Module 3

The Fertile Crescent,

Mesopotamia, and the
Persian Empire
Essential Question
What factors helped unify early civilizations in Southwest Asia?

About the Photo: These remains of an In this module you will learn about the early civilizations in Mesopotamia
ancient palace and temple are in Persepolis and the Fertile Crescent, and about the Persian Empire.
in what is now Iran.
What You Will Learn…
Lesson 1: Geography of the Fertile Crescent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
The Big Idea The valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers were the
Explore ONLINE! site of the world’s first civilizations.
VIDEOS, including... Lesson 2: The Sumerians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
• The Persians The Big Idea The Sumerians developed the first civilization in
• Bronze Mesopotamia.
• Persian Architecture Lesson 3: Military Empires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82
The Big Idea After the Sumerians, many cultures ruled parts of the
• Persia’s Royal Road
Fertile Crescent.
Document-Based Investigations Lesson 4: The Phoenicians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
The Big Idea The Phoenicians created a wealthy trading society along
Graphic Organizers the Mediterranean Sea.
Lesson 5: The Persian Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Interactive Games
The Big Idea Over time the Persians came to rule a great empire,
Interactive Map: River Valley which eventually brought them into conflict with the Greeks.
Civilizations
Image with Hotspots: The City-State
of Ur
Image with Hotspots: Hittite Iron
Making

62 Module 3
Timeline of Events 7000–480 BC Explore ONLINE!

Module Events World Events

7000 BC
c. 7000 BC Agriculture first
develops in Mesopotamia.

c. 3100 BC Menes becomes the first pharaoh of Egypt.

3000 BC

c. 2600 BC The Harappan

c. 2340–2290 BC Sargon of Akkad conquers civilization rises from the
Mesopotamia and forms the world’s first empire. Indus Valley.

c. 1770 BC Hammurabi of
Babylon issues a written
code of laws.
c. 1500 BC The Shang dynasty
is established in China.

1250 BC

c. 1000 BC Phoenicians trade

all around the Mediterranean.
c. 965 BC Solomon becomes king of Israel.

c. 551 BC Confucius
c. 550 BC Cyrus the Great founds is born in China.
the Persian Empire.

c. 480 BC Xerxes invades Greece.

480 BC

The Fertile Crescent, Mesopotamia, and the Persian Empire 63

Reading Social Studies
THEME FOCUS:
Politics, Science and Technology
This module introduces you to a region in Southwest Asia called Mesopotamia,
the home of the world’s first civilization. You will read about what made this area
one where civilizations could begin and grow. You will learn about one group of
people—the Sumerians—and their great advances in science and technology.
You will also read about military empires that invaded Mesopotamia and
brought their own ideas of governing and politics to the area. These included
the great Persian Empire, which ruled much of Southwest Asia. The effect of the
contributions of the different peoples in this area is still felt in the modern world.
These contributions include the first cities, the first system of writing, and the first
alphabet.

READING FOCUS:
Main Ideas in Social Studies
Have you ever set up a tent? If you have, you know that one pole provides
structure and support for the whole tent. A paragraph has a similar structure. One
idea—the main idea—provides support and structure for the whole paragraph.
Identify Main Ideas Most paragraphs written about history include a main idea
that is stated clearly in a sentence. At other times, the main idea is suggested, not
stated. However, that idea still shapes the paragraph’s content and the meaning
of all of the facts and details in it.

Identify Main Ideas

1. Read the paragraph. Having people available Topic:
Ask yourself, “What is to work on different jobs The paragraph talks about
this paragraph mostly meant that society could people, jobs, and structure.
about?” accomplish more. Large +
2. List the important facts projects, such as con-
Facts and Details:
and details that relate structing buildings and
• People working on differ-
to that topic. digging irrigation sys-
ent jobs needed structure.
3. Ask yourself, “What tems, required specialized
• Laws and government
seems to be the most workers, managers, and
provided this structure.
important point the organization. To com-
writer is making about plete these projects, the =
the topic?” Or ask, “If Mesopotamians needed Main Idea:
the writer could say only structure and rules. Having people in a society
one thing about this Structure and rules could work on many different jobs
paragraph, what would be provided by laws and led to the creation of laws
it be?” This is the main government. and government.
idea of the paragraph.

64 Module 3
You Try It! Key Terms and People
Lesson 1
Fertile Crescent
Read the following passage, and then answer the silt
questions below. civilization
irrigation
canals
surplus
The Sumerians made one of the greatest cultural division of labor
advances in history. They developed cuneiform Lesson 2
(kyoo-NEE-uh-fohrm), the world’s first system of rural
writing. But Sumerians did not have pencils, pens, urban
or paper. Instead, they used sharp tools called city-state
Gilgamesh
styluses to make wedge-shaped symbols on clay Sargon
tablets. empire
Earlier written communication had used polytheism
pictographs, or picture symbols. Each picto- priests
graph represented an object, such as a tree or an social hierarchy
cuneiform
animal. But in cuneiform, symbols could also pictographs
represent syllables, or basic parts of words. As a scribe
result, Sumerian writers could combine symbols epics
to express more complex ideas such as “joy” or architecture
ziggurat
“powerful.”
Lesson 3
Sumerians first used cuneiform to keep busi- monarch
ness records. A scribe, or writer, would be hired Hammurabi
to document business transactions or keep track Hammurabi’s Code
chariot
of the items people bought and sold. Government Nebuchadnezzar
officials and temples also hired scribes to keep Lesson 4
their records, including records of taxes that were alphabet
collected. Becoming a scribe was a way to move up Lesson 5
in social class. Cyrus the Great
cavalry
Darius I
Persian Wars
Answer these questions based on the passage you just Xerxes I
read.
1. Reread the first paragraph. What is its main idea?
2. What is the main idea of the third paragraph? Reread
the second paragraph. Is there a sentence that
expresses the main idea of the paragraph? What is
that main idea? Write a sentence to express it.
3. Which of the following best expresses the main idea
of the entire passage?
a. Cuneiform had a positive effect on Sumerian
society.
b. The Sumerians invented many helpful devices.

As you read this module, find the main ideas of the

paragraphs you are studying.

The Fertile Crescent, Mesopotamia, and the Persian Empire 65

 Lesson 1

Geography of the Fertile

Crescent
If YOU were there . . .
The Big Idea You are a farmer in Southwest Asia about 6,000 years
The valleys of the Tigris and
ago. You live near a slow-moving river, with many shal-
Euphrates Rivers were the site low lakes and marshes. The river makes the land in the
of the world’s first civilizations. valley rich and fertile, so you can grow wheat and dates.
But in the spring, raging floods spill over the riverbanks,
Main Ideas
destroying your fields. In the hot summers, you are often
■ The rivers of Southwest Asia
short of water.
supported the growth of
civilization. How can you control the waters of the river?
■ New farming techniques led to
the growth of cities.
Rivers Support the Growth
Key Terms and People of Civilization
Fertile Crescent Early peoples settled where crops would grow. Crops usually
silt
grew well near rivers, where water was available and regular
civilization
irrigation
floods made the soil rich. One region in Southwest Asia was
canals especially well suited for farming. It lay between two rivers.
surplus
The Land Between the Rivers The Tigris and Euphrates Rivers
division of labor
are the most important physical features of the region some-
times known as Mesopotamia (mes-uh-puh-TAY-mee-uh).
Mesopotamia means “between the rivers” in Greek.
As you can see on the map, the region called Mesopotamia
lies between Asia Minor and the Persian Gulf. The region is
part of a larger area called the Fertile Crescent, a large arc of
rich, or fertile, farmland. The Fertile Crescent extends from
the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean Sea.
In ancient times, Mesopotamia was actually made of two
parts. Northern Mesopotamia was a plateau bordered on the
north and the east by mountains. Southern Mesopotamia was
a flat plain. The Tigris and Euphrates Rivers flowed down from
the hills into this low-lying plain.
The Rise of Civilization Hunter-gatherer groups first
settled in Mesopotamia more than 12,000 years ago. Over
time, these people learned how to plant crops to grow their
own food. Every year, floods on the Tigris and Euphrates

66 Module 3
 Rivers brought silt, a mixture of rich soil and tiny rocks, to the land. The
fertile silt made the land ideal for farming.
The first farm settlements formed in Mesopotamia as early as 7000 BC.
Farmers grew wheat, barley, and other types of grain. Livestock, birds,
and fish were also good sources of food. Plentiful food led to population
growth, and villages formed. Eventually, these early villages developed
into the world’s first civilization.
A civilization is an organized society within a specific area. Civiliza-
tions often include large cities in which different social classes of people
live. Writing, formal education, art, and architecture are features of civi-
lizations. In civilizations, governments are made up of leaders or fam-
Reading Check ily groups. The governments make decisions that help the civilization
Synthesize Which develop. These characteristics improve people’s quality of life.
characteristic of
In an established civilization, a government makes economic decisions
a civilization do
you think is most to help society develop. For example, as populations grow, decisions have
important? Why? to be made about how to effectively produce and distribute food.

Farming and Cities

Although Mesopotamia had fertile soil, farming wasn’t easy there. The
region received little rain. This meant that water levels in the Tigris and
Euphrates Rivers depended on how much rain fell in eastern Asia Minor,
where the two rivers began. When a great amount of rain fell there,
water levels got very high. Flooding destroyed crops, killed livestock,
and washed away homes. During a drought, a time of little or no rain,

Explore ONLINE!
The Fertile Crescent
Araxes
ASIA MINOR
Ri
ve

The area between the

r

INS TigrisCaspian
and Euphrates Rivers
OUNTA is knownSeaas Mesopotamia.
S M
N
TAURU The early civilizations of
Tig

M Mesopotamia depended
HMHES— MS WC—2016
ris R

W E
Cyprus OP on these two great rivers.
E
MS_SNLESE668171_049M_L
uph OT
iver

S
r
Fertile Crescent
ZA
at

Locator
es

GR

R iver
IA

First proof 03/30/16

OS

Mediterranean
O
M

Sea U
NT
AI
Syrian NS
Dead Desert
Sea
Sinai
Peninsula
r e
iv
Nile R

Fertile Crescent
Arabian Peninsula
Ancient coastline of
Pe

Persian Gulf
r
si

Interpret Maps
an

Modern coastline
G

0 150 300 Miles Movement In what general direction do the Tigris and
ul
f

0 150 300 Kilometers Euphrates Rivers flow on their way to the Persian Gulf?

The Fertile Crescent, Mesopotamia, and the Persian Empire 67

 water levels became too low. Crops dried up, and there was little water
for livestock. Famine could therefore result from either too much or too
little rain. Farmers knew they needed a way to control the rivers’ flow.
Controlling Water To solve their problems, Mesopotamians used
irrigation, a way of supplying water to an area of land. To irrigate their
land, they dug out large storage basins to hold water supplies. Then they
dug canals, human-made waterways, that connected these basins to a
network of ditches. These ditches brought water to the fields. To protect
their fields from flooding, farmers constructed dams and built up the
banks of the Tigris and Euphrates. This helped to control the flow of water
and held back floodwaters when river levels were high.
The Mesopotamians used all the resources the rivers provided. In addition
to using water for crops, they used clay from the riverbanks to create bricks
for buildings. The construction of buildings and irrigation systems is an
example of why early societies in Mesopotamia are considered civilizations.
This construction required Mesopotamian society to be organized.
Mesopotamians made good decisions to help sustain growing populations.
Irrigation systems were very important to the growth of cities. Mesopo-
tamian kings had an obligation to construct and maintain these systems.
Irrigation increased the amount of food farmers grew. In fact, farmers could
produce a food surplus, or more than they needed. Farmers also used irriga-
tion to water grazing areas for cattle and sheep. As a result, Mesopotamians
ate a variety of foods. Fish, meat, wheat, barley, and dates were plentiful.

Irrigation and Civilization

Early farmers faced the challenge of learning how to control the flow
of river water to their fields in both rainy and dry seasons.
1. Early settlements 2. Later, people
in Mesopotamia built canals to
were located near protect houses
rivers. Water was from flooding and
not controlled, and move water to
flooding was a major their fields.
problem.

3. With irrigation, 4. Food surpluses

the people of allowed some
Mesopotamia were people to stop
able to grow more farming and
food. concentrate on
other jobs, such as
making clay pots or
tools.

68 Module 3
 A More Productive Society Because irrigation made farmers more pro-
ductive, fewer people needed to farm. Some people became free to do other
jobs. As a result, new occupations developed. For the first time, people
were able to focus on other technological improvements.
Toolmakers began to make tools out of metal. This development
brought an end to the Neolithic Era and the beginning of the Copper Age.
Copper could be used to make arrowheads or knives.
It took special knowledge and skills to work with metal. Some people
were able to devote all of their time to finding raw metal and shaping
it into tools. Others focused on tasks such as weaving cloth or making
pottery. An arrangement in which workers specialize in a particular task
or job is called a division of labor. Societies with a division of labor can
become more complex than ones that lack specialization.
Having people available to work on
different jobs meant that society could
accomplish more. Large projects, such
as constructing buildings and digging
irrigation systems, required specialized
workers, managers, and organization.
To complete these projects, the Meso-
potamians needed structure and rules.
Structure and rules could be provided
by laws and government. As settlements developed, they eventually
became cities.
The Appearance of Cities Over time, Mesopotamian settlements grew
in size and complexity. They gradually developed into cities between 4000
and 3000 BC.
Reading Check Despite the growth of cities, society in Mesopotamia was still based on
Analyze Causes agriculture. Most people still worked in farming jobs. However, cities were
Why did the becoming important places. People traded goods there, and cities provided
Mesopotamians
create irrigation places to keep surplus foods grown on farmland. Cities were the political,
systems? religious, cultural, and economic centers of civilization.
Summary and Preview Mesopotamia’s rich, fertile lands supported
productive farming, which led to the development of cities. In the next
lesson, you will learn about some of the first city builders.

Lesson 1 Assessment
Review Ideas, Terms, and People c. Elaborate How might running large projects
prepare people for running a government?
1. a. Identify Where was Mesopotamia?
b. Explain How did the Fertile Crescent get its name? Critical Thinking
c. Evaluate What was the most important factor in
3. Identify Cause and Effect Farmers who used the riv-
making Mesopotamia’s farmland fertile?
ers for irrigation were part of a cause-effect chain. Use
2. a. Describe Why did farmers need to develop a a chart like this one to show that chain.
system to control their water supply?
Water levels in Mesopotamians
b. Explain In what ways did a division of labor enjoy many
rivers get too
contribute to the growth of Mesopotamian low. foods.
civilization?

The Fertile Crescent, Mesopotamia, and the Persian Empire 69

History and Geography

River Valley Civilizations

All of the world’s earliest civilizations had
something in common—they all arose in
river valleys that were perfect locations
for farming. Three key factors made river
valleys good for farming. First, the fields that
bordered the rivers were flat, which made it E U R O P E
easier for farmers to plant crops. Second, the
soils were nourished by flood deposits and
silt, which made them very fertile. Finally,
the river provided the water that farmers

Ca
needed for irrigation. As many societies do
Black Sea

sp
today, people living in Mesopotamia modified

ia
n
their environment to take advantage of the

Se
natural resources the rivers offered.
M

a
ES
O
P

T ig
Medite up O
rra TA

ris
nea hr Ri
at ve
n Sea es M r
Ri IA

ve
r
Memphis Ur
A F R I C A
EGYPT Mo
Re
d
Se
r
ve

ARABIAN
a
Ri

From Village to City With the

ile

PENINSULA
N

development of agriculture, people settled

into farming villages. Over time, some of Natural Highways River travel
these villages grew into large cities. These allowed early civilizations to trade
ancient ruins are near Memphis, Egypt. goods and ideas. These people are
traveling on the Euphrates River,
one of the two main rivers of ancient
Mesopotamia.

70 Module 3
 A S I A

Gift of the River River water was

key to farming in early civilizations.
This farmer is using water from the
Huang He (Yellow River) in China to
water her crops.

New Activities Food surpluses allowed people

to pursue other activities, such as crafts, art, and
writing. This tile designer lives in the Indus Valley.

He
r)
ng

ve
Hua

Ri
ow
( Ye l l
Harappa CHINA
H
I M ng
Jia )
r

A L er
ve

g
AY Ri v
Ri

zi
an
A S
s

Ch

ng
du

Mohenjo Daro
INDUS Ganges R
In

( Ya

i ver
VALLEY

INDIA

Arabian
Sea

Bay of
Bengal

0 500 1,000 Miles

0 500 1,000 Kilometers Interpret Maps

1. Human-Environment Interaction Why did the
first civilizations all develop in river valleys?
INDIAN OCEAN 2. Location Where were the four earliest river
valley civilizations located?

The Fertile Crescent, Mesopotamia, and the Persian Empire 71

 Lesson 2

The Sumerians
If YOU were there . . .
The Big Idea You are a crafter living in one of the cities of Sumer. Thick
The Sumerians developed the
walls surround and protect your city, so you feel safe
first civilization in Mesopotamia. from the armies of other city-states. But you and your
neighbors are fearful of other beings—the many gods
Main Ideas and spirits that you believe are everywhere. They can
■■ The Sumerians created the bring illness or sandstorms or bad luck.
world’s first advanced society.
How might you protect yourself
Religion played a major role in
■■
from gods and spirits?
Sumerian society.
■■ The Sumerians invented the
world’s first writing system. An Advanced Society
■■ Technical advances and In southern Mesopotamia, a people known as the Sumerians
inventions changed Sumerian (soo-MER-ee-unz) developed the world’s first civilization. No
lives. one knows where they came from or when they moved into the
■■ Many types of art developed in region. However, by 3000 BC, several hundred thousand
Sumer. Sumerians had settled in Mesopotamia, in a land they called
Key Terms and People Sumer (SOO -muhr). There they created an advanced society.
rural The City-States of Sumer Most people in Sumer were farmers.
urban They lived mainly in rural, or countryside, areas. The centers
city-state of Sumerian society, however, were the urban, or city, areas.
Gilgamesh
The first cities in Sumer had about 10,000 residents. Over time,
Sargon
empire
the cities grew. Historians think that by 2000 BC, some of
polytheism Sumer’s cities had more than 100,000 residents.
priests As a result, the basic political unit of Sumer combined the two
social hierarchy areas. This unit was called a city-state. A city-state consisted of
cuneiform a city and all the countryside around it. The amount of coun-
pictographs tryside controlled by each city-state depended on its military
scribe
strength. Stronger city-states controlled larger areas.
epics
architecture City-states in Sumer competed against one another to gain
ziggurat more farmland. Farmland was a resource upon which city-
states depended to feed their growing populations. As a result
of this competition, city-states built up strong armies to fight
for control of farmland. Sumerians also built strong, thick
walls around their cities for protection.

72 Module 3
 Explore ONLINE!
Sargon’s Empire, c. 2330 BC
N

W
E

S
Empire of Sargon
ASIA Sumer
MINOR
Ancient coastline
of Persian Gulf
Tarsus Harran
0 100 200 Miles
Halab Nineveh
Euph 0 100 200 Kilometers
Cyprus r

at

Tig
es
Ashur

ris
R.
Mari

R.
Mediterranean Byblos
Sea Akkad
Syrian Kish
Babylon Susa
Lagash
Desert Uruk
Sinai Interpret Maps Ur
Peninsula
Location How far west did
Sargon’s empire stretch? Persian
Gulf

Some city-states, such as Mari on the Euphrates River, became impor-

tant centers of trade. Basic building materials as well as luxury items came
to Sumerian city-states along trade routes from as far away as North Africa
in the west and Afghanistan in the east. Through trade, the city-states of
Sumer became an important part of the region’s economy.
Individual city-states gained and lost power over time. By 3500 BC, a
city-state known as Kish had become quite powerful. Over the next 1,000
years, the city-states of Uruk and Ur fought for dominance. One of Uruk’s
kings, known as Gilgamesh, became a legendary figure in Sumerian
literature.
Rise of the Akkadian Empire In time, another society developed along
the Tigris and Euphrates. It was created by the Akkadians (uh-KAY-dee-
uhns). They lived just north of Sumer, but they were not Sumerians. They
even spoke a different language than the Sumerians did. In spite of their
differences, however, the Akkadians and the Sumerians lived in peace for
many years.
That peace was broken in the 2300s BC when a leader named Sargon
sought to extend Akkadian territory. He built a new capital, Akkad (A-kad),
on the Euphrates River, near what is now the city of Baghdad. Sargon was
the first ruler to have a permanent army. He used that army to launch a
series of wars against neighboring kingdoms.
Sargon’s soldiers defeated all the city-states of Sumer. They also conquered
northern Mesopotamia, finally bringing the entire region under his rule.
With these conquests, Sargon established the world’s first empire, or land
with different territories and peoples under a single rule. The
Akkadian Empire stretched from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean Sea.

The Fertile Crescent, Mesopotamia, and the Persian Empire 73

 BiogRAPHY
Sargon (Ruled 2334–2279 BC) He was among the first
military leaders to use
According to legend, a gardener soldiers armed with bows
found a baby floating in a basket on a and arrows. Sargon gained
river and raised him as his own child. the loyalty of his soldiers by
This baby later became the Akkadian eating with them every day.
emperor Sargon. As a young man,
Sargon served Ur-Zababa, the king of Analyze
Kish. Sargon later rebelled against the Why were Sargon’s
soldiers loyal to him?
Sumerian ruler, took over his city, and
built Akkad into a military power.

Sargon was emperor, or ruler of his empire, for more than 50 years.
However, the empire lasted only a century after his death. Later rulers
could not keep the empire safe from invaders. Hostile tribes from the east
raided and captured Akkad. A century of chaos followed.
Eventually, however, the Sumerian city-state of Ur rebuilt its strength
Reading Check and conquered the rest of Mesopotamia. Political stability was restored.
Summarize How
did Sargon build an The Sumerians once again became the most powerful civilization in the
empire? region.

Academic
Religion Shapes Society
Vocabulary Religion was very important in Sumerian society. In fact, it played a role
role a part or in nearly every aspect of public and private life. In many ways, religion was
function
the basis for all of Sumerian society.
Sumerian Religion The Sumerians practiced polytheism, the worship of
many gods. Among the gods they worshipped were Enlil, the lord of the
air, and Inanna, goddess of love and war. The sun and moon were repre-
sented by the gods Utu and Nanna. Enki was the lord of wisdom and also
the god of fresh water, an important god for a people who relied so much
on rivers. According to one Sumerian creation story, both Enlil and Enki
were involved in the creation of humankind. Each city-state considered
one god to be its special protector.
The Sumerians believed that their gods had enormous powers. Gods
could bring a good harvest or a disastrous flood. They could bring illness,
or they could bring good health and wealth. The Sumerians believed that
success in every area of life depended on pleasing the gods. Every Sume-
rian had a duty to serve and to worship the gods.
Priests, people who performed religious ceremonies, had great status
in Sumer. People relied on them to help gain the gods’ favor. Priests inter-
preted the wishes of the gods and made offerings to them. These offerings
were made in temples, special buildings where priests performed their
religious ceremonies.

74 Module 3
 Sumerian Social Order Because of their status, priests occupied a high
level in Sumer’s social hierarchy, the division of society by rank or class.
In fact, priests were just below kings. The city-states in Sumer were monar-
chies, each ruled by a single king or queen. The kings and queens of Sumer
claimed that they had been chosen by the gods to rule.
Academic Below the priests were Sumer’s skilled craftspeople, merchants, and
Vocabulary traders. Trade had a great impact on Sumerian society. Traders traveled
impact effect, result to faraway places and exchanged grain for gold, silver, copper, lumber, and
precious stones.
Below traders, farmers and laborers made up the large working class.
Slaves were at the bottom of the social order, but their labor contributed to
the Sumerian economy. Farming required many workers, and slaves were
an inexpensive source of labor. Many of the slaves in Mesopotamia were
foreigners who had been captured in war.
Men and Women in Sumer Sumerian men and women had different roles.
In general, men held political power and made laws, while women took
care of the home and children. Education was usually reserved for men,
but some upper-class women were educated as well.
Some educated women were priestesses in Sumer’s temples. Some priest-
Reading Check esses helped shape Sumerian culture. One, Enheduanna, the daughter of
Analyze Effects
How did trade affect Sargon, wrote hymns to the goddess Inanna. She is the first known female
Sumerian society? writer in history.

The Invention of Writing

The Sumerians made one of the greatest cultural advances in history. They
developed cuneiform (kyoo-NEE-uh-fohrm), the world’s first system of writ-
ing. But Sumerians did not have pencils, pens, or paper. Instead, they used
sharp tools called styluses to make wedge-shaped symbols on clay tablets.
Earlier written communication had used pictographs, or picture sym-
bols. Each pictograph represented an object, such as a tree or an animal.
But in cuneiform, symbols could also represent syllables, or basic parts of
words. As a result, Sumerian writers could combine symbols to express
more complex ideas such as “joy” or “powerful.”
Sumerians first used cuneiform to keep business records. A scribe, or
writer, would be hired to document business transactions or keep track of
the items people bought and sold. Government officials and temples also

Sumerians wrote
on clay tablets
with a special tool
called a stylus.

The Fertile Crescent, Mesopotamia, and the Persian Empire 75

 Development of Writing

3300 BC 2800 BC 2400 BC 1800 BC

Heaven

Grain

Fish

Sumerian writing developed from

Bird
early symbols called pictographs.
Writers used clay tablets to record
business deals. This tablet describes Water
the number of sheep and goats.
C0300011bA C0300011bA
C0300011bA C0300011bA
C0300011bA
C0300011bA C0300011bA
C0300011bA C0300011bA
C0300011bA
C0300011bA
C0300011bA C0300011bA
C0300011bA C0300011bA
C0300011bA
C0300011bA
C0300011bA
hired scribes to keep their records, including records of taxes that were C0300011bA
C0300011bA
collected. Becoming a scribe was a way to move up in social class.
Sumerian students went to school to learn to read and write. But some
students did not want to study. A Sumerian story tells of a father who
urged his son to do his schoolwork:

“Go to school, stand before your ‘school-father,’ recite your

assignment, open your schoolbag, write your tablet. . . . After
you have finished your assignment and reported to your monitor
[teacher], come to me, and do not wander about in the street.”
–Sumerian essay quoted in History Begins at Sumer, by Samuel Noah Kramer

In time, Sumerians put their writing skills to new uses. They wrote
works on history, law, grammar, and math. They also created works of
literature. They wrote poems about the gods and about military victories.
Reading Check Some of these were epics, long poems that tell the stories of heroes. Later,
Form
Generaliza­tions people used some of these poems to create The Epic of Gilgamesh, the story
How was cuneiform of the legendary Sumerian king. These new uses of writing changed the
first used in Sumer? cultural life of Sumerians and those who followed them in Mesopotamia.

Advances and Inventions

Writing was not the only great Sumerian invention. These early people
made many other advances and discoveries.
Technical Advances Technological innovations and the use of domesti-
cated animals improved the quality of life for many Sumerians. One of the
Sumerians’ most important developments was the wheel. They were the
first people to build wheeled vehicles, including carts and wagons. Using
the wheel, Sumerians invented a device that spins clay as a craftsperson
shapes it into bowls. This device is called a potter’s wheel.
The plow was another important Sumerian invention. Pulled by domes-
ticated oxen, plows broke through the hard clay soil of Sumer to prepare it
for planting.

76 Module 3
 The use of plows
increased food
production.

The Sumerians were among the first people in the world to build
sailboats. Transporting goods along one of the great rivers on sailboats
was much more efficient than using pack animals or carts with wheels.
Sumerian advances improved daily life in many ways. Sumerians built
sewers under city streets. They also invented a clock that used falling
water to measure time. They even produced makeup and glass jewelry.
Sumer was one of the places in the world that saw the start of the
Bronze Age, when humans began making tools out of metals rather than
stone. Sumerians created strong bronze tools that made it easier to con-
struct larger cities.
Math and Sciences Another area in which Sumerians excelled was math.
In fact, they developed a math system based on the number 60. Using
this system, they divided a circle into 360 degrees. Dividing a year into
12 months—a factor of 60 — was another Sumerian idea. Each of the
12 months of the Sumerian calendar was 29 or 30 days long, depending on
the phases of the moon. Sumerians also calculated the areas of rectangles
and triangles.
Sumerian scholars studied science, too. They wrote long lists to record
their study of the natural world. These lists included the names of thou-
sands of animals, plants, and minerals.
Reading Check The Sumerians also made advances in medicine. They used ingredients
Summarize What from animals, plants, and minerals to produce healing drugs. The Sumeri-
areas of life were
improved by Sumerian ans even catalogued their medical knowledge, listing treatments according
inventions? to symptoms and body parts.

The Arts of Sumer

The Sumerians’ skills in the fields of art, metalwork, and architecture—
the science of building—are well known to us. The ruins of great buildings
and fine works of art have provided us with wonderful examples of the
Sumerians’ creativity.
Architecture Most Sumerian rulers lived in large palaces. Other rich
Sumerians had two-story homes with as many as a dozen rooms. Most
people, however, lived in smaller, one-story houses. These homes had six
or seven rooms arranged around a small courtyard.
City centers were dominated by their temples, the largest and most impres-
sive buildings in Sumer. A ziggurat, a pyramid-shaped temple tower, rose
above each city. Outdoor staircases led to a platform and a shrine at the top.

The Fertile Crescent, Mesopotamia, and the Persian Empire 77

Sumerian Achievements

The Sumerians’ artistic achievements included

beautiful works of gold, wood, and stone.

Cylinder seals
like this one were
carved into round
stones and then
rolled over clay to
leave their mark.

This stringed musical

instrument is called a
lyre. It features a cow’s
head and is made of
silver decorated with
shell and stone.

This gold dagger was

found in a royal tomb.
The Sumerians were
The bull’s head is made
the first people in
of gold and silver.
Mesopotamia to
build large temples
called ziggurats.
Analyze Visuals
The head of a cow or bull is shown in some of these
works. Why were cattle important to Sumerians?

The Arts Sumerian sculptors produced many fine works. Among them are
the statues of gods created for temples. Many Sumerian statues are made of
clay, which shows that clay was abundant in Sumer. Sumerian artists created
large mosaics using clay.
Carving in stone, called relief sculpture, was popular among Sumerian
artists. Artists carved scenes of important events into squares of stone,
which were then mounted on the walls of a temple. They also sculpted
small objects out of ivory and rare woods.
Jewelry was a popular item in Sumer. The jewelers of the region made
many beautiful works out of imported gold, silver, and gems. Earrings
and other items found in the region show that Sumerian jewelers knew
advanced methods for putting gold pieces together. Sumerian artists also
worked with other metals, such as copper and bronze, to produce different
works of art.

78 Module 3
 Cylinder seals are perhaps Sumer’s most famous works of art. These
small objects were stone cylinders engraved with designs. They required
great skill to make. When rolled over clay, the designs would leave behind
their imprint. Each seal left its own distinct imprint. As a result, a person
could show ownership of a container by rolling a cylinder over the contain-
er’s wet clay surface. People could also use cylinder seals to “sign” docu-
ments or to decorate other clay objects.
The Sumerians also enjoyed music. Kings and temples hired musicians
Reading Check to play on special occasions. Sumerian musicians played reed pipes, drums,
Make Inferences tambourines, and stringed instruments called lyres. Children learned
What might historians
learn from cylinder
songs in school. People sang hymns to gods and kings. Music and dance
seals? provided entertainment in marketplaces and homes.
Summary and Preview In this lesson, you learned about Sumerian city-
states, religion, and society. You also learned that the Sumerians greatly
enriched their society. Next you will learn about the later people who lived
in Mesopotamia.

Lesson 2 Assessment
Review Ideas, Terms, and People b. Make Inferences Why was the invention of the
plow was so important to the Sumerians?
1. a. Recall What was the basic political unit of Sumer?
c. Summarize How did the Sumerian idea of dividing
b. Explain What evidence from the text shows that
the calendar into 12 months relate to their math
Sumer was an important part of the region’s economy?
system?
c. Form Opinions How do you think Sargon’s creation
5. a. Make Inferences What facts about architecture
of an empire changed the history of Mesopotamia?
show the social hierarchy that existed in Sumerian
Defend your answer.
society?
2. a. Identify What is polytheism?
b. Draw Conclusions Why do you think priests were Critical Thinking
so influential in ancient Sumerian society?
6. Summarize Write a summary sentence for each of the
c. Elaborate Why did farmers benefit by using slaves following characteristics of Sumerian society: cities,
instead of hiring laborers to work on their farms? government, religion, society. Then write a sentence
3. a. Identify What is cuneiform? summarizing Sumerian civilization.
b. Analyze Why do you think writing is one of history’s 7. Analyze Effects in a chart like this one, list at least
most important cultural advances? five Sumerian advances or achievements. Then list an
c. Elaborate What current leader would you choose effect for each Sumerian advance or achievement.
to write an epic about, and why?
Advance/Achievement Effect
4. a. Recall What were two early uses of the wheel?

The Fertile Crescent, Mesopotamia, and the Persian Empire 79

Literature in History
A Sumerian Epic

Word Help About the Reading The Epic of Gilgamesh is the world’s oldest epic,
menacing threatening first recorded—carved on stone tablets—in about 2000 BC. The actual
succor help Gilgamesh, ruler of the city of Uruk, had lived about 700 years earlier.
tempest storm Over time, stories about this legendary king had grown and changed.
felled cut down
In this story, Gilgamesh and his friend Enkidu seek to slay the monster
➊ Shamash, the Humbaba, keeper of a distant forest. In addition to his tremendous size
sun-god, supports and terrible appearance, Humbaba possesses seven splendors, or powers,
Gilgamesh. What one of which is fire. Gilgamesh hopes to claim these powers for himself.
human emotion seems
to seize Gilgamesh here? As You Read Notice both the human qualities and the godly qualities of
How can you tell? Gilgamesh.
➋ What stops Humbaba
in his tracks? from The Epic of Gilgamesh
translated by N. K. Sandars
➌ Gilgamesh tries to
speak and act bravely, Humbaba came from his strong house of cedar. He nodded his head and
but he is terrified by shook it, menacing Gilgamesh; and on him he fastened his eye, the eye of
Humbaba’s evil glare. death. Then Gilgamesh called to Shamash and his tears were flowing, “O
➍ What effect does glorious Shamash, I have followed the road you commanded but now if you
Humbaba hope his words send no succor how shall I escape?” ➊ Glorious Shamash heard his prayer
will have on Gilgamesh? and he summoned the great wind, the north wind, the whirlwind, the
storm and the icy wind, the tempest and the scorching wind; they came
like dragons, like a scorching fire, like a serpent that freezes the heart, a
destroying flood and the lightning’s fork. The eight winds rose up against
Humbaba, they beat against his eyes; he was gripped, unable to go for-
ward or back. ➋ Gilgamesh shouted, “By the life of Ninsun my mother and
divine Lugulbanda my father . . . my weak arms and my small weapons I
have brought to this Land against you, and now I will enter your house.” ➌
So he felled the first cedar and they cut the branches and laid them at
the foot of the mountain. At the first stroke Humbaba blazed out, but still
they advanced. They felled seven cedars and cut and bound the branches
and laid them at the foot of the mountain, and seven times Humbaba
loosed his glory on them. As the seventh blaze died out they reached his
lair. He slapped his thigh in scorn. He approached like a noble wild bull
roped on the mountain, a warrior whose elbows were bound together. The
tears started to his eyes and he was pale, “Gilgamesh, let me speak. I have
never known a mother, no, nor a father who reared me. I was born of the
mountain, he reared me, and Enlil made me the keeper of this forest. Let
me go free, Gilgamesh, and I will be your servant, you shall be my lord; all
the trees of the forest that I tended on the mountain shall be yours. I will
cut them down and build you a palace.” . . . ➍

80 Module 3
Word Help Enkidu said, “Do not listen, Gilgamesh: this Humbaba must die. Kill
execration a Humbaba first and his servants after.” But Gilgamesh said, “If we touch
cursing him the blaze and the glory of light will be put out in confusion, the glory
plunders takes by and glamour will vanish, its rays will be quenched.” Enkidu said to Gil-
force
gamesh, “Not so, my friend. First entrap the bird, and where shall the
➎ The angry air- chicks run then? Afterwards we can search out the glory and the glamour,
god Enlil curses when the chicks run distracted through the grass.”
the heroes for Gilgamesh listened to the word of his
slaying Humbaba. companion, he took the ax in his hand, he
He takes back the
drew the sword from his belt, and he struck
monster’s powers
and gives them to
Humbaba with a thrust of the sword to the
other creatures and neck, and Enkidu his comrade struck the
elements of nature. second blow. At the third blow Humbaba fell.
In your opinion, is Then there followed confusion for this was the
Gilgamesh more or guardian of the forest whom they had felled to
less heroic for slaying the ground. . . .
Humbaba and When he saw the head of Humbaba, Enlil
angering Enlil? raged at them. “Why did you do this thing?
From henceforth may the fire be on your faces,
may it eat the bread that you eat, may it drink
where you drink.” Then Enlil took again the
blaze and the seven splendors that had been
Humbaba’s: he gave the first to the river, and
he gave to the lion, to the stone of execration,
to the mountain. . . . ➎
O Gilgamesh, king and conqueror of the
dreadful blaze; wild bull who plunders the Archaeologists think this statue from
mountain, who crosses the sea, glory to him. the 700s BC represents Gilgamesh.

Connect Literature to History

1. Analyze In Sumerian culture, the gods’ powers were 2. Make Inferences Violence was common in Sumerian
thought to be enormous. According to this story, what society. How does the character of Gilgamesh suggest
roles do gods play in people’s lives? that Sumerian society could be violent?

The Fertile Crescent, Mesopotamia, and the Persian Empire 81

 Lesson 3

Military Empires
If YOU were there . . .
The Big Idea You are a noble in ancient Babylon, an advisor to the
After the Sumerians, many cul-
great king Hammurabi. One of your duties is to collect
tures ruled parts of the Fertile all the laws of the kingdom. They will be carved on a tall
Crescent. block of black stone and placed in the temple. The king
asks your opinion about the punishments for certain
Main Ideas
crimes. For instance, should common people be pun-
■ The Babylonians conquered
ished more harshly than nobles?
Mesopotamia and created a
code of law. How will you advise the king?
■ Invasions of Mesopotamia
changed the region’s culture.
The Babylonians Conquer Mesopotamia
Key Terms and People Although Ur rose to glory after the death of Sargon, repeated
Hammurabi foreign attacks drained its strength. By 2000 BC, Ur lay in
monarch ruins. With Ur’s power gone, several waves of invaders battled
Hammurabi’s Code to gain control of Mesopotamia.
chariot
Nebuchadnezzar The Rise of Babylon Babylon was home to one such group.
That city was located on the Euphrates River near what is today
Baghdad, Iraq. Babylon had once been a Sumerian town. By
1800 BC, however, it was home to a powerful government of its
own. In 1792 BC, Hammurabi (ham-uh-RAHB -ee) became Baby-
lon’s king. He became the city’s greatest monarch (MAH-nark), a
ruler of a kingdom or empire.
Hammurabi’s Code Hammurabi was a brilliant war leader. His
armies fought many battles to expand his power. Eventually, he
brought all of Mesopotamia into his empire, called the Babylo-
nian Empire, after his capital.
Hammurabi’s skills were not limited to the battlefield,
though. He was also an able ruler who could govern a huge
empire. He oversaw many building and irrigation projects, and
improved Babylon’s tax collection system to help pay for them.
He also brought much prosperity through increased trade.
Hammurabi, however, is most famous for his code of laws.

82 Module 3
 Hammurabi’s Code was a set of 282 laws that dealt with almost every
part of daily life. There were laws on everything from trade, loans, and
theft to marriage, injury, and murder. It contained some ideas that are still
found in laws today. Specific crimes brought specific penalties. However,
social class did matter. For instance, injuring a rich man brought a greater
penalty than injuring a poor man.
Hammurabi’s Code was important not only for how thorough it was, but
also because it was written down for all to see. People all over the empire
could read exactly what was against the law.
Reading Check Hammurabi ruled for 42 years. During his reign, Babylon became
Analyze Effects the most important city in Mesopotamia. However, after his death,
What was Babylonian power declined. The kings that followed faced invasions from
­ ammurabi’s
H
most important people Hammurabi had conquered. Before long, the Babylonian Empire
accomplishment? came to an end.

Document-Based Investigation Historical Source

Hammurabi’s Code
196. If a man put out the eye of another
The Babylonian ruler man, his eye shall be put out.
Hammurabi is credited
with putting together 197. If he break another man’s bone,
the earliest known his bone shall be broken.
written collection of 198. If he put out the eye of a freed
laws. The code set down man, or break the bone of a freed
rules for both criminal man, he shall pay one gold mina.
and civil law and
informed citizens what 199. If he put out the eye of a man’s
was expected of them. slave, or break the bone of a man’s
slave, he shall pay one-half of its value.
221. If a physician heal the broken
bone or diseased soft part of a man,
the patient shall pay the physician five
shekels in money.
222. If he were a freed man, he shall
pay three shekels.
223. If he were a slave, his owner shall
pay the physician two shekels.
—Hammurabi, from the Code of Hammurabi,
translated by L. W. King

Analyze Historical Sources

How do you think Hammurabi’s code
of laws affected citizens of that time?

The Fertile Crescent, Mesopotamia, and the Persian Empire 83

 Invasions of Mesopotamia
Several other civilizations also developed in and around the Fertile Cres-
cent. As their armies battled each other for fertile land, control of the
region passed from one empire to another.
The Hittites and Kassites A people known as the Hittites built a strong
kingdom in Asia Minor, in what is today Turkey. Their success came, in
part, from two key military advantages they had over rivals. First, the
Hittites were among the first people to master ironworking. This marked
the beginning of the Iron Age, a point in history in which iron was widely
used to make tools and weapons. The Hittites made the strongest weap-
ons of the time with iron. Second, the Hittites skillfully used the chariot,
a wheeled, horse-drawn cart used in battle. The chariots allowed Hit-
tite soldiers to move quickly around a battlefield and fire arrows at their
enemy. Using these advantages, Hittite forces captured Babylon around
1595 BC.
Hittite rule did not last long, however. Soon after taking Babylon, the
Hittite king was killed by an assassin. The kingdom plunged into chaos.
The Kassites, a people who lived north of Babylon, captured the city and
ruled for almost 400 years.

Explore ONLINE!
Babylonian and Assyrian Empires

Black Sea N

W E

ASIA
MINOR
Tig
Harran
ris
R.

Euph
Cyprus r Nineveh
Ashur
at
es

Me diterranean Babylonian Empire,

R.

Sea Byblos Mari c. 1750 BC

Damascus Assyrian Empire,

c. 650 BC
Kish
Jerusalem Nippur Ancient coastline
Babylon Lagash Susa of Persian Gulf
Memphis Syrian 0 100 200 Miles
Sinai Uruk
Peninsula Desert Ur 0 100 200 Kilometers
EGYPT
.
Nile R

Persian
Gulf

Red Interpret Maps

Sea Place What region in the southwest did
the Assyrian Empire include?

84 Module 3
 The Assyrians Later, in the 1200s BC, the Assyrians (uh- SIR-ee-unz) from
northern Mesopotamia briefly gained control of Babylon. However, their
empire was soon overrun by invaders. After this defeat, the
Assyrians took about 300 years to recover their strength. Then, starting
about 900 BC, they began to conquer all of the Fertile Crescent. They even
took over parts of Asia Minor and Egypt.
The key to the Assyrians’ success was their strong army. Like the
Hittites, the Assyrians used iron weapons and chariots. The army was
very well organized, and every soldier knew his role.
The Assyrians were fierce in battle. Before attacking, they spread
terror by looting villages and burning crops. Anyone who still dared to
resist them was killed. After conquering the Fertile Crescent, the
Assyrians ruled from Nineveh (NI-nuh-vuh). They demanded heavy taxes
from across the empire. Communities that resisted these demands were
harshly punished.
Assyrian achievements were not just military. One king of Assyria
established a huge royal library at Nineveh. It contained tens of thousands
of cuneiform tablets, including legal and administrative documents as well
as medical, religious, and literary texts.

The Assyrian Army

The Assyrian Army was the most powerful fighting force the
world had ever seen. It conquered using weapons such as
iron-tipped spears and arrows.

The Fertile Crescent, Mesopotamia, and the Persian Empire 85

 The Ishtar Gate led into the city of Babylon. Rebuilt by
Nebuchadnezzar, the city is considered one of the greatest
in the ancient world. Archeologists have found and partially
reconstructed the Ishtar Gate.

Assyrian kings ruled their large empire through local

leaders. Each governed a small area, collected taxes,
enforced laws, and raised troops for the army. Roads were
built to link distant parts of the empire. Messengers on
horseback were sent to deliver orders to faraway officials.
The Chaldeans In 652 BC a series of wars broke out in the Assyrian
Empire over who should rule. These wars greatly weakened the empire.
Sensing this weakness, the Chaldeans (kal-DEE-unz), a group from the
Syrian Desert, led other peoples in an attack on the Assyrians. In 612 BC,
they destroyed Nineveh and the Assyrian Empire.
In its place, the Chaldeans set up a new empire of their own.
Nebuchadnezzar (neb-uh-kuhd-NEZ-uhr), the most famous Chaldean
king, rebuilt Babylon into a beautiful city. According to legend, his grand
palace featured the famous Hanging Gardens. Trees and flowers grew on
its terraces and roofs. From the ground the gardens seemed to hang in
the air.
The Chaldeans admired Sumerian culture. They studied the Sumerian
language and built temples to Sumerian gods.
Reading Check At the same time, Babylon became a center for astronomy. Chaldeans
Summarize List charted the positions of the stars and kept track of economic, political, and
in order the
peoples who ruled weather events. They also created a calendar and solved complex problems
Mesopotamia. of geometry.
Summary and Preview Many different peoples ruled in the Fertile
Crescent after the Sumerians. Some made important contributions that
are still valued today. In the next lesson, you will learn about a wealthy
trading society that developed along the Mediterranean Sea.

Lesson 3 Assessment
Review Ideas, Terms, and People Critical Thinking
1. a. Identify Where was Babylon located? 3. Analyze What was the significance of
b. Analyze What does Hammurabi’s Code reveal Hammurabi’s Code in Babylon?
about Babylonian society? 4. Organize Information Use a graphic organizer like
2. a. Describe What two advantages did Hittite soldiers the one below. List at least one advance or achieve-
have over their opponents? ment made by each empire in this lesson.
b. Rank Which empire discussed in this lesson do you
think contributed the most to modern-day society?
Why?
Fertile
c. Recall What areas did the Assyrians control by Crescent
about 900 BC? Empires
d. Describe What did the royal library at Nineveh
contain?

86 Module 3
 Lesson 4

The Phoenicians
If YOU were there . . .
The Big Idea You live in the Phoenician port city of Sidon and have
The Phoenicians created a
just agreed to be a sailor on a Phoenician trading ship.
wealthy trading society along Your ship will sail from port to port on the Mediterra-
the Mediterranean Sea. nean Sea, delivering goods to some ports and picking
up goods from others. It will be hard work, but you look
Main Ideas
forward to seeing what other places are like.
■ The Phoenicians built a
trading society in the eastern What do you think you’ll see on this
Mediterranean region. trading trip?
■ The Phoenicians developed
one of the world’s first
alphabets.
Phoenicia
At the western end of the Fertile Crescent, along the Mediter-
Key Term ranean Sea, was a land known as Phoenicia (fi-NEE-shuh). It
alphabet was not home to a great military power and was often ruled by
foreign governments. Nevertheless, the Phoenicians created a
wealthy trading society.
Phoenician City-States The major Phoenician city-states
along the Mediterranean were established as early as 3000 BC.
These included Byblos, Sidon, and Tyre. The Egyptians and
Hittites each controlled the area for a time. By 1200 BC, the
power of both the Egyptians and the Hittites declined.
The Phoenician cities formed a loose association of city-
states, each ruled by a king. Powerful merchant families often
influenced the Phoenician kings. Some city-states were also
governed by a council of elders. However, the city-states gen-
erally remained independent of one another. Phoenicia lost
its independence when a king of the powerful Persian Empire
conquered it in 538 BC.
The Geography of Phoenicia Today the nation of Lebanon
occupies most of what was once Phoenicia. Mountains border
the region to the north and east. The western border is the
Mediterranean.

The Fertile Crescent, Mesopotamia, and the Persian Empire 87

 Phoenicia had few resources. Unlike areas farther inland, Phoenicia
lacked good farmland. It did have cedar trees, which provided valuable
Reading Check timber for trading. Even more valuable, however, was Phoenicia’s loca-
Analyze Effects tion. Phoenician city-states connected Mediterranean sea routes with land
What effect did routes that led deep into the Fertile Crescent. With their excellent location
geography have
on the Phoenician and limited resources, Phoenician leaders looked to the sea for a way to
economy? trade and expand their economy.

Phoenician Trade and Culture

Phoenician trading activity led to important innovations. Phoenicians
made significant contributions to navigation, manufacturing, and written
language.
The Expansion of Trade Motivated by a desire for trade, the people of
Phoenicia became expert sailors. They built one of the world’s finest har-
bors at the city of Tyre. Fleets of fast Phoenician trading ships sailed to
ports all around the Mediterranean Sea. Most Phoenician ships had both
sails for harnessing wind power and oars for rowing. Traders traveled to
Egypt, Greece, Italy, Sicily, and Spain. They even passed through the Strait
of Gibraltar to reach the Atlantic Ocean.
The Phoenicians founded several new colonies along their trade routes.
Carthage (KAHR-thij), located on the northern coast of Africa, was the most
famous of these. It later became one of the most powerful cities on the
Mediterranean.

Explore ONLINE!
Phoenicia, c. 800 BC

The Phoenicians sailed

throughout the Mediterranean,
building trade networks and
founding new cities.

N
Dan
E
ube
W

Riv e r Black Sea

S ITALY
Corsica

ATLANTIC SPAIN Sardinia

GREECE
OCEAN
S

Athens LYDIA A
IN
NT
TAURUS MOU
Strait of Sicily
Gibraltar Carthage
PHOENICIA
Tig

Med Cyprus
ris

A INS iterr Crete Byblos

NT anean
MO
U
Sea Sidon Eup Riv
hr e
A S Tyre a
A TL
tes

Tripolis Jerusalem
R

Phoenicia A F R I C A Memphis
Nile R i v e r

Phoenician colony
Area of Phoenician settlement
EGYPT
Trade route
0 150 300 Miles
Interpret Maps
0 150 300 Kilometers Location Where was Phoenicia located?

88 Module 3
Link to Economics

Tyrian Purple
Before modern times, the process for making purple
fabric was very difficult. The Phoenicians discovered
how to make a rich purple dye. This dye is known
as Tyrian purple because it was made in the city of
Tyre. The dye’s color came from an unlikely natural
resource: sea snails.
Because the dye was hard to make, its supply was
always low. The price of purple dye was therefore
very high. Wearing purple clothing showed that a
person was rich and influential. Ancient kings and
emperors especially created demand for the rare
and precious color. The profits earned from making Synthesize
and trading this valuable resource helped the How did access to natural resources help the
Phoenician economy grow. Phoenician economy grow?

Phoenicia grew wealthy from its trade. Besides timber, the Phoenicians
traded silverwork, ivory carvings, and slaves. Beautiful glass objects also
became valuable trade items after crafters invented glassblowing—the art
of heating and shaping glass. In addition, the Phoenicians made purple
dye from a type of shellfish. They then traded cloth dyed with this purple
color. Phoenician purple fabric was very popular with rich people. Phoeni-
cians used their goods to trade for other resources that were not readily
available to them, such as ivory, gold, copper, tin, and iron.
Phoenician Culture and Achievements The Phoenicians made several
important contributions to early civilization. They established trade and
communication routes throughout the Mediterranean region. Different
cultures throughout the region came to know one another better as they
exchanged goods.

The Phoenicians’
technological
innovations made
sea voyages safer
and more efficient.

The Fertile Crescent, Mesopotamia, and the Persian Empire 89

 For example, Phoenician religion adopted new ideas as people interacted
with surrounding civilizations. Egyptian, Hittite, Greek, and Roman tradi-
tions all shared elements with Phoenicians ones. Because of this interac-
tion, Phoenician gods represented different elements of nature. The people
worshipped them with prayer and the construction of statues.
Phoenician ships needed to sail across the wide body of the Mediter-
ranean Sea rather than simply up and down rivers. The Phoenicians
developed new navigation techniques, so ships could cross the sea safely
without losing their way. They were the first sailors to use Polaris, the
North Star, as the point of orientation for establishing directions at sea.
Phoenician ships sailed up the coast of Europe and down the coast of
Africa using the stars to ensure they were moving in the right direction.
The Phoenicians’ most important achievement, however, wasn’t trade or
sailing skill. Earlier civilizations used pictographs or cuneiform to commu-
nicate ideas. To record their activities, however, Phoenician traders devel-
oped one of the world’s first alphabets. An alphabet is a set of letters that
Reading Check
can be combined to form words. The Phoenician alphabet had 22 letters.
Summarize How This made it easier to use writing to communicate complex ideas.
did the Phoenicians Later civilizations, including our own, benefited from Phoenician inno-
contribute to the
development of early vations like this one. In fact, the English alphabet is based on that of the
civilizations? Phoenicians.
Summary and Preview The Phoenicians created a trading society at the
western end of the Fertile Crescent. They made important contributions
that are still valued today. In the next lesson, you will learn about an
empire that conquered nearly all of Asia Minor.

Lesson 4 Assessment
Review Ideas, Terms, and People Critical Thinking
1. a. Identify Who ruled Phoenician city-states? 3. Evaluate Copy the diagram, and use it to rank the
b. Recall What were three major city-states of significance of the Phoenician contributions to civiliza-
Phoenicia, and when did they flourish? tion in order of importance. Next to the diagram, write
c. Analyze How did Phoenicia’s lack of resources a sentence to explain each of your choices.
influence Phoenician leaders?
Most
2. a. Identify For what trade goods were the Phoenicians Significant
known?
b. Analyze What evidence from the text shows how
Phoenicia grew wealthy?
c. Analyze How did Phoenicia increase
communication throughout the Mediterranean?
d. Recall What star did the Phoenicians use for
navigation?
e. Contrast What is one difference between the Least
Phoenician alphabet and the English alphabet? Significant

90 Module 3
 Lesson 5

The Persian Empire

If YOU were there . . .
The Big Idea You’re a great military leader and the ruler of a great
Over time the Persians came to
empire. You control everything in the nations you’ve
rule a great empire, which even- conquered. One of your advisors urges you to force
tually brought them into conflict conquered people to give up their customs. He thinks
with the Greeks. they should adopt your way of life. But another advisor
Main Ideas disagrees. Let them keep their own ways, she says, and
you’ll earn their loyalty.
■ Persia became an empire
under Cyrus the Great. Whose advice do you take? Why?
■ The Persian Empire grew
stronger under Darius I.
Persia Becomes an Empire
In the 500s BC, a new power arose to the east of the Fertile
■ The Persians fought Greece
twice in the Persian Wars. Crescent. This power was the Persian Empire. Early in their his-
tory, the Persians were an unorganized nomadic people. It took
Key Terms and People the skills of leaders like Cyrus the Great and Darius I to change
Cyrus the Great that situation. Under these leaders, the Persians created a huge
cavalry empire that became one of the great civilizations of the ancient
Darius I world.
Persian Wars
Xerxes I Cyrus the Great Early in their history, the Persians often
fought other peoples of Southwest Asia. Sometimes they lost.
In fact, they lost a fight to a people called the Medes (MEEDZ)
and were ruled by them for about 150 years. In 550 BC, how-
ever, Cyrus II (SY-ruhs) led a Persian revolt against the Medes.
His revolt was successful. Cyrus won independence for Persia
and conquered the Medes. His victory marked the beginning of
the Persian Empire.
Cyrus conquered much of Southwest Asia, including nearly
all of Asia Minor, during his rule. Included in this region were
several Greek cities that Cyrus took over. He then marched
south to Mesopotamia and conquered Babylon, the most
powerful city of the time. In Babylon, Cyrus found thousands
of Jews enslaved in the city. Cyrus freed the Jews and allowed
them to return to their homeland.
Cyrus also added land to the east to his empire. He led his
army into central Asia to the Jaxartes River, which we now

The Fertile Crescent, Mesopotamia, and the Persian Empire 91

 call the Syr Darya. When he died in about 529 BC, Cyrus ruled the larg-
est empire the world had ever seen.
Cyrus let the people he conquered keep their own customs. He didn’t
force people to adopt Persian customs, and he didn’t mistreat them. For
example, Cyrus allowed the conquered Babylonians to keep worshipping
their own gods. He hoped this would make them less likely to rebel. He
was right. Few people rebelled against Cyrus, and his empire remained
strong. Because of his great successes, historians call him Cyrus the Great.

Academic The Persian Army Cyrus was successful in his conquests because his army
Vocabulary was strong. It was strong because it was well organized and loyal.
strategy a plan for At the heart of the Persian army were the Immortals, 10,000 soldiers
fighting a battle or war
chosen for their bravery and skill. In addition to the Immortals, the army
had a powerful cavalry. A cavalry is a unit of soldiers who ride horses. Cyrus
Reading Check used his cavalry to charge the enemy and shoot at them with arrows. This
Find Main Ideas
Who created the strategy weakened the enemy before the Immortals attacked. Working
Persian Empire? together, the cavalry and the Immortals could defeat almost any foe.

The Persian Empire Grows Stronger

Cyrus’s son Cambyses continued to expand the Persian Empire after Cyrus
died. For example, he conquered Egypt and added it to the empire. Soon
afterward, though, a rebellion broke out in Persia. During this rebellion,
Cambyses died. His death left Persia without a clear leader.

Explore ONLINE!
The Persian Empire

Jax
art
Aral e s
Sea Darya)
Black Se
R iv

GREECE yr
a (S
er

Cau
cas
Ca

us
s

Mt
pia

LYDIA s.
Athens Sardis
n

SH
HMH — MS WC—2016
S ea

ASIA KU
N
U
W
MINOR MS_SNLESE668171_075M_L ND
HI
Growth of the Persian Empire
E
M
S
ed E up Locator
ite h
rr a Za
First Ecbatana
gr proof 03/30/16
ra

Tigris

nea es
o Pla
t

n Sea R. s
M
ts of teau
. Ira
R

n
.

Jerusalem
r

Susa
ive

MESOPOTAMIA
Memphis
R

Pasargadae
us

EGYPT
I nd

Pe Persepolis
Nil

rs
ARABIAN ian PERSIA
eR

PENINSULA Gu
ive

Re

lf Persia under Cyrus, 559 BC

r

Conquered by Cyrus, 559–530 BC

Arabian Sea
Se

Conquered by Cambyses, 530–522 BC

a

Conquered by Darius, 521–486 BC

Royal Road
Interpret Maps
Capital City
1. Region Which Persian leader conquered the most territory? 0 250 500 Miles

2. Movement The Royal Road connected which two Persian cities? 0 250 500 Kilometers

92 Module 3
 Within four years a young prince named Darius I (da-RY-uhs)
claimed the throne and killed all his rivals for power. Once he
was securely in control, Darius worked to restore order in Per-
sia. He also improved Persian society and expanded the empire.
Political Organization Darius organized the empire by divid-
ing it into 20 provinces. Then he chose governors called satraps
(SAY-traps) to rule the provinces for him. The satraps collected
taxes for Darius, served as judges, and put down rebellions
within their territories. Satraps had great power within their
provinces, but Darius remained the empire’s real ruler. His
officials visited each province to make sure the satraps were
Sitting on a throne, the Emperor Darius is loyal to Darius. He called himself king of kings to remind other
shown meeting with an officer of his empire. rulers of his power.
Persian Art, Architecture, and Literature The term classical civilization
describes civilizations that flourished long ago from the Mediterranean
Sea eastward to India and China. These civilizations had advanced econo-
mies, governments, and cultures. Persia’s rich classical culture included
art, architecture, and literature.
For example, Darius built a new capital for the empire. It was called
Persepolis. Darius wanted his capital to reflect the glory of his empire,
so he filled the city with beautiful works of art. Many carvings lined the
city’s walls. Statues throughout the city glittered with gold, silver, and
precious jewels. Darius also built an impressive palace in his new capital.
Its architecture would influence building as far away as India.
The Persians were also skilled artists. Persian artists created delicate
items out of gold and gems, many of them decorated with images of
animals. Many of these items were used by the king and his family.
During Darius’s rule a new religion arose in the Pesian Empire. This reli-
gion, which was called Zoroastrianism (zawr-uh-WAS-tree-uh-nih-zuhm),
taught that there were two forces fighting for control of the universe.
One force was good, and the other was evil. According to the Zoroastrian
creation story, the good force created the sky, the earth, plants and ani-
mals, and the first man. At the same time, the evil force created demons,
witches, and monsters.
The priests of the religion urged people to help the side of good in its
struggle. This religion remained popular in Persia for many centuries, and
some people still practice it today. The holy book of Zoroastrianism, the
Avesta, is an important example of early Persian literature.
Persian Society Darius improved Persian society in other ways as well.
For example, he standardized the currency, or the form of money used in
transactions. Copper, silver, and gold coins each had their own standard
worth, weight, and size. This standardization made it easier for Persians to
conduct business and to trade with each other.

The Fertile Crescent, Mesopotamia, and the Persian Empire 93

 The Persian government encouraged trade, including by building
new ports and seeking new trading partners. These policies stimulated
expansion of the empire and led to great economic growth.
Darius had roads constructed to connect various parts of the empire.
Royal messengers used these roads to travel quickly throughout Persia.
One road, called the Royal Road, was more than 1,700 miles long. Royal
messengers had specific places to receive letters and find food.
These roads helped change the way people perceived the world.
Traveling great distances from one part of the empire to another became
safe and secure. Good roads made it easier for peoples from different
regions to interact with one another. Even Persia’s enemies admired these
roads and the Persian messenger system. For example, one Greek historian
wrote:

“Nothing mortal travels so fast as these Persian messengers . . . these men will
not be hindered from accomplishing at their best speed the distance which they
have to go, either by snow, or rain, or heat, or by the darkness of night.”
–Herodotus, from History of the Persian Wars

Reading Check
Summarize How Persian Expansion Like Cyrus, Darius wanted the Persian Empire to
did Darius I grow. In the east, he conquered the entire Indus Valley. He also tried to
change Persia’s
political
expand the empire westward into Europe. However, before Darius could
organization? move very far into Europe, he had to deal with a revolt in the empire.

The Persians Fight Greece

In 499 BC, several Greek cities in Asia Minor rebelled against Persian
rule. To help their fellow Greeks, a few city-states in mainland Greece sent
soldiers to join the fight against the Persians.
The Persians put down the revolt, but Darius was still angry with the
Greeks. Although the cities that had rebelled were in Asia, Darius was
enraged that other Greeks had given them aid. He swore to take revenge
on the Greeks.
The Battle of Marathon Nine years after the Greek cities rebelled, Darius
invaded Greece. He and his army sailed to the plains of Marathon near
Athens. This invasion began a series of wars between Persia and Greece
that historians call the Persian Wars.
The Athenian army had only about 11,000 soldiers, while the Persians
This Greek vase shows
a Persian soldier (at left) had about 15,000. However, the Greeks won the battle because they had
and a Greek soldier in a better weapons and clever leaders.
fight to the death.
According to legend, a messenger ran from Marathon to Athens—a
distance of just over 26 miles—to bring news of the great victory. After
crying out “Rejoice! We conquer!” the exhausted runner fell to the ground
and died.
The Second Invasion of Greece Ten years after the Battle of Marathon,
Darius’s son Xerxes I (ZUHRK-seez) tried to conquer mainland Greece

94 Module 3
 again. In 480 BC, the Persian army set out for Greece. This time they were
joined by the Persian navy.
The Greeks prepared to defend their homeland. This time Sparta, a
powerful city-state in southern Greece, joined with Athens. The Spartans
had the strongest army in Greece, so they went to fight the Persian army.
Meanwhile, the Athenians sent their powerful navy to attack the Persian
navy.
To slow the Persian army, the Spartans sent about 1,400 soldiers
to Thermopylae (thuhr- MAH -puh-lee), a narrow mountain pass. The
Persians had to cross through this pass to attack Greek cities. For
three days, the small Greek force held off the Persian army. Then
the Persians asked a traitorous Greek soldier to lead them through
another pass. A large Persian force attacked the Spartans from behind.
Surrounded, the brave Spartans and their allies fought to their deaths.
After winning the battle, the Persians swept into Athens, attacking and
burning the city.
Although the Persians won the battle in the pass, the Greeks quickly
regained the upper hand. A few days after Athens was burned, the
Athenians defeated the Persian navy through a clever plan. They led
the larger Persian navy into the narrow straits of Salamis (SAH -luh-
muhs). The Persians had so many ships that they couldn’t steer well in

Explore ONLINE!
The Persian Wars

Persian Empire
Byzantium
Rebellious Greek city-states
Greek city-states
allied against the Persians
Neutral and pro-Persian
city-states
Greek Persian
victory victory
Wreck of Darius’s fleet
Darius’s
Fleet Xerxes’s army
Xerxes’s fleet
0 50 100 Miles
Ae g e a n
Se a 0 50 100 Kilometers
Thermopylae

Sardis
Plataea Marathon

IONIA
ASIA
Salamis
MINOR
N Peloponnesus
W
Athens
E

S Sparta

Interpret Maps
1. Location Where in Greece were most of the Rhodes

allied city-states against the Persians located? Mediterranean Sea

2. Movement About how far did Xerxes’s army

have to march to reach Thermopylae?

The Fertile Crescent, Mesopotamia, and the Persian Empire 95

 Bay of Eleusis
Plataeans
Plateans
Persians
Greeks

Athenians Persians
Persian Salamis
retreat

Bay of
Marsh Marathon
Saronic Gulf

Marathon Salamis
At Marathon, the Greeks defeated a larger Persian At Salamis, the Greeks destroyed the Persian navy
force by luring the Persians into the middle of their by attacking in a narrow strait where the Persian
forces. The Athenians then surrounded and defeated ships could not maneuver well.
the Persians.

the narrow strait. As a result, the smaller Athenian boats easily sank
many Persian ships. Those ships that were not destroyed soon returned
home.
Soon after the Battle of Salamis, an army of soldiers from all over
Greece beat the Persians at Plataea (pluh-TEE-uh). This battle ended the
Persian Wars. Defeated, the Persians left Greece.
Reading Check For the Persians, this defeat was humiliating, but it was not a major
Analyze Events blow. Their empire remained strong for more than a century after the war.
Why did Darius
and Xerxes want to For the Greeks, though, the defeat of the Persians was a triumph. They had
conquer Greece? saved their homeland.
Summary The Persian Empire, led by strong rulers, became the largest
empire the world had ever seen. The Persian army was powerful, but
Athens and Sparta stopped its invasion of Greece.

Lesson 5 Assessment
Review Ideas, Terms, and People
1. a. Summarize Describe the empire of Cyrus the Great. 3. a. Explain Why did Persia want to invade Greece?
b. Make Inferences Why did peoples conquered by b. Predict How might the Persian Wars have ended
Cyrus the Great seldom rebel? if the Spartans had not slowed the Persians at
Thermopylae?
c. Identify When Cyrus conquered Babylon, what
people did he free, and where did they go? Critical Thinking
2. a. Identify How did Darius I change Persia’s political
organization? 4. Organize Information Using a chart like the one
below, list the battles discussed in the lesson in the
b. Make Generalizations How did Persia’s roads help
first column. In the other columns, identify who
change people’s perception of the world and their
fought, who won, and what happened as a result of
interaction with others?
each battle.
c. Summarize What were some examples of Persian
architecture, art, and literature with which we Battle Armies Winner Result
associate classical civilizations?

96 Module 3
Social Studies Skills
Interpret Physical Maps
Define the Skill Practice the Skill
A physical map is a map that shows the natural Use the guidelines to answer these questions
features and landscape, or topography, of an about the physical map.
area. It shows the location and size of such 1. What is the elevation of the western half of
features as rivers and mountain ranges. Physical the Arabian Peninsula?
maps also often show an area’s elevation, or how
high above sea level the land is. Topography 2. Describe the topography of Mesopotamia.
and elevation often influence human activities. Why would settlement have occurred here
For example, people will live where they can before other places on the map?
find water and defend themselves. Therefore, 3. What feature might have stopped invasions
being able to interpret a physical map can help of Mesopotamia?
you better understand how the history of an
area unfolded.
Mesopotamia and the Fertile Crescent

Learn the Skill Caspian

s
in
n ta Sea
ou
Follow these steps to interpret a physical map.

Ti
sM ME

gr
ru
Tau

is
SO
PO
1. Read the map’s title, distance scale, and Euphra TA

Riv er
t
M

es
I
legend. These will provide basic information ve

Ri

M
r

ZA NT
OU
N
about the map’s contents.

GR
O
A S
W E IN
S
2. Note the colors used to show elevation. Use S SYRIAN
DESERT
the legend to connect colors on the map to Dead
Sea
elevations of specific places.
ula
Pe n i n a i
ins

3. Note the shapes of the features, such as how

S

high a mountain range is, how far it stretches, ARABIAN

PENINSULA
and how long a river is. Note where each
Re

feature is in relation to others.

d

ELEVATION
Se

Feet Meters
4. Use information from the map to draw
a

13,120 4,000
conclusions about the effect of the region’s 6,560 2,000
1,640 500
topography on settlement and economic 656 200
(Sea level) 0 0 (Sea level)
activities. Below Below
sea level sea level
0 150 300 Miles

0 150 300 Kilometers

The Fertile Crescent, Mesopotamia, and the Persian Empire 97

Module 3 Assessment
Review Vocabulary, Terms, and People
Complete each sentence by filling in the blank with the correct term or person.

1. Mesopotamian farmers built ______________ to irrigate their fields.

2. While city dwellers were urban, farmers lived in ______________ areas.
3. The people of Sumer practiced ______________, the worship of many gods.
4. Instead of using pictographs, Sumerians developed a type of writing called
______________.
5. Horse-drawn ______________ gave the Hittites an advantage during battle.
6. The Babylonian king ______________ is famous for his code of laws.
7. Sumerian society was organized in ____________, which consisted of a city and the
surrounding lands.
8. A ruler named __________ created the Persian Empire.

Comprehension and Critical Thinking b. Draw Conclusions Why do you think

Lesson 1 several peoples banded together to fight
the Assyrians?
9. a. Describe Where was Mesopotamia, and
what does the name mean? c. Evaluate Do you think Hammurabi was
more effective as a ruler or as a military
b. Analyze How did Mesopotamian irri-
leader? Why?
gation systems allow civilization to
develop? Lesson 4
c. Elaborate Do you think a division of 12. a. Analyze What choices did the Phoeni-
labor is necessary for civilization to cian leaders make for their economy
develop? Why or why not? based on the limited resources of the
area?
Lesson 2
b. Describe What were two important
10. a. Identify Who built the world’s first
developments of the Phoenicians?
empire, and what did that empire
include? c. Draw Conclusions How did the sail help
the Phoenicians to build their economy?
b. Analyze Politically, how was early Sume-
rian society organized? How did that Lesson 5
organization affect society? 13. a. Identify Who were Cyrus the Great,
c. Identify What was the Sumerian writing Darius I, and Xerxes I?
system called, and why is it so significant? b. Analyze How did the Greeks use strat-
Lesson 3 egy to defeat a larger fighting force?
11. a. Describe What technical achievement of c. Compare What similarities do you see
the Hittites marks the beginning of the between Sumerian and Persian art, archi-
Iron Age? tecture, and literature?

98 Module 3
Module 3 Assessment, continued
Review Themes Social Studies Skills
14. Science and Technology Which of the Interpret Physical Maps Could you use a physical
ancient Sumerians’ technological achieve- map to answer these questions? For each question,
ments do you think has been most influen- answer yes or no.
tial in history? Why? 18. Are there mountains or hills in a certain
15. Politics Why do you think Hammurabi is so region?
honored for his code of laws? 19. What languages do people speak in that
region?
Reading Skills 20. How many people live in the region?
Identify Main Ideas For each passage, choose the 21. What kinds of water features such as rivers
letter that corresponds to the main-idea sentence. or lakes would you find there?
16. (A) Sumerians believed that their gods had
enormous powers. (B) Gods could bring a Focus on Writing
good harvest or a disastrous flood. (C) They 22. Write to Inform Write two or three para-
could bring illness, or they could bring good graphs to inform readers about the signifi-
health and wealth. cant contributions of the Mesopotamian
17. (A) The wheel was not the Sumerians’ only leaders you learned about in this module.
great development. (B) They developed Include details about Hammurabi and
cuneiform, the world’s first system of Sargon. Be sure to inform readers about the
writing. (C) But Sumerians did not have main ideas of Hammurabi’s Code.
pencils, pens, or paper. (D) Instead, they
used sharp reeds to make wedge-shaped
symbols on clay tablets.

The Fertile Crescent, Mesopotamia, and the Persian Empire 99