Data Communication – Definition, Components,

Transferring data over a transmission medium between two or

more devices, systems, or places is known as data
communication. Nowadays, computing and telecommunications
depend heavily on this data transmission, which makes a
variety of applications conceivable, including email, video
chatting, the Internet, and many more things.
In this article, we will learn about Data communication,
Definition, Components, Types, and Channels.
Components of Data Communication
A communication system is made up of the following
components:
1. Message: A message is a piece of information that is to
be transmitted from one person to another. It could be a
text file, an audio file, a video file, etc.
2. Sender: It is simply a device that sends data messages. It
can be a computer, mobile, telephone, laptop, video
camera, or workstation, etc.
3. Receiver: It is a device that receives messages. It can be
a computer, telephone mobile, workstation, etc.
4. Transmission Medium / Communication
Channels: Communication channels are the medium that
connect two or more workstations. Workstations can be
connected by either wired media or wireless media.
5. Set of rules (Protocol): When someone sends the data
(The sender), it should be understandable to the receiver
also otherwise it is meaningless. For example, Sonali
sends a message to Chetan. If Sonali writes in Hindi and
Chetan cannot understand Hindi, it is a meaningless
conversation.
Therefore, there are some set of rules (protocols) that is
followed by every computer connected to the internet and they
are:
 TCP(Transmission Control Protocol): It is responsible
for dividing messages into packets on the source
computer and reassembling the received packet at the
destination or recipient computer. It also makes sure that
the packets have the information about the source of the
message data, the destination of the message data, the
sequence in which the message data should be re-
assembled, and checks if the message has been sent
correctly to the specific destination.
 IP(Internet Protocol): Do You ever wonder how
computer determines which packet belongs to which
device. What happens if the message you sent to your
friend is received by your father? Scary Right. Well! IP is
responsible for handling the address of the destination
computer so that each packet is sent to its proper
destination.
 Type of data communication
 As we know that data communication is communication
in which we can send or receive data from one device to
another. The data communication is divided into three
types:
1. Simplex Communication: It is one-way communication
or we can say that unidirectional communication in which
one device only receives and another device only sends
data and devices uses their entire capacity in
 transmission. For example, IoT, entering data using a
keyboard, listening music using a speaker, etc.
2. Half Duplex communication: It is a two-way
communication, or we can say that it is a bidirectional
communication in which both the devices can send and
receive data but not at the same time. When one device is
sending data then another device is only receiving and
vice-versa. For example, walkie-talkie.
3. Full-duplex communication: It is a two-way
communication or we can say that it is a bidirectional
communication in which both the devices can send and
receive data at the same time. For example, mobile
phones, landlines, etc.
Communication Channels
Communication channels are the medium that connects two or
more workstations. Workstations can be connected by either
wired media or wireless media. It is also known as a
transmission medium. The transmission medium or channel is a
link that carries messages between two or more devices. We
can group the communication media into two categories:
 Guided media transmission
 Unguided media transmission
1. Guided Media: In this transmission medium, the physical
link is created using wires or cables between two or more
computers or devices, and then the data is transmitted using
these cables in terms of signals. Guided media transmission of
the following types:
1. Twisted pair cable: It is the most common form of wire
used in communication. In a twisted-pair cable, two identical
wires are wrapped together in a double helix. The twisting of
the wire reduces the crosstalk. It is known as the leaking of a
signal from one wire to another due to which signal can corrupt
and can cause network errors. The twisting protects the wire
from internal crosstalk as well as external forms of signal
interference. Types of Twisted Pair Cable :
  Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): It is used in computers
and telephones widely. As the name suggests, there is no
external shielding so it does not protects from external
interference. It is cheaper than STP.
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): It offers greater
protection from crosstalk due to shield. Due to shielding, it
protects from external interference. It is heavier and
costlier as compare to UTP.
2. Coaxial Cable: It consists of a solid wire core that is
surrounded by one or more foil or wire shields. The inner core
of the coaxial cable carries the signal and the outer shield
provides the ground. It is widely used for television signals and
also used by large corporations in building security systems.
Data transmission of this cable is better but expensive as
compared to twisted pair.
3. Optical fibers: Optical fiber is an important technology. It
transmits large amounts of data at very high speeds due to
which it is widely used in internet cables. It carries data as a
light that travels inside a thin glass fiber. The fiber optic cable
is made up of three pieces:
1. Core: Core is the piece through which light travels. It is
generally created using glass or plastic.
2. Cladding: It is the covering of the core and reflects the
light back to the core.
3. Sheath: It is the protective covering that protects fiber
cable from the environment.
4. 2. Unguided Media: The unguided transmission media
is a transmission mode in which the signals are
propagated from one device to another device wirelessly.
Signals can wave through the air, water, or vacuum. It is
generally used to transmit signals in all directions.
Unguided Media is further divided into various parts :
5. 1. Microwave: Microwave offers communication without
the use of cables. Microwave signals are just like radio
and television signals. It is used in long-distance
communication. Microwave transmission consists of a
transmitter, receiver, and atmosphere. In microwave
 communication, there are parabolic antennas that are
mounted on the towers to send a beam to another
antenna. The higher the tower, the greater the range.
6. 2. Radio wave: When communication is carried out by
radio frequencies, then it is termed radio waves
transmission. It offers mobility. It is consists of the
transmitter and the receiver. Both use antennas to
radiate and capture the radio signal.
7. 3. Infrared: It is short-distance communication and can
pass through any object. It is generally used in TV
remotes, wireless mouse, etc.
Conclusion of Data Communication
A key component of modern technology, data transmission
reduces the flow of information between networks, systems,
and devices. To guarantee that data is sent exactly, quickly,
and securely, it uses a variety of techniques and protocols.

Signals
A signal is an electromagnetic wave that carries information
from one place to another, using a specific propagation
medium, such as air, vacuum, water, and solid. In electronics,
the signal is defined as a current, voltage, or wave carrying
information. It can travel short distances or long distances
depending on the requirements. The speed of a signal wave is
equal to the speed of light.
The signals are categorized as analog signal and digital signals.
Analog refers to the data transmission in continuous form, while
digital refers to the data transmission in the discrete form. It is
also known as the transmission in the form of bits, 0
(LOW) and 1 (HIGH).
The waveforms of the analog and digital signal are shown
below:

The noise in analog signals is high as compared to digital

signal. It is due to the thresholding and high bandwidth of the
digital signals. Hence, electronic noise affects analog signals
more than digital signals. Filters are generally used in analog
communication at transmitting and receiving ends to remove
the noise.
Analog Signal
A signal is an electromagnetic or electrical current that
transfers data from one system or network to another. Though
it can sometimes take other forms, including current, a signal in
electronics is often a time-varying voltage that is also an
electromagnetic wave conveying
information. Analog and Digital transmissions are the two
basic signal kinds utilized in electronics. This article compares
and contrasts analog and digital signals, discussing their
respective properties, applications, benefits, and drawbacks.
What is an Analog Signal?
The analog signals were utilized in many systems to supply
signals to hold information. These signals remain in a
continuous state in both values and time. the utilization of
analog signals has declined with the arrival of digital signals. In
short, to know the analog signals – all signals that are natural
or come naturally are analog signals. An analog signal is time-
varying and usually sure to a variety (e.g. +12V to -12V), but
there’s an infinite number of values within that continuous
range. An analog signal uses a given property of the medium to
convey the signal’s information, like electricity moving through
a wire. In these signals, the voltage, current, or frequency of
the varied to represent the knowledge. When plotted on a
voltage vs. time graph, an analog signal should make a smooth
and non-ending curve. There shouldn’t be any discrete value
changes
Characteristics of Analog Signal
 These sorts of electronic signals are time-varying.
 lowest and highest values which is either positive or
negative.
 It are often either periodic or non-periodic.
 Analog Signal works on continuous data.
  The accuracy of the analog signal isn’t high in comparison
to the digital signal.
 It helps you to live natural or physical values.
 Analog signal output form is like Curve, Line, or Graph, so
it’s going to not be meaningful to all or any .
Advantages of Analog Signals
 It is Easier in processing.
 Analog Signals are best fitted to audio and video
transmission.
 It has a coffee cost and is portable.
 It posses higher density.
 Not necessary in Analog Signals to shop for a replacement
graphics board.
 It Uses less bandwidth than digital sounds.
 It Provide more accurate representation of a sound.
 It is the natural sort of a sound.
 It has Less bandwidth.
 Binary digits 0 and 1 represent the optical pulse for storing,
processing and transmitting information.
Disadvantages of Analog Signals
 Analog tends to possess a lower quality signal than digital.
 The cables are sensitive to external influences.
 Analog wire is expensive and not easily portable.
 In this, it has Low availability of models with digital
interfaces.
 Recording analog sound on tape is sort of expensive if the
tape is broken.
 It offers limitations in editing.
 Tape is becoming hard to seek out.
  It is quite difficult to synchronize analog sound.
 Quality is definitely lost.
 Data can become corrupted in analog signals.
 Most of sound capturing devices such as phones etc which
may become confusing to store a digital signal.
 Digital sounds can cut an analog acoustic wave which
suggests that you simply can’t get an ideal reproduction
of a sound.
 It Offers poor multi-user interfaces.
Conclusion
The fundamental ideas of analog and digital signals and their
applications in electronics are covered. A thorough
understanding of analog and digital technologies is developed
through an analysis of the advantages and disadvantages of
each. The technologies are used throughout the world and the
infrastructure varies, so a varied approach to applying the
technology will depend on that infrastructure and the
standards that apply to the region for which the systems are
being installed.

Introduction to Digital Systems

A system is a set of related components that work as a whole to
achieve a goal. A system contains inputs, behavior and outputs.

Behavior is a function that translates inputs to output.

Components are electronics blocks – digital, analog, or mixed
signal. Digital System is a system in which signals have a finite
number of discrete values. Analog System has values from a
continuous set and Mixed Signal System has both Digital and
Analog parts.
Generally, signals are represented by two methods, i.e., Digital
and Analog System. Digital Signal is limited to only a few
possible values, generally represented by Binary logic 0 (0 – 0.8
volts) and logic 1 (2.0 – 5.0 volts). Whereas Analog Signal
varies continuously.
We can represent various physical quantities using digital
signals, such as voltage and current. A signal represented in
the form of discrete values is known as digital signal. It is
transmitted in the form of bits. Only two bits (0 and 1) work in
different combinations. A digital signal can take only one value
at a time from the set of finite possible values.
Digital signal is nothing but the representation of the analog
data in the discrete form.
For example,
The above two waveforms are the analog and digital
waveforms. The digital waveform depicts the information in
discrete bands of analog levels.
The binary signal is also known as the logic signal because both
represent two bands, HIGH and LOW. 0 and 1 are also
represented as the numbers in Boolean domain.
HIGH = 1 = TRUE
LOW = 0 = FALSE
A digital system represents a continuous waveform switching
between the discrete values called bitstreams in a
communication system. It allows cost savings with reduced
transmission time. The noise interference during the
transmission can be effectively removed using the data
redundancy process or data compression, where the data is
encoded using fewer bits than the original information.

Types of Digital Signal

A signal that repeats over a period of time is termed a periodic
signal. A signal that does not repeat over a period of time is
termed as an aperiodic signal. Digital signals and analog
signals are categorized as periodic and non-periodic signals.
Here, we will discuss the types of the digital signal in detail.

Periodic signals
A digital signal that repeats over a period of time is known as
periodic signals, such as square wave.

Aperiodic signals
A digital signal that does not repeat over a period of time is
known as an aperiodic signal. It is also a discrete signal, but not
of repeated pattern.
For example,
What is Modulation?
Modulation can be digital or analog, the input wave of the
analog signal varies continuously like a sine wave. Modulation
can be defined as the process of converting data into waves by
adding information to a carrier signal. Such a signal can be
transmitted electronically or optically, but it must have a
consistent waveform.
What is Modulation?
The process by which data is converted into electrical/digital
signals for transferring that signal over a medium is called
modulation. It increases strength for maximum reach of the
signals. The process of extracting data from the transmitted
signal is called demodulation. A Modem is a device that
performs both modulation and demodulation processes. The
various forms of modulation are designed to alter the
characteristics of carrier waves. The most commonly altered
characteristics of modulation include amplitude, frequency, and
phase.
 Carrier signal: The signals that contain no information but
have a certain phase, frequency, and amplitude are called
carrier signals.
 Modulated signals: The signals which are the combination
of the carrier signals and modulation signals are
 modulated signals. The modulated signal is obtained after
the modulation of the signals.

Types of Modulation
Amplitude Modulation or AM, is a modulation technology mainly
used for radio carrier wave-based message transmission which
modifies the carrier wave's amplitude (signal intensity) in
accordance with the message signal, such as an audio signal,
i.e., a modulating signal.
What is Amplitude Modulation?
Amplitude modulation, or AM, is a modulation technology
mainly used for radio carrier wave-based message
transmission. Amplitude modulation modifies the carrier wave's
amplitude (signal intensity) in accordance with the message
signal, such as an audio signal, i.e., a modulating signal. The
mechanism of AM can be:
 A complex interaction between modulating waves and
carrier signals is the basis of AM.
 By means of a rigorous modulation procedure, information
is encoded for transmission by the carrier wave's
amplitude, which experiences minute variations in
response to the modulating signal.
 Demodulation techniques use complex circuitry to
accurately detect and amplify the modulating waveform;
these techniques are crucial for recovering the original
signal from AM transmissions.
 In simple terms, AM works by altering the
height/magnitude of the carrier wave to match the
information we want to send, then changing it back at the
other end to hear or see the messag
What is Frequency Modulation?
Frequency Modulation is a process of encoding information on
one carrier wave by changing its frequency. The frequency of
the carrier wave is changed according to the frequency of the
modulating signal. Frequency modulation is used for
broadcasting and radio communication. Modulation is the
process of converting the carrier signal into an electrical signal.
Amplitude and phase remain the same in FM.
Frequency Modulation is used in FM radio broadcasting,
magnetic tape-recording systems, monitoring newborns for
seizures via EEG, radar, seismic prospecting, sound synthesis,
telemetry, two-way radio systems, and video-transmission
systems.
Frequency Modulation System
A Frequency Modulation system refers to a communication or
signal processing system that utilizes frequency modulation to
encode and transmit information. Frequency Modulation system
consist of input signal, carrier wave, modulation process,
transmission, reception, demodulation and output signal.
Frequency Modulation Deviation
Frequency Modulation Deviation refers to the extent to which
the frequency of a carrier wave is changed or deviated from its
center frequency in response to change in the amplitude of the
modulating signal. It is a key parameter in frequency
Modulation systems and determines the amount by which the
carrier frequency shifts during the modulation process.
Frequency Modulation Demodulation
Frequency Modulation Demodulation is the process of
extracting the original information usually an audio signal from
a modulated FM carrier wave. Demodulation is an important
step in FM receivers to recover the transmitted information
accurately. The goal of FM modulation is to reproduce the
original information encoded in the FM signal, ensuring high-
quality audio output.
Frequency Modulation Waveform
Frequency Modulation generates a modulated waveform by
changing the frequency of a carrier signal in response to
change in the amplitude of a modulating signal. The result is s
waveform that has characteristic distinct from the original
carrier wave. The shape of the waveform is highly dependent
on the characteristic of the modulating signal and the specific
parameters of the FM modulation process.
The wave form of frequency modulation signal is shown in the
image added below,
Frequencies in Frequency Modulation
In Frequency Modulation, the frequency of the carrier signal is
varied in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating signal. The parameters associated with FM are
carrier frequency, Modulating Signal Frequency, Frequency
deviation, Modulation index, Sideband Frequencies and Total
Bandwidth. The expression for the instantaneous frequency can
be expressed mathematically based on the modulation index,
the frequency deviation and the modulating signal.

Phase Modulation
Phase modulation (PM) is one of the modulation techniques that
involves the use of a phase angle to modulate a carrier signal.
While in AM, the carrier signal is varied in terms of its strength,
the phase angle of the carrier signal is varied in PM depending
on the input signal. This modulation technique is essential in
most digital communication systems and comes with better
performance in terms of noise tolerance and signal quality. This
is made possible by altering the phase of the carrier in relation
to the amplitude; phase modulation makes it easy to transmit
data using pressure and other types of communication
channels.
What is Phase Modulation?
Phase modulation (PM) is a kind of signal modulation in which
the phase of a high-frequency signal or carrier wave is made to
change with its amplitude in proportion to the amplitude of the
input signal. This technique modulates information by changing
the phase angle of the carrier signal, not its amplitude like the
former techniques. PM is very common in radio and television
transmissions and also in modem digital data transmission
because of its capability to operate efficiently in a noisy
environment. Phase modulation therefore works as follows:
depending on the input signal, the carrier’s phase is shifted in
order to encode and transmit information over different
channels.
What is the Need of Modulation?
 Size of Antenna: As we know that the size of the
antenna is inversely proportional to the frequency of the
radiated signal and antenna size must be 1/10th of the
wavelength. If the frequency signals are more than 5KHz
in that case it is quite impossible to set up an antenna of
that size. So, by using the modulation technique the size
of the antenna is reduced.
 Wireless Communication: Modulation provides a
wireless connection to transmit the signals to a longer
distance. Earlier we used wire systems (like the telephone)
to transfer information with the help of telephonic wires
but it was not possible to spread the wires all over the
world for communication. By using the modulation
technique, the cost of wire is saved and even information
can be transferred to longer distances faster.
Working of Modulation
Data can be added to the carrier signal by varying its
amplitude, frequency, and phase. Basically, modulation is
applied to electromagnetic signals like radio waves, optics,
and computer networks. It can also be applied to direct current
that can be treated as a degenerate carrier wave with a fixed
amplitude and frequency of 0 Hz by turning it off and on as in
a digital current loop and in Morse code telegraphy.

Why use Modulation in Communication?

Multiple carriers of various frequencies can frequently be sent
across the same medium, with each carrier modulated by a
separate signal. For Example Wi-Fi employs individual channels
to transmit and receive data from several customers at the
same time. A carrier signal is used to decrease the wavelength
for more effective transmission and reception. Because the
ideal antenna size is one-half or one-quarter of a wavelength,
an audio frequency of 3000 Hz needs a wavelength of 100
kilometers and a 25-kilometer antenna. Instead, with a 100
MHz FM carrier and a wavelength of 3 meters, the antenna
would only need to be 80 cm long.
Advantages of Modulation
 It reduces the size of the antenna.
 It reduces the cost of wires.
 It prohibits the mixing of signals.
 It increases the range of communication.
 It improves the reception quality.
 It easily multiplexes the signals.
 It also allows the adjustment of the bandwidth.
Disadvantages of Modulation
 The cost of the equipment is higher.
 The receiver and the transmitter are very complicated.
 For better communication, the antennas for the FM system
must be kept closed.
 It is not efficient for large bandwidth.
 Power wastage takes place.
Define Duty Cycle
In wireless communications, the duty cycle is the percentage
of time the wireless network emits RF signals. As a result, the
duty cycle is an important factor when measuring a person’s
exposure to electromagnetic radiation. The actual duty cycle
differs based on the network’s data load and speed. As a
result, the duty cycle can be changed by whether the network
is used for Voice Over Internet Protocol(VoIP) , streaming
videos, or videos.

What is Demodulation?
Demodulation Process
To understand the concept of Demodulation, we need to study
the Modulation first. Modulation is the process where properties
of the carrier signal like amplitude, frequency, or phase change
according to the baseband or message signal. It is the reverse
process of the modulation to recover the signal from modulated
signal and hence obtain the original signal, so the need of the
demodulation is to get the original information or signal from
the modulated one.

Demodulation
Demodulation is the technique to recover the original signal
from the modulated signal. The demodulation is done with the
help of a demodulator. A demodulator will convert the carrier
variation of amplitude, frequency, or phase back to the
message signal. There are three different types of
demodulators for converting the AM (amplitude modulation),
FM (frequency modulation), and PM (phase modulation)
modulation schemes.
The Demodulation is the process of extracting the original
information from a modulated carrier wave. It is an important
function used in the communication systems which allows the
recovery of transmitted data at the receiver end. Demodulation
is the technique to recover the original signal from the
modulated signal. The demodulation is done with the help of a
demodulator. A demodulator will convert the carrier variation
of amplitude, frequency, or phase back to the message signal.
There are three different types of demodulators for converting
the AM (amplitude modulation), FM (frequency modulation),
and PM (phase modulation) modulation schemes.
Need for Demodulation
The Demodulation is important as the it ensure that the
transmitted audio signals can be correctly received and
processed. Demodulation is the process of recovering the
original signal from the modulated signal. It allows the
separation of the audio frequency from the
higher frequency carrier which makes the signal audible and
usable to the human listener and compatible with standard
audio playback devices. Without using the demodulation the
information carried by the high-frequency carrier waves would
remain inaccessible
Demodulation Techniques
There are various demodulation techniques depending on the
type of modulation. Some of the technique are listed below:
 Diode rectifier envelope detector
 Product detector
 Synchronous detection
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
PAM is a type of pulse modulation where the amplitude of the
pulse is varied with the sample value of the message signal.
Pulse modulation techniques are widely used in digital
transmission, where non-baseband applications are replaced by
PPM (Pulse Position Modulation). PAM modulation technique is
used in various applications, such as Ethernet,
television, and LED lighting.
Here, we will discuss the process used to transmit the number
of pulses from different sources using TDM. It represents how
the analog data is transmitted by its discrete samples. We have
assumed that the samples are in the form of a pulse of finite
width.
The method used to send the number of signals from different
sources one after the other in a specific time band is known
as TDM (Time Division Multiplexing). It is also used in digital
modulation to transmit the codes in binary.
When the amplitude of the pulse carries the message
information of the baseband signal, it is known as PAM (Pulse
Amplitude Modulation). If it is carried by width, it is known
as PWM (Pulse Width Modulation), and if by position, it is
known as PPM (Pulse Position Modulation). The combination of
PWM and PPM is known as PTM (Pulse Time Modulation).
Among all the available modulation schemes, PAM is suitable
for TDM and digital representation.
Let's consider a PAM technique that uses the sampling principle
and time multiplexing for the signal representation and
transmission. The block diagram is shown below:
At both ends, rotary switches in synchronization are
connected, representing the transmitting and the receiving
end. On the left side, various bandlimited signals are
connected to the contact point of a rotary switch. Bandlimited
refers to the signals sent at the specific threshold or the cut-off
frequency. If the frequency rises above the cut-off frequency,
the amplitude of such signals goes to zero. For example, voice
signals are bandlimited to 3.3k Hz.
When the rotary arm of the switch swings, it samples every
signal sequentially. The other signal at the receiving end makes
contacts simultaneously with the same numbered contacts.
With every revolution f the switch, each signal was sampled
and presented at the corresponding contact number at the
receiving end. The sampled signal at the end passes through
the LPF (Low Pass Filter) and we get the original recovered
signal. For a sampled signal numbered 1, we get the message
signal m1(t). Similarly, for the signal numbered 2, we get the
message signal m2(t).
The revolutions are atleast twice the maximum frequency of
the modulated signal. If FM is the highest frequency of the
modulated signal, there were atleast 2FM revolutions per
second.
When the signal to be multiplexed varies slowly with time,
mechanical switches can be used for signal recovery. In case of
high speed applications, the operating power of the mechanical
switches goes out of range. If the signal to be multiplexed
varies with greater speed with time, an electronic switching
system is used. In any of the above cases, the left side
represents the transmitting end, and the right side represents
the receiving end. The left side is known as
the commutator, and the right side is known
as decommutator.
The signals are sampled at regular intervals of time duration T S.
The Sampling of the second message signal is the same as that
of the first, but the sampling time is different. Thus, the time of
each sampling signal is different from the succeeding one. It is
done to allow easy multiplexing and prevent the signals from
interference.
The transmissions of two trains of pulses that are modulated in
amplitude are known as Pulse Amplitude Modulation.
Multiplexing of various signals is possible if the signals are
sampled at different times. It also allows their easy
reconstruction at the receiving end. If the signals are separated
by different frequencies, the system is known
as FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing). If we want to
transmit the signal from one antenna to the other direction, we
need to modulate the signal (AM or FM) at a high carrier
frequency.
Channel bandwidth of PAM
Let's consider the N number of baseband signals containing
message information. Each signal is bandlimited to F M and
represented by m1(t), m2(t), … mn(t). The communication
channel does not require a bandwidth larger than NF M. The
sampling of the baseband signal m1(t) is not greater than the
time interval Ts = 1/2FM. It means that the successive signals
are also sampled at the same time interval gap (1/2F MN). It is
the gap between the two successive signals (for example, m 1(t)
and m2(t)). If the channel bandwidth is high, demultiplexing
would be easier and can be achieved directly. But, if the
channel bandwidth is restricted, the basebands signals may
combine resulting in crosstalk, which may affect the quality of
the signal.
PCM (Pulse Code Modulation)
Modulation is a process where different parameter (amplitude,
frequency, and phase) of a carrier signal varies with the
instantaneous value of the message signal. A carrier signal is a
high-frequency signal, and the message signal is the original
signal transmitted from the transmitter to the receiver. The
message signal carries the information from one place to the
other. The carrier signal is used with the message signal to
make it suitable for long-distance transmission.
Different modulation techniques use different parameters to
transmit a signal from the transmitter to the receiver. Here, we
will discuss the PCM (Pulse Code Modulation) technique, one of
the digital modulation methods to transmit the signal.
A PCM system converts an analog input signal to the digital
signal, which is a combination of the binary sequence created
from the binary digits 0 and 1. An analog signal is a continuous
wave, and the PCM signal is a wave with a series of digits. Thus,
we can define PCM as the modulation method that transmits
the pulses in the form of binary digits representing a code
number.
A simple diagram of the analog waveform and the
corresponding PCM waveform is shown below:
Electrical representation of the PCM signal
The signals are transmitted in the electrical form from the
transmitter to the receiver. It is due to the dependence of
electronic devices on the electric current for its operation. The
binary digits are represented in the form of electric pulses to
transmit the code over a communication channel. A simple
diagram of the binary digits represented in the form of electric
pulses is shown below

A binary digit '0' indicates the absence of a pulse, and the

binary digits '1' indicates the presence of a pulse. The above
diagram shows the sequence of three digits that depicts the
binary number from 0 to 5. The first sequence (a) of digital
pulses is the PCM waveform transmitted to the receiver as the
sequence of the quantized samples. The second sequence (b) is
the alternative method to represent the digital pulses. The
three digits sequence representing a decimal number in the
binary form specifies a sampled value called word. The space
between the two adjacent words helps in the easy multiplexing
and demultiplexing of the signals.
At the receiver end, the pulse's presence and absence help us
determine the binary digits of the coded signal. The amplitude
of the pulse in detecting the binary digits is not important. The
wide pulse width easily allows recognizing the pulse against the
noise. A rising pulse indicates a digit' 1' and the lower level
pulse indicate a digit' 0.'
PCM system
A communication system contains a transmitter,
channel, and receiver. A transmitter and a receiver have
various components depending on the input signal and the
output requirements. It performs two
functions, modulation and demodulation. Modulation sends
the message signal with the carrier signal, which helps in
enhancing the signals' characteristics. It also removes any
noise, interference, or distortion in the signal. The
demodulation process recovers the original signal to make it
suitable for the receiver.
A signal is sampled and quantized before transmission. It allows
us to perform TDM (Time Division Multiplexing) and reduce the
effects of noise. The combined sampling and quantization
operation produces a digital PAM (Pulse Amplitude Modulation)
signal, where the amplitude of the pulse varies with the
instantaneous value of the message signal. We can either
transmit these values directly or uses the coding method to
transmit the code rather than the value. The code number is
represented in binary form before transmission. Such as, the
method of transmission is performed using the PCM system.
The block diagram of the Pulse Code Modulation system is
shown below:
The components of a PCM system are a low pass filter,
sampler, quantizer, encoder, communication channel,
quantizer, decoder, and a reconstruction filter. The input
message signal m(t) is the analog signal applied to the
sampler. The combination of quantizer and encoder is known as
ADC (Analog to Digital Converter). The A/D converter replaces
the analog signal with the code symbols, where each symbol
represents the train of pulses interpreted as the binary digits.
The first quantizer is present at the transmitting end, while the
second quantizer is present at the receiving end. The signal
transmitted through the Pulse Code Modulation system is also
referred a digitally encoded signal.
Let's discuss the components of PCM system in detail.
LPF
As the name implies, a filter passes a certain range of
frequencies and reject the other. A Low Pass Filter (LPF)
rejects the higher frequencies from the input signal and passes
the other frequencies, specified by the filter. It is done to avoid
any aliasing or distortion in the input signal.
Sampler
Sampling refers to the process of measuring the instantaneous
value of the continuous signal is the discrete form. The input
signal of the PCM system is analog, which is a continuous time-
varying signal. The analog signal passes through the sampler,
where it is sampled periodically. The sampler measures the
instantaneous value of the analog signal, converts it to the
discrete symbols and sends it to the quantizer.
Quantizer
After passing through the sampler, the samples are subjected
to quantization operation. It reduces the number of discreet
symbols. The quantizer performs the process of data
compression and data redundancy. It adds some redundant
bits and compresses the data to make it suitable for storage
and transmission.
Encoder
An encoder is a device that converts the analog signal to digital
pulses. It responds to each sample by generating a binary pulse
or pattern. The combination of Low pass filter, quantizer, and
encoder works as an A/D or Analog to Digital Converter. It also
reduces the transmission bandwidth.
Communication channel
A communication channel is a medium between the transmitter
and the receiver. It transmits a PCM signal from the transmitter
to the receiver. It also includes a repeater that can regenerate
the signal, improve signal strength, and reduce noise effects.
What is Multiplexing?
Multiplexing is a technique used to combine and send the
multiple data streams over a single medium. The process of
combining the data streams is known as multiplexing and
hardware used for multiplexing is known as a multiplexer.
Multiplexing is achieved by using a device called Multiplexer
(MUX) that combines n input lines to generate a single output
line. Multiplexing follows many-to-one, i.e., n input lines and
one output line.
Demultiplexing is achieved by using a device called
Demultiplexer (DEMUX) available at the receiving end. DEMUX
separates a signal into its component signals (one input and n
outputs). Therefore, we can say that demultiplexing follows the
one-to-many approach.
Why Multiplexing?
o The transmission medium is used to send the signal from
sender to receiver. The medium can only have one signal
at a time.
o If there are multiple signals to share one medium, then
the medium must be divided in such a way that each
signal is given some portion of the available bandwidth.
For example: If there are 10 signals and bandwidth of
medium is100 units, then the 10 unit is shared by each
signal.
o When multiple signals share the common medium, there
is a possibility of collision. Multiplexing concept is used to
avoid such collision.
o Transmission services are very expensive.

History of Multiplexing

o Multiplexing technique is widely used in

telecommunications in which several telephone calls are
carried through a single wire.
o Multiplexing originated in telegraphy in the early 1870s
and is now widely used in communication.
 o George Owen Squier developed the telephone carrier
multiplexing in 1910

o The 'n' input lines are transmitted through a multiplexer

and multiplexer combines the signals to form a composite
signal.
o The composite signal is passed through a Demultiplexer
and demultiplexer separates a signal to component
signals and transfers them to their respective
destinations.
Advantages of Multiplexing:
o More than one signal can be sent over a single medium.
o The bandwidth of a medium can be utilized effectively.

Multiplexing Techniques

Multiplexing techniques can be classified as:

Frequency-division Multiplexing (FDM)

o It is an analog technique.
o Frequency Division Multiplexing is a technique in
which the available bandwidth of a single transmission
medium is subdivided into several channels.
 o In the above diagram, a single transmission medium is
subdivided into several frequency channels, and each
frequency channel is given to different devices. Device 1
has a frequency channel of range from 1 to 5.
o The input signals are translated into frequency bands by
using modulation techniques, and they are combined by a
multiplexer to form a composite signal.
o The main aim of the FDM is to subdivide the available
bandwidth into different frequency channels and allocate
them to different devices.
o Using the modulation technique, the input signals are
transmitted into frequency bands and then combined to
form a composite signal.
o The carriers which are used for modulating the signals are
known as sub-carriers. They are represented as f1,f2..fn.
o FDM is mainly used in radio broadcasts and TV networks.

Advantages Of FDM:
o FDM is used for analog signals.
o FDM process is very simple and easy modulation.
 o A Large number of signals can be sent through an FDM
simultaneously.
o It does not require any synchronization between sender
and receive
Disadvantages Of FDM:
o FDM technique is used only when low-speed channels are
required.
o It suffers the problem of crosstalk.
o A Large number of modulators are required.
o It requires a high bandwidth channel.
Applications Of FDM:
o FDM is commonly used in TV networks.
o It is used in FM and AM broadcasting. Each FM radio
station has different frequencies, and they are multiplexed
to form a composite signal. The multiplexed signal is
transmitted in the air.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

o Wavelength Division Multiplexing is same as FDM except

that the optical signals are transmitted through the fibre
optic cable.
o WDM is used on fibre optics to increase the capacity of a
single fibre.
o It is used to utilize the high data rate capability of fibre
optic cable.
 o It is an analog multiplexing technique.
o Optical signals from different source are combined to form
a wider band of light with the help of multiplexer.
o At the receiving end, demultiplexer separates the signals
to transmit them to their respective destinations.
o Multiplexing and Demultiplexing can be achieved by using
a prism.
o Prism can perform a role of multiplexer by combining the
various optical signals to form a composite signal, and the
composite signal is transmitted through a fibre optical
cable.
o Prism also performs a reverse operation, i.e.,
demultiplexing the signal.

Time Division Multiplexing

o It is a digital technique.
o In Frequency Division Multiplexing Technique, all signals
operate at the same time with different frequency, but in
case of Time Division Multiplexing technique, all signals
operate at the same frequency with different time.
o In Time Division Multiplexing technique, the total time
available in the channel is distributed among different
users. Therefore, each user is allocated with different time
interval known as a Time slot at which data is to be
transmitted by the sender.
o A user takes control of the channel for a fixed amount of
time.
 o In Time Division Multiplexing technique, data is not
transmitted simultaneously rather the data is transmitted
one-by-one.
o In TDM, the signal is transmitted in the form of frames.
Frames contain a cycle of time slots in which each frame
contains one or more slots dedicated to each user.
o It can be used to multiplex both digital and analog signals
but mainly used to multiplex digital signals.
There are two types of TDM:
o Synchronous TDM
o Asynchronous TDM
Synchronous TDM
o A Synchronous TDM is a technique in which time slot is
preassigned to every device.
o In Synchronous TDM, each device is given some time slot
irrespective of the fact that the device contains the data
or not.
o If the device does not have any data, then the slot will
remain empty.
o In Synchronous TDM, signals are sent in the form of
frames. Time slots are organized in the form of frames. If a
device does not have data for a particular time slot, then
the empty slot will be transmitted.
o The most popular Synchronous TDM are T-1 multiplexing,
ISDN multiplexing, and SONET multiplexing.
o If there are n devices, then there are n slots.
Concept Of Synchronous TDM

In the above figure, the Synchronous TDM technique is

implemented. Each device is allocated with some time slot. The
time slots are transmitted irrespective of whether the sender
has data to send or not.
Disadvantages Of Synchronous TDM:
o The capacity of the channel is not fully utilized as the
empty slots are also transmitted which is having no data.
In the above figure, the first frame is completely filled, but
in the last two frames, some slots are empty. Therefore,
we can say that the capacity of the channel is not utilized
efficiently.
o The speed of the transmission medium should be greater
than the total speed of the input lines. An alternative
approach to the Synchronous TDM is Asynchronous Time
Division Multiplexing.
Asynchronous TDM
o An asynchronous TDM is also known as Statistical TDM.
o An asynchronous TDM is a technique in which time slots
are not fixed as in the case of Synchronous TDM. Time
slots are allocated to only those devices which have the
data to send. Therefore, we can say that Asynchronous
Time Division multiplexor transmits only the data from
active workstations.
o An asynchronous TDM technique dynamically allocates the
time slots to the devices.
o In Asynchronous TDM, total speed of the input lines can be
greater than the capacity of the channel.
o Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor accepts the
incoming data streams and creates a frame that contains
only data with no empty slots.
o In Asynchronous TDM, each slot contains an address part
that identifies the source of the data.

o The difference between Asynchronous TDM and

Synchronous TDM is that many slots in Synchronous TDM
are unutilized, but in Asynchronous TDM, slots are fully
utilized. This leads to the smaller transmission time and
efficient utilization of the capacity of the channel.
o In Synchronous TDM, if there are n sending devices, then
there are n time slots. In Asynchronous TDM, if there are n
sending devices, then there are m time slots where m is
less than n (m<n).
o The number of slots in a frame depends on the statistical
analysis of the number of input lines.
n the above diagram, there are 4 devices, but only two devices
are sending the data, i.e., A and C. Therefore, the data of A and
C are only transmitted through the transmission line.
Frame of above diagram can be represented as:

The above figure shows that the data part contains the address
to determine the source of the data.
What is Switching?
In computer networking, Switching is the process of
transferring data packets from one device to another in a
network, or from one network to another, using specific devices
called switches. A computer user experiences switching all the
time for example, accessing the Internet from your computer
device, whenever a user requests a webpage to open, the
request is processed through switching of data packets only.
Switching takes place at the Data Link layer of the OSI Model.
This means that after the generation of data packets in the
Physical Layer, switching is the immediate next process in data
communication. In this article, we shall discuss different
processes involved in switching, what kind of hardware is used
in switching, etc.
What is a Switch?
A switch is a hardware device in a network that connects other
devices, like computers and servers. It helps multiple devices
share a network without their data interfering with each other.
A switch works like a traffic cop at a busy intersection. When a
data packet arrives, the switch decides where it needs to go
and sends it through the right port.
Switching techniques
In large networks, there can be multiple paths from sender to
receiver. The switching technique will decide the best route for
data transmission.
Switching technique is used to connect the systems for making
one-to-one communication.
Classification Of Switching Techniques

Circuit Switching
o Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes
a dedicated path between sender and receiver.
o In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is
established then the dedicated path will remain to exist
until the connection is terminated.
o Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as
the telephone works.
o A complete end-to-end path must exist before the
communication takes place.
o In case of circuit switching technique, when any user
wants to send the data, voice, video, a request signal is
sent to the receiver then the receiver sends back the
acknowledgment to ensure the availability of the
dedicated path. After receiving the acknowledgment,
dedicated path transfers the data.
o Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is
used for voice transmission.
 o Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching
technology.
o Circuit establishment
o Data transfer
o Circuit Disconnect

Space Division Switches:

o Space Division Switching is a circuit switching technology
in which a single transmission path is accomplished in a
switch by using a physically separate set of crosspoints.
o Space Division Switching can be achieved by using
crossbar switch. A crossbar switch is a metallic crosspoint
or semiconductor gate that can be enabled or disabled by
a control unit.
o The Crossbar switch is made by using the semiconductor.
For example, Xilinx crossbar switch using FPGAs.
o Space Division Switching has high speed, high capacity,
and nonblocking switches.
Space Division Switches can be categorized in two ways:
o Crossbar Switch
o Multistage Switch
Crossbar Switch
The Crossbar switch is a switch that has n input lines and n
output lines. The crossbar switch has n 2 intersection points
known as crosspoints.
Disadvantage of Crossbar switch:
The number of crosspoints increases as the number of stations
is increased. Therefore, it becomes very expensive for a large
switch. The solution to this is to use a multistage switch.
Multistage Switch
o Multistage Switch is made by splitting the crossbar switch
into the smaller units and then interconnecting them.
o It reduces the number of crosspoints.
o If one path fails, then there will be an availability of
another path.
Advantages Of Circuit Switching:
o In the case of Circuit Switching technique, the
communication channel is dedicated.
o It has fixed bandwidth.
Disadvantages Of Circuit Switching:
o Once the dedicated path is established, the only delay
occurs in the speed of data transmission.
o It takes a long time to establish a connection approx 10
seconds during which no data can be transmitted.
o It is more expensive than other switching techniques as a
dedicated path is required for each connection.
o It is inefficient to use because once the path is established
and no data is transferred, then the capacity of the path is
wasted.
o In this case, the connection is dedicated therefore no
other data can be transferred even if the channel is free.
Message Switching
o Message Switching is a switching technique in which a
message is transferred as a complete unit and routed
through intermediate nodes at which it is stored and
forwarded.
o In Message Switching technique, there is no establishment
of a dedicated path between the sender and receiver.
 o The destination address is appended to the message.
Message Switching provides a dynamic routing as the
message is routed through the intermediate nodes based
on the information available in the message.
o Message switches are programmed in such a way so that
they can provide the most efficient routes.
o Each and every node stores the entire message and then
forward it to the next node. This type of network is known
as store and forward network.
o Message switching treats each message as an
independent entity.

Advantages Of Message Switching

o Data channels are shared among the communicating
devices that improve the efficiency of using available
bandwidth.
o Traffic congestion can be reduced because the message is
temporarily stored in the nodes.
o Message priority can be used to manage the network.
o The size of the message which is sent over the network
can be varied. Therefore, it supports the data of unlimited
size.
Disadvantages Of Message Switching
o The message switches must be equipped with sufficient
storage to enable them to store the messages until the
message is forwarded.
 o The Long delay can occur due to the storing and
forwarding facility provided by the message switching
technique.

Packet Switching
o The packet switching is a switching technique in which the
message is sent in one go, but it is divided into smaller
pieces, and they are sent individually.
o The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets
and packets are given a unique number to identify their
order at the receiving end.
o Every packet contains some information in its headers
such as source address, destination address and sequence
number.
o Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest
path as possible.
o All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in
correct order.
o If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message
will be sent to resend the message.
o If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the
acknowledgment message will be sent.

Approaches Of Packet Switching:

There are two approaches to Packet Switching:
Datagram Packet switching:
o It is a packet switching technology in which packet is
known as a datagram, is considered as an independent
entity. Each packet contains the information about the
destination and switch uses this information to forward the
packet to the correct destination.
o The packets are reassembled at the receiving end in
correct order.
o In Datagram Packet Switching technique, the path is not
fixed.
o Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward
the packets.
o Datagram Packet Switching is also known as
connectionless switching.
Virtual Circuit Switching
o Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as connection-
oriented switching.
o In the case of Virtual circuit switching, a preplanned route
is established before the messages are sent.
o Call request and call accept packets are used to establish
the connection between sender and receiver.
o In this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a logical
connection.
Let's understand the concept of virtual circuit switching
through a diagram:
 o In the above diagram, A and B are the sender and receiver
respectively. 1 and 2 are the nodes.
o Call request and call accept packets are used to establish
a connection between the sender and receiver.
o When a route is established, data will be transferred.
o After transmission of data, an acknowledgment signal is
sent by the receiver that the message has been received.
o If the user wants to terminate the connection, a clear
signal is sent for the termination.

Differences b/w Datagram approach and Virtual Circuit

approach

Advantages Of Packet Switching:

o Cost-effective: In packet switching technique, switching
devices do not require massive secondary storage to store
the packets, so cost is minimized to some extent.
Therefore, we can say that the packet switching technique
is a cost-effective technique.
o Reliable: If any node is busy, then the packets can be
rerouted. This ensures that the Packet Switching
technique provides reliable communication.
o Efficient: Packet Switching is an efficient technique. It
does not require any established path prior to the
transmission, and many users can use the same
communication channel simultaneously, hence makes use
of available bandwidth very efficiently.
o Disadvantages Of Packet Switching:
o  Packet Switching technique cannot be implemented in those applications that
require low delay and high-quality services.
o  The protocols used in a packet switching technique are very complex and requires
high implementation cost.
o  If the network is overloaded or corrupted, then it requires retransmission of lost
packets. It can also lead to the loss of critical information if errors are nor recovered.