MAC 2103

Module 4
Vectors in 2-Space and 3-Space I

Learning Objectives

In this module, we apply our earlier ideas specifically to vectors

in 2-space, ℜ2, (in the xy-plane) in two dimensions and to
vectors in 3-space, ℜ3,(in the xyz-space) in three
dimensions.

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 Learning Objectives (Cont.)
Upon completing this module, you should be able to:
1. Determine the components of a vector in ℜ2 and ℜ3.
2. Perform vector addition, subtraction, and scalar multiplication in
ℜ2 and ℜ3.
3. Find the norm of a vector and the distance between points in ℜ2
and ℜ3.
4. Find the dot product of two vectors in ℜ2 and ℜ3.
5. Use the dot product to find the angle between two vectors in ℜ2
and ℜ3.
6. Find the projection of a vector onto another vector in ℜ2 and ℜ3,
and express the original vector as a sum of two orthogonal
vectors.
7. Find the distance between a point and a line in ℜ2 and ℜ3.

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Vectors in ℜ2 and ℜ3

There are three major topics in this module:

Introduction to Vectors (Geometric)

Norm of a Vector; Vector Operations
Dot Product; Projections

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 What are Vectors in ℜ2 and ℜ3?
• Vectors can be represented as directed line segments
or arrows in ℜ2 and ℜ3.
• The direction of the arrow specifies the direction of the
vector.
• A vector that starts from an initial point A and!!!"
terminates at a point B can be represented as AB .
• A vector is usually denoted in lowercase boldface type
(like v) in the textbook or with an arrow above """! it when
!
we write it by hand. For example: v = v = AB.
!v!!
"
A B

!
#v
$!! B
A
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What are Vectors in ℜ2 and ℜ3? (Cont.)

• The magnitude of the vector is
the length of the vector.
• The vector of length zero is
called the zero vector.
• Vectors with the same
magnitude and same direction
are equal to each other.
• A vector v in standard position
has its starting point at the
origin. The coordinates (v1, v2)
of the terminal point of v are Note: The negative of vector v
called the components of v. is defined to be the vector that
! has the same magnitude as v
v = v = (v1 , v2 ) but is oppositely directed.
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 What are Vectors in ℜ2 and ℜ3? (Cont.)
If s is any scalar, then a vector of the form sv
is called a scalar multiple of v.
!
sv = sv = s(v1 , v2 ) = (sv1 , sv2 )
For example, if v = (2,-7) and s =- 5, then

!
!5 v = !5(v1 , v2 ) = (!5v1 , !5v2 ) = (!10, 35)

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What are Vectors in ℜ2 and ℜ3? (Cont.)

• If v and u are any two vectors in standard

position, then the sum and difference of the
two vectors is also a vector. It’s also a vector
in standard position.
! !
v + u = v + u = (v1 , v2 ) + (u1 ,u2 ) = (v1 + u1 , v2 + u2 )
! !
v ! u = v ! u = (v1 , v2 ) ! (u1 ,u2 ) = (v1 ! u1 , v2 ! u2 )

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 What are the Components of a Vector in ℜ3?

A !v!!
"B
!!!"
If the initial
!!!" point of AB is A(x1,y1,z1) and the terminal !!!"
point of AB is B(x2,y2,z2) in ℜ3, then the components of AB
can be obtained by subtracting the coordinates of the
initial point from the coordinates of the terminal point.
! """!
v = v = AB = (x2 ! x1 , y2 ! y1 , z2 ! z1 )
!!!"
Example: Suppose the initial point of AB is A(1,-2,5)
and terminal point
! "is""! B(-1,4,9), then the components of
the vector v = v = AB = (!2, 6, 4) . We see that the vector
!!!"
AB is equal to the vector v in standard position.
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Example
Suppose !
u = (!5,1, 6)
!
v = (1, 0, !8)
! !
Find the components of 7u ! 2 v.
! ! ! !
7u ! 2 v = 7u + (!2)v = 7(!5,1, 6) + (!2)(1, 0, !8)
= ((7)(!5) + (!2)(1),(7)(1) + (!2)(0),(7)(6) + (!2)(!8))
= (!37, 7, 58)
Note: In chapter 1, we would represent these vectors as column matrices:

" !5 % " 1 %
!
v = $ 0 ' = "# 1 0 !8 %&
T
! $ ' T
u = $ 1 ' = "# !5 1 6 %& $ '
#$ 6 '& $# !8 '&
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 Some Important Properties of
a Vector Space
If u, v, and w are vectors in ℜ2, ℜ3, or any vector space
and k and s are scalars, then the following hold:
a) u + v = v + u b) (u + v) + w = u + (v + w)
c) u + 0 = 0 + u = u d) u + (-u) = 0
e) k(su)= ks(u) f) k(u + v)= ku + kv
g) (k + s) u = ku + sv h) 1u = u

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What is the Norm of a Vector in ℜ3?

!
• The norm of a vector u, u = u , is the length or
the magnitude of the vector u.
• If u = (u1, u2, u3) = (-1, 4, -8), then the norm of the
vector u is
!
u = u12 + u22 + u32 = (!1)2 + 4 2 + (!8)2 = 9
• This is just the distance of the terminal point to the
origin for u in standard position.
u
!
Note: If u is any nonzero vector, then u
is a unit vector. A unit vector is a vector of norm 1.

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 How to Find the Distance Between Two Points?

• If A(x1,y1,z1) and B(x2,y2,z2) are two points in ℜ3, then

the distance between the two points is the !!!" length, the
magnitude, and the norm of the vector AB.
!!!"
d = AB = (x2 ! x1 )2 + (y2 ! y1 )2 + (z2 ! z1 )2

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How to Find Dot Product of Two Vectors in

Terms of the Components of the Vectors?

If u = (u1, u2, u3) and v = (v1, v2, v3) , then the dot product
of the two vectors in terms of the components of the
vectors is:
! ! !!
u ! v = u ! v = u1v1 + u2 v2 + u3v3 = uv T

Example: If u = (3, 0, -1) and v = (2, 9, -2) , then the dot

product of the two vectors is: # 3 &
! !
u ! v = u ! v = (3)(2) + (0)(9) + ("1)("2) = % 0 ( #$ 2 9 "2 &'
% (
%$ "1 ('
!!
= uv T = 6 + 0 + 2 = 8http://faculty.valenciacc.edu/ashaw/
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 How to Find the Angle Between Vectors?

By definition, if u and v are nonzero vectors in ℜ2 and

ℜ3 and ! is the angle between u and v, then the dot
product of the two vectors is:
! ! ! !
u ! v = u ! v = u v cos(" )
Thus, if u and v are nonzero vectors, the angle can be
obtained by: ! !
u "v
cos(! ) = ! ! .
u v
Note: From the previous slide,
! !
u "v 8
cos(! ) = ! ! =
u v 10 89 .
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Some Important Properties of the

Dot Product
If u, v, and w are vectors in ℜ2 and ℜ3 and s is a scalar, then the
following relationships hold:
a) u · v = v · u
b) u · (v + w) = u · v + u · w
c) s (u · v) = (s u ) · v = u · (s v )
! ! !2 !
d) v ! v = v ! v = v and v = v ! v
! ! !2
e) v ! v = v ! v = v > 0 if and only if v ≠ 0, and v · v = 0 iff v = 0

If the vectors u and v are nonzero and θ is the angle

between them, then θ = π/2 if and only if u·v = 0. Then,
u and v are perpendicular or orthogonal.
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 How to Find the Projection of a Vector onto
Another Vector?
If u and v are vectors in in ℜ2 and ℜ3 and if a ≠ 0, then
u!a a a
proja u = 2 a = u! (vector component of u along a)
a a a

u"a
(vector component of u
u ! proja u = u ! 2 a
a orthogonal or perpendicular to a)
Thus, the projau and u - projau are orthogonal vectors whose
sum is u. The dot product of projau and u - projau is zero.
# u!a & # u!a &
( proja u) ! (u " proja u) = % 2 a ( ! % u " 2 a ( =
$ a ' $ a '
(u ! a)2 (u ! a)2 (a ! a) (u ! a)2 (u ! a)2
2 " 2 2 = 2 " 2 =0
a a a a a
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How to Find the Projection of a Vector

onto Another Vector and Express the Original Vector as
the Sum of Two Orthogonal Vectors?
Example
Let u = (3,1,-7) and a = (1,0,5). Find the vector component of
u along a and the vector component of u orthogonal to a.
Solution:
Step 1: Find the dot product of the two vectors.
! !
u ! a = u ! a = (3)(1) + (1)(0) + ("7)(5) = 3 + 0 + ("35) = "32

Step 2: Find the norm of a.

!
a = a = (1)2 + (0)2 + (5)2 = 1 + 0 + 25 = 26

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 How to Find the Projection of a Vector
onto Another Vector? (Cont.)
Step 3: Solve for the vector component of u along a.
u!a "32 "16 "16 "80
proja u = 2 a= a= (1, 0, 5) = ( , 0, )
a 26 13 13 13

Step 4: Solve for the vector component of u orthogonal to a.

!16 !80 55 !11
u ! proja u = (3,1, !7) ! ( , 0, ) = ( ,1, )
13 13 13 13

55 !11 !16 !80

Note: (u ! proja u) + proja u = ( ,1, )+( , 0, )
13 13 13 13
39 !91
=( ,1, ) = (3,1, !7) = u
13 13
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How to Find the Projection of a Vector

onto Another Vector? (Cont.)

Step 5: Check to see if the two component vectors are

orthogonal.
u!a "32 "16 "16 "80
proja u = 2 a= a= (1, 0, 5) = ( , 0, )
a 26 13 13 13
"16 "80 55 "11
u " proja u = (3,1, "7) " ( , 0, ) = ( ,1, )
13 13 13 13
"16 "80 55 "11
( proja u) ! (u " proja u) = ( , 0, ) ! ( ,1, )
13 13 13 13
"880 880
= +0+ =0
169 169

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 How to Find the Distance
Between a Point and a Line?
Example
Find the distance D from the point (-3,1) to the line
4x+3y+4=0.
Solution:
We can use the distance formula in Equation (13)

ax 0 +by0 + c
D=
a2 + b2
to find the distance D. In our problem, x0=-3, y0=1, a=4, b=3,
and c=4.
ax 0 +by0 + c (4)(!3) + (3)(1) + 4 !5 5
D= = = = =1
a2 + b2 4 2 + 32 5 5
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What have we learned?

We have learned to:
1. Determine the components of a vector in ℜ2 and ℜ3.
2. Perform vector addition, subtraction, and scalar multiplication in ℜ2
and ℜ3.
3. Find the norm of a vector and the distance between points in ℜ2
and ℜ3.
4. Find the dot product of two vectors in ℜ2 and ℜ3.
5. Use the dot product to find the angle between two vectors in ℜ2
and ℜ3.
6. Find the projection of a vector onto another vector in ℜ2 and ℜ3,
and express the original vector as a sum of two orthogonal vectors.
7. Find the distance between a point and a line in ℜ2 and ℜ3.

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 Credit
Some of these slides have been adapted/modified in part/whole from the
text or slides of the following textbooks:
• Anton, Howard: Elementary Linear Algebra with Applications, 9th Edition
• Margaret L. Lial, John Hornsby, David I. Schneider, Trigonometry, 8th
Edition

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