Further Studies Maths - Polynomials Part 1

1. Polynomials

• Definition: A polynomial in x is an expression of the form

• an xn + an-1xn-1 + ... where (an ≠ 0) and (n ∈ N) (N is the set of natural numbers).

• Degree: The highest exponent of the variable.

• Equal Polynomials: Two polynomials are equal if they have the same degree and
the coefficients of corresponding powers are equal.

5-Step Method for some Polynomial Problems:

1. Understand: Carefully read the polynomial problem and identify what you need
to find (e.g., coefficients, degree, value at a point).

2. Identify Key Concepts: Determine which polynomial concepts are relevant (e.g.,
degree, evaluating polynomials, equating coefficients).

3. Apply Concepts: Use the relevant definitions, theorems, or methods to solve

the problem.

4. Calculate: Perform the necessary calculations.

5. Check: Verify your answer.

Examples:

• Example 1: Let (p(x) = x^3 + 2x^2 - 5x - 6).

o a) Write down deg (p(x)).

o b) Determine:

(i) (p(1))

(ii) (p(-1))

(iii) (p(2))

(iv) (p(-2))

(v) (p(0))
Solution:

deg (p(x)) = 3

(i) (p(1) = (1)3 + 2(1)2 - 5(1) - 6 = 1 + 2 - 5 - 6 = -8

(ii) (p(-1) = (-1)^3 + 2(-1)^2 - 5(-1) - 6 = -1 + 2 + 5 - 6 = 0

(iii) (p(2) = (2)^3 + 2(2)^2 - 5(2) - 6 = 8 + 8 - 10 - 6 = 0

(iv) (p(-2) = (-2)^3 + 2(-2)^2 - 5(-2) - 6 = -8 + 8 + 10 - 6 = 4

(v) (p(0) = (0)^3 + 2(0)^2 - 5(0) - 6 = -6)

• Example 2: Find constants A and B such that

3x - 4 = A(x - 1) + B(x + 2).

o Solution:

▪ Method 1 (Equating coefficients):

▪ From x: 3 = A + B

▪ From constant: -4 = -A + 2B

▪ Solving these equations gives

A = 10/3 and (B = -1/3

▪ Method 2 (Substitution):

▪ Let (x = 1):

(3(1) - 4 = A(1 - 1) + B(1 + 2))

=> (-1 = 3B) => (B = -1/3)

▪ Let (x = -2):

(3(-2) - 4 = A(-2 - 1) + B(-2 + 2))

=> (-10 = -3A) => (A = 10/3)

 • Example 3: Determine m and n if x3 + mx2 + nx + 5 = (x + 1)(x2 - x + 5).

o Solution:

▪ Expanding the right side:

(x + 1)(x2 - x + 5) = x3 - x2 + 5x + x2 - x + 5 = x3 + 4x + 5

▪ Equating coefficients:

▪ (m = 0)

▪ (n = 4)

Practice Questions:

1. Find constants A and B such that (x + 7 = A(2x - 1) + B(x + 2)).

2. Determine a, b, and c if (2x3 - 7x2 - 5x + 4 = (2x - 1)(ax2 + bx + c)).

2. Division of Polynomials

• Euclidean Property of Polynomials: If (p(x)) and (d(x)) are non-zero

polynomials, then there exist polynomials (q(x)) and (r(x)) such that

(p(x) = d(x)q(x) + r(x)) where either (r(x) = 0) or deg (r(x)) < deg (d(x)).

• (p(x)) is the dividend, (d(x)) is the divisor, (q(x)) is the quotient, and (r(x)) is the
remainder.

5-Step Method for Polynomial Division:

1. Understand: Identify the dividend (p(x)) and divisor (d(x)).

2. Set up Long Division: Arrange the polynomials in descending order of powers of

x.

3. Perform Division: Use the long division algorithm to divide (p(x)) by (d(x)).

4. Identify Quotient and Remainder: Determine the quotient (q(x)) and the
remainder (r(x)).

5. Check: Verify the result using the Euclidean Property: (p(x) = d(x)q(x) + r(x)).

Examples:

• Example 1: Divide (p(x) = 2x3 + x2 - 3x + 1 by d(x) = x + 1

o Solution: Using long division

 • Example 2: Divide (p(x) = 3x4 - 2x2 - 1 by d(x) = x - 1.

o Solution: Using long division:

• Example 3: Divide 2x4 - x2 + 5 by x2 - 2x + 4.

o Solution: Using long division:

Practice Questions:

1. Divide p(x) = x3 - x^2 - x + 1) by (d(x) = x - 2).

2. Divide p(x) = 2x 3 + x 2 − 3x + 1 by d(x) = x2 - x + 1.

3. Factorisation

• Difference of Two Squares: (A2 - B2 = (A - B)(A + B))

• Sum of Two Squares: (A2 + B2 = (A - Bi)(A + Bi)) where (i2 = -1)

• Difference of Two Cubes: (A3 - B3 = (A - B)(A2 + AB + B2))

• Sum of Two Cubes: (A3 + B3 = (A + B)(A2 - AB + B^2))

• Perfect Squares: (A2 ± 2AB + B2 = (A ± B)2)

5-Step Method for Factorisation:

1. Understand: Identify the expression to be factorised.

2. Look for Special Patterns: Check if the expression fits any of the special
patterns (difference of squares, etc.).

3. Apply Factorisation Techniques: Use appropriate techniques like factoring out

common factors, grouping, or using the quadratic formula if necessary.

4. Factorise Completely: Ensure the expression is factorised as much as possible.

5. Check: Multiply the factors back together to verify the original expression.

4. Remainder and Factor Theorems

• Remainder Theorem: If a polynomial (p(x)) is divided by (bx - c) ((b ≠ 0)), then

the remainder is (p(c/b)).

• Factor Theorem: For a polynomial (p(x)), (bx - c) is a factor of (p(x)) if and only
if (p(c/b) = 0).
5-Step Method for using Remainder/Factor Theorem:

1. Understand: Identify the polynomial (p(x)) and the divisor.

2. Apply Remainder Theorem: To find the remainder when (p(x)) is divided by (bx
- c), calculate (p(c/b)).

3. Apply Factor Theorem: To check if (bx - c) is a factor of (p(x)), check if

(p(c/b) = 0).

4. Factorise: If (p(c/b) = 0), then (bx - c) is a factor. Use polynomial division or

other methods to find the other factors.

5. Solve: If necessary, solve the polynomial equation by setting the factored form
equal to zero.

Examples:

• Example 1: Find the remainder when (16x3 - 4x2 + 2x - 1) is divided by (2x - 1).

o Solution:

▪ Let (p(x) = 16x^3 - 4x^2 + 2x - 1).

▪ Using the Remainder Theorem, the remainder is

(p(1/2) = 16(1/2)3 - 4(1/2)2 + 2(1/2) - 1 = 2 - 1 + 1 - 1 = 1

• Example 2: Show that (x - 2) is a factor of (x3 + 2x2 - 5x - 6).

o Solution:

▪ Let (p(x) = x^3 + 2x^2 - 5x - 6).

▪ Using the Factor Theorem, (p(2) = (2)3 + 2(2)2 - 5(2) - 6 = 8 + 8 -

10 - 6 = 0).

▪ Since (p(2) = 0), (x - 2) is a factor.

• Example 3: Solve the equation (x3 + 8x2 + 17x + 10 = 0).

o Solution: (Using the Factor Theorem and synthetic division/long division)

▪ By trial and error, we find that (x = -1) is a root.

▪ Therefore, (x + 1) is a factor.

▪ Dividing (x3 + 8x2 + 17x + 10) by (x + 1) gives (x2 + 7x + 10).

▪ Factorising (x^2 + 7x + 10) gives ((x + 2)(x + 5)).

▪ So, ((x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 5) = 0).

▪ The solutions are (x = -1, -2, -5).

Practice Questions:

1. Use the Remainder Theorem to find the remainder when (p(x) = 2x^3 + 3x^2 +
3x + 1) is divided by (2x + 1).

2. Factorise (f(x) = x^3 + 9x^2 + 26x + 24) completely.