
increased tensile strength can delay the propagation of cracks in steel fiber.
reinforced concrete structural members and is highly beneficial when the
member is subjected to bending stresses.
Elastic Modulus
The modulus of elasticity (E) of various concretes at room temperature varies
over a wide range, 5 x 10 to 35 x 10° MPa, and is dependent mainly on the
water-cement ratio in the mixture, the age of concrete, the method oi
conditioning and the amount and natureof the aggregates.
The modulus of elasticity decreases rapidly with the rise of temperature and
the slight decrease does not depend significantly on the type of aggregate. The
modulus of elasticity of normal-weight concretes decreases at a higher rate
with the rise of temperature than that of lightweight concretes.
Stress StrainResponse
The mechanical response of concrete is usually expressed in the form o
stress-strain relations, which are often used for evaluating the fire resistance o!
concrete structural members. Generally, because of a decrease in compressi*
strength and increase in ductility of concrete, the slope of stress-strain curn?
decreases with increasing temperature. The strength of concrete ha
significant influence on stress-strain response both at roON and elevate
temperatures.
Fig. 2.24. and Fig. 2.25 illustrates stress-strain response of normal concre
and High Strength Concrete (HSC), respectively, at various temperatue
all temperaures both normal concrete and HSC exhibit a linear respo
descending
followed by a parabolic response till peak sress and sudden and
Steeper
portion prior to failure. In general, it is establisl1ed that HSC bas
more linear stress-strain curves n comparison to normal concrete
20-800°C.
ofboth
The temperature has a significant effect on the stress-strain response
normal and high strength concrete with therate of rise in temperature.