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 To Patty, for her sacrifices, encouragement, and support for more than 30 years
of being a textbook author widow. To my students and colleagues, for being
receptive and critical and for challenging me to be a better teacher.
—J.A.H.
To Gayathri, for her sacrifices and patience these past 25 years. To my parents, for
letting me make the journey abroad, and to my cat, Raju, who was a part of our
family for more than 20 years.
—V.R.
To Anne-Louise, for her loving support, encouragement, and patience.
To Leila and Saara, whose laughter and joy of life continue to teach me about
what is truly important. To my teachers, colleagues, and students, from whom
I continue to learn every day.
—H.T.
This page intentionally left blank
 Brief Contents

Part I The Context of Database Management 1

Chapter 1 The Database Environment and Development Process 2

Part II Database Analysis 51

Chapter 2 Modeling Data in the Organization 53
Chapter 3 The Enhanced E-R Model 114

Part III Database Design 153

Chapter 4 Logical Database Design and the Relational Model 155
Chapter 5 Physical Database Design and Performance 206

Part IV Implementation 241

Chapter 6 Introduction to SQL 243
Chapter 7 Advanced SQL 289
Chapter 8 Database Application Development 337
Chapter 9 Data Warehousing 374

Part V Advanced Database Topics 417

Chapter 10 Data Quality and Integration 419
Chapter 11 Big Data and Analytics 445
Chapter 12 Data and Database Administration 485
Glossary of Acronyms 534
Glossary of Terms 536
Index 544

Available Online at www.pearsonhighered.com/hoffer

Chapter 13 Distributed Databases 13-1
Chapter 14 Object-Oriented Data Modeling 14-1

Appendices
Appendix A Data Modeling Tools and Notation A-1
Appendix B Advanced Normal Forms B-1
Appendix C Data Structures C-1

vii
This page intentionally left blank
 Contents

Preface xxv

Part I The Context of Database Management 1

An Overview of Part One 1

Chapter 1 the Database environment and Development Process 2

Learning Objectives 2
Data Matter! 2
Introduction 3
Basic Concepts and Definitions 5
Data 5
Data Versus Information 5
Metadata 6
Traditional File Processing Systems 7
File Processing Systems at Pine Valley Furniture Company 8
Disadvantages of File Processing Systems 8
Program-Data DePenDence 8
DuPlication of Data 9
limiteD Data Sharing 9
lengthy DeveloPment timeS 9
exceSSive Program maintenance 9
The Database Approach 9
Data Models 9
entitieS 10
relationShiPS 11
Relational Databases 11
Database Management Systems 11
Advantages of the Database Approach 11
Program-Data inDePenDence 11
PlanneD Data reDunDancy 12
imProveD Data conSiStency 12
imProveD Data Sharing 12
increaSeD ProDuctivity of aPPlication DeveloPment 13
enforcement of StanDarDS 13
imProveD Data Quality 13
imProveD Data acceSSibility anD reSPonSiveneSS 14
reDuceD Program maintenance 14
imProveD DeciSion SuPPort 14
Cautions About Database Benefits 14
Costs and Risks of the Database Approach 14
new, SPecializeD PerSonnel 15
inStallation anD management coSt anD comPlexity 15
converSion coStS 15
neeD for exPlicit backuP anD recovery 15
organizational conflict 15
Components of the Database Environment 15

ix
x Contents

The Database Development Process 17

Systems Development Life Cycle 18
Planning—enterPriSe moDeling 18
Planning—concePtual Data moDeling 18
analySiS—concePtual Data moDeling 18
DeSign—logical DatabaSe DeSign 19
DeSign—PhySical DatabaSe DeSign anD Definition 20
imPlementation—DatabaSe imPlementation 20
maintenance—DatabaSe maintenance 20
Alternative Information Systems (IS) Development
Approaches 21
Three-Schema Architecture for Database Development 22
Managing the People Involved in Database Development 24
Evolution of Database Systems 24
1960s 26
1970s 26
1980s 26
1990s 26
2000 and Beyond 27
The Range of Database Applications 27
Personal Databases 28
Multitier Client/Server Databases 28
Enterprise Applications 29
Developing a Database Application for Pine Valley Furniture
Company 31
Database Evolution at Pine Valley Furniture Company 32
Project Planning 33
Analyzing Database Requirements 34
Designing the Database 36
Using the Database 39
Administering the Database 40
Future of Databases at Pine Valley 41
Summary 41 • Key Terms 42 • Review Questions 42 •
Problems and Exercises 44 • Field Exercises 45 •
References 46 • Further Reading 46 • Web Resources 47
▶ Case: Forondo Artist Management Excellence Inc. 48

Part II Database Analysis 51

An Overview of Part Two 51

Chapter 2 Modeling Data in the organization 53

Learning Objectives 53
Introduction 53
The E-R Model: An Overview 56
Sample E-R Diagram 56
E-R Model Notation 58
Modeling the Rules of the Organization 59
Overview of Business Rules 60
the buSineSS ruleS ParaDigm 60
 Contents xi

Scope of Business Rules 61

gooD buSineSS ruleS 61
gathering buSineSS ruleS 62
Data Names and Definitions 62
Data nameS 62
Data DefinitionS 63
gooD Data DefinitionS 63
Modeling Entities and Attributes 65
Entities 65
entity tyPe verSuS entity inStance 65
entity tyPe verSuS SyStem inPut, outPut, or uSer 65
Strong verSuS weak entity tyPeS 66
naming anD Defining entity tyPeS 67
Attributes 69
reQuireD verSuS oPtional attributeS 69
SimPle verSuS comPoSite attributeS 70
Single-valueD verSuS multivalueD attributeS 70
StoreD verSuS DeriveD attributeS 71
iDentifier attribute 71
naming anD Defining attributeS 72
Modeling Relationships 74
Basic Concepts and Definitions in Relationships 75
attributeS on relationShiPS 76
aSSociative entitieS 76
Degree of a Relationship 78
unary relationShiP 78
binary relationShiP 80
ternary relationShiP 81
Attributes or Entity? 82
Cardinality Constraints 84
minimum carDinality 84
maximum carDinality 84
Some Examples of Relationships and Their Cardinalities 85
a ternary relationShiP 86
Modeling Time-Dependent Data 86
Modeling Multiple Relationships Between Entity Types 89
Naming and Defining Relationships 90
E-R Modeling Example: Pine Valley Furniture Company 92
Database Processing at Pine Valley Furniture 94
Showing Product Information 95
Showing Product Line Information 95
Showing Customer Order Status 96
Showing Product Sales 97
Summary 98 • Key Terms 99 • Review Questions 99 •
Problems and Exercises 100 • Field Exercises 110 •
References 110 • Further Reading 111 • Web Resources 111
▶ Case: Forondo Artist Management Excellence Inc. 112

Chapter 3 the enhanced e-r Model 114

Learning Objectives 114
Introduction 114
xii Contents

Representing Supertypes and Subtypes 115

Basic Concepts and Notation 116
an examPle of a SuPertyPe/SubtyPe relationShiP 117
attribute inheritance 118
when to uSe SuPertyPe/SubtyPe relationShiPS 118
Representing Specialization and Generalization 119
generalization 119
SPecialization 120
combining SPecialization anD generalization 121
Specifying Constraints in Supertype/Subtype Relationships 122
Specifying Completeness Constraints 122
total SPecialization rule 122
Partial SPecialization rule 122
Specifying Disjointness Constraints 123
DiSjoint rule 123
overlaP rule 123
Defining Subtype Discriminators 124
DiSjoint SubtyPeS 124
overlaPPing SubtyPeS 125
Defining Supertype/Subtype Hierarchies 125
an examPle of a SuPertyPe/SubtyPe hierarchy 126
Summary of SuPertyPe/SubtyPe hierarchieS 127
EER Modeling Example: Pine Valley Furniture Company 128
Entity Clustering 131
Packaged Data Models 134
A Revised Data Modeling Process with Packaged
Data Models 136
Packaged Data Model Examples 138
Summary 143 • Key Terms 144 • Review Questions 144 •
Problems and Exercises 145 • Field Exercises 148 •
References 148 • Further Reading 148 • Web Resources 149
▶ Case: Forondo Artist Management Excellence Inc. 150

Part III Database Design 153

An Overview of Part Three 153

Chapter 4 Logical Database Design and the relational Model 155

Learning Objectives 155
Introduction 155
The Relational Data Model 156
Basic Definitions 156
relational Data Structure 157
relational keyS 157
ProPertieS of relationS 158
removing multivalueD attributeS from tableS 158
Sample Database 158
Integrity Constraints 160
Domain Constraints 160
Entity Integrity 160
Referential Integrity 162
 Contents xiii

Creating Relational Tables 163

Well-Structured Relations 164
Transforming EER Diagrams into Relations 165
Step 1: Map Regular Entities 166
comPoSite attributeS 166
multivalueD attributeS 167
Step 2: Map Weak Entities 167
when to create a Surrogate key 169
Step 3: Map Binary Relationships 169
maP binary one-to-many relationShiPS 169
maP binary many-to-many relationShiPS 170
maP binary one-to-one relationShiPS 170
Step 4: Map Associative Entities 171
iDentifier not aSSigneD 172
iDentifier aSSigneD 172
Step 5: Map Unary Relationships 173
unary one-to-many relationShiPS 173
unary many-to-many relationShiPS 174
Step 6: Map Ternary (and n-ary) Relationships 175
Step 7: Map Supertype/Subtype Relationships 176
Summary of EER-to-Relational Transformations 178
Introduction to Normalization 178
Steps in Normalization 179
Functional Dependencies and Keys 179
DeterminantS 181
canDiDate keyS 181
Normalization Example: Pine Valley Furniture Company 182
Step 0: Represent the View in Tabular Form 182
Step 1: Convert to First Normal Form 183
remove rePeating grouPS 183
Select the Primary key 183
anomalieS in 1nf 184
Step 2: Convert to Second Normal Form 185
Step 3: Convert to Third Normal Form 186
removing tranSitive DePenDencieS 186
Determinants and Normalization 187
Step 4: Further Normalization 187
Merging Relations 188
An Example 188
View Integration Problems 188
SynonymS 189
homonymS 189
tranSitive DePenDencieS 189
SuPertyPe/SubtyPe relationShiPS 190
A Final Step for Defining Relational Keys 190
Summary 192 • Key Terms 194 • Review Questions 194 •
Problems and Exercises 195 • Field Exercises 204 •
References 204 • Further Reading 204 • Web Resources 204
▶ Case: Forondo Artist Management Excellence Inc. 205
xiv Contents

Chapter 5 Physical Database Design and Performance 206

Learning Objectives 206
Introduction 206
The Physical Database Design Process 207
Physical Database Design as a Basis for Regulatory Compliance 208
Data Volume and Usage Analysis 209
Designing Fields 210
Choosing Data Types 211
coDing techniQueS 212
hanDling miSSing Data 213
Denormalizing and Partitioning Data 213
Denormalization 213
oPPortunitieS for anD tyPeS of Denormalization 214
Denormalize with caution 216
Partitioning 217
Designing Physical Database Files 219
File Organizations 221
heaP file organization 221
SeQuential file organizationS 221
inDexeD file organizationS 221
haSheD file organizationS 224
Clustering Files 227
Designing Controls for Files 227
Using and Selecting Indexes 228
Creating a Unique Key Index 228
Creating a Secondary (Nonunique) Key Index 228
When to Use Indexes 229
Designing a Database for Optimal Query Performance 230
Parallel Query Processing 230
Overriding Automatic Query Optimization 231
Summary 232 • Key Terms 233 • Review Questions 233 •
Problems and Exercises 234 • Field Exercises 237 •
References 237 • Further Reading 237 • Web Resources 238
▶ Case: Forondo Artist Management Excellence Inc. 239

Part IV Implementation 241

An Overview of Part Four 241

Chapter 6 introduction to sQL 243

Learning Objectives 243
Introduction 243
Origins of the SQL Standard 245
The SQL Environment 247
Defining a Database in SQL 251
Generating SQL Database Definitions 252
Creating Tables 253
Creating Data Integrity Controls 255
Changing Table Definitions 256
Removing Tables 257
 Contents xv

Inserting, Updating, and Deleting Data 257

Batch Input 259
Deleting Database Contents 259
Updating Database Contents 259
Internal Schema Definition in RDBMSs 260
Creating Indexes 260
Processing Single Tables 261
Clauses of the SELECT Statement 262
Using Expressions 264
Using Functions 265
Using Wildcards 267
Using Comparison Operators 267
Using Null Values 268
Using Boolean Operators 268
Using Ranges for Qualification 271
Using Distinct Values 271
Using IN and NOT IN with Lists 273
Sorting Results: The ORDER BY Clause 274
Categorizing Results: The GROUP BY Clause 275
Qualifying Results by Categories: The HAVING Clause 276
Using and Defining Views 277
materializeD viewS 281
Summary 281 • Key Terms 282 • Review Questions 282 •
Problems and Exercises 283 • Field Exercises 286 •
References 287 • Further Reading 287 • Web Resources 287
▶ Case: Forondo Artist Management Excellence Inc. 288

Chapter 7 Advanced sQL 289

Learning Objectives 289
Introduction 289
Processing Multiple Tables 290
Equi-join 291
Natural Join 292
Outer Join 293
Sample Join Involving Four Tables 295
Self-Join 297
Subqueries 298
Correlated Subqueries 303
Using Derived Tables 305
Combining Queries 306
Conditional Expressions 308
More Complicated SQL Queries 308
Tips for Developing Queries 310
Guidelines for Better Query Design 312
Ensuring Transaction Integrity 314
Data Dictionary Facilities 315
Recent Enhancements and Extensions to SQL 317
Analytical and OLAP Functions 317
New Data Types 319
xvi Contents

New Temporal Features in SQL 319

Other Enhancements 320
Triggers and Routines 321
Triggers 321
Routines and other Programming Extensions 323
Example Routine in Oracle’s PL/SQL 325
Embedded SQL and Dynamic SQL 327
Summary 329 • Key Terms 330 • Review Questions 330 •
Problems and Exercises 331 • Field Exercises 334 •
References 334 • Further Reading 334 • Web Resources 335
▶ Case: Forondo Artist Management Excellence Inc. 336

Chapter 8 Database Application Development 337

Learning Objectives 337
Location, Location, Location! 337
Introduction 338
Client/Server Architectures 338
Databases in a Two-Tier Architecture 340
A VB.NET Example 342
A Java Example 344
Three-Tier Architectures 345
Web Application Components 347
Databases in Three-Tier Applications 349
A JSP Web Application 349
A PHP Example 353
An ASP.NET Example 355
Key Considerations in Three-Tier Applications 356
Stored Procedures 356
Transactions 359
Database Connections 359
Key Benefits of Three-Tier Applications 359
Cloud Computing and Three-Tier Applications 360
Extensible Markup Language (XML) 361
Storing XML Documents 363
Retrieving XML Documents 363
Displaying XML Data 366
XML and Web Services 366
Summary 369 • Key Terms 370 • Review Questions 370 •
Problems and Exercises 371 • Field Exercises 372 •
References 372 • Further Reading 372 • Web Resources 372
▶ Case: Forondo Artist Management Excellence Inc. 373

Chapter 9 Data Warehousing 374

Learning Objectives 374
Introduction 374
Basic Concepts of Data Warehousing 376
A Brief History of Data Warehousing 377
The Need for Data Warehousing 377
neeD for a comPany-wiDe view 377
neeD to SeParate oPerational anD informational SyStemS 379
 Contents xvii

Data Warehouse Architectures 380

Independent Data Mart Data Warehousing Environment 380
Dependent Data Mart and Operational Data Store Architecture:
A Three-Level Approach 382
Logical Data Mart and Real-Time Data Warehouse
Architecture 384
Three-Layer Data Architecture 387
role of the enterPriSe Data moDel 388
role of metaData 388
Some Characteristics of Data Warehouse Data 388
Status Versus Event Data 388
Transient Versus Periodic Data 389
An Example of Transient and Periodic Data 389
tranSient Data 389
PerioDic Data 391
other Data warehouSe changeS 391
The Derived Data Layer 392
Characteristics of Derived Data 392
The Star Schema 393
fact tableS anD DimenSion tableS 393
examPle Star Schema 394
Surrogate key 395
grain of the fact table 396
Duration of the DatabaSe 397
Size of the fact table 397
moDeling Date anD time 398
Variations of the Star Schema 399
multiPle fact tableS 399
factleSS fact tableS 400
Normalizing Dimension Tables 401
multivalueD DimenSionS 401
hierarchieS 402
Slowly Changing Dimensions 404
Determining Dimensions and Facts 406
The Future of Data Warehousing: Integration with Big Data
and Analytics 408
Speed of Processing 409
Cost of Storing Data 409
Dealing with Unstructured Data 409
Summary 410 • Key Terms 410 • Review Questions 411 •
Problems and Exercises 411 • Field Exercises 415 •
References 415 • Further Reading 416 • Web Resources 416

Part V Advanced Database Topics 417

An Overview of Part Five 417

Chapter 10 Data Quality and integration 419

Learning Objectives 419
Introduction 419
Data Governance 420
xviii Contents

Managing Data Quality 421

Characteristics of Quality Data 422
external Data SourceS 423
reDunDant Data Storage anD inconSiStent metaData 424
Data entry ProblemS 424
lack of organizational commitment 424
Data Quality Improvement 424
get the buSineSS buy-in 424
conDuct a Data Quality auDit 425
eStabliSh a Data StewarDShiP Program 426
imProve Data caPture ProceSSeS 426
aPPly moDern Data management PrinciPleS anD technology 427
aPPly tQm PrinciPleS anD PracticeS 427
Summary of Data Quality 427
Master Data Management 428
Data Integration: An Overview 429
General Approaches to Data Integration 429
Data feDeration 430
Data ProPagation 431
Data Integration for Data Warehousing: The Reconciled
Data Layer 431
Characteristics of Data After ETL 431
The ETL Process 432
maPPing anD metaData management 432
extract 433
cleanSe 434
loaD anD inDex 436
Data Transformation 437
Data Transformation Functions 438
recorD-level functionS 438
fielD-level functionS 439
Summary 441 • Key Terms 441 • Review Questions 441 •
Problems and Exercises 442 • Field Exercises 443 •
References 443 • Further Reading 444 • Web Resources 444

Chapter 11 Big Data and Analytics 445

Learning Objectives 445
Introduction 445
Big Data 447
NoSQL 449
Classification of NoSQL Database Management Systems 450
key-value StoreS 450
Document StoreS 450
wiDe-column StoreS 451
graPh-orienteD DatabaSeS 451
NoSQL Examples 452
reDiS 452
mongoDb 452
aPache caSSanDra 452
neo4j 452
Impact of NoSQL on Database Professionals 452
 Contents xix

Hadoop 453
Components of Hadoop 454
the haDooP DiStributeD file SyStem (hDfS) 454
maPreDuce 455
Pig 456
hive 456
hbaSe 457
Integrated Analytics and Data Science Platforms 457
hP haven 457
teraData aSter 457
ibm big Data Platform 457
Putting It All Together: Integrated Data Architecture 458
Analytics 460
Types of Analytics 461
Use of Descriptive Analytics 462
SQl olaP Querying 463
online analytical ProceSSing (olaP) toolS 465
Data viSualization 467
buSineSS Performance management anD DaShboarDS 469
Use of Predictive Analytics 470
Data mining toolS 470
examPleS of PreDictive analyticS 472
Use of Prescriptive Analytics 473
Data Management Infrastructure for Analytics 474
Impact of Big Data and Analytics 476
Applications of Big Data and Analytics 476
buSineSS 477
e-government anD PoliticS 477
Science anD technology 478
Smart health anD well-being 478
Security anD Public Safety 478
Implications of Big Data Analytics and Decision Making 478
PerSonal Privacy vS. collective benefitS 479
ownerShiP anD acceSS 479
Quality anD reuSe of Data anD algorithmS 479
tranSParency anD valiDation 480
changing nature of work 480
DemanDS for workforce caPabilitieS anD eDucation 480
Summary 480 • Key Terms 481 • Review Questions 481 •
Problems and Exercises 482 • References 483 •
Further Reading 484 • Web Resources 484

Chapter 12 Data and Database Administration 485

Learning Objectives 485
Introduction 485
The Roles of Data and Database Administrators 486
Traditional Data Administration 486
Traditional Database Administration 488
Trends in Database Administration 489
Data Warehouse Administration 491
Summary of Evolving Data Administration Roles 492
xx Contents

The Open Source Movement and Database Management 492

Managing Data Security 494
Threats to Data Security 495
Establishing Client/Server Security 496
Server Security 496
network Security 496
Application Security Issues in Three-Tier Client/Server
Environments 497
Data Privacy 498
Database Software Data Security Features 499
Views 500
Integrity Controls 500
Authorization Rules 502
User-Defined Procedures 503
Encryption 503
Authentication Schemes 504
PaSSworDS 505
Strong authentication 505
Sarbanes-Oxley (SOX) and Databases 505
IT Change Management 506
Logical Access to Data 506
PerSonnel controlS 506
PhySical acceSS controlS 507
IT Operations 507
Database Backup and Recovery 507
Basic Recovery Facilities 508
backuP facilitieS 508
journalizing facilitieS 508
checkPoint facility 509
recovery manager 509
Recovery and Restart Procedures 510
DiSk mirroring 510
reStore/rerun 510
maintaining tranSaction integrity 510
backwarD recovery 512
forwarD recovery 513
Types of Database Failure 513
aborteD tranSactionS 513
incorrect Data 513
SyStem failure 514
DatabaSe DeStruction 514
Disaster Recovery 514
Controlling Concurrent Access 515
The Problem of Lost Updates 515
Serializability 515
Locking Mechanisms 516
locking level 516
tyPeS of lockS 517
DeaDlock 518
managing DeaDlock 518
 Contents xxi

Versioning 519
Data Dictionaries and Repositories 521
Data Dictionary 521
Repositories 521
Overview of Tuning the Database for Performance 523
Installation of the DBMS 523
Memory and Storage Space Usage 523
Input/Output (I/O) Contention 524
CPU Usage 524
Application Tuning 525
Data Availability 526
Costs of Downtime 526
Measures to Ensure Availability 526
harDware failureS 527
loSS or corruPtion of Data 527
human error 527
maintenance Downtime 527
network-relateD ProblemS 527
Summary 528 • Key Terms 528 • Review Questions 529 •
Problems and Exercises 530 • Field Exercises 532 •
References 532 • Further Reading 533 •
Web Resources 533

Glossary of Acronyms 534

Glossary of Terms 536
Index 544
xxii Online Chapters

onLine ChAPters
Chapter 13 Distributed Databases 13-1
Learning Objectives 13-1
Introduction 13-1
Objectives and Trade-offs 13-4
Options for Distributing a Database 13-6
Data Replication 13-6
SnaPShot rePlication 13-7
near-real-time rePlication 13-8
Pull rePlication 13-8
DatabaSe integrity with rePlication 13-8
when to uSe rePlication 13-8
Horizontal Partitioning 13-9
Vertical Partitioning 13-10
Combinations of Operations 13-11
Selecting the Right Data Distribution Strategy 13-11
Distributed DBMS 13-13
Location Transparency 13-15
Replication Transparency 13-16
Failure Transparency 13-17
Commit Protocol 13-17
Concurrency Transparency 13-18
time-StamPing 13-18
Query Optimization 13-19
Evolution of Distributed DBMSs 13-21
remote unit of work 13-22
DiStributeD unit of work 13-22
DiStributeD reQueSt 13-23
Summary 13-23 • Key Terms 13-24 • Review Questions 13-24 •
Problems and Exercises 13-25 • Field Exercises 13-26 •
References 13-27 • Further Reading 13-27 •
Web Resources 13-27

Chapter 14 object-oriented Data Modeling 14-1

Learning Objectives 14-1
Introduction 14-1
Unified Modeling Language 14-3
Object-Oriented Data Modeling 14-4
Representing Objects and Classes 14-4
Types of Operations 14-7
Representing Associations 14-7
Representing Association Classes 14-11
Representing Derived Attributes, Derived Associations,
and Derived Roles 14-12
Representing Generalization 14-13
Interpreting Inheritance and Overriding 14-18
Representing Multiple Inheritance 14-19
Representing Aggregation 14-19
Another Random Scribd Document
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his realm in peace for me, and keep this which God has given me’”
(Magnus the Good’s Saga, cc. 38, 39).
 CHAPTER XXXII.
SOME EXPEDITIONS AND DEEDS OF GREAT
VIKINGS.
(Continued.)

Harald Hardradi—His influence on English history—His

appearance and character—Numerous expeditions—His
bravery—His career in England and Normandy—Jealousy
between him and Godwin—His invasion of England—The battle
of Stamford Bridge—The battle of Hastings.

Among the great heroes of the North, and one who had a special
influence on the English history of his period—for without his
invasion of England William the Conqueror would probably not have
been victorious at the battle of Hastings—was Harald Sigurdsson,
surnamed Harald Hardradi, whose life is a fine illustration of the life
of a Viking. His forces, added to those of Harald, son of Godwin,
would have proved very formidable. Here is a description of the
appearance of this hero.

“It was said by all that Harald surpassed other men in wisdom and
sagacity (counsel-skill), whether a thing was to be done quick or in a
long time, for himself or for others. He was more weapon-bold than
any man, as has been told. (Thjódólf, in a stanza on him, says that
‘the mind rules one half of the victory.’) He was a handsome and
majestic-looking man with hair (auburn), an auburn beard and long
moustaches; one eyebrow a little higher up than the other; large
arms and legs and well shaped. His measure in height three ells. He
was cruel towards his foes, and punished all offences severely. He
was very eager for rule, and all prosperous things. He gave his
friends great gifts when he liked them well. He was fifty when he
fell. We have no noteworthy tellings about his youth before he was
at Stiklastadir, fifteen winters old, in the battle with his brother Olaf.
He lived thirty-five winters afterwards; all that time uproar and war
were his pastime. He never fled from a battle, but often he took
precautions when he had to do with an overwhelming force. All men
who followed him in battle and warfare said that when he was in a
great danger which came quickly upon him he would take the
expedient which afterwards was seen by all to be the best” (Harald
Hardradi’s Saga, Heimskringla, c. 104).

We cannot follow him through the numerous expeditions which he

undertook and which are described in his Saga.
We find that Harald swept all over the shores of the Mediterranean,
went to Serkland (land of the Saracens), Africa, Sicily, Italy, Greece,
Constantinople, Jerusalem, and Bulgaria. He was present, often as
leader, in about eighty battles. There are many examples of his
strategy and consummate generalship.
His life ended at the famous battle of Stamford Bridge, the account
of which is a masterpiece of description.
From his youth up he was valiant. He joined in the battle of
Stiklastadir, to help his half-brother, King Olaf the Stout, when he
was fifteen years old. His mother’s name was Asta (descended from
Ragnar Lodbrok).

“When the array stood with its standards ready to fight, the king
said: ‘I do not think it right for my brother Harald to be in the battle,
for he is a child.’ Harald answered: ‘I shall certainly be in the battle,
but if I am so weak that I cannot wield the sword, I know what to
do; my hand shall be tied to the hilt; no man shall have a better will
than I to do harm to the bœndr. I want to follow my companions.’ It
is told that Harald sang this stanza:—
‘I shall be daring enough
To defend the wing in which I stand.

* * * * *

* * * * *

The young battle-glad poet

Will not draw back from the spears
Where the blows rain down;
When hardest the fight.’

“Harald had his way and was in the battle, and won great renown.
He was then fifteen winters old, as has been told. The skald Thjódólf
mentions it in the poem he made about King Harald, called sexstefja
(six-stave); among them is the following:—
I heard that the strong war-storm
Burst upon the king (Harald) close to Haug,
But the burner of the Bulgarians (Bolgara brennir = Harald)
Supported his brother (St. Ólaf) well.
The king did part against his will
Fifteen winters old
From the dead Olaf
And hid his helmet-seat (head).

“Harald got severely wounded in the battle, and Rögnvald Brúsason

took him to a bondi in the night after the battle. The bondi lived in
an out-of-the-way place, and kept him secretly, and cured him
completely” (Fms. Harald Hardradi’s Saga, c. 1).

Prof. Wassiliewsky has published a treatise, in Moscow, in which he

gives extracts from a Greek work of the eleventh century. We here
give part of them:—
“Araltes (Harald) was a son of the king in Varangia; he had a brother
Julavos (St. Ólaf) who inherited the realm after his father’s death,
and made his brother Araltes the highest man next after himself.
Araltes was young, and admired the Roman power. He came and
bowed knee before the late Emperor Michael Paflagon; he had with
him a host of five hundred valiant men. The Emperor received him
befittingly, and sent him to Sicily into the war. Araltes went there and
performed deeds of high renown; and when Sicily was subdued he
came back to the Emperor with his host. Thereafter it happened that
Delianos made a revolt in Bulgaria, and Araltes with his men,
together with the Emperor and his host, went there; and he
performed against the enemies feats worthy of his birth and valour.
When the Emperor had subdued Bulgaria he went home. I was there
too, and fought for the Emperor as well as I could. On the way
home, in Mosynupolis, the Emperor, in reward for his feats, made
him Spatharokandidatos (a title). After Michael’s death, in the time
of the Emperor Monomachos, Araltes wanted to go home to his
country, but was not allowed to do so, and he was hindered from
going. Nevertheless he got away secretly, and became king in his
own country, instead of his brother Julavos (Olaf). Even as king he
preserved his loyalty and love towards the Romans” (Gustav Storm:
Norsk Historisk Tidsskrift, 1884).

We will now give some extracts from the Sagas which contain an
account of Harald’s remarkable career, and which relate to the
English and Norman history of that period.

“Edward, Æthelred’s son, was king in England after Hörda-Knut; he

was called Edward the Good, and so he was. His mother was Queen
Emma, the daughter of Rikard jarl of Rouen; her brother was
Rodbjart (Robert), the father of William the Bastard, who was then
duke (hertogi)[428] in Rouen in Normandy. Edward was married to
Gyda, the daughter of Godwin jarl, son of Ulfnadr. Gyda’s youngest
brother, Harald, Godwin’s son, was raised in the hird of Edward. The
king loved him very greatly, and looked on him as his son, for he had
no children” (Harald Hardradi’s Saga, c. 77).

The death of King Edward the Confessor is here referred to:—

“One summer Harald Godwinson had to go to Bretland (Wales), and

went there by ship; when they got out they had head winds, and
drifted out to sea. They landed in Northmandi after having
experienced a dangerous storm. They sailed up to the burgh of
Rouen (Rúda), and met William (Vilhjálm) jarl, who gladly received
them; Harald stayed there a long time, in the autumn, well
entertained, for it kept on stormy, and they could not get to sea.
Towards winter the jarl invited Harald to stay there during the winter.
Harald sat in a high-seat on one side of the jarl, and on the other
side sat the jarl’s wife; she was a very handsome woman; these
three often conversed, drinking and amusing themselves. The jarl
usually went to sleep early, but Harald sat up long in the evenings
talking to his wife. This went on for a long time. One evening she
said: ‘The jarl has asked me what we have been talking about so
often, and now he is angry.’ Harald answered: ‘As soon as possible
we will let him know all our conversation.’ The next day Harald
wished to speak to the jarl, and they went into the speaking
(málrúm) room, where were also the jarl’s wife and the councillors.
Harald said: ‘I must say, jarl, that there are more reasons for my
coming hither than I have as yet told you. I want to ask thy
daughter for my wife; I have often spoken of this to her mother, and
she has promised to help me in this matter with you.’ When Harald
had said this, all present thought it well fit, and recommended it to
the jarl; at last the maiden was betrothed to Harald, but as she was
young the wedding was to be delayed for some winters. In the
spring Harald made his ship ready and went away; he and the jarl
parted with much love. Harald went to England to King Edward
(Jatvard) and never came back to Valland to celebrate his wedding.
Edward was king over England for twenty-three winters, and died in
London the fifth of January (1066); he was buried in St. Paul’s
Church, and the English call him a saint” (Harald Hardradi’s Saga, cc.
78, 79).

“The sons of Earl Godwin were then the most powerful men in
England. Tosti had been made chief over the king’s host, and was
the defender of the land and ruler over all the other jarls, when
Edward began to grow old. His brother Harald was always in the
hird, and was nearest attendant on the king, and had charge of all
his money. It is said that when the king was about to die Harald and
a few others were with him; he bent down over him, and said: ‘I call
you all to witness that the king just now gave me the kingship, and
the rule over all England.’ Then the dead king was carried away from
his bed. The same day there was a meeting of the chiefs, who
decided whom they would take to be king. Then Harald called forth
his witnesses to prove that King Edward gave him the realm on his
dying day. The meeting ended by Harald being taken as king, and
consecrated the thirteenth day (of Yule = 6th of January, 1066) in
St. Paul’s Church, and the chiefs and the people made homage to
him. When his brother Tosti heard this he was displeased, and
thought he had as much right to be king. ‘I want,’ said he, ‘the chiefs
of the land to choose the man whom they think most fit to be king.’
Harald heard these words, and said he would not give up the
kingship, for he had been placed on the king’s high-seat in Edward’s
place, and had been anointed and consecrated. The greatest part of
the people favoured him, and he had all the treasures of the king”
(Harald Hardradi’s Saga, c. 80).

When Harald, son of Godwin, had got the kingship in England his
brother Tosti did not like being his underman:

“So he went away with his men southwards across the sea to
Flanders. There he stayed for a little while, and went to Frisland, and
thence to Denmark to see his kinsman King Svein. Ulf jarl, Svein’s
father, and Gyda, Tosti jarl’s mother, were brother and sister. Tosti
asked Svein for help and support, but Svein asked him to stay there,
and said that he should have a jarlship in Denmark, over which he
might rule as an honoured chief. Tosti answered: ‘I long to go back
to England, to my homestead; but if I get no support from you, I will
rather give you all the help I can give in England, if you will go there
with the Danish host to win the land, as your uncle Knut the Great
did.’ The king answered: ‘I am much weaker than my kinsman Knut,
so that I can scarcely defend Danaveldi against the Northmen
(Norwegians) and Harald (Hardradi). Knut the Old got Denmark by
inheritance, and England by warfare and battle, though it was not
unlikely for a while that he would lose his life; he obtained Norway
without fight. Now I had rather act moderately according to my
strength, than follow the deeds of my kinsman Knut.’ Tosti said: ‘My
errand has been less successful than I thought you would let it be,
seeing that I am your kinsman. Maybe I shall search for friendship
where it is far more undeserved; and I may find a chief who is less
afraid to plan great things than thou, king.’ Then they parted, and
not on very friendly terms” (Harald Hardradi’s Saga, c. 81).

“Tosti then changed his journey and went to Norway to Harald

Hardradi, who was in Vik. Tosti told the king his errand, and all
about his journey since he had left England, and asked him to help
him to get his realm there. The king answered that the Northmen
were not willing to go to England and make warfare under an
English chief. ‘It is said that the English are not to be much trusted.’
Tosti asked: ‘Is it true, what I heard in England, that thy kinsman
Magnus sent men to King Edward with the message that he owned
England as well as Denmark, and had inherited them after Hörda-
Knut, as they had sworn.’ The King answered: ‘Why had he it not if
he were its owner?’ Tosti said: ‘Why hast thou not Denmark, as
Magnus before thee?’ The king answered: ‘The Danes need not
boast to us Northmen; many marks have we left on those kinsmen
of thine (often have we defeated them)’. Tosti continued: ‘If thou
wilt not tell me I will tell thee; Magnus got Denmark because the
chiefs in the land helped him, and thou didst not get it because all
the people were against thee; Magnus did not fight for England,
because all the people of the land wanted to have Edward for king.
If thou wouldst get England, I can contrive that the greater part of
the chiefs there will be thy friends and helpers; I lack nothing but
the name of king to equal my brother Harald. All know that a greater
warrior than thou has never been born in the Northern lands, and it
seems to me strange that thou didst fight fifteen years for Denmark
and wilt not try for England, which is easy for thee to get.’ Harald
thought carefully about the jarl’s words, and saw that there was
much truth in them, and moreover was willing to get the realm. He
and the jarl spoke often together; they decided that they would go
in the summer to England, and win it. Harald sent word over the
whole of Norway, and made a half levy. This was very much talked
about, and there were guesses as to the result of the expedition.
Some reckoned up the great deeds of Harald, and said it would not
be impossible to him; but others thought that England would be
difficult to win, that there was an immense mass of people there,
and the warriors called Thingamannalid so valiant, that one was
better than two of Harald’s best men. Tosti jarl sailed in the spring
westward to Flæmingjaland (Flanders) to meet the men who had
followed him from England; and those who gathered to him from
England and Flæmingjaland” (Harald Hardradi’s Saga, c. 82).

The following tells of his preparations against England, his invading

fleet amounting to over 240 warships, and describes the Battle of
Stamford Bridge (Stafnfurdubryggia):—

“The host of Harald gathered in Solundir. When he was ready to

leave Nidaros he first went to the shrine of St. Olaf, opened it, and
cut his hair and nails; then he shut the shrine and threw the keys
out on the Nid (a river), and went southward with his host. So many
men had gathered to him that it is said he had nearly 240 ships,
besides store-ships and small skutas” (Harald Hardradi’s Saga, c.
83).

“When King Harald was ready for the expedition to England and a
fair wind rose, he sailed out to sea with all his fleet; he reached
Shetland, and lay a short while there, and then sailed southward to
the Orkneys, whence he took many men, and the jarls Pál and
Erlend, the sons of Thorfinn jarl, but he left there Queen Ellisif, and
their daughters Maria and Ingigerd. Then he sailed southward past
Scotland till he came off England, to a place called Kliflönd
(Cleveland); then he went ashore, and ravaged and subdued the
land, meeting with no resistance. Thereupon he sailed to Skardaborg
(Scarborough) and fought against the townsmen; he went up on a
high rock near the town, and set fire to a large pile which he made.
They took large poles and lifted it up and threw it down into the
town; soon one house after the other began to burn, and the whole
town was destroyed. The Northmen slew many people, and took all
the property they could get. There was no other choice for the
English who wanted to save their lives but to ask peace and become
King Harald’s men; thus he subdued the land wherever he went.
Then he sailed with all his host southward along the shore, and
landed at Hellornes, where a gathered host came against him; he
fought a battle, and got the victory. Then he went up the Humra
(Humber) to Usa (Ouse), and there he landed; the sons of Godwin,
Morcar and Waltheof, Earl of Huntingdon, were at Jórvík (York) with
an overwhelming host, which had been gathering all summer. When
the host of the jarls came down, Harald went ashore and began to
array[429] his men: one wing[430] stood on the river bank, and the
other higher up, near a ditch which was deep, broad, and full of
water. The jarls let their arrays[431] go down along the river, and most
of their men; the standard of Harald was near the river; there the
ranks were thick; but they were thinnest at the ditch, and least to be
depended upon. Thither Morcar came down with his standard. The
wing of the Northmen by the ditch retreated, and the English
followed them, thinking they were going to flee; but when Harald
saw that his men retired along the ditch, he ordered a war-blast to
be blown, and urged them on; he had the standard land-waster
(landeyda) carried forward, and made so hard an attack that all
were driven back. There was great slaughter in the jarls’ host.
Waltheof had had his standard brought along the river downward
against the array of Harald, but when the king hardened the attack
the jarl and his men fled along the river upward; only those who
followed him escaped, but so many had fallen that large streams of
blood in many places flowed over the plains. When the jarl had fled
Harald surrounded Morcar and the men who had advanced along the
ditch with him; the English fell by hundreds. Many jumped into the
ditch, and the slain lay there so thick that the Northmen walked
across it with dry feet on human bodies; there Morcar perished.
“Tosti jarl had come northward from Flæmingjaland (Flanders) to
meet King Harald when he arrived in England; he was in all the
battles which we have related. It all happened as he had told the
king, for many friends and kinsmen of Tosti jarl joined them in
England, which was a great support to Harald. After this battle the
people of the nearest districts submitted to King Harald, while some
fled. Then he set off to take the town of York, and went with the
entire host to Stafnfurdubryggja (Stamford Bridge);[432] but as he
had won so great a victory over great chiefs and an overwhelming
host, they had all become frightened and despaired of resistance.
The townsmen resolved to send word to Harald and offer to
surrender themselves and the town; it was agreed that the next
Sunday the king should hold a Thing and speak to the townsmen; so
on this Sunday Harald went up to the town with his host, and had a
meeting outside of it at which all the people promised to obey and
serve him; they gave him as hostages sons of high-born men whom
Tosti jarl pointed out, for he knew all in the town. The king and his
men went down to the ships in the evening, having won an easy
victory, and they were very merry. It was agreed that on the second
day of the week there should be a Thing, at which Harald was to
appoint chiefs and give rights and grants. The same evening, after
sunset, Harald, son of Godwin, came from the south with an
overwhelming host; he was led into the town with the consent and
goodwill of all the townsmen; then all the roads and the gates were
occupied so that the Northmen should not get any news; the host
was in the town during the night.
“On Monday, when King Harald Sigurdarson and his men had had
their day meal, he sounded the horns to go ashore; he made his
host ready, and selected those who should remain or go ashore;[433]
he let two men from each detachment[434] go, and one remain. Tosti
jarl prepared himself and his host to go ashore with the king; but
Olaf, the king’s son, and Eystein Orri (black cock) were left behind to
guard the ships; also the son of Thorberg Arnason, who was then
the most renowned and dearest of all lendirmen in Norway to the
king—Harald had promised him his daughter Maria—the jarls of the
Orkneys, Pál and Erlend, remained behind. The weather was
exceedingly fine, and the sun so hot that the men left their armour
behind, and went up with shields, helmets, spears, and swords;
many carried bows and arrows, and they were in high spirits. When
they came near the town they saw great clouds of dust, and a large
host on horseback, with fine shields and shining brynjas. The king
stopped, and, calling Tosti jarl, asked what men those were who
were coming against them. The jarl said: ‘They are most likely foes,
though it may be that they are some of our kinsmen who come to
seek friendship and mercy from us, and give us in return their faith
and trust.’ The king said that they would stop there and find out
about this host; they did so, and the nearer the host approached the
more numerous it seemed. It was so well armed, and the weapons
glittered so, that it was as if one looked at broken shining ice. Then
Tosti jarl said: ‘Herra (lord), let us take a good expedient. It cannot
be doubted that these are foes, and the king himself probably leads
them.’ The king asked: ‘What is your advice?’ Tosti answered: ‘The
first is to go back as soon as we can to the ships to fetch the rest of
our men and our coats of mail (brynjas), then let us fight as well as
we can; or otherwise let us go on board the ships, and then the
horsemen cannot reach us.’ The king said: ‘I will follow another plan.
I will put three brave men on the swiftest horses, and let them ride
to our men as fast as they can, and tell them what has happened;
their aid will soon come, for the English will have a hard fight before
we are defeated.’ The jarl said: ‘You shall have your will, lord, in this
as in other things; but I am not more eager to flee than any other
man, though I said what I thought advisable.’ Harald put up his
standard, the land-waster, and arrayed his host, and made the line
(fylking) long, but not thick; then he bent the wings (arms)
backwards, so that they met each other; it was a wide thick circle,
equal on all sides; it had shield against shield on all sides, and
shields above also.[435] The array was thus formed because the king
knew that the horsemen were wont to rush up in small squads (ridil)
and draw back at once; the king’s guard, very picked men, was
inside the circle, the archers also, and Tosti with his men. Then the
king ordered the jarl to go forward where it was most needed.
‘Those who stand outermost in the array,’ he said, ‘shall put the
handles of their spears down on the ground, and the points against
the breasts of the horsemen if they attack; those who stand next
shall direct their spear points against the breasts of their horses;
keep the spears thus everywhere that they cannot advance; let us
stand firm and take care not to break this array.’
“Harald, son of Godwin, had come thither with an overwhelming
host both of horsemen and footmen; it is told that King Harald had
not the half of his men. Harald Sigurdarson, on a black horse with a
white spot on its forehead, rode about his army and examined how
it was arranged; his horse stumbled, and he fell forward off it; as he
rose, he said: ‘A fall bodes a lucky journey.’
“King Harald Gudinason said to the Northmen who were with him:
‘Do you know the tall man with the blue kirtle (kyrtil) and the fine
helmet who fell off his horse?’ ‘It is the king of the Northmen,’ they
said. The king added: ‘He is a tall and noble-looking man, but
nevertheless it is likely that his luck is now gone.’ Then twenty
English horsemen[436] rode forth, fully armoured, as were also their
horses; when they came to the array of the Northmen, one of them
asked: ‘Where is Tosti jarl in the host?’ Tosti answered: ‘It is not to
be concealed that you may find him here.’ The horseman said:
‘Harald thy brother sends thee greeting, and the message that thou
shalt have peace, and get Northumberland, and rather than that
thou shouldst not join him he will give thee one-third of all his
realm.’ The jarl replied: ‘Then something else is offered than the
enmity and disgrace of last winter; if this had been offered then,
many who now are dead would be alive, and the realm of the King
of England would stand more firm. Now if I accept these terms,
what will my brother Harald offer to the King of Norway for his
trouble?’ The horseman answered: ‘He has said what he will grant
King Harald Sigurdarson: it is a space of seven feet, and it is so long
because he is taller than most other men.’ The jarl answered: ‘Go
and tell my brother, King Harald, to prepare for battle; it shall not be
said among Northmen that Tosti jarl left Harald, King of Norway, and
went into the host of his foes when he made warfare in England;
rather will we all resolve to die with honour, or win England with a
victory.’ As the horsemen rode back to their host, King Harald asked
the jarl: ‘Who was that eloquent man?’ ‘It was my brother, Harald,
son of Godwin.’ The king said: ‘Too long was this hidden from us, for
they had come so near our host that this Harald would not have
been able to tell of the death of our men.’[437] The jarl said: ‘It is
true, lord, that he acted incautiously, and I saw that it might have
been as you said; but when he came to offer me peace and great
power, I should have been his slayer if I had betrayed who he was; I
acted thus because I will rather suffer death from my brother, than
be his slayer, if I may choose.’ The king said to his men: ‘This man
(Harald) was little and nimble, and stood proudly in the stirrups.’
Then King Harald Hardradi went into the ring (circle) of the
shieldburgh and sang this stanza:—
‘Forth we go
In the array;
Armour-less
Under the blue edge;
The helmets shine,
I have not mine (brynja, namely)
Now lies our war-dress
Down on the ships.’
“Emma was his brynja called; it was so long that it reached to the
middle of his leg, and so strong that never had a weapon stuck in it.
The king said: ‘This song was badly composed, and I will sing a
better one.’ He sang:—
‘Not that we crouch
From the clash of weapons
In the bight of the shield;
Thus bade to fight the word-true Hild.
The woman (Hild) asked me early
To carry the helmet-stem (= the head)
High in the din of metals (= fight)
Where the ice of Hlokk (sword) met with heads.’

“Then Thjodolf skald sang—

‘Not shall I though the king
Himself sink to the ground—
It goes as God will—leave
The heirs of the king.
The sun shines not on sightlier
Heirs of a king
Than these two.
The hawks (= sons) of Harald are ready for revenge.’

“It is said by people that Tosti’s advice, given first when they saw
the land-host, was the best and wisest, namely, that they should go
back to the ships; but since a death-fated man cannot be saved,
they suffered from the stubbornness of the king, who could not bear
that this cautiousness should be regarded as fear or flight by his
foes.
“They began the battle. The English horsemen made an attack on
the Northmen; the resistance was very hard, for the spears of the
latter were so placed that the horsemen could not reach them with
their weapons. Then they rode around the array, but as soon as they
came near, the archers of the Northmen shot at them as fast as they
were able. The English saw that they could effect nothing, and rode
back. The Northmen thought they were going to flee, and followed
in pursuit; but as soon as the English saw that they had broken their
shieldburgh they rode at them from all sides, shooting arrows and
spears at them. When Harald Sigurdarson saw that his men were
falling, he rushed into the fray where it was hottest. Many men fell
on both sides. Harald, King of Norway, fought with the greatest
bravery, and became so eager and furious that he rushed forward
out of the array, dealing blows on all sides; neither helmet nor coat
of mail could withstand him; he went through the ranks of his foes
as if he were walking through air, for all who came near him fell
back. Then, as the English almost fled, Harald Sigurdarson was hit
with an arrow in the throat, so that a stream of blood gushed from
his mouth; this was his death-wound; he fell there with all the men
who had gone forward around him, except those who retreated and
kept their standard. There was yet a stubborn fight, because the
Northmen were very eager, and each urged the other on. When Tosti
jarl became aware that the king had fallen he went to where he saw
the standard aloft, and under the king’s standard he urged the men
on strongly; a little after both hosts rested themselves, and there
was a long delay in the battle.
“Both sides made ready for battle again, but before the arrays met,
Harald, son of Godwin, offered peace to Tösti jarl, his brother, and
all Northmen who were left alive; but the Northmen shouted all at
once, and said that sooner would every one of them fall than accept
truce from the English. Then the Northmen raised a war-cry, and the
battle began a second time. Tosti jarl was then chief of the host; he
fought valiantly and followed up the standards, and ere the fight
ended fell there with great bravery and renown. At that moment
Eystein Orri came from the ships with the men who followed him;
they were in full war-dress, and Eystein at once took the standard of
Harald, the “landeyda.” Then there was a third and very severe
battle; many of the English fell and they almost fled; this was called
Orrahrid (the tempest of Orri). Eystein and his men had hurried so
much from the ships that they were almost disabled by weariness
(exhaustion) before they began the fight; but afterwards they were
so eager that they did not spare themselves while they were able,
and at last took off their coats of mail (ring-brynjas); then the
English could easily find places for wounding them. Some died
unwounded from over-exertion, and nearly all the highborn
Northmen fell there; this was late in the day. It happened as it
always does, where many people gather, that all were not equally
brave; many tried to escape in various ways. It went as fate would;
some were destined to a longer life and escaped. It was dark in the
evening when the manslaughter was over. Styrkar, the stallari
(marshal) of King Harald, was a famous man; he got a horse in the
evening, and rode away, but it was blowing a strong and cold gale;
he had no other clothes than a shirt (skyrta), a helmet, and a drawn
sword in his hand; he soon cooled when the weariness left him. A
waggoner (vagn-karl) who had on a lined jacket (kösung) met him.
Styrkar asked: ‘Wilt thou sell the jacket, bondi?’ He answered: ‘Not
to thee; thou must be a Northman; I know thy speech.’ Styrkar said:
‘If I am a Northman, what will thou then?’ ‘I will slay thee,’ replied
the bondi, ‘but now it is so bad that I have not got a weapon that I
can use.’ Styrkar added: ‘If thou canst not slay me, bondi, I will try
to slay thee.’ He raised his sword and smote his neck so that his
head dropped down; Styrkar then took the skin-jacket and put it on,
jumped on his horse, and rode down to the shore. Arnor jarla skald
sang about this battle, now told of, which was the last that Harald
and his men fought, in the erfidrapa (funeral song) which he made
about the king. Arnor says: ‘It is doubtful if any other king under the
sun has fought with such a valour and bravery as Harald.’
“It was on the second day of the week (Monday) that King Harald
fell,[438] two nights before Mikjalsmessa (Michaelmas)” (Fornmanna
Sögur, cc. 115–119).

Here is a short account of the battle of Hastings. William the

Conqueror is called Vilhjalm Jarl.

“Vilhjalm (William) bastard, jarl of Rouen, heard of the death of

Játvard (Edward) his kinsman, and that Harald, son of Godwin, had
been made King of England, and been consecrated. He thought he
had more right to the kingdom of England than Harald, on account
of his relationship to Edward, and he also wanted to pay Harald for
the disgrace of having broken his betrothal with his (Vilhjalm’s)
daughter. William gathered a host in Normandy (Northmandi), with
very many men and ships. When he rode from the town to his ships,
and had mounted his horse, his wife went to him and wanted to
speak to him; he struck at her with his heel and thrust the spur
deeply into her breast, and she fell dead, and then he rode on to his
ship, and went with his host to England. Bishop Otto, his brother,
was with him. When the jarl reached England he plundered and
subdued the land wherever he went.
“He was taller and stronger than others, and a good rider; a very
great warrior, but rather cruel; very wise, but, it was said, not
trustworthy. Harald, son of Godwin, allowed Olaf, the son of Harald
Sigurdsson, and those there with him who had survived the battle,
to go, and King Harald then turned southward with his host to
England, for he had heard that William the Bastard was in the south
of England subduing the land. There were with Harald his brothers,
Svein, Gyrd, and Valthjóf. Harald and William met in the south of
England at Helsingjaport (port of Hastings); there was a great battle,
where fell Harald and Gyrd his brother, with a great part of their
men. That was nineteen nights after the fall of Harald Sigurdsson.
Valthjóf, Harald’s brother, escaped by flight, and late in the evening
met a detachment of William’s men, who when they saw the Valthjóf
men fled into an oak forest; they were one hundred men. Valthjóf
set the forest on fire, and burnt it up altogether.
“William had had himself proclaimed King of England. He sent word
to Valthjóf that they should be reconciled, and gave him truce to
meet him. The jarl went with few men; when he came on the heath
north of Kastalabryggja (Castlebridge) two king’s stewards met him
with a detachment, took him and fettered him, and he was slain; the
English call him a saint. William was king over England for twenty-
one years, and his kin ever since” (Harald Hardradi’s Saga, Hkr. cc.
99–101).
The battle of Hastings was fought on October 14th, 1066. Gyrd
played an important part in the conflict.

“Then said Gyrd jarl to his brother King Harald: ‘I fear that thou wilt
not succeed in the fight against William, for thou hast sworn not to
defend England against him.’ The king replied: ‘It may be, brother,
that it will suit thee better to fight against William than me; but I
have not been wont to lie in my room when other men have fought,
and William shall not hear that I dare not behold him.’ After this King
Harald had his standard raised, and began the battle against
William. The fight was most violent, and it was long thought
uncertain which of them would get the victory; but as the battle
continued the fall of men turned on the hands of the English (Enskir
menn). William had before the attack let the relics of Otmar be tied
to his standard; on these Harald had taken his oath. But when the
battle began to turn against King Harald, he asked: ‘What is tied to
William’s standard?’ And when he was told, he said: ‘It may be that
we need not then expect victory in this battle.’ And thus it ended
that King Harald and his brother Gyrd fell, and a large part of their
men, but all who were alive fled” (Fornmanna Sögur, vi, c. 121).
 CHAPTER XXXIII.
THE DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT OF
ICELAND, GREENLAND, AND AMERICA.

Causes leading to the discovery of Iceland—Naddod’s expedition

—The expedition of Gardar Svavarson—Those of Floki, Ingolf,
and Leif—Iceland so named by Floki—Settlers in Iceland—
Discovery of Greenland—Thorvald and Eirek the Red—
Discovery of America—Bjarni’s voyage—Leif’s voyage—
Thorvald’s voyage—Attacked by plague—Thorfinn Karlsefni’s
voyage—Description of the inhabitants.

From the Sagas and ancient records which relate to the earlier
events of the North, we find that the people spread westward and
southward to the Mediterranean. Later we see this maritime race
seeking out new lands, and crossing the broad Atlantic and
discovering a New World.
The policy of the Norwegian King Harald Fairhair, which led to the
subjection of many lesser chieftains about the middle of the ninth
century, gave rise to an emigration of the more high-spirited chiefs
in search of other lands, and resulted in the discovery of Iceland,
called in some Sagas Snowland, and afterwards of Greenland and
Vinland, or America. The hero of the discovery of Iceland was a sea-
rover called Naddod, about the year 861.

“Owing to his (Harald Fairhair) oppression, many people fled from

the country, and many uninhabited lands were then settled—
Jamtaland, Helsingjaland, and the western lands, Sudreyjar (the
Hebrides), Dyflinnar Skiri (the shire of Dublin in Ireland), Katanes
(Caithness) in Scotland, and Hjaltland (the Shetlands), Normandi in
Valland, Fœreyjar (the Faroes). At that time Iceland was discovered”
(Egil’s Saga, c. 4).
 Discovery and Settlement of Iceland.
Iceland was discovered by Naddod about 861, and he was followed
by Floki about 867. Later Ingolf and Leif, powerful men from Norway,
settled there permanently. Their example was followed by many
others afterwards.

“It is said that some men were going from Norway to the Fœreyjar
(Faroes), Some say it was Naddod Viking. They were driven
westward into the sea, and there found a large land. They went up
on a high mountain in the eastern fjords, and looked far and wide
for smoke or some token that the land was inhabited. They saw
none. They went back to the Faroes in the autumn, and when they
set sail much snow fell on the mountains, and therefore they called
the country Snœland (Snow land). They praised the land much. The
place where they landed is now called Reydarfjall in the Austfjords”
(Landnáma, i. c. 1).

Naddod’s example was soon followed by others, amongst whom was

Gardar Svavarson, a Swede, who called the island Gardarshólmi.

“A man called Gardar Svavarson, of Swedish kin, went in search of

Snowland at the advice of a foreknowing (foresighted) mother. He
landed east of the eastern Horn. There was a harbour. Gardar sailed
round the land, and saw it was an island. He stayed over the winter
at Húsauik, in Skjálfandi, and built a house there. In the spring,
when he was ready to sail, a man called Náttfari with a thrall and a
bondmaid were driven off in a boat. They settled in Náttfaravik.
Gardar went to Norway, and praised the land greatly. He was the
father of Uni, the father of Hróar Tungugodi. Thereafter the land was
called Gardarshólmi (Gardar’s island); there was at that time forest
from mountain to shore” (Landnáma, c. 1).

The name Iceland was first given to the island by Flóki,[439] but
neither he, Naddod, nor Gardar, settled there. The first settlers were
the foster brothers Ingólf and Leif, who with their followers landed
about the year 870.

“The foster brothers made ready a large ship which they owned, and
went in search of the land which Hrafna-Flóki (Raven-Flóki) had
discovered, and which was then called Iceland. They found the land
and stayed in Austfjords, in the southern Alptafjord. The south of the
land seemed to them better than the north. They stayed one winter
there, and then went back to Norway.
“Thereafter Ingólf prepared for a voyage to Iceland, while Leif went
on warfare in the west. He made war in Ireland, and there found a
large underground house; he went down into it, and it was dark until
light shone from a sword in the hand of a man. Leif killed the man,
and took the sword and much property. Thereafter he was called
Hjörleif (Sword-Leif). He made war widely in Ireland, and got much
property. He took ten thralls; their names were Dufthak, Geirrod,
Skjaldbjörn, Haldór, Drafdrit; more names are not given. Then he
went to Norway and met his foster brother there. He had before
married Helga, Ingólf’s sister. This winter Ingólf made a great
sacrifice, and asked what his luck and fate would be, but Hjörleif
was never willing to sacrifice. The answer pointed out Iceland to
Ingólf. After this both made a ship ready for the voyage. Hjörleif had
his booty on board, and Ingólf their foster brotherhood property.
When ready they sailed out to sea.
“In the summer when Ingólf and Leif went to settle in Iceland Harald
Fairhair had been twelve years king over Norway; 6,073 winters had
elapsed since the beginning of this world, and since the incarnation
of our Lord 874 years. They sailed together until they saw Iceland,
then they and their ships parted. When Ingólf saw Iceland he threw
overboard his high-seat pillars for luck. He said that he would settle
where the pillars landed. He landed at a place now called
Ingólfshöfdi (Ingólf’s cape). But Hjörleif was driven westward along
the land, and suffered from want of water. The Irish thralls there
kneaded together meal and butter, saying these caused no thirst.
They called the mixture minnthak, and when it had been made there
came a heavy rain, and they took water into their tents. When the
minnthak began to get mouldy they threw it overboard, and it came
ashore at a place now called Minnthakseyr. Hjörleif landed at
Hjörleifshöfdi (Hjörleif’s cape), where there was a fjord. Hjörleif had
two houses (skáli) made there; the walls of one are 18 fathoms, and
those of the other 19 fathoms high. Hjörleif remained there that
winter. In the spring he wanted to sow (corn); he had one ox, and
let the thralls drag the plough. When Hjörleif was in his house
Dufthak (one of the thralls) suggested that they should kill the ox,
and say that a bear of the forest had slain it, and then they would
slay Hjörleif if he searched for the bear. Then they told Hjörleif this.
When they each went different ways in search of the bear in the
forest, the thralls attacked them singly and murdered all the ten.
They ran away with their women and loose property and the boat.
The thralls went to the islands which they saw south-west off the
land, and stayed there a while. Ingólf sent his thralls, Vífil and Karli,
westward along the shore to search for his high-seat pillars. When
they came to Hjörleifshöfdi they found Hjörleif dead; they then
returned and told Ingólf these tidings. He was very angry at the
slaying of Hjörleif” (Landnáma, i. cc. 4–6).

“Iceland was first settled from Norway in the days of Harald Fairhair,
son of Halfdan the black....
“Ingolf was the name of a Northman, of whom it is truly said that he
went first from Norway to Iceland, when Harald Fairhair was sixteen
years old, and a second time a few winters later. He settled south in
Reykjarvik. In that time was Iceland covered with wood between the
mountains and the fjord.
“Then were there Christian men, whom the Northmen call Papa, but
afterwards they went away because they would not remain with the
heathens, and left behind them Irish books, and croziers and bells,
from which it could be seen that they were Irishmen”
(Islendingabok, c. i.).

“At the time when Iceland was discovered and settled from Norway,
Adrianus was Pope at Rome, and John, who was the eighth of that
name, in the apostolic seat; Louis (Hlödver), son of Louis, Emperor
north of the mountains (i.e. the Alps), and Leo, as well as his son
Alexander, of Mikligard. Harald Fairhair was King of Norway; Eirik
Eymundsson of Sweden and his son Bjorn; Gorm the old in
Denmark; Aelfred (Elfrad) the powerful in England, as well as his son
Edward (Jatvard); Kjarval in Dublin (Dyflin); and Sigurd the
powerful, jarl of the Orkneys” (Landnama c. i. part i.).

From many places in Landnama we find that people from England,

Ireland, Scotland, and Flanders, and from different countries of the
North, settled in Iceland.

“Fridleif was from Gautland on his father’s side, while his mother,
Bryngerd, was Flemish.... Fridleif settled in Iceland. Thord Knapp
was a Swede, son of Bjorn of Haug. He went with another man,
named Nafarhelgi, to Iceland” (Landnama, c. xi. part iii.).

“Örlyg was fostered by the holy bishop Patrek (Patrick) in the

Hebrides. He desired to go to Iceland, and asked the bishop to help
him. He gave him timber for a church, and also a plenarium, an iron
bell, and consecrated earth, that he might put it under the corner-
stave. (This shows they had stave churches in those days). The
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