Q.) PARTITOIN RIOTS OF INDIA?

Ans INTRODUCTION

The Partition of British India in August 1947, which led to the creation of India and Pakistan, was one
of the most violent and traumatic events in South Asian history. Though officially described as a
peaceful transfer of power, it unleashed widespread communal riots between Hindus, Muslims, and
Sikhs. Triggered by rushed border demarcations and deep-rooted tensions, the violence resulted in
the deaths of an estimated one to two million people. Over 15 million were displaced in the largest
mass migration in human history, as families fled across hastily drawn borders in search of safety.
The riots were marked by brutal killings, arson, abductions, and sexual violence, leaving lasting scars
on individuals and communities. The Partition riots not only tore apart families and neighborhoods
but also reshaped the social and political fabric of the subcontinent.

History of Partition of India

The 1905 Partition of Bengal on religious lines is often seen as planting the seeds for India’s eventual
Partition. It sparked widespread protests, forcing Viceroy Lord Curzon to reverse the decision. A
decade later, in 1916, unprecedented cooperation emerged between the Indian National Congress
and the Muslim League through the Lucknow Pact. Driven by the League’s growing suspicion of
British claims to religious neutrality, the pact aimed to achieve greater self-governance. As part of
the agreement, Congress accepted the demand for separate electorates for Muslims in both
provincial and imperial legislatures. While hailed as a milestone in the freedom struggle, the pact
primarily benefited a small group of Muslim elites from Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, rather than the
Muslim majorities in Punjab and Bengal. Nevertheless, the Lucknow Pact marked a crucial moment
of Hindu-Muslim unity and set a precedent for future negotiations between communities, even as its
long-term implications became clearer in the years to follow.

Partition: planning, implementation, and outcome

1. Planning (March–July 1947):

When Lord Louis Mountbatten arrived in March 1947 as the last British Viceroy, he assessed the
political climate and quickly determined that unity between the Indian National Congress and the
Muslim League was impossible. To prevent civil war, he proposed Partition as the only viable
solution. On June 3, 1947, the Partition Plan was announced. The Indian Independence Act passed
on July 18, setting August 15 as the deadline for British withdrawal and the creation of India and
Pakistan. A hastily appointed Boundary Commission under Sir Cyril Radcliffe was tasked with drawing
new borders within just five weeks, with minimal consultation.

2. Implementation (August 1947):

The formal transfer of power occurred on August 14 in Pakistan and August 15 in India. However,
the exact borders, drawn by Radcliffe, were not revealed until August 17, causing mass confusion.
Punjab and Bengal—regions with highly mixed populations—were split, displacing millions almost
overnight. As people rushed to relocate to areas where their religious community was in the
majority, trains and caravans became targets for violent mobs. The Sikh community in Punjab was
especially affected, losing homes, holy sites, and lives. Despite British presence, law and order
collapsed rapidly, leading to unrestrained communal massacres and massive human suffering.

3. Outcome (Long-Term Consequences):

Partition resulted in the largest mass migration in human history, displacing around 15 million
people. Up to two million died in the accompanying violence. The scars of Partition deeply impacted
regional politics and inter-religious relations. While the immediate bloodshed ended within six
weeks, long-term consequences endured. Sindh, initially peaceful, later faced tension integrating
Muslim refugees from India. Sikh grievances led to later unrest, including the 1984 Golden Temple
crisis. India and Pakistan have since fought several wars, notably over Kashmir. The Partition's legacy
remains unresolved, fueling nationalist narratives, communal tensions, and political conflicts across
South Asia to this day.

Theory Behind the Partition of India 1937

The Two-Nation Theory was key to the 1947 Partition of British India. It claimed that Hindus and
Muslims were separate nations with distinct identities and could not coexist in a single country.
Championed by Muhammad Ali Jinnah and the Muslim League, the theory gained strength in the
early 20th century as Muslims sought separate political representation. The Lahore Resolution of
1940 formally demanded a separate Muslim state, gaining support in Muslim-majority regions. As
communal tensions rose, British and Indian leaders came to view Partition as unavoidable. This led
to the creation of India and Pakistan. The division triggered massive communal violence and the
largest mass migration in history, displacing around 15 million people and killing up to two million.
The Two-Nation Theory left a deep and lasting impact on both nations, shaping their political, social,
and religious identities.

Mountbatten Plan (The June 3, 1947 Plan)

The "Mountbatten Plan," as it has come to be known, was used to split British India between the two
new dominions. On June 3, 1947, Mountbatten announced it at a press conference along with the
date of independence, August 15, 1947, and the Partition of India.

Provisions of the Mountbatten Plan

The Mountbatten Plan outlined the partition process of British India in 1947. It allowed legislative
assemblies in Bengal and Punjab to vote on separation, with a simple majority from either religious
group supporting partition. Sind and Balochistan were granted the autonomy to choose their
allegiance independently, while referendums were held in Sylhet (Assam) and the Northwest
Frontier Province to decide their futures. Bengal’s proposal for independence was rejected,
reinforcing the framework for division. A Boundary Commission was set up to define the borders,
with Indian authorities approving the plan on June 2. Lord Mountbatten advised princely states to
join either India or Pakistan, ruling out independence as an option. His approach sought to divide the
country while maintaining as much unity as possible during the transition. The Indian Independence
Act of 1947, passed shortly after, formalized the creation of Pakistan on August 14 and India on
August 15. This plan laid the foundation for Partition, leading to mass migration, violence, and long-
lasting regional consequences.

Events that Led to the Partition of India

The British "Divide and Rule" policy played a crucial role in the Partition of India, leading to key
events like the 1905 Partition of Bengal, separate electorates for Muslims in 1909, the 1916 Lucknow
Pact, the 1924 two-nation theory, 1937 provincial elections, the 1940 August Offer, Quit India
Resolution, 1946 elections, Cabinet Mission, and finally, the Mountbatten Plan, all contributing to
the creation of India and Pakistan.
August Offer and Churchill's Proposal During 1940–1942

The "August Offer" proposed that a future constitution would address the concerns of minorities,
particularly regarding Muslim fears of Hindu dominance. However, both the Muslim League and
Congress rejected the offer in September. In response, Congress resumed its civil disobedience
campaign. During the Japanese advance through the Malayan Peninsula in 1942, British Prime
Minister Winston Churchill proposed granting India dominion status after the war, in exchange for
Congress's support in the war effort. Congress, seeing itself as the representative of all Indians,
opposed this offer as well.

Quit India Resolution of 1942

In August 1942, Congress passed the Quit India Resolution, demanding major constitutional reforms,
which the British saw as their greatest challenge to authority. The British promptly arrested Congress
leaders, while the Muslim League was left free to promote its agenda for the next three years.
During this time, the Muslim League's membership grew, and with its push for Pakistan, it found
itself in conflict with both the British and Congress.

Election of 1946

In the 1946 elections, Congress secured 91% of the non-Muslim vote and gained control of eight
provinces. It was now widely regarded by Hindus as the legitimate successor to British rule.
Meanwhile, the Muslim League captured the majority of Muslim votes, solidifying its position as the
sole representative of India’s Muslims, a shift from its disappointing performance in the 1937
elections. Jinnah and the League were now firmly associated with advocating for Muslim interests.

Cabinet Mission of July 1946

The Cabinet Mission Plan was introduced by Britain after India’s two main parties failed to reach an
agreement. The plan aimed to address Jinnah's demand for Pakistan by creating "groupings" of
provinces, while also preserving a unified India, as desired by the British and Congress. The proposal
included a federal structure with three groups of provinces: two for Muslim-majority areas and one
for Hindu-majority regions. While provinces would have full autonomy, the central government
would retain control over communications, foreign policy, and defence. The Muslim League
accepted the plan, but Congress, particularly Nehru, opposed it, arguing it would weaken the central
authority while still maintaining India's unity. Ultimately, the Cabinet Mission plan was rejected.

Direct Action Day of August 1946

On August 16, 1946, Jinnah declared Direct Action Day, demanding the creation of a Muslim state in
British India after the failure of the Cabinet Mission. This day of protest marked the beginning of a
violent cycle, culminating in the "Great Calcutta Killing of August 1946." That evening, returning
Muslim celebrants attacked Hindus in Calcutta, prompting a retaliatory response from Hindus the
following day. The violence lasted for three days, resulting in an estimated 4,000 deaths, according
to official records. These killings were among the first signs of "ethnic cleansing," despite earlier
instances of communal violence between Hindus and Muslims. The unrest soon spread to Bihar,
where Hindus attacked Muslims, and to Noakhali in Bengal, where Muslims targeted Hindus.
Plan for Partition During 1946-1947

To prevent partition and maintain a united India, British Prime Minister Attlee appointed Lord Louis
Mountbatten as the last Viceroy of India, tasking him with overseeing India's independence by June
30, 1948. Despite his initial intention to keep India united, the growing communal tensions led
Mountbatten to conclude that partition was necessary for a quicker transfer of power. Vallabhbhai
Patel, one of the first Congress leaders to endorse partition, was deeply disturbed by Jinnah's Direct
Action campaign, which fueled widespread communal violence. Patel argued that a weak, divided
central government would only encourage the fragmentation of India, with over 600 princely states
seeking independence. His support for partition earned him criticism from Gandhi, Nehru, secular
Muslims, and socialists, who saw him as overly eager for division.

Proposal of the Indian Independence Act

When Lord Mountbatten formally proposed the partition plan on June 3, 1947, Sardar Patel
supported it and urged Jawaharlal Nehru and other Congress leaders to accept the proposal. Aware
of Gandhi’s strong opposition to partition, Patel held private discussions with him. During this time,
he helped oversee the division of public property and worked with Nehru to select the Indian
Council of Ministers. However, neither Patel nor any other Indian leader anticipated the scale of
violence and mass migration that would follow partition.

The Labour government in Britain had initially set June 1948 as the deadline for ending British rule in
India. However, Mountbatten, the new Viceroy, shortened this timeline, leaving less than six months
to devise an acceptable plan for India’s independence and partition. This urgent deadline was driven
by concerns over the preparedness of the British army in the face of potential violence.

Radcliffe Line

The Radcliffe Line, drawn in 1947 by British lawyer Sir Cyril Radcliffe, marked the boundary between
India and Pakistan following the partition of British India. The line was designed to divide the
territories based on religious majorities, creating Pakistan as a separate state for Muslims. Despite
having no prior experience in India, Radcliffe was given only five weeks to complete the task. The
resulting border caused mass migrations as people moved to join their religious majorities, leading
to widespread violence and significant loss of life. The line also became the source of ongoing
disputes between India and Pakistan, particularly over regions like Kashmir and Sir Creek.

Independence of India in 1947

Muhammad Ali Jinnah took the oath as Pakistan's first Governor-General on August 14, 1947, in
Karachi. The next day, August 15, 1947, India gained independence as the Dominion of India.
Celebrations were held in New Delhi, with Viceroy Mountbatten remaining as the country's first
Governor-General. Meanwhile, Gandhi remained in Bengal to assist the refugees who were
displaced by the partition of India.

Notable Riots during the Partition of India:

1. Direct Action Day Riots (Calcutta, August 16, 1946)

On August 16, 1946, Muhammad Ali Jinnah's Muslim League declared "Direct Action Day" to demand
Pakistan after the failure of the Cabinet Mission Plan. Rallies and strikes in Calcutta escalated into
one of the bloodiest communal riots in Indian history. Over four days, an estimated 5,000 to 20,000
people were killed, with tens of thousands injured. Hindu and Muslim mobs engaged in killings,
arson, looting, and rape, while police response was slow. Known as the Great Calcutta Killings, the
event marked a turning point in Hindu-Muslim relations, deepening the communal divide. The
violence shocked political leaders and triggered retaliatory riots, foreshadowing the widespread
bloodshed of the 1947 Partition.

2. Noakhali Riots (October–November 1946)

The Noakhali riots occurred between October and November 1946 in Bengal's Noakhali district (now
Bangladesh) after the Calcutta riots. Muslim mobs, allegedly incited by local leaders, attacked
Hindus, resulting in killings, rapes, forced conversions, and widespread looting of Hindu homes and
temples. Around 285 Hindus were killed, 22,000 converted, and 50,000 displaced, with women
particularly targeted. The atrocities sparked nationwide outrage, prompting Mahatma Gandhi to visit
Noakhali in November 1946. He spent over three months traveling from village to village, advocating
for peace and nonviolence. Despite his efforts, the violence led to retaliatory attacks against Muslims
in Bihar later that year.

3. Bihar Riots (October–November 1946)

The Bihar riots of 1946, starting on October 25, were a violent Hindu backlash against atrocities in
Noakhali. Hindu mobs targeted Muslims in districts like Patna, Munger, Gaya, and Bhagalpur,
attacking villages, burning homes and mosques, and killing thousands of Muslims. Official estimates
put the death toll at 2,000, while leaders like Nehru and Rajendra Prasad estimated 5,000–10,000
deaths. Entire Muslim villages were wiped out, with widespread killings, mutilations, and sexual
violence. The authorities' slow response worsened the crisis. Mahatma Gandhi condemned the
violence, calling for peace and threatening to fast unto death if Muslims weren’t protected. The riots
deepened communal divisions and foreshadowed the impact of Partition.

4. Rawalpindi Massacre (March 1947)

The Rawalpindi Massacre, occurring in March 1947 in present-day Pakistan, was one of the earliest
brutal episodes of communal violence in Punjab before Partition. Starting around March 6, Muslim
mobs attacked Hindu and Sikh communities in Rawalpindi, Murree Hills, and Kahuta. Entire villages
were burned, and there were widespread reports of killings, rapes, abductions, and forced
conversions. Some Sikh women committed mass suicides to avoid capture. Estimates suggest 2,000
to 7,000 Hindus and Sikhs were killed, and thousands were displaced. The massacre shocked the Sikh
community, strengthening their support for Punjab’s division and escalating tensions that led to
further violence later in 1947.

5. Lahore Riots (March–August 1947)

The Lahore riots of 1947 were violent communal clashes between Hindus, Sikhs, and Muslims as
Partition neared. Beginning in March and escalating through the summer, tensions rose after the
Rawalpindi massacre and uncertainty over Lahore’s future. Violence erupted following a Muslim
League protest, leading to counter-attacks by Hindu and Sikh groups. The riots escalated into mass
killings, arson, looting, and the destruction of neighborhoods. Religious sites were attacked, and
both sides committed atrocities, including abductions and sexual violence. Thousands were killed,
though no exact figure is known. By July and August, most non-Muslims had fled, and Lahore
became part of Pakistan, largely emptied of Hindus and Sikhs.
6. Amritsar and Jalandhar Riots (August 1947)

In August 1947, as India prepared for Partition, severe communal riots erupted in Punjab’s Amritsar
and Jalandhar. The announcement of Partition heightened tensions between Hindus, Sikhs, and
Muslims, leading to violence as communities sought safety within new borders. In retaliation for
earlier attacks, Hindu and Sikh mobs targeted Muslims. Amritsar, a key Sikh city, saw brutal violence,
with mosques and Muslim properties destroyed and many Muslims killed or forced to flee. Similar
chaos occurred in Jalandhar. Thousands died, and the riots caused mass displacement, with Muslims
fleeing to Pakistan and Hindus and Sikhs to India. The events deepened communal mistrust and
trauma.

7. Partition Train Massacres (1947)

During the 1947 Partition of India, millions fled across new borders between India and Pakistan,
facing horrific communal violence, especially during the “Partition Train Massacres.” Mobs
ambushed trains carrying Hindus, Sikhs, or Muslims, killing victims, throwing them from moving
trains, or leaving carriages filled with corpses—known as "blood trains." Muslim mobs targeted
Hindu and Sikh trains, while Hindu and Sikh mobs attacked Muslim ones. Estimates suggest 100,000
to 200,000 deaths, with many subjected to sexual violence and mutilation. These massacres
highlighted the deep communal hatred and the tragic legacy of Partition, which displaced 10–15
million people.

8. Delhi Riots (September 1947 – early 1948)

The Delhi riots took place from September 1947 to early 1948 amid the communal violence
following Partition. As Hindus and Sikhs moved to India and Muslims to Pakistan, Delhi became a
flashpoint. Hindu mobs attacked Muslim areas—looting, burning homes, and destroying mosques.
Mass killings, sexual violence, and displacement followed, with about 1,500 Muslims killed (though
estimates vary). Many fled to Pakistan, and Hindu refugees occupied their homes. The violence
devastated Delhi’s Muslim population and reflected the wider horrors of Partition.

Impact of Partition of India on Indian Society and Culture

The Partition of India in 1947 had a profound and lasting impact on Indian society and culture. Its
main consequences included:

Mass Migration: Millions were forced to leave their ancestral homes and migrate to either India or
Pakistan based on religion. Hindus and Sikhs moved to India, while Muslims relocated to Pakistan.

Communal Violence: Partition triggered intense communal violence among Hindus, Muslims, and
Sikhs. Thousands lost their lives amid widespread riots, massacres, and unrest.

Loss of Property and Homes: Many people lost their homes, farms, and possessions during the
chaotic migration. Families were torn apart, with many ending up in refugee camps.

Cultural Rupture: Communities that had coexisted for centuries were suddenly separated, disrupting
shared traditions, cultural bonds, and social practices.

Identity Crisis: People were suddenly assigned new national identities, forcing them to adapt to
unfamiliar languages, customs, and societal norms.

Economic Disruption: The partition disrupted trade, industries, and agriculture, causing severe
economic instability. Many migrants lost their livelihoods and resources.
Enduring Tensions: Partition laid the groundwork for long-standing hostilities between India and
Pakistan, leading to repeated conflicts and strained relations.

Conclusion

The Partition of India in 1947 was more than a political division—it was one of the largest
humanitarian tragedies in history. The accompanying communal riots revealed the depth of religious
hatred, inflamed by decades of colonial divide-and-rule policies and political rivalry. While India and
Pakistan emerged as independent nations, the cost was devastating: millions were displaced, and
hundreds of thousands were killed in brutal violence between Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs. Families
were torn apart, homes lost, and communities shattered. Remembering the Partition riots is not just
about honoring the victims—it’s a reminder of how fear, hatred, and intolerance can spiral into
unimaginable horror. The legacy of Partition still affects India-Pakistan relations today.