• Imagine a battle scene taking place on

Earth. What sounds would you expect to

hear and why would you be able to hear
these sounds?
• What misconception about sound in space
do people have?
• Why do you think we cannot hear sound
in space?
 Chapter14

llNK '$) '.

Recall the characteristics In this section, you will learn the following:
·of longitudinal waves • Describe the production of sound by vibrating sources.
that you have learnt in • Describe the longitudinal nature of sound waves.
Chapter 11.
• 0 Describe compression and rarefaction.
• State the approximate range of frequencies audible to humans.

Sound is a method of energy transfer using a wave.

Sound has amplitude, frequency and wavelength. Sound waves travel parallel to the direction of
vibration of a medium. Therefore, sound waves are longitudinal waves.

How is sound produced?

PHYSICS WATCH @ How do guitar players produce sounds from their guitars? They strike the guitar strings causing the
strings to vibrate. Sometimes, guitar players place their palms on the strings. This mutes the guitar
Scan this page to watch because it stops the guitar strings from vibrating.
an experiment on
Sound is produced by vibrating sources placed in a medium. The medium is usually air, but it can
producing sound.
be any gas, liquid or solid.

How does a sound wave propagate?

An object vibrating in air causes the layers of air particles around it to be displaced. This displacement
of particles causes sound waves to propagate. We cannot see the displacement of air particles.
However, if we dip a vibrating tuning fork in water, we will see that the water is displaced (Figure 14.1).

G) A vibrating tuning fork

is dipped into a glass
of~ater. ·
-
ENRICHMENT ~ ~ ' '
ACTIVITY
Use your mouth and ') u;,_
try to produce the @ , Water is displa~ed, , .. ....----:.·
sound Isl (as in the because the vibrating,-.
~- I ~. "'>
,. - . ~ - -'
. , , ~ • f ,.._ ,.. ' ~· '

hissing sound of a tuning fork displaces the' ._.

snake). While doing surrounding molecules, ' \I , .iJ ' :-· ~ -
that, place your thumb which then displace their
,·
and your index and neighbouring molecules, - .~;.:,- .
middle fingers near and so on. : '---~ ---~: . . ~ · :t ~~ ;~ '.
the middle of your
throat Do you feel any
vibrations of your vocal
cords?
Repeat the above Figure 14.1 A vibrating object displaces the particles in a medium.
while producing
another sound /z/ As sound is a longitudinal wave, the direction of vibration of air molecules is parallel to the d' t·
(as in the buzzing of
.in w h'1c h t he wave trave Is. Th'1s .1s s1m1
. ·1 ar tot he Iong1tu
. d'1na I waves produced when a Slinky irec
• ion
.
a bee). What do you made to vibrate parallel to its length (Figure 14.2). spring IS
notice this time?
Share your
observations with
your classmates. )

224 Sound
 .,' -":-~·,,\<:<:~}it~~::· \;;l
Ch~ptef 14 -. -',;
' -

compression
Figure 14.2 Longitudinal wave in a Slinky spring

Like all longitudinal waves, sound waves propagate as a series of compressions (C) and rarefactions (R).
• Compressions are regions where air pressure is higher than the surrounding air pressure.
• Rarefactions are regions where air pressure is lower than the surrounding air pressure.

Figure 143 shows how sound waves are produced by a vibrating tuning fork.

Layers of air are in undisturbed

positions.

A compression (C) is produced as

the prongs push outward.

A rarefaction (R) is produced as the

prongs move inward.

Another compression (C) is created

as the prongs move outward again.

.-0 QUICK CHECK

There are less air

particles in a region of
compression than in a
region of rarefaction.
, True or false?

Figure 14.3 As a tuning fork vibrates, it shifts layers of air inward and outward, creating a series of compressions
and rare(actions

i
t
l Sound 225 '_
......____
 ---
What sounds are audible?
WORDALERT ~ We can only hear sounds that are audible to us. The human ear is only capable of detecting sounds
in a certain range of frequencies. The range of frequencies in which a person can hear is known as
Audible: can be heard
the range of audibility. For humans, this range is from 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz.
The top and bottom values of the range are known as the limits of audibility. For the human ear, the
lower limit is about 20 Hz and the upper limit is about 20 000 Hz.
Figure 14.4 shows examples of the range of audibility and the range of frequency of sounds.

Vibrating ruler Dog whistle

Human ears cannot hear low frequency Human ears cannot hear high frequency sounds called ultrasound.
sounds called infrasound. A vibrating ruler If you blow a dog whistle, a dog may bark in response, even though
I
can be seen but not heard. This is because the you do not hear any sound. This is because the frequency of the sound
\•

frequency of the sound produced is below produced by the whistle is above the upper limit of audibility of humans
the lower limit of audibility of the human ear. but within that of dogs .

frequency of a
vibrating ruler
....
audible range
audible range
of a bat

ofa dog

#)
audible range
# frequency of a
ofa human dog whistle

20Hz 20000 Hz
lnfrasound Ultrasound

~-~----~,1=0-----10ro----,700_0____1_0To-oo---,-o-oro-o-o-----.--- Frequency/Hz
1 000000
Figure 74.4 Spectrum of sound frequencies

Let's Practise 14.1

1 Read each sentence and state the meaning of each underlined term.
(a) Sound is a longitudinal wave.
(b) 0 Sound is transmitted as a series of compressions and rarefactions in air.
2 A vi?rating source produces ultrasound at a frequency of 40 kHz. Is this fre uenc . .
LINK~ audible range of the human ear? Give your reason. q Y within the
3 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you h .
Exercise 14A this section. ave 1earnt 1n

Sound
 . .

14.2 .Transmission of Sound

In this section, you will learn the following:
• Know that a medium is needed to transmit sound waves.
• Know that the speed of sound in air is approximately 330-350 m/s.
• 0 Know that, in general, sound travels faster in solids than in liquids and faster In liquids than in
gases.
• Describe a method involving a measurement of distance and time for determining the speed of
· sound in air.

Can sound be transmitted through a vacuum?

Unlike electromagnetic waves, sound waves need a medium to travel from one point to another. The
bell jar experiment demonstrates this (Figure 14.5).

m• Electric bell on • Electric bell on

• Vacuum pump off • Vacuum pump on
You can see the movement of -o to power Air is drawn out of the bell jar.
the striker and hear the sound -----o supply The sound of the bell becomes
of the bell. faint and disappears, even

( 1 --~- connecting
wires
though the striker is still hitting
the bell.

In this experiment, an electric • Electric bell on

bell is suspended in a sealed ----i- striker
• Vacuum pump off
bell jar.
As air flows back into the bell
jar, the sound of the bell can be
bell jar air
heard again.

Figure 14.5 The belljar experiment shows that sound cannot travel through a vacuum. -0 QUICK CH ECK

We can hear sound in

Medium of transmission a vacuum.
Any medium which contains particles that can vibrate will transmit sound. However, sound waves True or false?
travel at different speeds in different media:
speed of sound < speed of sound < speed of sound
in gas in liquid in solid
Table 14.1 shows the approximate speed of sound in different media.

Table 14.1 Speeds of sound in different media

Medium Water Iron Granite

1500 5000 '5400

Sound
 ~

Chapter 14

How can we measure the speed of sound in air?

Let's Investigate 14A demonstrates one method of measuring the speed of sound in air. This me th0 d
involves the measurement of distance and time.

Let's Investigate 14A

Objective
To measure the speed of sound in air by a direct method
Apparatus
Electronic starting pistol with light flash, electronic starting pistol
stopwatch, measuring tape

Procedure
A
r open field
Using a measuring tape, observers A and Bare
positioned at a known distance d apart in an distanced
open field (Figure 14.6). Figure 14.6
2 Observer A fires an electronic starting pistol.
3 On seeing the flash of the starting pistol, observer B starts the stopwatch and then stops it
when he hears the sound. The time interval tis then recorded.
Results and discussion
A typical set of data: d = 800 m, t = 2.4 s
The speed of sound in air v = distanced travelled by sound
time taken t
800m
2.4 s
= 333 mis
The accuracy of the speed of sound in air v can be increased in two ways:
1 Repeat the experiment a few times, and calculate the average value of the speed of
sound in air. Taking the average minimises the random errors that may occur while timing
LINK@ 2
the interval.
Repeat the experiment but with the positions of observers A and B interchanged.
Practical 14 This cancels the effect of wind on the speed of sound in air.

Let's Practise 14.2

1 Can sound travel directly from one spaceship to another one nearby? Why?
2 A woman standing 1.00 km away from a storm hears the sound of thunder 3 s after she sees
LINK§ 3
a flash of lightning. Calculate the speed of sound in air in m/s.
Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in
,I I
Exercise 148
I this section.

I
I.

Sound
....-:;:--

14.3 Echoes and Ultrasound ·

In this section, you Will learn the following:
• Describe an echo as the reflection of sound waves.
• Define ultrasound as sound with a frequency higher than 20 kHz.
• 0 Describe the uses of ultrasound.

Echoes
What is an echo?
Figure 14.7 lllustrates what an echo is.

wall

Stand 50 m from a large direction of The sound is reflected by the

unobstructed wall and clap incident sound wall, and you hear the sound
your hands once. of the clap repeated after a
moment. The repetition of
direction of
reflected sound the clap is known as an echo.

open space

((jaj· WORD ALERT

·· Unobstructed:
not blocked
Figure 14.7 Forming a single echo

An echo is a reflection of sound waves.

How are echoes formed?

An echo is formed when a sound is reflected offhard, flat surfaces, such as a large wall or a distant cliff.
The law of reflection of light also applies to sound waves. Figure 14.8 shows a simple experiment to
illustrate the reflection of sound.

hard, flat surface

(such as· a wall)

cardboard tube cardboard tube

ear detects loudest reflected

sound when angle of
source of sound barrier to incidence i equals angle of
(such as a prevent sound reflection r
t"i cking clock) from source
travelling directly
to the ear

. F/_gure 14.~ Sound reflected off a surface

Sound
 Human Hearing range = 20Hz- 20kHz
Ultrasound
HELPFUL NOTES ~
What is ultrasound?
The word sonar is Ultrasound is sound with a frequency higher than 20 kHz.
an acronym for the
In other words, ultrasonic frequencies are frequencies above the upper limit of the human range.
term sound navigation
and ranging. Ultrasound has many uses. Bats and dolphins use ultrasound in echolocation (i.e. detecting the
location of objects using echoes). Most sonar technologies also use ultrasound.

What are the uses of ultrasound?

WORDALERT ~
Testing materials for quality control
Cavities: holes or gaps Manufacturers of concrete use ultrasound to check for cracks or cavities in concrete slabs
(Figure 14.9). Ultrasound can also be used to inspect metal pipes and measure the thickness of
Foetuses: unborn babies
wooden boards.

G) Ultrasound
emerges from
a transmitter.
@ By comparing
the ultrasound
concrete emitted and
slab received, the
presence and
@ Ultrasound location of
passes through defects can
the concrete be identified.
slab and is
received by
a sensor.

Figure 14.9 Inspecting a concrete slab using ultrasound

Medical scanning
Ultrasound can be used to obtain images of
structures in the body. It is commonly used to
examine the development of foetuses (Figure 14.10).
Ultrasound is used instead of X-rays because it is less
hazardous due to its lower energy.
Ultrasound pulses are sent into the womb of a
pregnant woman via a transmitter. The time taken
for the ultrasound pulses to be reflected is measured.
From this, the depth of the reflecting surface within
the womb can be derived, and an image is formed.

Figure 14.
Th10 A doctor
• scans the womb of a pregnant
wtho~an. . e '!1°mtor shows an ultrasound image of
e ,oetus inside the womb.

230 Sound
Sonar
Sonar ids a type of technology that works based on echolocation. It is used by ships for navigation at
sea an to detect the position of other vessels.
~t
\SI INFO
ENRICHMENT

For example, "'!e can find the depth of the sea or the position of shoals of fish using sonar. This is How Do Dolphins Navigate
~one by se nd ing out a signal (a pulse of sound) and noting the time interval before the reflected in Water?
signal (the echo) arrives (Figure 14.11). Dolphins emit a series of
clicks at about 100 kHz
through their foreheads
and receive the echoes
through their lower jaws.
-~--
:-:::--:-- returning echo
From the frequencies
-... :'"' . .
generator

depth
*-- pulse of sound
and direction of the
echoes, dolphins can
deduce the nature and
location of objects in
of sea their paths.
I?-

*
::r:/ pulse progress ;~
a shoal of fish

Figure 14.12 Dolphim

navigate underwater
using echolocation.
Figure 14. 11 A ship sends out a pulse ofsound to determine the depth of the sea.

~f
\SI THINK
ENRICHMENT•
Worked Example 14A
Some bats use
A ship uses a sonar as a depth sounder to measure the depth of a seabed. It sends a pulse of echolocation to help
sound downwards into the sea. An echo from the seabed is received 03 s after the pulse is sent them find their prey in
If the speed of sound in water is 1500 mis, determine the depth of the sea. the dark. Others rely more
on their sight to find food.
Solution The common Asian ghost
Given: Time for sound to travel to and back from seabed, t = 03 s bat (Rgure 14.13) can
Speed of sound in water, v = 1500 m/s be found in South and
Southeast Asia. From the
Using v = 2d where dis the depth of the sea, photo, how do you think
t.
this bat find its food?
vt 1500 mis x 03 s 225 m
we get d What would be an
2 2
effective way to catch this
bat? Explain how your
1 method will work.

Let's Practise 14.3

1 If you shout in an empty hall, you will not hear a distinct echo. Instead, you will hear many
echoes. Explain why.
2 0 A pulse of sound is transmitted from a ship towards the seabed. If the echo is received
after 1 s. calculate the depth of the sea, given that the speed of sound in water is 1500 mis.
,Rgure 14.13 Common
3 0 Why is ultrasound preferred to X-rays for prenatal scanning, although both types of waves Asian ghost bar
can be used to obtain images of internal organs?
4 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in
this section. §uNx
Exercise 14C

Sound
- Chapter 14
t

14.4 Pitch and Loudness

In this section, you will learn the following:
• Describe how changes in amplitude and frequency affect the loudness and pitch of sound waves.

We experience a great variety of sounds every day. Some sounds are pleasant, whereas some are

QUICK CH ECK -0 not. Pitch and loudness are among the characteristics of sound that help us determine whether a
sound is pleasant.

The pitch of a sound

depends on its frequency. What affects the pitch of a sound?
True or false? We often describe sounds as being high-pitched or /ow-pitched. Do you know what causes a sound
to be high-pitched or low-pitched?
Pitch is related to the frequency of a sound wave - the higher the frequency, the higher the pitch.
Pitch is relative. For example, a 200 Hz sound has a higher pitch compared to a sound of 100 Hz.
However, the 200 Hz sound has a lower pitch compared to a sound of 400 Hz.
Two tuning forks of different lengths produce sounds of different pitch (Figure 14.14). This is because
the tuning forks generate sound waves of different frequencies.
- - - tuning fork
with short
prongs set
into vibration

Sound waves of long Sound waves of short

,,,-- wavelength are produced.
,,,-- wavelength are produced.

,
'-
,,
This gives a low-pitched This gives a high-pitched
'--- '--- sound.
sound.

I
J
different frequencies

Figure 14.14 Tuning forks with prongs of different lengthsproduce sounds of different pitch.

To observe the waveforms of sound waves, we use a microphone and a cathode-ray oscilloscope
(c.r.o.) (Figure 14.15).

Sound waves Sound waves @ The waveform is displayed

are directed to are converted to on the c.r.o. screen as a
the microphone. electrical signals by displacement-time graph.
the microphone.

G)
longitudinal sound waves

cathode-ray
leads connect microphone input oscilloscope
sound source to Y-inputs of oscilloscope

figure 14. 15 Ac.r.o. can be used to visualise sound waves.

Sound
If the sou~d waves produced by the tuning forks in Figure 14.14 are channelled into a c.r.o.,
the resulting waveforms will look like the ones shown in Figures 14.16 and 14.17. Note that the same
time base is used. /ft ACTIVITY
\91
ENRICHMENT*

Displacement Displacement

Pd-tTime
Get several glass
bottles of the same
size and shape. Fill the
bottles with different
0 0 levels of water. Now,
blow across the
Figure 14. 16 The waveform for rhe tuning fork top of each bottle
Figure 14. 17 The waveform for the tuning fork
wrr/1 long prongs. with short prongs. (Figure 14.18).
Why is there a
From Figures 14.16 and 14.17, the period Taof the long tuning fork is longer than the period Tb of the difference in the pitch
short tuning fork. of each note?

► Recall that frequency fis related to period Tby the equation T= 7' Since Ta> Tti, the frequency
In groups, try to play
a simple song using
bottles filled with
fJ = ;, of the long tuning fork is lower than the frequency fb =J_ of the short tuning fork. ◄ Hence, different levels of
0 ~
water. Record which
the tuning fork with long prongs produces a sound with a lower pitch or frequency compared to the
note each bottle plays.
tuning fork with short prongs.
Then, explain how you
managed to do this.
What affects the loudness of a sound?
To the human ear, the loudness of a sound is subjective. For a particular volume of sound,
some people may find it loud, whereas others may find it soft.
Loudness is related to the amplitude of a sound wave - the larger the amplitude, the louder
the sound. Figures 14.19 and 1420 show two waveforms of the same frequency but with different
amplitudes of vibration.
Figure 14.18
------ t
amplitude
_ ~ - __ ~ _- _- ~~plitude
.---- 7- - - ~ - - -'Q7- - - - -
Figure 14. 19 A loud sound has a large wave Figure 14.20 A soft sound has a small wave amplitude.
amplitude.

Let's Practise 14.4

1 of these quantities - speed, frequency, wavelength, and amplitude - which is associated
with the
(a) loudness of a sound; (b) pitch of a sound?
2 Compare in terms of loudness and pitch the sounds made by a mosquito flying near your ~ -LINK
ear and the croaking of a bullfrog.
1
3 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in Exercises.14D-14E
this section. Exercise 14F L€t's Reflect ·

Sound
 Let's Map It

production

Produced by Requires Can be reflected Known as

vibrating sources a medium off a hard surface ultrasound if
for propagation ' asechoes frequency > 20 kHz

\\

t
• The speed of \
~ \\\
0 usesin
propagation ~ • Testing of materials ·
depends on
the medium: • Medical scanning
• Sonar
v.,..<v...,"'<v"""' has

Can be determined
by using a method
involving measurement Pitch loudness
of distance and time • is related to the • is related to the
frequency of a amplitude of a
sound wave sound wave

direction of
vibration shows
that sound is a

Longitudinal wave Audible range of

frequencies for humans:
• Air molecules vibrate parallel to the
wave motion
• 0 Transfers energy from one
point to another via a series of
20 H,-20 kH~ ) >)
compressions and rarefactions

Sound
Let's Review

Section A: Multiple-choice Questions 4 A guitar plays a louder note but at a lower pitch
1 A spaceship with astronauts on board orbits the compared to a violin. Which of the following is correct?
Moon. The astronauts see an asteroid crashing onto
Violin's amplitude Guitar's frequency
the surface of the Moon. Why do they not hear the
explosion caused by the crashing of the asteroid? - Higher
~

A All the sound waves are absorbed by the surface of B Higher Lower
the Moon. I
C Lower , H_lg~her '
B The sound waves are reflected from the surface of
the spaceship. D Lower Lower i
C The sound waves are unable to travel from the
Moon's surface to the spaceship. Section B: Short-answer and Structured
D All the sound waves are absorbed by the surface of Questions
the spaceship. 1 A bell is struck by a hammer.
2 Based on the information in Table 142, which statement (a) Briefly describe how sound is produced by the
correctly describes the speed of sound? bell. [2]
(b) Describe how the sound travels through air to reach
Table 14.2
the ear of the person striking the bell. [2]
Density/ Speed of sound/
g/cm 3
2 In an experiment, a ringing electric bell is suspended
m/s
inside a bell jar by a thin string. A vacuum pump is then
used to draw air out of the bell jar.
Iron 7.87 5000
(a) When the vacuum pump is not switched on, the
0.00143 320 ringing of the bell can be heard. When the vacuum
Air . 0.00129 330 pump is switched on, the loudness of the bell
decreases until only a very faint sound can be
A The denser the substance, the lower the speed heard. Explain this observation. [5]
of sound. (b) Describe and explain what will happen if the
B As the density of the substance decreases, the electric bell is not suspended by the string but rests
speed of sound decreases. on the base supporting the bell jar instead. [2]
c The speed of sound is greater in metals than 3 In an attempt to determine the speed of sound in
in gases. air, observer A stands 500 m from observer B in an
D The speed of sound increases as the density of the open space. Observer A starts the experiment by
substance increases. firing a flashgun towards the sky. Observer B starts
3 Figure 1421 shows two boys, A and_ 8, standin~ i~ front the stopwatch when he sees the flash and stops the
of a tall building. Both boys are facing the building. stopwatch when he hears the sound of the gun.
When boy A claps his hands once, boy B hears two They repeat the experiment three times and the
claps that are 2 s apart. timings recorded are 151 s, 1.55 s and 150 s.
(a) Calculate the average speed of sound in air. [3]
(b) Suggest why the observers A and B should not

buHd;ng
talln
LJ A B 4
stand 100 m apart for this experiment. [3]
0 The approximate range of frequencies that the
340m O 200m 0 average human ear can detect is 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz.
~ J>A" •A (a) Dogs can detect ultrasound. Explain what this
Figure 14.21 means. [1]
(b) One application of ultrasound is medical diagnosis,
Based on the information given, what is the speed of where images of internal body parts are obtained.
sound in air? Describe how ultrasound is used to obtain the ,1
B 340 mis images of internal body parts. [2]
A 300 m/s
C 350 mis D 500 mis

Sound
Let's Review
5 (a) Describe how an echo is formed. [1] (i) Based on the data in Figure 1423, calculate the
(b) 0 Figure 1422 shows a ship as it moves from depth of the seabed at each of the positions
positions A to F above a seabed. At each spot, A to F. [7]
the ship transmits sound pulses to the seabed to (ii) On Figure 14.24, draw the rough depth profile of the
determine its depth profile. The speed of the sound seabed. Clearly label the depth of the seabed for
pulses in the seawater is 1500 mis. each of the positions A to F. [3]

surface of water A B C D E F

c: o:
distance
from
surface

Figure 14.22 Figure 14.24

Figure 1423 shows the time interval between (iii) Calculate how long it takes to detect an echo from
each transmitted pulse and the reflected pulse the seabed if the depth is 60 m. [2]
received by the ship. Each thick line represents the
6 (a) Two properties that are used to distinguish one
transmitted pulse, while each thin line represents
musical sound from another are pitch and loudness.
the corresponding reflected pulse.
State the physical characteristic of sound waves
to which
(i) pitch is related; (1)
(ii) loudness is related. (1)
(b) A student tries to produce notes of higher
frequency by blowing a trumpet harder. Discuss
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.2 2.4 3.0 3.2 3.4 4.0 4.2 Time/s whether the student will succeed. [3]
Figure 14.23

Sound