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Introduction to Engineering Analysis

Fifth Edition

KirK D. Hagen
Weber State University
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

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Title: Introduction to engineering analysis / Kirk D. Hagen, Weber State University.
Description: Fifth edition. | Hoboken, NJ : Pearson Education, Inc., [2022] | Series: Pearson always learning | Includes
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Identifiers: LCCN 2020044982 | ISBN 0136994466 | ISBN 978013699446 (paperback)
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iii
 Contents

ABOUT THIS BOOK VIII

1 • THE ROLE OF ANALYSIS IN ENGINEERING 1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Analysis and Engineering Design 4
1.3 Analysis and Engineering Failure 7

2 • DIMENSIONS AND UNITS 15

2.1 Introduction 15
2.2 Dimensions 16
2.3 Units 20
2.4 SI Units 24
2.5 English Units 31
2.6 Mass and Weight 34
2.7 Unit Conversions 41
2.7.1 Unit Conversion Procedure 41

3 • ANALYSIS METHODOLOGY 52

3.1 Introduction 52
3.2 Numerical Calculations 53
3.2.1 Approximations 54
3.2.2 Significant Figures 55
3.3 General Analysis Procedure 62
3.4 The Computer as an Analysis Tool 78
3.4.1 Spreadsheets 79
3.4.2 Equation Solvers and Mathematics Software 81
3.4.3 Programming Languages 81
3.4.4 Specialty Software 83
3.4.5 Finite Element Software 83

iv
 Contents v

4 • MECHANICS 96

4.1 Introduction 96
4.2 Scalars and Vectors 99
4.2.1 Vector Operations 101
4.2.2 Vector Components 102
4.2.3 Unit Vectors 104
4.3 Forces 108
4.4 Free-Body Diagrams 116
4.5 Equilibrium 122
4.6 Stress and Strain 129
4.6.1 Stress 130
4.6.2 Strain 131
4.6.3 Hooke’s Law 132
4.6.4 Stress–Strain Diagram 133
4.7 Design Stress 137

5 • ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS 151

5.1 Introduction 151

5.2 Electric Charge and Current 153
5.3 Voltage 160
5.4 Resistance 164
5.5 Ohm’s Law 168
5.6 Simple DC Circuits 171
5.7 Kirchhoff’s Laws 177
5.7.1 Kirchhoff’s Current Law 177
5.7.2 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law 179

6 • THERMODYNAMICS 189

6.1 Introduction 189

6.2 Pressure and Temperature 190
6.2.1 Pressure 191
6.2.2 Temperature 193
6.3 Forms of Energy 197
6.3.1 Potential Energy 198
6.3.2 Kinetic Energy 199
6.3.3 Internal Energy 199
6.3.4 Total Energy 200
6.4 Work and Heat 202
6.4.1 Mechanical Work 203
6.4.2 Heat 207
6.5 The First Law of Thermodynamics 211
6.6 Heat Engines 218
6.7 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 220
vi Contents

7 • FLUID MECHANICS 233

7.1 Introduction 233

7.2 Fluid Properties 236
7.2.1 Density, Specific Weight, and Specific Gravity 236
7.2.2 Bulk Modulus 239
7.2.3 Viscosity 240
7.3 Fluid Statics 245
7.3.1 Pressure–Elevation Relationship 245
7.3.2 Forces on Submerged Surfaces 247
7.4 Flow Rates 249
7.5 Conservation of Mass 252

8 • RENEWABLE ENERGY 265

8.1 Introduction 265

8.1.1 Environmental Considerations 267
8.2 Solar 268
8.2.1 Solar Energy Systems 269
8.2.2 Photovoltaic Systems 272
8.3 Wind 281
8.3.1 Basic Energy Analysis of a Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine 285
8.4 Hydro 288
8.4.1 Basic Energy Analysis of a Hydropower Plant 290
8.5 Geothermal 291
8.5.1 Basic Energy Analysis of a Binary Plant 293
8.6 Marine 296
8.6.1 Tidal 297
8.6.2 Ocean 298
8.7 Biomass 302

9 • DATA ANALYSIS: GRAPHING 309

9.1 Introduction 309

9.2 Collecting and Recording Data 312
9.2.1 Data Identification and Association 312
9.2.2 Accuracy, Precision, and Error 313
9.2.3 Recording Data 317
9.3 General Graphing Procedure 319
9.3.1 Dependent and Independent Variables 321
9.3.2 Variable Ranges 322
9.3.3 Graph Paper 322
9.3.4 Location of Axes 323
9.3.5 Graduation and Calibration of Axes 324
9.3.6 Axis Labels 327
9.3.7 Data Point Plotting 328
9.3.8 Curves 329
 Contents vii

9.3.9 Legends and Titles 331

9.3.10 Graphing with Computer Software 331
9.4 Curve Fitting 335
9.4.1 Common Mathematical Functions 336
9.4.2 Method of Selected Points 337
9.4.3 Least Squares Linear Regression 344
9.5 Interpolation and Extrapolation 348

10 • DATA ANALYSIS: STATISTICS 362

10.1 Introduction 362

10.2 Data Classification and Frequency Distribution 364
10.3 Measures of Central Tendency 367
10.3.1 Mean 367
10.3.2 Median 369
10.3.3 Mode 369
10.4 Measures of Variation 372
10.5 Normal Distribution 374

APPENDIX A MATHEMATICAL FORMULAS 388

APPENDIX B UNIT CONVERSIONS 394

APPENDIX C PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 397

APPENDIX D AREAS UNDER THE STANDARD NORMAL CURVE

FROM 0 TO z 400

APPENDIX E GREEK ALPHABET 402

APPENDIX F ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS 403

GLOSSARY 410

INDEX 414
 About This Book
Introduction to Engineering Analysis is designed to teach first-year engineering students
how to perform engineering analyses using a systematic problem-solving method.
Written for students embarking on any engineering major, the book introduces
the fundamental principles of a variety of engineering subjects and then applies
the problem-solving method to those subjects. Following introductory chapters on
analysis, design, and dimensions and units, the book outlines and illustrates the
problem-solving method in detail. The problem-solving method is then used through-
out the rest of the book. Chapters include topics traditionally introduced in the first
or second year of an engineering curriculum: engineering mechanics, electrical cir-
cuits, thermodynamics, and fluid mechanics. The last three chapters cover fundamen-
tal principles of renewable energy followed by chapters on graphing and statistics.
Approximately 40 percent of the end-of-chapter problems in the fifth edition are
revised or new. Studied conscientiously, this book will help students get a good start in
their engineering coursework.

viii
CHAPTER

1 The Role of
Analysis in
Engineering
Objectives
After reading this chapter, you • How analysis is used in
will have learned engineering design
• What engineering • How analysis helps
analysis is engineers prevent and
• That analysis is a major diagnose failures
component of the
engineering curriculum

1.1 INTRODUCTION
What is analysis? A dictionary definition of analysis might read something like this:
the separation of a whole into its component parts, or an examination of a
complex system, its elements, and their relationships.
Based on this general definition, analysis may refer to everything from the study
of a person’s mental state (psychoanalysis) to the determination of the amount of
certain elements in an unknown metal alloy (elemental analysis). Engineering analysis,
however, has a specific meaning. A concise working definition is:
analytical solution of an engineering problem, using mathematics and prin-
ciples of science.
Engineering analysis relies heavily on basic mathematics such as algebra, geom-
etry, trigonometry, calculus, and statistics. Higher level mathematics such as linear al-
gebra, differential equations, and complex variables may also be used. Principles and
laws from the physical sciences, particularly physics and chemistry, are key ingredients
of engineering analysis.
Engineering analysis involves more than searching for an equation that fits a prob-
lem, plugging numbers into the equation, and “turning the crank” to generate an
2 Chapter 1 The Role of Analysis in Engineering

answer. It is not a simple “plug and chug” procedure. Engineering analysis requires
logical and systematic thinking about the engineering problem. The engineer must
first be able to state the problem clearly, logically, and concisely. The engineer must
understand the physical behavior of the system being analyzed and know which
scientific principles to apply. He or she must recognize which mathematical tools to
use and how to implement them by hand or on a computer. The engineer must be
able to generate a solution that is consistent with the stated problem and any simpli-
fying assumptions. The engineer must then ascertain that the solution is reasonable
and contains no errors.
Engineering analysis may be regarded as a type of modeling or simulation. For
example, suppose that a civil engineer wants to know the tensile stress in a cable of
a suspension bridge that is being designed. The bridge exists only on paper, so a
direct stress measurement cannot be made. A scale model of the bridge could be
constructed, and a stress measurement taken on the model, but models are expen-
sive and very time-consuming to develop. A better approach is to create an analyti-
cal model of the bridge or a portion of the bridge containing the cable. From this
model, the tensile stress can be calculated.
Engineering courses that focus on analysis, such as statics, dynamics, mechanics
of materials, thermodynamics, and electrical circuits, are considered core courses
in the engineering curriculum. Because you will be taking many of these courses,
it is vital that you gain a fundamental understanding of what analysis is and, more
importantly, how to do analysis properly. As the bridge example illustrates, analysis
is an integral part of engineering design. Analysis is also a key part of the study of
engineering failures.
Engineers who perform engineering analyses on a regular basis are referred
to as engineering analysts or analytic engineers. These functional titles are used to
differentiate analysis from the other engineering functions such as research and
development (R&D), design, testing, production, sales, and marketing. In some
engineering companies, clear distinctions are made between the various engineer-
ing functions and the people who work in them. Depending on the organizational
structure and the type of products involved, large companies may dedicate a sep-
arate department or group of engineers to be analysts. Engineers whose work is
dedicated to analysis are considered specialists. In this capacity, the engineering
analyst usually works in a support role for design engineering. It is not uncommon,
however, for design and analysis functions to be combined in a single department
because design and analysis are so closely related. In small firms that employ only a
few engineers, the engineers often bear the responsibility of many technical func-
tions, including analysis.

PROFESSIONAL SUCCESS—CHOOSING
AN ENGINEERING MAJOR
Perhaps the biggest question facing the new engineering student (besides
“How much money will I make after I graduate?”) is “In which field of engi-
neering should I major?” Engineering is a broad area, so the beginning stu-
dent has numerous options. The new engineering student should be aware
of a few facts. First, all engineering majors have the potential for preparing
the student for a satisfying and rewarding engineering career. As a profes-
sion, engineering has historically enjoyed a fairly stable and well-paid market.
 1.1 Introduction 3

There have been fluctuations in the engineering market in recent decades,

but the demand for engineers in all the major disciplines is high, and the
future looks bright for engineers. Second, all engineering majors are aca-
demically challenging, but some engineering majors may be more challeng-
ing than others. Study the differences between the various engineering pro-
grams. Compare the course requirements of each program by examining the
course listings in your college or university catalog. Ask department chairs or
advisors to discuss the similarities and differences between their engineer-
ing programs and the programs in other departments. (Just keep in mind
that professors may be eager to tell you that their engineering discipline is
the best.) Talk with people who are practicing engineers in the various disci-
plines and ask them about their educational experiences. Learn all you can
from as many sources as you can about the various engineering disciplines.
Third, and this is the most important point, try to answer the following ques-
tion: “What kind of engineering will be the most gratifying for me?” It makes
little sense to devote four or more years of intense study of X engineering
just because it happens to be the highest paid discipline, because your uncle
Vinny is an X engineer, because X engineering is the easiest program at your
school, or because someone tells you that they are an X engineer, so you
should be one too.
Engineering disciplines may be broadly categorized as either mainstream
or narrowly focused. Mainstream disciplines are the broad-based, traditional
disciplines that have been in existence for decades (or even centuries) and
in which degrees are offered by most of the larger colleges and universities.
Many colleges and universities do not offer engineering degrees in some of
the narrowly focused disciplines. Chemical, civil, computer, electrical, and
mechanical engineering are considered the core mainstream disciplines.
These mainstream disciplines are broad in subject content and represent the
majority of practicing engineers. Narrowly focused disciplines concentrate on
a particular engineering subject by combining specific components from the
mainstream disciplines. For example, biomedical engineering may combine
portions of electrical and mechanical engineering plus components from bi-
ology. Construction engineering may combine elements from civil engineer-
ing and business or construction trades. Other narrowly focused disciplines
include materials, aeronautical and aerospace, environmental, nuclear, ce-
ramic, geological, manufacturing, automotive, metallurgical, corrosion,
ocean, and cost and safety engineering.
Should you major in a mainstream area or a narrowly focused area? The
safest thing to do, especially if you are uncertain about which discipline to
study, is to major in one of the mainstream disciplines. By majoring in a main-
stream area, you will graduate with a general engineering education that will
make you marketable in a broad engineering industry. On the other hand,
majoring in a narrowly focused discipline may lead you into an extremely sat-
isfying career, particularly if your area of expertise, narrow as it may be, is in
high demand. Perhaps your decision will be largely governed by geographical
issues. The narrowly focused majors may not be offered at the school you wish
to attend. These are important issues to consider when selecting an engineer-
ing major.
4 Chapter 1 The Role of Analysis in Engineering

1.2 ANALYSIS AND ENGINEERING DESIGN

Design is the heart of engineering. In ancient times, people recognized a need
for protection against the natural elements, for collecting and utilizing water, for
finding and growing food, for transportation, and for defending themselves against
other people with unfriendly intentions. Today, even though our world is much
more advanced and complex than that of our ancestors, our basic needs are essen-
tially the same. Throughout history, engineers have designed various devices and
systems that met the changing needs of society. The following is a concise definition
of engineering design:
a process of devising a component, system, or operation that meets a spe-
cific need.
The key word in this definition is process. The design process is like a road map
that guides the designer from need recognition to problem solution. Design engi-
neers make decisions based on a thorough understanding of engineering funda-
mentals, design constraints, cost, reliability, manufacturability, and human factors.
A knowledge of design principles can be learned in school from professors and
books, but in order to become a good design engineer, you must practice design.
Design engineers are like artists and architects who harness their creative powers
and skills to produce sculptures and buildings. The end products made by design
engineers may be more functional than artistic, but their creation still requires
knowledge, imagination, and creativity.
Engineering design is a process by which engineers meet the needs of society.
This process may be described in a variety of ways, but it typically consists of the
systematic sequence of steps shown in Figure 1.1.
Design has always been a key element of engineering programs in colleges
and universities. Traditionally, engineering students take a “senior design” or a
“capstone design project” course in their senior year. Recognizing that design is
indeed the heart of engineering and that students need an earlier introduction
to the subject, many schools integrate design experiences earlier in the curricu-
lum, perhaps as early as the introductory course. By introducing design at the
level that introductory mathematics and science courses are taught, engineering
programs provide students a meaningful context within which mathematics and
science are applied.
What is the relationship between engineering analysis and engineering de-
sign? As we defined it earlier, engineering analysis is the analytical solution of an
engineering problem, using mathematics and principles of science. The false notion
that engineering is merely mathematics and applied science is widely held by
many beginning engineering students. This may lead a student to believe that
engineering design is the equivalent of a “story problem” found in high school
algebra books. However, unlike math problems, design problems are “open
ended.” This means, among other things, that such problems do not have a sin-
gle “correct” solution. Design problems have many possible solutions, depend-
ing on the decisions made by the design engineer. The main goal of engineering
design is to obtain the best or optimum solution within the specifications and
constraints of the problem.
So, how does analysis fit in? One of the steps in the design process is to obtain a
preliminary concept of the design. (Note that the word design here refers to the actual
component, system, or operation that is being created.) At this point, the engineer be-
gins to investigate design alternatives. Alternatives are different approaches, or options,
 1.2 Analysis and Engineering Design 5

Figure 1.1
The engineering design Define objectives
process.

Choose a design
strategy

Gather information

Make a first attempt

at the design

Build a prototype Document

Test

No Does the prototype

Revise
meet specifications?

Yes

Test the finished

product

No Does finished product

meet specifications?

Yes

Market

that the design engineer considers to be viable at the conceptual stage of the design.
For example, some of these concepts may be used to design a better mousetrap:
• use a mechanical or an electronic sensor;
• insert cheese or peanut butter as bait;
• construct a wood, plastic, or metal cage;
• install an audible or a visible alarm;
• kill or catch and release the mouse.
Analysis is a decision-making tool for evaluating a set of design alternatives. By
performing analysis, the design engineer zeroes in on the alternatives that yield
the optimum solution, while eliminating alternatives that either violate design con-
straints or yield inferior solutions. In the mousetrap design, a dynamics analysis
may show that a mechanical sensor is too slow, resulting in delaying the closing of
6 Chapter 1 The Role of Analysis in Engineering

a trap door and therefore freeing the mouse. Thus, an electronic sensor is chosen
because it yields a superior solution.
The application that follows illustrates how analysis is used to design a machine
component.

DESIGNING A MACHINE COMPONENT

One of the major roles for mechanical engineers is the design of machines. Machines
APPLICATION

can be very complex systems consisting of numerous moving components. In order

for a machine to work properly, each component must be designed so that it per-
forms a specific function in unison with the other components. The components
must be designed to withstand specified forces, vibrations, temperatures, corrosion,
and other mechanical and environmental factors. An important aspect of machine
design is determining the dimensions of the mechanical components.
Consider a machine component consisting of a 20-cm-long circular rod, as
shown in Figure 1.2. As the machine operates, the rod is subjected to a 100-kN
tensile force. (The unit “kN” stands for “kilo newton,” which denotes 1000 new-
ton. A newton is a unit of force). One of the design constraints is that the axial
deformation (change in length) of the rod cannot exceed 0.5 mm if the rod is to
interface properly with a mating component. Taking the rod length and the ap-
plied tensile force as given, what is the minimum diameter required for the rod?

Figure 1.2
A machine L
component.
P

To solve this problem, we use an equation from mechanics of materials,

PL
δ=
AE

where
δ = axial deformation (m)
P = axial tensile force (N)
L = original length of rod (m)
A = πD 2 / 4 = cross-sectional area of rod (m2 )
E = modulus of elasticity (N/m2 ).
The use of this equation assumes that the material behaves elastically (i.e., it
does not undergo permanent deformation when subjected to a force). Upon sub-
stituting the formula for the rod’s cross-sectional area into the equation and solving
for the rod diameter D, we obtain
4 PL
D= .
πδE
 1.3 Analysis and Engineering Failure 7

We know the tensile force P, the original rod length L, and the maximum axial
deformation δ. But to find the diameter D, we must also know the modulus of
elasticity E. The modulus of elasticity is a material property, a constant defined by
the ratio of stress to strain. Suppose we choose 7075-T6 aluminum for the rod. This
material has a modulus of elasticity of E = 72 GPa. (Note: a unit of stress, which
is force divided by area, is the pascal (Pa). 1 Pa = 1 N/m2 and 1 GPa = 109 Pa.)
Substituting values into the equation gives the following diameter:

4(100 × 103 N)(0.20 m)

D=
π(0.0005 m)(72 × 109 N/m2 )
= 0.0266 m = 26.6 mm.

As part of the design process, we wish to consider other materials for the rod. Let’s
find the diameter for a rod made of structural steel (E = 200 GPa). For structural
steel, the rod diameter is

4(100 × 103 N)(0.20 m)

D=
π(0.0005 m)(200 × 109 N/m2 )
= 0.0160 m = 16.0 mm.

Our analysis shows that the minimum diameter for the rod depends on the material
we choose. Either 7075-T6 aluminum or structural steel will work as far as the axial
deformation is concerned, but other design issues such as weight, strength, wear,
corrosion, and cost should be considered. The important point to be learned here
is that analysis is a fundamental step in machine design.

As the application example illustrates, analysis is used to ascertain what design

features are required to make the component or system functional. Analysis is used
to size the cable of a suspension bridge, to select a cooling fan for a computer, to
size the heating elements for curing a plastic part in a manufacturing plant, and to
design the solar panels that convert solar energy to electrical energy for a spacecraft.
Analysis is a crucial part of virtually every design task because it guides the design en-
gineer through a sequence of decisions that ultimately lead to the optimum design.
It is important to point out that in design work, it is not enough to produce a drawing
or CAD (computer-aided design) model of the component or system. A drawing by
itself, while revealing the visual and dimensional characteristics of the design, may
say little, or nothing, about the functionality of the design. Analysis must be included
in the design process if the engineer is to know whether the design will actually
work when it is placed into service. Also, once a working prototype of the design is
constructed, testing is performed to validate analysis and to aid in the refinement of
the design.

1.3 ANALYSIS AND ENGINEERING FAILURE

With the possible exception of farmers, engineers are probably the most taken-for-
granted people in the world. Virtually all the man-made products and devices that
people use in their personal and professional lives were designed by engineers. Think
for a moment. What is the first thing you did when you arose from bed this morning?
Did you hit the snooze button on your alarm clock? Your alarm clock was designed
8 Chapter 1 The Role of Analysis in Engineering

by engineers. What did you do next, go into the bathroom, perhaps? The bathroom
fixtures — the sink, bathtub, shower, and toilet — were designed by engineers. Did
you use an electrical appliance to fix breakfast? Your toaster, waffle maker, microwave
oven, refrigerator, and other kitchen appliances were designed by engineers. Even if
you ate cold cereal for breakfast, you still took advantage of engineering because en-
gineers designed the processes by which the cereal and milk were produced, and they
even designed the machinery for making the cereal box and milk container! What
did you do after breakfast? If you brushed your teeth, you can thank engineers for
designing the toothpaste tube and toothbrush and even formulating the toothpaste.
Before leaving for school, you got dressed; engineers designed the machines that
manufactured your clothes. Did you drive a car to school or ride a bicycle? In either
case, engineers designed both transportation devices. What did you do when you ar-
rived at school? You sat down in your favorite chair in a classroom, removed a pen or
pencil and a note pad from your backpack, and began another day of learning. The
chair you sat in, the writing instrument you used to take notes, the notepad you wrote
on, and the bulging backpack you use to carry books, binders, paper, pens, and pen-
cils, plus numerous other devices were designed by engineers.
We take engineers for granted, but we expect a lot from them. We expect every-
thing they design, including alarm clocks, plumbing, toasters, automobiles, chairs, and
pencils, to work and to work all the time. Unfortunately, they don’t. We experience
a relatively minor inconvenience when the heating coil in our toaster burns out, but
when a bridge collapses, a commercial airliner crashes, or a space shuttle explodes, and
people are injured or die, the story makes headline news, and engineers are suddenly
thrust into the spotlight of public scrutiny. Are engineers to blame for every failure that
occurs? Some failures occur because people misuse the products. For example, if you
persist in using a screwdriver to pry lids off cans, to dig weeds from the garden, and to
chisel masonry, it may soon stop functioning as a screwdriver. Although engineers try
to design products that are “people proof,” the types of failures that engineers take
primary responsibility for are those caused by various types of errors during the design
phase. After all, engineering is a human enterprise, and humans make mistakes.
Whether we like it or not, failure is part of engineering. It is part of the design pro-
cess. When engineers design a new product, it seldom works exactly as expected the first
time. Mechanical components may not fit properly, electrical components may be con-
nected incorrectly, software glitches may occur, or materials may be incompatible. The
list of potential causes of failure is long, and the cause of a specific failure in a design is
probably unexpected because otherwise the design engineer would have accounted for
it. Failure will always be part of engineering, because engineers cannot anticipate every
mechanism by which failures can occur. Engineers should make a concerted effort to
design systems that do not fail. If failures do arise, ideally they are revealed during the
design phase and can be corrected before the product goes into service. One of the
hallmarks of a good design engineer is one who turns failure into success.
The role of analysis in engineering failure is twofold. First, as discussed
earlier, analysis is a crucial part of engineering design. It is one of the main decision-
making tools the design engineer uses to explore alternatives. Analysis helps estab-
lish the functionality of the design. Analysis may therefore be regarded as a failure
prevention tool. People expect kitchen appliances, automobiles, airplanes, televi-
sions, and other systems to work as they are supposed to work, so engineers make
every reasonable attempt to design products that are reliable. As part of the design
phase, engineers use analysis to ascertain what the physical characteristics of the
system must be in order to prevent system failure within a specified period of time.
Do engineers ever design products to fail on purpose? Surprisingly, the answer is
yes. Some devices rely on failure for their proper operation. For example, a fuse
 1.3 Analysis and Engineering Failure 9

“fails” when the electrical current flowing through it exceeds a specified amperage.
When this amperage is exceeded, a metallic element in the fuse melts, breaking the
circuit, thereby protecting personnel or a piece of electrical equipment. Shear pins
in transmission systems protect shafts, gears, and other components when the shear
force exceeds a certain value. Some utility poles and highway signs are designed to
safely break away when struck by an automobile.
The second role of failure analysis in engineering pertains to situations where
design flaws escaped detection during the design phase, only to reveal themselves
after the product was placed into service. In this role, analysis is utilized to address the
questions “Why did the failure occur?” and “How can it be avoided in the future?”
This type of detective work in engineering is sometimes referred to as forensic engineer-
ing. In failure investigations, analysis is used as a diagnostic tool of reevaluation and
reconstruction. Following the explosion of the Space Shuttle Challenger in 1986, engi-
neers at Thiokol used analysis (and testing) to reevaluate the joint design of the solid
rocket boosters. Their analyses and tests showed that, under the unusually cold con-
ditions on the day of launch, the rubber O-rings responsible for maintaining a seal
between the segments of one of the solid rocket boosters lost resiliency and therefore
the ability to contain the high-pressure gases inside the booster. Hot gases leaking
past the O-rings developed into an impinging jet directed against the external (liquid
hydrogen) tank and a lower strut attaching the booster to the external tank. Within
seconds, the entire aft dome of the tank fell away, releasing massive amounts of liquid
hydrogen. Challenger was immediately enveloped in the explosive burn, destroying
the vehicle and killing all seven astronauts. In the aftermath of the Challenger disaster,
engineers used analysis extensively to redesign the solid rocket booster joint.

FAILURE OF THE TACOMA NARROWS BRIDGE

The collapse of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge was one of the most sensational failures in
APPLICATION

the history of engineering. This suspension bridge was the first of its kind spanning the
Puget Sound, connecting Washington State with the Olympic Peninsula. Compared
with existing suspension bridges, the Tacoma Narrows Bridge had an unconventional
design. It had a narrow two-lane deck, and the stiffened-girder road structure was
not very deep. This unusual design gave the bridge a slender, graceful appearance.
Although the bridge was visually appealing, it had a problem: it oscillated in the wind.
During the four months following its opening to traffic on July 1, 1940, the bridge
earned the nickname “Galloping Gertie” from motorists who felt as though they were
riding a giant roller coaster as they crossed the 2800-ft center span. (See Figure 1.3.)
The design engineers failed to recognize that their bridge might behave more like the
wing of an airplane subjected to severe turbulence than an earth-bound structure sub-
jected to a steady load. The engineers’ failure to consider the aerodynamic aspects of
the design led to the destruction of the bridge on November 7, 1940, during a 42-mile-
per-hour wind storm. (See Figure 1.4.) Fortunately, no people were injured or killed.
A newspaper editor, who lost control of his car between the towers due to the violent
undulations, managed to stumble and crawl his way to safety, only to look back to see
the road rip away from the suspension cables and plunge, along with his car and pre-
sumably his dog, which he could not save, into the Narrows below.
Even as the bridge was being torn apart by the windstorm, engineers were testing
a scale model of the bridge at the University of Washington in an attempt to under-
stand the problem. Within a few days following the bridge’s demise, Theodore von
Karman, a world renowned fluid dynamicist, who worked at the California Institute of
10 Chapter 1 The Role of Analysis in Engineering

Figure 1.3
The Tacoma Narrows Bridge twisting in the wind. (AP Images)

Figure 1.4
The center span of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge plunges into Puget Sound. (AP Images)
 1.3 Analysis and Engineering Failure 11

Technology, submitted a letter to Engineering News-Record outlining an aerodynamic

analysis of the bridge. In the analysis, he used a differential equation for an idealized
bridge deck twisting like an airplane wing as the lift forces of the wind tend to twist the
deck one way, while the steel in the bridge tends to twist it in another way. His analysis
showed that the Tacoma Narrows Bridge should indeed have exhibited an aerody-
namic instability more pronounced than any existing suspension bridge. Remarkably,
von Karman’s “back of the envelope” calculations predicted dangerous levels of vibra-
tion for a wind speed less than 10 miles per hour over the wind speed measured on
the morning of November 7, 1940. The dramatic failure of Galloping Gertie forever es-
tablished the importance of aerodynamic analysis in the design of suspension bridges.
The bridge was eventually redesigned with a deeper and stiffer open-truss struc-
ture that allowed the wind to pass through. The new and safer Tacoma Narrows
Bridge was opened on October 14, 1950.

PROFESSIONAL SUCCESS—LEARN
FROM FAILURE
The Tacoma Narrows Bridge and countless other engineering failures teach
engineers a valuable lesson:
Learn from your own failures and the failures of other engineers.
Unfortunately, the designers of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge did not learn
from the failures of others. Had they studied the history of suspension bridges
dating back to the early nineteenth century, they would have discovered that
10 suspension bridges suffered severe damage or destruction by winds.
NASA and Thiokol learned that the pressure-seal design in the solid rocket-
booster joint of the Space Shuttle Challenger was overly sensitive to a variety of
factors such as temperature, physical dimensions, reusability, and joint loading.
Not only did they learn some hard-core technical lessons, they also learned some
lessons in engineering judgment. They learned that the decision-making pro-
cess culminating in the launch of Challenger was flawed. To correct both types of
errors, during the two-year period following the Challenger catastrophe, the joint
was redesigned, additional safety-related measures were implemented, and the
decision-making process leading to shuttle launches was improved.
In another catastrophic failure, NASA determined that fragments of in-
sulation that broke away from the external fuel tank during the launch of
the Space Shuttle Columbia impacted the left wing of the vehicle, severely
damaging the wing’s leading edge. The damage caused a breach in the wing’s
surface which, upon reentry of Columbia, precipitated a gradual burn-through
of the wing, resulting in a loss of vehicle control. Columbia broke apart over
the southwestern part of the United States, killing all seven astronauts aboard.
If we are to learn from engineering failures, the history of engineering
becomes as relevant to our education as design, analysis, science, mathemat-
ics, and the liberal arts. Lessons learned not only from our own experiences,
but also from those who have gone before us, contribute enormously to the
improvement of our technology and the advancement of engineering as a
profession. Errors in judgment made by Roman and Egyptian engineers are
still relevent in modern times, notwithstanding a greatly improved chest of
scientific and mathematical tools. Engineers have and will continue to make
mistakes. We should learn from these mistakes.
12 Chapter 1 The Role of Analysis in Engineering

KEY TERMS

analysis engineering design modeling

basic mathematics failure physical sciences
engineering analysis higher level mathematics

REFERENCES

Adams, J.L., Flying Buttresses, Entropy and O-rings: The World of an Engineer, Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press, 1993.
Horenstein, M.N., Design Concepts for Engineers, 5th ed., Hoboken, NJ: Pearson, 2016.
Hsu, T., Applied Engineering Analysis, Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2018.
Kosky, P., R.T. Balmer, W.D. Keat, and G. Wise, Exploring Engineering: An Introduction
to Engineering and Design, 4th ed., Cambridge, MA: Academic Press, 2015.
Petroski, H., Pushing the Limits: New Adventures in Engineering, New York, NY: Knopf
Publishing Group, 2004.
Petroski, H., Small Things Considered: Why There Is No Perfect Design, New York, NY:
Random House Publishing Group, 2004.
Petroski, H., Success Through Failure: The Paradox of Design, Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press, 2006.
Petroski, H., The Evolution of Useful Things, New York: Knopf Publishing Group, 1994.
Petroski, H., To Engineer Is Human: The Role of Failure in Successful Design, New York,
NY: Vintage Books, 1992.
Petroski, H., To Forgive Design: Understanding Failure, Boston, MA: Harvard University
Press, 2012.

PROBLEMS

Analysis and engineering design

1.1 The following basic devices are commonly found in a typical home or office.
Discuss how analysis might be used to design these items.
a. tape dispenser n. stapler
b. scissors o. can opener
c. fork p. flashlight
d. mechanical pencil q. kitchen sink
e. door hinge r. electrical outlet
f. refrigerator s. soft drink can
g. toilet t. toaster
h. incandescent light bulb u. screwdriver
i. microwave oven v. chair
j. waste basket w. table
k. three-ring binder x. mailbox
l. light switch y. drawer slide
m. doorknob z. padlock
 Problems 13

1.2 A 1-m-long cantilevered beam of rectangular cross section carries a uniform

load of w = 15 kN/m. The design specification calls for a 5-mm maximum
deflection of the end of the beam. The beam is to be constructed of fir
(E = 13 GPa). By analysis, determine at least five combinations of beam
height h and beam width b that meet the specification. Use the equation
wL4
ymax =
8EI

where
ymax = deflection of end of beam (m)
w = uniform loading (N/m)
L = beam length (m)
E = modulus of elasticity of beam (Pa)
I = bh 3 /12 = moment of inertia of beam cross section (m4 ).
Note: 1 Pa = 1 N/m2 , 1 kN = 103 N, and 1 GPa = 109 Pa.
What design conclusions can you draw about the influence of beam height
and width on the maximum deflection? Is the deflection more sensitive to
h or b? If the beam were constructed of a different material, how would the
deflection change? See Figure P1.2 for an illustration of the beam.

Figure P1.2
w

Analysis and engineering failure

1.3 Identify a device from your own experience that has failed. Discuss how it
failed and how analysis might be used to redesign it.
1.4 Research the following notable engineering failures. Discuss how analysis
was used or could have been used to investigate the failure.
a. Dee bridge, England, 1847
b. Boiler explosions, North America, 1870–1910
c. Titanic, North Atlantic, 1912
d. Hindenburg airship, New Jersey, 1937
e. Apollo I capsule fire, Cape Canaveral, Florida, 1967
f. Apollo 13, 1970
g. Ford Pinto gas tanks, 1970s
h. Teton dam, Idaho, 1976
14 Chapter 1 The Role of Analysis in Engineering

i. Hartford Civic Center, Connecticut, 1978

j. Skylab, 1979
k. Three Mile Island nuclear power plant, Pennsylvania, 1979
l. American Airlines DC-10, Chicago, 1979
m. Hyatt Hotel, Kansas City, 1981
n. Union Carbide plant, India, 1984
o. Space shuttle Challenger, 1986
p. Chernobyl nuclear power plant, Soviet Union, 1986
q. Highway I-880, Loma Prieta, California earthquake, 1989
r. Green Bank radio telescope, West Virginia, 1989
s. Hubble space telescope, 1990
t. ValuJet Airlines DC-9, Miami, 1996
u. Mars Climate Orbiter, 1999
v. Space shuttle Columbia, 2003
w. Levees, New Orleands, Louisiana, 2005
x. BP oil spill, Gulf of Mexico, 2010
y. Nuclear power plant, Okuma, Fukushima, Japan, 2011
z. Florida International University pedestrian bridge collapse, Sweetwater,
Florida, 2018
2
CHAPTER

Dimensions
and Units
Objectives
After reading this chapter, you • Rules for proper usage of
will have learned English units
• How to check equations for • The difference between
dimensional consistency mass and weight
• The physical standards on • How to do unit conversions
which units are based between the SI and English
• Rules for proper usage of unit systems
SI units

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Suppose for a moment that someone asks you to hurry to the grocery store to buy
a few items for tonight’s dinner. You get in your car, turn the ignition on, and drive
down the road. Immediately you notice something strange. There are no numbers or
divisions on your speedometer! As you accelerate and decelerate, the speedometer in-
dicator changes position, but you do not know your speed because there are no mark-
ings to read. Bewildered, you notice that the speed limit and other road signs between
your house and the store also lack numerical information. Realizing that you were
instructed to arrive home with the groceries by 6 pm, you glance at your digital watch
only to discover that the display is blank. Upon arriving at the store, you check your
list: 1 pound of lean ground beef, 4 ounces of fresh mushrooms, and a 12-ounce can
of tomato paste. You go to the meat counter first but the label on each package does
not indicate the weight of the product. You grab what appears to be a 1-pound pack-
age and proceed to the produce section. Scooping up a bunch of mushrooms, you
place them on the scale to weigh them, but the scale looks like your speedometer—it
has no markings either! Once again, you estimate. One item is left: the tomato paste.
The canned goods aisle contains many cans, but the labels on the cans have no nu-
merical information—no weight, no volume, nothing to let you know the amount of
tomato paste in the can. You make your purchase, drive home, and deliver the items
mystified and shaken by the whole experience.
16 Chapter 2 Dimensions and Units

The preceding Twilight Zone-like story is, of course, fictitious, but it dramati-
cally illustrates how strange our world would be without measures of physical
quantities. Speed is a physical quantity that is measured by the speedometers in
our automobiles and the radar gun of a traffic officer. Time is a physical quan-
tity that is measured by the watch on our wrist and the clock on the wall. Weight
is a physical quantity that is measured by the scale in the grocery store or at
the health spa. The need for measurement was recognized by the ancients, who
based standards of length on the breadth of the hand or palm, the length of the
foot, or the distance from the elbow to the tip of the middle finger (referred to
as a cubit). Such measurement standards were both changeable and perishable
because they were based on human dimensions. In modern times, definite and
unchanging standards of measurement have been adopted to help us quantify
the physical world. These measurement standards are used by engineers and sci-
entists to analyze physical phenomena by applying the laws of nature such as
conservation of energy, the laws of thermodynamics, and the law of universal
gravitation. As engineers design new products and processes by utilizing these
laws, they use dimensions and units to describe the physical quantities involved.
For instance, the design of a bridge primarily involves the dimensions of length
and force. The units used to express the magnitudes of these quantities are usu-
ally either the meter and newton or the foot and pound. The thermal design of
a boiler primarily involves the dimensions of pressure, temperature, and heat
transfer, which are expressed in units of pascal, degrees Celsius, and watt, respec-
tively. Dimensions and units are as important to engineers as the physical laws
they describe. It is vitally important that engineering students learn how to work
with dimensions and units. Without dimensions and units, analyses of engineer-
ing systems have little meaning.

2.2 DIMENSIONS
To most people, the term dimension denotes a measurement of length. Certainly,
length is one type of dimension, but the term dimension has a broader meaning. A
dimension is a physical variable that is used to describe or specify the nature of a measurable
quantity. For example, the mass of a gear in a machine is a dimension of the gear.
Obviously, the diameter is also a dimension of the gear. The compressive force in
a concrete column holding up a bridge is a structural dimension of the column.
The pressure and temperature of a liquid in a hydraulic cylinder are thermody-
namic dimensions of the liquid. The velocity of a space probe orbiting a distant
planet is also a dimension. Many other examples could be given. Any variable that
engineers use to specify a physical quantity is, in the general sense, a dimension of
the physical quantity. Hence, there are as many dimensions as there are physical
quantities. Engineers always use dimensions in their analytical and experimental
work. In order to specify a dimension fully, two characteristics must be given. First,
the numerical value of the dimension is required. Second, the appropriate unit must
be assigned. A dimension missing either of these two elements is incomplete and
therefore cannot be fully used by the engineer. If the diameter of a gear is given
as 3.85, we would ask the question, “3.85 what? Inches? Meters?” Similarly, if the
compressive force in a concrete column is given as 150,000, we would ask, “150,000
what? Newtons? Pounds?”
Dimensions are categorized as either base or derived. A base dimension, some-
times referred to as a fundamental dimension, is a dimension that has been in-
ternationally accepted as the most basic dimension of a physical quantity. There
 2.2 Dimensions 17

are seven base dimensions that have been formally defined for use in science and
engineering:
1. length L
2. mass M
3. time t
4. temperature T
5. electric current I
6. amount of substance n
7. luminous intensity i.
A derived dimension is obtained by any combination of the base dimensions. For
example, volume is length cubed, density is mass divided by length cubed, and ve-
locity is length divided by time. Obviously, there are numerous derived dimensions.
Table 2.1 lists some of the most commonly used derived dimensions in engineering,
expressed in terms of base dimensions.
The single letters in Table 2.1 are symbols that designate each base dimension.
These symbols are useful for checking the dimensional consistency of equations.
Every mathematical relation used in science and engineering must be dimensionally
consistent, or dimensionally homogeneous. This means that the dimension on the left
side of the equal sign must be the same as the dimension on the right side of the

Table 2.1 Derived Dimensions Expressed in Terms of Base Dimensions

Quantity Variable Name Base Dimensions

Area A L2

Volume V L3

Velocity v Lt−1

Acceleration a Lt−2

Density ρ ML−3

Force F MLt−2

Pressure P ML−1t−2

Stress σ ML−1t−2

Energy E ML2t−2

Work W ML2t−2

Power P ML2t−3

Mass flow rate m Mt−1

Specific heat c L2t−2T−1

Dynamic viscosity µ ML−1t−1

Molar mass M Mn−1

Voltage V ML2t−3T−1

Resistance R ML2t−3T−2
18 Chapter 2 Dimensions and Units

equal sign. The equality in any equation denotes not only a numerical equivalency
but also a dimensional equivalency. To use a simple analogy, you cannot say that five
apples equals four apples, nor can you say that five apples equals five oranges. You
can only say that five apples equals five apples.
The following examples illustrate the concept of dimensional consistency.

EXAMPLE 2.1
Dynamics is a branch of engineering mechanics that deals with the motion of par-
ticles and rigid bodies. The straight-line motion of a particle, under the influence
of gravity, may be analyzed by using the equation
1 2
y = y0 + υ0t − gt
2
where
y = height of particle at time t
y0 = initial height of particle (at t = 0)
υ0 = initial velocity of particle (at t = 0)
t = time
g = gravitational acceleration.
Verify that this equation is dimensionally consistent.

Solution
We check the dimensional consistency of the equation by determining the dimen-
sions on both sides of the equal sign. The heights, y0 and y, are one-dimensional
coordinates of the particle, so these quantities have a dimension of length L. The
initial velocity υ0 is a derived dimension consisting of a length L divided by a time t.
Gravitational acceleration g is also a derived dimension consisting of a length L,
divided by time squared t 2 . Of course, time t is a base dimension. Writing the
equation in its dimensional form, we have
L = L + Lt−1t − Lt−2t 2 .
Note that the factor, 1 2 , in front of the gt 2 term is a pure number, and therefore
has no dimension. In the second term on the right side of the equal sign, the di-
mension t cancels, leaving length L. Similarly, in the third term on the right side of
the equal sign, the dimension t 2 cancels, leaving length L. This equation is dimen-
sionally consistent because all terms have the dimension of length L.

EXAMPLE 2.2
Aerodynamics is the study of forces acting on bodies moving through air. An aero-
dynamics analysis could be used to determine the lift force on an airplane wing
or the drag force on an automobile. A commonly used equation in aerodynamics
relates the total drag force acting on a body to the velocity of the air approaching
it. This equation is
1
FD = C D AρU 2
2
 2.2 Dimensions 19

where
FD = drag force
C D = drag coefficient
A = frontal area of body
ρ = air density
U = upstream air velocity.
Determine the dimensions of the drag coefficient, C D .

Solution
The dimension of the drag coefficient C D may be found by writing the equation
in dimensional form and simplifying the equation by combining like dimensions.
Using the information in Table 2.1, we write the dimensional equation as

MLt−2 = C D L2ML−3 L2t−2

= C D MLt −2 .

Compare the combination of base dimensions on the left and right sides of the
equal sign. They are identical. This can only mean that the drag coefficient C D has
no dimension. If it did, the equation would not be dimensionally consistent. Thus,
we say that C D is dimensionless. In other words, the drag coefficient C D has a numeri-
cal value, but no dimensional value. This is not as strange as it may sound. In engi-
neering, there are many instances, particularly, in the disciplines of fluid mechanics
and heat transfer, where a physical quantity is dimensionless. Dimensionless quan-
tities enable engineers to form special ratios that reveal certain physical insights
into properties and processes. In this instance, the drag coefficient is physically in-
terpreted as a “shear stress” at the surface of the body, which means that there is
an aerodynamic force acting on the body parallel to its surface that tends to retard
the body’s motion through the air. If you take a course in fluid mechanics, you will
learn more about this important concept.

EXAMPLE 2.3
For the following dimensional equation, find the dimensions of the quantity k:

MLt−2 = k Lt.

Solution
To find the dimensions of k, we multiply both sides of the equation by L−1t−1 to
eliminate the dimensions on the right side of the equation, leaving k by itself. Thus,
we obtain
MLt−2 L−1t−1 = k

which, after applying a law of exponents, reduces to

Mt−3 = k .
20 Chapter 2 Dimensions and Units

A closer examination of the given dimensional equation reveals that it is Newton’s

second law of motion:
F = ma .

Here F is force, m is mass, and a is acceleration. Referring to Table 2.1, force has
dimensions of MLt−2 , which is a mass M multiplied by acceleration Lt−2 .

PRACTICE!

1. For the following dimensional equation, find the base dimensions of

the parameter k:
ML2 = k LtM2 .

Answer : LM−1t−1.
2. For the following dimensional equation, find the base dimensions of
the parameter g :
T−1tL = g L−2 .

Answer : L3tT−1.
3. For the following dimensional equation, find the base dimensions of
the parameter h:
It−1h = N.

Answer : NI−1t.
4. For the following dimensional equation, find the base dimensions of
the parameter f :
MM−3 = a cos( f L).

Answer : L−1.
5. For the following dimensional equation, find the base dimensions of
the parameter p:
T = T log(T−2t p ).

Answer : T2t−1.

2.3 UNITS
A unit is a standard measure of the magnitude of a dimension. For example, the
dimension length L may be expressed in units of meter (m), feet (ft), mile (mi),
millimeter (mm), and many others. The dimension temperature T is expressed
in units of degrees Celsius (°C), degrees Fahrenheit (°F), degrees Rankine (°R),
 2.3 Units 21

or kelvin (K). (By convention, the degree symbol (°) is not used for the Kelvin
temperature scale.) In the United States, there are two unit systems commonly in
use. The first unit system, and the one that is internationally accepted as the stan-
dard, is the SI (System International d’Unites) unit system, commonly referred to
as the metric system. The second unit system is the English (or British) unit system,
sometimes referred to as the United States Customary System (USCS). With the excep-
tion of the United States, most of the industrialized nations of the world use the
SI system exclusively. The SI system is preferred over the English system, because
it is an internationally accepted standard and is based on simple powers of 10. To
a limited extent, a transition to the SI system has been federally mandated in the
United States. Unfortunately, this transition to total SI usage has been a slow one,
but many American companies are using the SI system to remain internationally
competitive. Until the United States makes a complete adaptation to the SI system,
U.S. engineering students need to be conversant in both unit systems and know
how to make unit conversions.
The seven base dimensions are expressed in terms of SI units that are based
on physical standards. These standards are defined such that, the corresponding
SI units, except the mass unit, can be reproduced in a laboratory anywhere in the
world. The reproducibility of these standards is important, because everyone with a
suitably equipped laboratory has access to the same standards. Hence, all physical
quantities, regardless of where in the world they are measured, are based on identi-
cal standards. This universality of physical standards eliminates the ancient prob-
lem of basing dimensions on the changing physical attributes of kings, rulers, and
magistrates who reigned for a finite time. Modern standards are based on constants
of nature and physical attributes of matter and energy.
The seven base dimensions and their associated SI units are summarized in
Table 2.2. Note the symbol for each unit. These symbols are the accepted conven-
tions for science and engineering. The discussion that follows outlines the physical
standards by which the base units are defined.

Length
The unit of length in the SI system is the meter (m). As illustrated in Figure 2.1, the
meter is defined as the distance traveled by light in a vacuum, during a time inter-
val of 1/299,792,458 s. The definition is based on a physical standard, the speed of
light in a vacuum. The speed of light in a vacuum is 299,792,458 m/s. Thus, light
travels one meter during a time interval of the reciprocal of this number. Of course,
the unit of time, the second (s), is itself a base unit.

Table 2.2 Base Dimensions and Their SI Units

Quantity Unit Symbol

Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Temperature kelvin K
Electric current ampere A
Amount of substance mole mol
Luminous intensity candela cd
22 Chapter 2 Dimensions and Units

Figure 2.1 1
t5 s
The physical standard for 299,792,458
the meter is based on the
speed of light in a vacuum.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
1 meter

Mass
Prior to 2019, mass was the only base dimension that was defined by an artifact, a cylin-
der of platinum-iridium alloy maintained by the International Bureau of Weights and
Measures in Paris, France. Because an artifact is not as easily reproduced as the other
laboratory-based standards, the kilogram (kg) has been redefined in terms of the Planck
constant, one of the fundamental constants in quantum physics. The Planck constant,
denoted by the symbol h, has been set by the international scientific community as ex-
actly 6.62607015 × 10−34 J · s. The Planck constant can be used to define mass because
the unit joule (J), when broken into its base units, contains the mass unit kilogram.

Time
The unit of time in the SI system is the second (s). The second is defined as the
duration of 9,192,631,770 cycles of radiation of the cesium atom. An atomic clock
incorporating this standard is maintained by NIST. (See Figure 2.2.)

Temperature
The unit of temperature in the SI system is the kelvin (K). The kelvin is defined
as the fraction 1/273.16 of the temperature of the triple point of water. The triple
point of water is the combination of pressure and temperature at which water exists
as a solid, liquid, and gas at the same time. (See Figure 2.3.) This temperature is
273.16 K, 0.01°C, or 32.002°F. Absolute zero is the temperature at which all molecu-
lar activity ceases and has a value of 0 K.

Electric Current
The unit of electric current in the SI system is the ampere (A). As shown in
Figure 2.4, the ampere is defined as the steady current, which, if maintained in

Figure 2.2
The NIST-F2 cesium foun-
tain atomic clock keeps
time to an accuracy of
one second in 300 million
years. (Source: National
Institute of Standards and
Technology, Boulder, CO.)
 2.3 Units 23

Figure 2.3
A phase diagram for water
shows the triple point on
which the kelvin tempera-
ture standard is based.

Pressure (atm)
Liquid

0.006
Triple point
Solid

Gas

273.16
Temperature (K)

Figure 2.4 1A
The standard for the
ampere is based on the
electrical force produced
Wires 1m Force 5 2 3 1027 N
between two parallel wires,
each carrying 1 A, located
1 m apart.
1m 1A

two straight parallel wires of infinite length and negligible circular cross section
and placed one meter apart in a vacuum, produces a force of 2 × 10−7 newton
per meter of wire length. Using Ohm’s law, I = V/R , one ampere may also be
denoted as the current that flows when one volt is applied across a 1-ohm resistor.

Amount of Substance
The unit used to denote the amount of substance is the mole (mol). One mole con-
tains the same number of elements as there are atoms in 0.012 kg of carbon-12. This
number is called Avogadro’s number and has a value of approximately 6.022 × 1023.
(See Figure 2.5.)

Luminous Intensity
The unit for luminous intensity is the candela (cd). As illustrated in Figure 2.6, one
candela is the luminous intensity of a source emitting light radiation at a frequency

Figure 2.5
A mole of gas molecules
in a piston-cylinder device
contains 6.022 × 1023
molecules.
Gas molecules
24 Chapter 2 Dimensions and Units

Figure 2.6
The candela standard for
luminous intensity. 1
W
638
1 steradian

540 3 1012 Hz
Light source

Sphere

Table 2.3 Supplementary Dimensions

Quantity Unit Symbol

Plane angle radian rad

Solid angle steradian sr

of 540 × 1012 Hz, that provides a power of 1/683 watt (W) per steradian. A stera-
dian is a solid angle, which, having its vertex in the center of a sphere, subtends
(cuts off) an area of the sphere equal to that of a square with sides of length equal
to the radius of the sphere.
The unit for luminous intensity, the candela, utilizes the steradian, a dimen-
sion that may be unfamiliar to most students. The radian and steradian are called
supplementary dimensions. These quantities, summarized in Table 2.3, refer to plane
and solid angles, respectively. The radian is frequently used in engineering, and
it is defined as the plane angle between two radii of a circle that subtends on the
circumference of an arc equal in length to the radius. From trigonometry, you may
recall that there are 2π radians in a circle (i.e., 2π radians equals 360°). Thus, one
radian equals approximately 57.3°. The steradian, defined earlier, is used primarily
for expressing radiation quantities such as light intensity and other electromagnetic
parameters. These units appear dimensionless in measurements.

2.4 SI UNITS
Throughout the civilized world there are thousands of engineering companies that
design and manufacture products for the benefit of society. The international buy-
ing and selling of these products is an integral part of a global network of industrial-
ized countries, and the economic health of these countries, including the United
States, depends to a large extent on international trade. Industries such as the au-
tomotive and electronics industries are heavily involved in international trade, so
these industries have readily embraced the SI unit system in order to be economi-
cally competitive. The general adoption of the SI unit system by U.S. companies
has been slow, but global economic imperatives are driving them to fall into step
with the other industrialized nations of the world. SI units are now commonplace
on food and beverage containers, gasoline pumps, and automobile speedometers.
 2.4 SI Units 25

The SI unit system is the internationally accepted standard. In the United States,
however, the English unit system is still widely used. Perhaps it is only a matter of
time before all U.S. companies use SI units exclusively. Until that time, the burden
is upon you, the engineering student, to learn both unit systems. You will gladly
discover, however, that most engineering textbooks emphasize SI units, but provide
a list of unit conversions between the SI and English systems.
Table 2.2 summarizes the seven base dimensions and their SI units, and Table
2.3 summarizes the supplementary dimensions and their units. Derived dimensions
consist of a combination of base and supplementary dimensions. Sometimes, the
units of a derived dimension are given a specific name. For example, the derived
dimension force consists of the SI base units kg ⋅ m ⋅ s−2 . This combination of SI base
units is called a newton and is abbreviated N. Note that the unit name, in honor of
Isaac Newton, is not capitalized when spelled out as a unit name. The same rule ap-
plies to other units named after people such as hertz (Hz), kelvin (K), and pascal
(Pa). Another example is the joule, the SI unit for energy, work, and heat. The joule
unit is abbreviated J and consists of the SI base units kg ⋅ m2 ⋅ s−2 . A summary of the
most commonly used SI derived dimensions and the corresponding SI unit names
is given in Table 2.4.
Most derived dimensions do not have specific SI unit names, but their units
may contain specific SI unit names. For example, the dimension mass flow rate is
the mass of a fluid that flows past a point in a given time. The SI units for mass flow
rate are kg ⋅ s−1, which we state as “kilograms per second.” Note that units that
are located in the denominator, that is, those that have a negative sign on their
exponent, may also be written using a divisor line. Thus, the units for mass flow
rate may be written as kg/s. Caution must be exercised, however, when utilizing
this type of notation for some units. For example, the SI units for thermal conduc-
tivity, a quantity used in heat transfer, are W ⋅ m−1 ⋅ K −1. How do we write these

Table 2.4 Derived Dimensions and SI Units with Specific Names

Quantity SI Unit Unit Name Base Units

Frequency Hz hertz s−1

Force N newton kg ⋅ m ⋅ s−2

Pressure Pa pascal kg ⋅ m−1 ⋅ s−2

Stress Pa pascal kg ⋅ m−1 ⋅ s−2

Energy J joule kg ⋅ m2 ⋅ s−2

Work J joule kg ⋅ m2 ⋅ s−2

Heat J joule kg ⋅ m2 ⋅ s−2

Power W watt kg ⋅ m2 ⋅ s−3

Electric charge C coulomb A⋅s

Electric potential
(voltage) V volt kg ⋅ m2 ⋅ s−3 ⋅ A−1

Electric resistance Ω ohm kg ⋅ m2 ⋅ s−3 ⋅ A−2

Magnetic flux Wb weber kg−1 ⋅ m ⋅ s−2 ⋅ A−1

Luminous flux lm lumen cd ⋅ sr

26 Chapter 2 Dimensions and Units

units with a divisor line? Do we write these units as W/m/K? How about W/m ⋅ K ?
Either choice can cause some confusion. Does a “watt per meter per kelvin” mean
that the kelvin unit is inverted twice and therefore goes above the divisor line?
One glance at the units written as W ⋅ m−1 ⋅ K −1 tells us that the temperature unit
belongs “downstairs” because K has a negative exponent. If the kelvin unit were
placed above the divisor line, and the thermal conductivity were used in an equa-
tion, a dimensional inconsistency would result. The second choice requires agree-
ing that multiplication takes precedence over division. Because the meter and
kelvin units are located to the right of the divisor line and they are separated by a
dot, both units are interpreted as being in the denominator. But to avoid all am-
biguity, parentheses are used to group units above or below the divisor line. Units
for thermal conductivity would then be written as W/(m ⋅ K). In any case, a dot or
a dash should always be placed between adjacent units to separate them regardless
of whether the units are above or below the divisor line. Some derived dimensions
and their SI units are given in Table 2.5.
When a physical quantity has a numerical value that is very large or very small, it
is cumbersome to write the number in standard decimal form. The general practice
in engineering is to express numerical values between 0.1 and 1000 in standard dec-
imal form. If a value cannot be expressed within this range, a prefix should be used.
Because the SI unit system is based on powers of 10, it is more convenient to ex-
press such numbers by using prefixes. A prefix is a letter in front of a number that
denotes multiples of powers of 10. For example, if the internal force in an I-beam
is three million seven hundred and fifty thousand newtons, it would be awkward
to write this number as 3,750,000 N. It is preferred to write the force as 3.75MN,
which is stated as “3.75 mega newtons.” The prefix “M” denotes a multiple of a mil-
lion. Hence, 3.75 MN equals 3.75 × 106 N. Electrical current is a good example of
a quantity represented by a small number. Suppose the current flowing in a wire is
0.0082 A. This quantity would be expressed as 8.2 mA, which is stated as “8.2 mil-
liamperes.” The prefix “m” denotes a multiple of one-thousandth, or 1 × 10−3.
A term we often hear in connection with computers is the storage capacity of
hard disks. When personal computers first appeared in the early 1980s, most hard
disks could hold around 10 or 20 MB (megabytes) of information. Nowadays, the
typical storage capacity of a personal computer’s hard disk is on the order of TB
(terabytes). The standard prefixes for SI units are given in Table 2.6.
As indicated in Table 2.6, the most widely used SI prefixes for science and en-
gineering quantities come in multiples of one thousand. For example, stress and
pressure, which are generally large quantities for most structures and pressure ves-
sels, are normally expressed in units of kPa, MPa, or GPa. Frequencies of electro-
magnetic waves such as radio, television, and telecommunications are also large
numbers. Hence, they are generally expressed in units of kHz, MHz, or GHz.
Electrical currents, on the other hand, are often small quantities, so they are usu-
ally expressed in units of µA or mA. Because frequencies of most electromagnetic
waves are large quantities, the wavelengths of these waves are small. For example,
the wavelength range of the visible light region of the electromagnetic spectrum is
approximately 0.4 µm to 0.75 µm. It should be noted that the SI mass unit kilogram
(kg) is the only base unit that has a prefix.
Here are some rules on how to use SI units properly that every beginning engi-
neering student should know:
1. A unit symbol is never written as a plural with an “s.” If a unit is pluralized, the
“s” may be confused with the unit second (s).
 2.4 SI Units 27

Table 2.5 Derived Dimensions and SI Units

Quantity SI Units

Acceleration m ⋅ s−2

Angular acceleration rad ⋅ s−2

Angular velocity rad ⋅ s−1

Area m2

Concentration mol ⋅ m−3

Density kg ⋅ m−3

Electric field strength V ⋅ m−1

Energy N⋅m

Entropy J ⋅ k−1
Heat J
Heat transfer W

Magnetic field strength A ⋅ m−1

Mass flow rate kg ⋅ s−1

Moment of force N⋅m

Radiant intensity W ⋅ sr−1

Specific energy J ⋅ kg−1

Surface tension N ⋅ m−1

Thermal conductivity W ⋅ m−1 ⋅ K−1

Velocity m ⋅ s−1

Viscosity, dynamic Pa ⋅ s

Viscosity, kinematic m2 ⋅ s−1

Volume m3

Volume flow rate m3 ⋅ s−1

Wavelength m
Weight N

2. A period is never used after a unit symbol, unless the symbol is at the end of a
sentence.
3. Do not use invented unit symbols. For example, the unit symbol for “second”
is (s), not (sec), and the unit symbol for “ampere” is (A), not (amp).
4. A unit symbol is always written by using lowercase letters, with two exceptions.
The first exception applies to units named after people, such as the newton (N),
joule (J), and watt (W). The second exception applies to units with the prefixes
M, G, and T. (See Table 2.6.)
5. A quantity consisting of several units must be separated by dots or dashes to avoid
confusion with prefixes. For example, if a dot is not used to express the units of
“meter-second” (m ⋅ s), the units could be interpreted as “millisecond” (ms).
28 Chapter 2 Dimensions and Units

6. An exponential power for a unit with a prefix refers to both the prefix and the
unit; for example, ms2 = (ms)2 = ms ⋅ ms.
7. Do not use compound prefixes. For example, a “kilo MegaPascal” (kMPa)
should be written as GPa, because the product of “kilo” (103 ) and “mega” (106 )
equals “giga” (109 ).
8. Put a space between the numerical value and the unit symbol.
9. Do not put a space between a prefix and a unit symbol.
10. Do not use prefixes in the denominator of composite units. For example, the
units N/mm should be written as kN/m.
Table 2.7 provides some additional examples of these rules.

Table 2.6 Standard Prefixes for SI Units

Multiple Exponential Form Prefix Prefix Symbol

1,000,000,000,000,000 1015 peta P

1,000,000,000,000 1012 tera T

1,000,000,000 109 giga G

1,000,000 106 mega M

1000 103 kilo k

0.01 10−2 centi c

0.001 10−3 milli m

0.000 001 10−6 micro µ

0.000 000 001 10−9 nano n

0.000 000 000 001 10−12 pico p

0.000 000 000 000 001 10−15 femto f

Table 2.7 Correct and Incorrect Ways of Using SI Units

Correct Incorrect Rules

47.7 kg 47.7 kgs 1
1056 J 1056 Js 1
140 kPa 140 kPa. 2
1.25 A 1.25 Amps 1, 3
3.2 s 3.2 sec 3
60.0 kg 60.0 Kg 4
75 W 75 w. 2, 4
8.25 kg/m·s 8.25 kg/ms 5
550 GN 550 MkN 7
8 ms 8 kμs 7
430 Pa·s 430Pa·s 8
1.5 MΩ 1.5 M Ω 9
9 MN/m 9 N/μm 10
 2.4 SI Units 29

DERIVING FORMULAS FROM UNIT CONSIDERATIONS

To the beginning engineering student, it can seem as if there is an infinite number

APPLICATION
of formulas to learn. Formulas contain physical quantities that have numerical val-
ues plus units. Because formulas are written as equalities, formulas must be numeri-
cally and dimensionally equivalent across the equal sign. Can this feature be used
to help us derive formulas that we do not know or have forgotten? Suppose that we
want to know the mass of gasoline in an automobile’s gas tank. The tank has a vol-
ume of 70 L, and a handbook of fluid properties states that the density of gasoline
is 736 kg/m3 . (Note: 1 L = 10−3 m3 ). Thus, we write

ρ = 736 kg/m3 , V = 70 L = 0.070 m3 .

If the tank is completely filled with gasoline, what is the mass of the gasoline?
Suppose that we have forgotten that density is defined as mass per volume,
ρ = m/V . Because our answer will be a mass, the unit of our answer must be kilo-
gram (kg). Looking at the units of the input quantities, we see that if we multiply
density ρ by volume V, the volume unit (m3 ) divides out, leaving mass (kg). Hence,
the formula for mass in terms of ρ and V is
m = ρV

so the mass of gasoline is

m = (736 kg/m3 )(0.070 m3 ) = 51.5 kg.

PROFESSIONAL SUCCESS–USING SI UNITS IN EVERYDAY LIFE

The SI unit system is used commercially to a limited extent in the United
States, so the average person does not know the highway speed limit in
kilometers per hour, his or her weight in newtons, atmospheric pressure in
kilopascals, or the outdoor air temperature in kelvin or degrees Celsius. It
is ironic that the leading industrialized nation on earth has yet to embrace
this international standard. Admittedly, American beverage containers rou-
tinely show the volume of the liquid product in liters (L) or milliliters (mL),
gasoline pumps often show liters of gasoline delivered, speedometers may
indicate speed in kilometers per hour (km/h), and automobile tires indicate
the proper inflation pressure in kilopascals (kPa) on the sidewall. On each of
these products, and many others like them, a corresponding English unit is
written along side the SI unit. The beverage container shows pints or quarts,
the gasoline pump shows gallons, speedometers show miles per hour, and
tires show pounds per square inch. Dual labeling of SI and English units on
U.S. products are supposed to help people learn the SI system, “weaning”
them from the antiquated English system in anticipation of the time when
a full conversion to SI units occurs. This transition is analogous to the pro-
cess of incrementally quitting smoking. Rather than quitting “cold turkey,” we
employ nicotine patches, gums, and other substitutes until our habit is bro-
ken. So, you may ask, “Why don’t we make the total conversion now? Is it as
painful as quitting smoking suddenly?” It probably is. As you might guess, the
problem is largely an economic one. A complete conversion to SI units may
30 Chapter 2 Dimensions and Units

not occur until we are willing to pay the price in actual dollars. People could
learn the SI unit system fairly quickly if the conversion were done suddenly,
but an enormous financial commitment would have to be made.
As long as dual product labeling of units is employed in the United States,
most people will tend to ignore the SI unit and look only at the English unit,
the unit with which they are most familiar. In U.S. engineering schools, SI
units are emphasized. Therefore, the engineering student is not the average
person on the street who does not know, or know how to calculate, his or her
weight in newtons. So, what can engineering students in the United States do
to accelerate the conversion process? A good place to start is with yourself.
Start using SI units in your everyday life. When you make a purchase at the
grocery store, look only at the SI unit on the label. Learn by inspection how
many milliliters of liquid product are packaged in your favorite sized contain-
er. Abandon the use of inches, feet, yards, and miles as much as possible. How
many kilometers lie between your home and school? What is 65 miles per hour
in kilometers per hour? What is the mass of your automobile in kilograms?
Determine your height in meters, your mass in kilograms, and your weight
in newtons. How long is your arm in centimeters? What is your waist size in
centimeters? What is the current outdoor air temperature in degrees Celsius?
Most fast-food restaurants offer a “quarter pounder” on their menu. It turns
out that 1 N = 0.2248 lb, almost a quarter pound. On the next visit to your
favorite fast-food place, order a “newton burger” and fries. (See Figure 2.7.)

? I’ll have a newton burger,

large fries and a diet cola.

Figure 2.7
An engineering student orders lunch (art by Kathryn Colton).
 2.5 English Units 31

PRACTICE!

1. A structural engineer states that an I-beam in a truss has a design stress

of “five million, six hundred thousand pascals.” Write this stress, using
the appropriate SI unit prefix.
Answer: 5.6 MPa.
2. The power cord on an electric string trimmer carries a current of 5.2 A.
How many milliamperes is this? How many microamperes?
Answer: 5.2 × 103 mA, 5.2 × 106 µ A.
3. Write the pressure 7.2 GPa in scientific notation.
Answer: 7.2 × 109 Pa.
4. Write the voltage 0.000875 V, using the appropriate SI unit prefix.
Answer: 0.875 mV or 875 μV.
5. In the following list, various quantities are written using SI units incor-
rectly. Write the quantities, using the correct form of SI units.
a. 4.5 mw
b. 8.75 M pa
c. 200 Joules/sec
d. 20 W/m2 K
e. 3 Amps.
Answer:
a. 4.5 mW
b. 8.75 MPa
c. 200 J/s
d. 20 W/m2 ⋅ K
e. 3 A.

2.5 ENGLISH UNITS

The English unit system is known by various names. Sometimes it is referred to
as the United States Customary System (USCS), the British System or the Foot-
Pound-Second (FPS) system. The English unit system is still used extensively in
the United States even though the rest of the industrialized world, including Great
Britain, has adopted the SI unit system. English units have a long and colorful his-
tory. In ancient times, measures of length were based on human dimensions. The
foot started out as the actual length of a man’s foot. Because not all men were the
same size, the foot varied in length by as much as three or four inches. Once the
ancients started using feet and arms for measuring distance, it was only a matter of
time before they began using hands and fingers. The unit of length that we refer
to today as the inch was originally the width of a man’s thumb. The inch was also
once defined as the distance between the tip to the first joint of the forefinger.
Twelve times that distance made one foot. Three times the length of a foot was the
distance from the tip of a man’s nose to the end of his outstretched arm. This dis-
tance closely approximates what we refer to today as the yard. Two yards equaled a
32 Chapter 2 Dimensions and Units

fathom, which was defined as the distance across a man’s outstretched arms. Half
a yard was the 18-inch cubit, which was called a span. Half a span was referred to
as a hand.
The pound, which uses the symbol lb, is named after the ancient Roman unit
of weight called the libra. The British Empire retained this symbol into modern
times. Today, there are actually two kinds of pound units, one for mass and one for
weight and force. The first unit is called pound-mass (lbm ), and the second is called
pound-force (lb f ). Because mass and weight are not the same quantity, the units lb f
and lbm are different.
As discussed previously, the seven base dimensions are length, mass, time, tem-
perature, electric current, amount of substance, and luminous intensity. These base
dimensions, along with their corresponding English units, are given in Table 2.8.
As with SI units, English units are not capitalized. The slug, which has no abbrevi-
ated symbol, is the mass unit in the English system, but the pound-mass (lbm ) is
frequently used. Electric current is based on SI units of meter and newton, and lu-
minous intensity is based on SI units of watt. Hence, these two base dimensions do
not have English units per se, and these quantities are rarely used in combination
with other English units.
Recall that derived dimensions consist of a combination of base and supple-
mentary dimensions. Table 2.9 summarizes some common derived dimensions ex-
pressed in English units. Note that Table 2.9 is the English counterpart of the SI
version given by Table 2.5. The most notable English unit with a special name is
the British thermal unit (Btu), a unit of energy. One Btu is defined as the energy
required to change the temperature of 1 lbm of water at a temperature of 68°F by
1°F. One Btu is approximately the energy released by the complete burning of a
single kitchen match. The magnitudes of the kilojoule and Btu are almost equal
(1 Btu = 1.055 KJ). Unlike the kelvin (K), the temperature unit in the SI system, the
rankine (°R) employs a degree symbol as do the Celsius (°C) and Fahrenheit (°F)
units. The same rules for writing SI units apply for English units with one major
exception: prefixes are generally not used with English units. Thus, units such as kft
(kilo foot), Mslug (megaslug), and GBtu (gigaBtu) should not be used. Prefixes
are reserved for SI units. Two exceptions are the units ksi, which refers to a stress of
1000 psi (pounds per square inch), and kip, which is a special name for a force of
1000 lb f (pound-force).

Table 2.8 Base Dimensions and Their English Units

Quantity Unit Symbol

Length foot ft
Mass slug(1) slug
Time second s
Temperature rankine °R
Electric current ampere(2) A
Amount of substance mole mol
(2)
Luminous intensity candela cd
(1) The unit poind-mass (lbm) is also used. 1 slug = 32.174 lbm.
(2) There are no English units for electrical current and luminous inten-
sity. The SI units are given here for completeness only.
 2.5 English Units 33

Table 2.9 Derived Dimensions and English Units

Quantity English Units

Acceleration ft ⋅ s−2
Angular acceleration rad ⋅ s−2
Angular velocity rad ⋅ s−1
Area ft 2
Concentration mol ⋅ ft−3
Density slug ⋅ ft−3
Electric field strength V ⋅ ft−1
Energy Btu
Entropy Btu ⋅ slug−1 ⋅ °R−1
Force lbf
Heat Btu
Heat transfer Btu ⋅ s−1
Magnetic field strength A ⋅ ft−1
Mass flow rate slug ⋅ s−1
Moment of force lbf ⋅ ft
Radiant intensity Btu ⋅ s−1 ⋅ sr−1
Specific energy Btu ⋅ slug−1
Surface tension lbf ⋅ ft−1
Thermal conductivity Btu ⋅ s−1 ⋅ ft−1 ⋅ °R
Velocity ft ⋅ s−1
Viscosity, dynamic slug ⋅ ft−1 ⋅ s−1
Viscosity, kinematic ft 2 ⋅ s−1
Volume ft 3
Volume flow rate ft 3 ⋅ s−1
Wavelength ft

There are some non-SI units that are routinely used in the United States and
elsewhere. Table 2.10 summarizes some of these units and provides an equivalent
value in the SI system. The inch is a common length unit, being found on virtually
every student’s ruler and carpenter’s tape measure in the United States. There are
exactly 2.54 centimeters per inch. Inches are still used as the primary length unit
in many engineering companies. The yard is commonly used for measuring cloth,
carpets, and loads of concrete (cubic yards), as well as ball advancement on the
American football field. The ton is used in numerous industries, including ship-
ping, construction, and transportation. Time subdivisions on clocks are measured
34 Chapter 2 Dimensions and Units

Table 2.10 Non-SI Units Commonly Used in the United States

Quantity Unit Name Symbol SI Equivalent

Length inch in 0.0254 m(1)
yard yd 0.9144 m (36 in)
Mass metric ton t 1000 kg

short ton t 907.18kg (2000 lbm )

Time minute min 60 s
hour h 3600 s
day d 86,400 s
°
Plane angle degree π /180 rad

minute ’ π /10,800 rad

second ” π /648,000 rad

Volume liter L 10−3 m3

Land area hectare ha 10 4 m2

Energy electron-volt eV 1.602177 × 10−19 J

(1) Exact conversion.

in hours, minutes, and seconds. Radians and degrees are the most commonly
used units for plane angles, whereas minutes and seconds are primarily used in
navigational applications when referring to latitude and longitude on the earth’s
surface. The liter has made a lot of headway into the American culture, being
found on beverage and food containers and many gasoline pumps. Virtually every
American has seen the liter unit on a product, and many know that there are
about four liters in a gallon (actually, 1 gal = 3.7854 L ), but fewer people know
that 1000 L = 1 m3 .

2.6 MASS AND WEIGHT

The concepts of mass and weight are fundamental to the proper use of dimensions
and units in engineering analysis. Mass is one of the seven base dimensions used
in science and engineering. Mass is a base dimension because it cannot be broken
down into more fundamental dimensions. Mass is defined as a quantity of matter.
This simple definition of mass may be expanded by exploring its basic properties.
All matter possesses mass. The magnitude of a given mass is a measure of its resis-
tance to a change in velocity. This property of matter is called inertia. A large mass
offers more resistance to a change in velocity than a small mass, so a large mass
has a greater inertia than a small mass. Mass may be considered in another way.
Because all matter has mass, all matter exerts a gravitational attraction on other
matter. Shortly after formulating his three laws of motion, Sir Isaac Newton postu-
lated a law governing the gravitational attraction between two masses. Newton’s law
of universal gravitation is stated mathematically as

m1m2
F =G (2.1)
r2
 2.6 Mass and Weight 35

where
F = gravitational force between masses (N)
G = universal gravitational constant = 6.673 × 10−11 m3/kg ⋅ s2
m1 = mass of body 1 (kg)
m2 = mass of body 2 (kg)
r = distance between the centers of the two masses (m).
According to Equation (2.1), between any two masses there exists an attractive
gravitational force whose magnitude varies inversely as the square of the distance
between the masses. Because Newton’s law of universal gravitation applies to any
two masses, let’s apply Equation (2.1) to a body resting on the surface of the earth.
Accordingly, we let m1 = me , the mass of the earth, and m2 = m , the mass of the
body. The distance, r, between the body and the earth may be taken as the mean
radius of the earth, re . The quantities me and re have the approximate values

me = 5.979 × 1024 kg re = 6.378 × 106 m.

Thus, we have
me m
F =G
re 2

(6.673 × 10−11 m3/kg ⋅ s2 )(5.979 × 1024 kg)

= m
(6.378 × 106 m)2
= (9.808 m/s2 ) m.

We can see that upon substituting values, the term Gme /re 2 yields approximately
9.81 m/s2 , the standard acceleration of gravity on the earth’s surface. Redefining
this term as g, and letting F = W , we express the law of universal gravitation in a
special form as
W = mg (2.2)
where
W = weight of body (N)
m = mass of body (kg)
g = standard gravitational acceleration = 9.81 m/s2 .
This derivation clearly shows the difference between mass and weight. We may
therefore state the definition of weight as a gravitational force exerted on a body by the
earth. Because mass is defined as a quantity of matter, the mass of a body is indepen-
dent of its location in the universe. A body has the same mass whether it is located
on the earth, the moon, Mars, or in outer space. The weight of the body, however,
depends on its location. The mass of an 80 kg astronaut is the same whether or not
he is on earth or in orbit above the earth. The astronaut weighs approximately 785
N on the earth, but while in orbit he is “weightless.” His weight is zero while he or-
bits the earth, because he is continually “falling” toward earth. A similar weightless
or “zero-g” condition is experienced by a skydiver as he begins falling.
The greatest source of confusion about mass and weight to the beginning en-
gineering student is not the physical concept, but the units used to express each
quantity. To see how units of mass and weight relate to each other, we employ a
well-known scientific principle, Newton’s second law of motion. Newton’s second law
36 Chapter 2 Dimensions and Units

of motion states that a body of mass, m, acted upon by an unbalanced force, F, experiences
an acceleration, a, that has the same direction of the force and a magnitude that is directly
proportional to the force. Stated mathematically, this law is

F = ma (2.3)
where
F = force (N )
m = mass (Kg )

a = acceleration (m/s2 ).

Note that this relation resembles Equation (2.2). Weight is a particular type of force,
and acceleration due to gravity is a particular type of acceleration, so Equation (2.2)
is a special case of Newton’s second law, given by Equation (2.3). In the SI unit sys-
tem, the newton (N) is defined as the force that will accelerate a 1-kg mass at a rate of
1 m/s2 . Hence, we may write Newton’s second law dimensionally as

1 N = 1 Kg ⋅ m/s2.

In the English unit system, the pound-force (lb f ) is defined as the force that will ac-
celerate a 1-slug mass at a rate of 1 ft/s2 . Hence, we may write Newton’s second law
dimensionally as
1 lb f = 1 slug ⋅ ft/s2.

See Figure 2.8 for an illustration of Newton’s second law. Confusion arises from the
careless interchange of the English mass unit, pound-mass (lbm ), with the English
force unit, pound-force (lb f ). These units are not the same thing! In accordance
with our definitions of mass and weight, pound-mass refers to a quantity of matter,
whereas pound-force refers to a force or weight. In order to write Newton’s second
law in terms of pound-mass instead of slug, we rewrite Equation (2.3) as

ma (2.4)
F =
gc
where g c is a constant that is required to make Newton’s second law dimensionally
consistent when mass, m, is expressed in lbm , rather than slug. As stated previously,

Figure 2.8
Definitions of the force units
newton (N) and pound-
force (lb f ). a 5 1 m/s2
F51N
m 5 1 kg

a 5 1 ft/s2
F 5 1 lbf
m 5 1 slug
 2.6 Mass and Weight 37

the English unit for force is lb f , the English unit for acceleration is ft/s2 , and, as
indicated in Table 2.8, 1 slug = 32.174 lbm . Thus, the constant g c is
ma
gc =
F
(32.174 lbm )(ft/s2 )
=
lb f
lbm ⋅ ft
= 32.174 .
lb f ⋅ s2

This value is usually rounded to

lbm ⋅ ft
g c = 32.2 .
lb f ⋅ s2

Note that g c has the same numerical value as g, the standard acceleration of grav-
ity on the earth’s surface. Newton’s second law as expressed by Equation (2.4) is
dimensionally consistent when the English unit of mass, lbm , is used.
To verify that Equation (2.4) works, we recall that the pound-force is defined
as the force that will accelerate a 1-slug mass at a rate of 1 ft/s2 . Recognizing that
1 slug = 32.2 lbm , we have

ma
f =
gc

(32.2 lbm )(1 ft/s2 )

= = 1 lb f .
lb ⋅ ft
32.2 m 2
lb f ⋅ s

Note that in this expression, all the units, except lb f , cancel. Hence, the pound-
force (lb f ) is defined as the force that will accelerate a 32.2-lbm mass at a rate of
1 ft/s2 . Therefore, we may write Newton’s second law dimensionally as

1 lb f = 32.2 lbm ⋅ ft/s2.

To have dimensional consistency when English units are involved, Equation

(2.4) must be used when mass, m, is expressed in lbm . When mass is expressed in
slug, however, the use of g c in Newton’s second law is not required for dimensional
consistency because 1 lb f is already defined as the force that will accelerate a 1-slug
mass at a rate of 1 ft/s2 . Furthermore, because 1 N is already defined as the force
that will accelerate a 1-kg mass at a rate of 1 m/s2 , the use of g c is not required for
dimensional consistency in the SI unit system. Thus, Equation (2.3) suffices for all
calculations, except for those in which mass is expressed in lbm ; in that case, Equation (2.4)
must be used. However, Equation (2.4) may be universally used when recognizing
that the numerical value and units for g c can be defined such that any consistent
unit system will work. For example, substituting F = 1 N, m = 1 kg, and a = 1 m/s2
into Equation (2.4) and solving for g c , we obtain

1 kg ⋅ m
gc = .
N ⋅ s2
38 Chapter 2 Dimensions and Units

Figure 2.9
Definitions of weight for the
standard value of gravita-
tional acceleration.
m 5 1 kg m 5 1 lbm

g 5 9.81 m/s2 g 5 32.2 ft/s2

W 5 9.81 N W 5 1 lbf

Since the numerical value of g c is 1, we can successfully use Equation (2.3) as

long as we recognize that 1 N is the force that will accelerate a 1-kg mass at a rate
of 1 m/s2 .
Sometimes, the units pound-mass (lbm ) and pound-force (lb f ) are casually in-
terchanged because a body with a mass of 1 lbm has a weight of 1 lb f (i.e., the mass
and weight are numerically equivalent). Let’s see how this works: By definition, a body
with a mass of 32.2 lbm (1 slug) when accelerated at a rate of 1 ft/s2 has a weight
of 1 lb f . Therefore, using Newton’s second law in the form, W = mg , we can also
state that a body with a mass of 1 lbm , when accelerated at a rate of 32.2 ft/s2 (the
standard value of g), has a weight of 1 lb f . Our rationale for making such a state-
ment is that we maintained the same numerical value on the right side of Newton’s
second law by assigning the mass, m, a value of 1 lbm and the gravitational accel-
eration, g, the standard value of 32.2 ft/s2 . The numerical values of the mass and
weight are equal even though a pound-mass and a pound-force are conceptually
different quantities. It must be emphasized, however, that mass in pound-mass and
weight in pound-force are numerically equivalent only when the standard value,
g = 32.2 ft/s2 , is used. See Figure 2.9 for an illustration. The next example illus-
trates the use of g c .

EXAMPLE 2.4
Find the weight of some objects with the following masses:
a. 50 slug
b. 50 lbm
c. 75 kg.

Solution
To find weight, we use Newton’s second law, where the acceleration a is the stan-
dard acceleration of gravity, g = 9.81 m/s2 = 32.2 ft/s2 .
a. The mass unit slug is the standard unit for mass in the English unit system.
The weight is
W = mg
= (50 slug)(32.2 ft/s2 ) = 1,610 lb f .
 2.6 Mass and Weight 39

b. When mass is expressed in terms of lbm , we must use Equation (2.4):

mg (50 lbm )(32.2 ft / s2 ))

W = = = 50 lb f .
gc lb ⋅ ft
32.2 m 2
lb f ⋅ s

Note that the mass and weight are numerically equivalent. This is true only in
cases where the standard value of g is used, which means that an object with a mass
of x lbm will always have a weight of x lb f on the earth’s surface.
c. The mass unit kg is the standard unit for mass in the SI unit system. The
weight is
W = mg
= (75 kg)(9.81 m/s2 ) = 736 N.

Alternatively, we can find weight by using Equation (2.4):

mg (75 kg)(9.81 m/s2 )

W = = = 736 N.
gc kg ⋅ m
1
N ⋅ s2

Now that we understand the difference between mass and weight and know how to
use mass and weight units in the SI and English systems, let’s revisit the astronaut we
discussed earlier. (See Figure 2.10.) The mass of the astronaut is 80 kg, which equals
about 5.48 slug. His mass does not change, regardless of where he ventures. Prior to
departing on a trip to the moon, he weighs in at 785 N (176 lb f ). What is the mass of
the astronaut in pound-mass? Three days later, his vehicle lands on the moon, and
he begins constructing a permanent base for future planetary missions. The value
of the gravitational acceleration on the moon is only 1.62 m/s2(5.31 ft/s2 ). The as-
tronaut’s mass is still 80 kg, but his weight is only 130 N (29.1 lb f ) due to the smaller
value of g. Is the mass and weight of the astronaut in pound-mass and pound-force
numerically equivalent? No, because the standard value of g is not used.

Figure 2.10 SI English SI English

An astronaut’s mass and
weight on the earth and m 5 80 kg m 5 5.48 slug m 5 80 kg m 5 5.48 slug
moon.
W 5 mg 5 785 N W 5 mg 5 176 lbf W 5 mg 5 130 N W 5 mg 5 29.1 lbf

Earth Moon
g 5 9.81 m/s2 g 5 32.2 ft/s2 g 5 1.62 m/s2 g 5 5.31 ft/s2
40 Chapter 2 Dimensions and Units

EXAMPLE 2.5
Special hoists are used in automotive repair shops to lift engines. As illustrated in
Figure 2.11, a 200 kg engine is suspended in a fixed position by a chain attached
to the cross member of an engine hoist. Neglecting the weight of the chain itself,
what is the tension in portion AD of the chain?

Solution
This example is a simple problem in engineering statics. Statics is the branch of
engineering mechanics that deals with forces acting on bodies at rest. The engine
is held by the chain in a fixed position, so clearly the engine is at rest; that is, it is
not in motion. This problem can be solved by recognizing that the entire weight
of the engine is supported by portion AD of the chain. (The tension in portions
AB and AC could also be calculated, but a thorough equilibrium analysis would be
required.) Hence, the tension, which is a force that tends to elongate the chain, is
equivalent to the weight of the engine. Using Equation (2.2), we have
F = mg
= (200 kg)(9.81 m/s2 ) = 1962 N.

Therefore, the tension in portion AD of the chain is 1962 N, the weight of the
engine.

Figure 2.11
Engine hoist for D
Example 2.5.

B C

PRACTICE!

1. It has been said that you do not fully understand a basic technical con-
cept, unless you can explain it in terms simple enough that a second
grader can understand it. Write an explanation of the difference be-
tween mass and weight for a second grader.
2. Which is larger, a slug or a pound-mass?
Answer: slug.
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 CHAPTER LVI.
THE ANALYSIS OF CHANCE AND
MATHEMATICAL GAMES.

MAGIC SQUARES—THE SIXTEEN PUZZLE—SOLITAIRE—

EQUIVALENTS.
We will now proceed to draw our readers’ attention to several
experiments very famous at a former period, but which our own
generation has completely overlooked. We refer to the Analysis of
Chance, a science still known under the title of Calculation of
Probabilities, formerly cultivated with so much ardour, but to-day
almost fallen into oblivion.
Originating in the caprice of the clever Chevalier de Méré, who in
1654 suggested the game to Pascal, the analysis of chance has
given rise to investigations of an entirely novel kind, and attempts
have been made to measure the mathematical degree of credence
to be given to simple conjectures. We will first recapitulate the
principles laid down by Laplace on this subject. We know that of a
certain number of events, one only can happen, but nothing leads us
to the belief that one will happen more than the other. The theory of
chance consists in reducing all the events of the same kind to a
certain number of equally possible cases, such, that is to say, that
we are equally undecided about, and to determine the number of
cases favourable to the event, whose probability we are seeking.
The ratio of this number to that of all possible cases is the measure
of this probability, which is thus a fraction, the numerator of which is
the number of favourable cases, and the denominator the number of
all possible cases. When all the cases are favourable to an event, its
probability changes to certainty, and it is then expressed by the unit.
Probabilities increase or diminish by their mutual combination; if the
events are independent of each other, the probability of the
existence of their whole is the product of their particular
probabilities. Thus the probability of throwing an ace with one dice
being 1/6, that of throwing two aces with two dice is 1/36. Each of
the sides of one dice combining with the six sides of the other, there
are thirty-six possible cases, among which one only gives the two
aces. When two events depend on each other, the probability of the
double event is the product of the probability of the first event by
the probability that, that event having occurred, the other will occur.
This rule helps us to study the influence of past events on the
probability of future events. If we calculate á priori the probability of
the event that has occurred and an event composed of this and
another expected event, the second probability divided by the first,
will be the probability of the expected event, inferred from the
observed event.
The probability of events serves to determine the hope or fear of
persons interested in their existence. The word hope here expresses
the advantage which someone expects in suppositions which are
only probable. This advantage in the theory of chances is the
product of the hoped-for sum by the probability of obtaining it; it is
the partial sum which should arise when one does not wish to run
the risks of the event, supposing that the apportionment
corresponds to the probabilities. This apportionment is only
equitable when we abstract from it all foreign circumstances;
because an equal degree of probability gives an equal title to the
hoped-for sum. This advantage is called mathematical hope.
Nevertheless, the rigorous application of this principle may lead to
an inadmissible consequence. Let us see what Laplace says. Paul
plays at heads and tails, on the understanding that he receives two
shillings if he succeeds at the first throw, four shillings if he succeeds
at the second, eight at the third, and so on. His stake on the game,
according to calculation, must be equal to the number of throws; so
that if the game continues indefinitely, the stake also continues
indefinitely. Yet, no reasonable man would venture on this game
even a moderate sum, £2 for example. Whence, therefore, comes
this difference between the result of the calculation, and the
indication of common-sense? We soon perceive that it proceeds from
the fact, that the moral advantage which a benefit procures for us is
not proportional to this advantage, and that it depends on a
thousand circumstances, often very difficult to define, but the chief
and most important of which is chance. In fact, it is evident that a
shilling has much greater value for one who has but a hundred than
for a millionaire. We must, therefore, distinguish in the hoped-for
good between its absolute and its relative value; the latter regulates
itself according to the motives which cause it to be desired, while
the former is independent. In the absence of a general principle to
appreciate this relative value, we give a suggestion of Daniel
Bernouilli which has been generally admitted.
The relative value of an extremely small sum is equal to its absolute
value, divided by the total advantage of the interested person. On
applying the calculus to this principle, it will be found that the moral
hope, the growth of chance due to expectations, coincides with the
mathematical hope, when chance, considered as a unit, becomes
infinite in proportion to the variations it receives from expectations.
But when these variations are a sensible portion of the unit, the two
hopes may differ very greatly from each other. In the example cited,
this rule leads to results conformable to the indications of common-
sense. We find, in point of fact, that if Paul’s fortune amounts only to
£8, he cannot reasonably stake more than 7s. on the game. At the
most equal game, the loss is always, relatively greater than the gain.
Supposing, for example, that a person possessing a sum of £4,
stakes £2 on a game of heads or tails, his money after placing his
stake will be morally reduced to £3 11s. 0d.—that is to say, this
latter sum will procure him the same moral advantage as the
condition of his funds after his stake. Whence we draw this
conclusion: that the game is disadvantageous, even in the cases
where the stake is equal to the product of the sum hoped for by the
probability. We may, therefore, form an idea of the immorality of
games in which the hoped-for sum is below this product.
 Fig. 857.—The game of the needle.

Jacques Bernouilli has thus laid down the result of his investigations
on the calculation of probabilities. An urn containing white and black
balls is placed in front of the spectator, who draws out a ball,
ascertaining its colour, and puts it back in the urn. After a sufficient
number of draws, the total number of extracted balls divided by the
total number of balls represents a fraction very near to that which
has for a numerator the real number of white balls existing in the
urn, and for the denominator the total number of balls. In other
words, the ratios of the number either of extracted white balls, or
the whole of the white balls to the total number, tend to become
equal; that is, the probability derived from this experiment
approaches indefinitely towards a certainty. The two fractions may
differ from each other as little as possible, if we increase the number
of draws. From this theorem we deduce several consequences.
1. The relations of natural effects are nearly constant when these
effects are considered in a great number.
2. In a series of events indefinitely prolonged, the action of regular
and constant causes affects that of irregular causes.
Applications.—The combinations presented by these games have
been the subject of former researches regarding probabilities. We
will complete our exposition with two more examples.
Two persons, A and B, of equal skill, play together on the
understanding that whichever beats the other a certain number of
times, shall be considered to have won the game, and shall carry off
the stakes. After several throws the players agree to give up without
finishing the game; and the point then to be settled, is in what
manner the money is to be divided between them. This was one of
the problems laid before Pascal by the Chevalier de Méré. The
shares of the two players should be proportional to their respective
probabilities of winning the game. These probabilities depend on the
number of points which each player requires to reach the given
number. A’s probabilities are determined by starting with the smallest
numbers, and observing that the probability equals the unit, when
player A does not lose a point. Thus, supposing A loses but one
point, his chance is 1·2, 3·4, 7·8, etc., according as B misses one,
two, or three points. Supposing A has missed two points, it will be
found that his chance is as 1·4, 1·2, 11·6, etc., according as B has
missed one, two, or three points, etc. Or we may suppose that A
misses three points, and so on.
We should note, en passant, that this solution has been modified by
Daniel Bernouilli, by the consideration of the respective fortune of
the players, from which he deduces the idea of moral hope. This
solution, famous in the history of science, bears the name of the
Petersburgh problem, because it was made known for the first time
in the “Memoires de l’Académie de Russie.”
We will now describe the game of the needle. It is a genuine
mathematical amusement, and its results, indicated by theory, are
certainly calculated to excite astonishment. The game of the needle
is an application of the different principles we have laid down.
If we trace on a sheet of paper a
series of parallel and equi-distant lines,
aa1, bb1, cc1, dd1, and throw down on
the paper at hazard a perfectly
cylindrical needle, a b, the length of
ig. 858.—The needle game.
which equals half the distance
between the parallel lines (figs. 858
and 859), we shall discover this
curious result. If we throw down the
needle a hundred times, it will come in
contact with one of the parallel lines a
Fig. 859.—The needle game. certain number of times. Dividing the
number of attempts with the number
of successful throws, we obtain as a
quotient a number which approaches nearer the value of the ratio
between the circumference and the diameter in proportion as we
multiply the number of attempts. This ratio, according to the rules of
geometry, is a fixed number, the numerical value of which is
3·1415926. After a hundred throws we generally find the exact value
up to the two first figures: 3·1. How can this unexpected result be
explained? The application of the calculus of probabilities gives the
reason of it. The ratio between the successful throws and the
number of attempts, is the probability of this successful throw. The
calculation endeavours to estimate this probability by enumerating
the possible cases and the favourable events. The enumeration of
possible cases exacts the application of the principle of compound
probabilities. It will be easily seen that it suffices to consider the
chances of the needle falling between two parallel lines, aa1 and bb1
(fig. 858), and then to consider what occurs in the interval, m n,
equal to the equi-distance. To obtain a successful throw, it is
necessary then:—
1. That the middle of the needle should fall between m and l, the
centre of m o. 2. That the angle of the needle with m o will be
smaller than the angle, m c b. The calculation of all these
probabilities and their combination by multiplication, according to
the rules of compound probabilities, gives as the final expression of
probability the number.
This curious example justifies the theorem of Bernouilli relating to
the multiplication of events; there is no limit to the approximation of
the result, when the attempts are sufficiently prolonged. When the
length of the needle is not exactly half the distance between the
parallel lines, the practical rule of the game is as follows: The ratio
between the number of throws and the number of successful
attempts must be multiplied by double the ratio between the length
of the needle and the distance between the parallel lines. In the
case cited above, the double of the latter ratio equals the unit. We
will give an application to this. A needle two inches long is thrown
10,000 times on a series of parallel lines, two-and-a-half inches
apart; the number of successful throws has been found to equal
5000. We take the ratio 1090/5009, and multiply it by the ratio
1000/636 and the product is 3·1421. The true value is 3·1415. We
have an approximation of 6/10000.
The dimensions indicated in this experiment are those which present
in a given number of attempts the most chances of obtaining the
greatest possible approximation. We will conclude these remarks on
games by some observations borrowed from Laplace.
The mind has its illusions like the sense of sight; and just as the
sense of touch corrects the latter, reflection and calculation correct
the former. The probability founded on an every-day experience, or
exaggerated by fear or hope, strikes us as a superior probability, but
is only a simple result of calculation.
In a long series of events of the same kind, the mere chances of
accident sometimes offer these curious veins of good or bad fortune,
which many persons do not hesitate to attribute to a kind of fatality.
It often happens in games which depend both on chance and the
cleverness of the players, that he who loses, overwhelmed with his
want of success, seeks to repair the evil by rash playing, which he
would avoid on another occasion; he thus aggravates his own
misfortune and prolongs it. It is then, however, that prudence
becomes necessary, and that it is desirable to remember that the
moral disadvantage attaching to unfavourable chances is increased
also by the misfortune itself.41 Mathematical games, formerly so
much studied, have recently obtained a new addition in the form of
an interesting game, known as the “Boss” puzzle. It has been
introduced from America, and consists of a square box, in which are
placed sixteen small wooden dice, each bearing a number (fig. 860).
No. 16 is taken away, and the others are placed haphazard in the
box, as shown in fig. 861. The point is then to move the dice, one by
one, into different positions, so that they are at last arranged in their
natural order, from one to fifteen; and this must be accomplished by
slipping them from square to square without lifting them from the
box. If the sixteenth dice is added, the game may be varied, and we
may seek another solution of the problem, by arranging the numbers
so that the sum of the horizontal, vertical, and diagonal lines gives
the number 34. In this form the puzzle is one of the oldest known. It
dates from the time of the primitive Egyptians, and has often been
investigated during the last few centuries, belonging, as it does, to
the category of famous magic squares, the principles of which we
will describe. The following is the definition given by Ozanam, of the
Academy of Sciences, at Paris, at the end of the seventeenth
century. The term magic square is given to a square divided by
several small equal or broken squares, containing terms of
progression which are placed in such a manner that all those of one
row, either across, from top to bottom, or diagonally, make one and
the same sum when they are added, or give the same product when
multiplied. It is therefore evident from this definition, that there are
two kinds of magic squares, some formed by terms of arithmetical
progression, others by terms of geometrical progression. We must
also distinguish the equal from the unequal magic squares.
 Fig. 860.—The sixteen puzzle.

Fig. 861.—The numbers placed at hazard, and No. 16 removed.

We give here several examples of magic squares with terms of

mathematical progression, among them the square of 34, giving one
of the solutions to the puzzle just described (fig. 862). We also give
an example of a magic square composed of terms of geometrical
progression. The double progression for examples 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32,
64, 128, 256, as here arranged (fig. 863), forms such a square that
the product obtained by multiplying the three terms of one row, or
one diagonal, is 4,096, which is the cube of the mean term 16. The
squares have been termed magic, because, according to Ozanam,
they were held in great veneration by the Pythagoreans. In the time
of alchemy and astrology, certain magic squares were dedicated to
the seven planets, and engraved on a metal blade which
sympathized with the planet. To give an idea of the combinations to
which the study of magic squares lends itself, it is sufficient to add
that mathematicians have written whole treatises on the subject.
Frénicle de Bessy, one of the most eminent calculators of the
seventeenth century, consecrated a part of his life to the study of
magic squares. He discovered new rules, and found out the means
of varying them in a multitude of ways. Thus for the magic square,
the root of which is 4, only sixteen different arrangements were
known.

Fig. 862.—Examples of magic squares formed by terms of arithmetical

progression.
Frénicle de Bessy found 880 new solutions. An important work from
the pen of this learned mathematician has been published under the
title of “Carrés ou Tables Magiques,” in the “Memoirs de l’Académie
Royale des Sciences,” from 1666-1699, vol. v. Amateurs, therefore,
who are accused of occupying themselves with a useless game,
unworthy the attention of serious minds, will do well to bear in mind
the works of Frénicle, and better still, to consult them.
We have so far considered only the
first part of the puzzle. We may now
examine the problem to which
specially it has given rise. We are quite
in accord with M. Piarron de Mondesir,
who has been so good as to enlighten
us upon the subject, which is really
much more difficult than it appears.
Fig. 863.—Magic square formed
by terms of geometrical
A French paper once proposed to give
progression. a prize of 500 francs to any individual
who would solve the following
problem:—
Throw the numbers out of the box, replace them at hazard, then in
arranging them place them in the following order (a fig. 864).

Fig. 864.—The Sixteen Puzzle.

Now nobody solved this problem, because in nine cases out of ten it
is impossible to do so. The first twelve numbers will come correctly
into their places, and even 13 can be put in its place without much
trouble; but, instead of getting the last row right we shall find it will
come out like b, viz., 14, 15, 13, in the large majority of instances.
So any case can be solved in one of the two results given above,
and we can tell in advance, without displacing a number, in which
way the puzzle will eventuate.

Fig. 865.—Example 1. Fig. 866.—Example 2.

Let us give this problem our attention for a few minutes, and we
shall not find it difficult.
Take the first example. We will throw the cubes out of the box and
put them back in the order shown in fig. 865.
We see now that 1 occupies the place of 11, 11 that of 7, 7 that of
8, 8 that of 6, 6 of 15, 15 of 1. This much is evident without any
study. We formulate these figures as follows, beginning with 1 and
working from figure to figure till we are led to 1 again, and so on.
1st. Series.—1, 11, 7, 8, 6, 15, 1 (6) even.
Counting the number of different cubes we have 6; and we put (6)
in a parenthesis. We call the first series even because 6 is an even
number.
We now establish, by the same formula, a second series
commencing with 2, and going back to it, thus—
 2nd Series.—2, 4, 2 (2) even.
3rd Series.—3, 5, 10, 12, 3 (4) even.
4th Series.—9, 13, 14, 9 (3) uneven.

We have now four series, the total number of points equal 15, as
there ought to be, for one cube is absent.
Let us now take another example (see fig. 866), and by working as
before we have four series again, viz:—

1st Series.—1, 7, 1 (2) even.

2nd Series.—2, 11, 3, 8, 4, 15, 2 (6) even.
3rd Series.—5, 12, 13, 5 (3) uneven.
4th Series.—9, 14, 10, 9 (3) uneven.

This gives us only 14 as a total, because 6 has not been touched at

all.

And now for the rule, so that we may be able to ascertain in

advance, when we have established our series, whether we shall
find our puzzle right or wrong at the end. We must put aside all
unplaced numbers and take no notice of uneven series. Only the
even series must be regarded.
Thus if we do not find 1, or if we find 2, 4, or 6, the problem will
come into a as a result. If we find 1, 3, 5, or 7, the case will
eventuate as in b (fig. 864). Let us apply the rule to the problems we
have worked, and then the reason will be apparent.
In the first we find three even series; the problem will then end as in
b diagram (fig. 864), for the number of like series is odd.

In the second we find two even series (pairs); we shall find our
problem work out as in diagram a (fig. 864), for the number of like
series is even, one pair in each.
We are now in possession of a simple rule, both rapid and infallible,
and which will save considerable trouble, as we can always tell
beforehand how our puzzle will come out. Any one can test the
practicability of the rules for himself, but we may warn the reader
that he will never be able to verify every possible instance, for the
possible cases are represented by the following sum—
2×3×4×5×6×7×8×9×10×11×12×13×14×15.
That is to say, 1,307,674,368,000 in all.
Solitaire.
This somewhat ancient amusement is well known, and the apparatus
consists of a board with holes to receive pegs or cups to receive the
balls, as in the illustrations (figs. 867 and 870.) The usual solitaire
board contains thirty-seven pegs or balls, but thirty-three can also be
played very well. Many scientific people have made quite a study of
the game, and have published papers on the subject. M. Piarron de
Mondesir has given two rules which will prove interesting.
The first is called that of equivalents, and supposes the game to be
played out to a conclusion; the second, called the ring-game, admits
of a calculation being made so that the prospects of success can be
gauged beforehand.
The method of play is familiar, so we need not detail it. It is simply
“taking” the balls by passing over them in a straight line. The
method of “equivalents” consists in replacing one ball with two
others, as we will proceed to explain by the diagram (fig. 868).
Suppose we try the 33 game, which
consists in filling every hole with the
exception of the centre one, and in
“taking” all the balls, leaving one
solitary in the centre at the last.
Suppose an inexperienced player
arrives at an impossible solution of five
balls in 4, 11, 15, 28, and 30.
To render the problem soluble, and to Fig. 867.—Solitaire.
win his game, I will replace No. 11 by
two equivalents, 9 and 10, the ball 28 by two others, 23 and 16, and
the ball 30 by 25 and 18. These substitutions will not change the
“taking off,” for I can take 10 with 9, 23 with 16, and 25 with 18. But
by so doing I substitute for an irreducible solution of five balls a new
system of eight (those shown with the line drawn through them in
the diagram), which can easily be reduced to the desired conclusion,
and the game will be achieved.
There are in reality three terminations possible to the problem—the
single ball, the couple, and the tierce; that is, you may have only
one left, or two placed diagonally, such as 9-17, 25-29, or a system
of three in a straight line, 9-16-23. By the “equivalents” you can
always succeed in solving the problem desired.
We will now point out four transformations which are very easy to
effect, and result from the rule of “equivalents.”
1. Replacement of the two balls, situated on the same line and
separated by an empty cup, by one put into that cup. Thus I can
replace 23 and 25 by a single ball at 24.
2. Suppression of tierces. And by the above movement I suppress
the tierce 9-16-23.
3. Correspondent “cases” are two holes situated in the same line and
separated by two cups. If two corresponding cups are filled, I can
suppress the balls which occupy them. So I can put aside 4 and 23.
 Fig. 868.—Correspondents and equivalents.

4. It is permissible to move a ball into one of the correspondent cups

if it be vacant; thus I can put 10 into 29.
These are the four transformations which can be made evident with
the rings, without displacing the balls. To do this we need have only
seven rings large enough to pass over the balls and to surround the
holes in which they rest. Let us take an example.
Solitaire with 33 holes (fig. 869). Final solution of the single ball.
1st Vertical row: 7 and 21 are occupied, and the intermediate hole
14, being empty, I place a ring upon 14.
2nd Vertical row: No. 8 takes 15, and comes into 22; I place a ring
on 22.
3rd Vertical row: I suppress the corresponding balls, 4-23 and 16-31,
there now only remains 9, so I place a ring on 9.
4th Vertical row: I suppress the correspondents 10-29, put 2 into 17,
and I place a ring upon 17.
5th Vertical row: I suppress correspondents 6-25, put 33 into 18,
and I place a ring upon 18.
6th Vertical row: No. 12 takes 19 and comes to 26; I place a ring on
26.
7th Vertical row: No. 20 is the only ball; I place a ring on 20.
(It must be understood that these operations should be proceeded
with mentally; the balls must not be disturbed.)
We have thus reduced the problem to seven ringed balls, which are
14, 22, 9, 17, 18, 26, and 20 which are indicated on the diagram by
the line drawn through each vertically. They are all comprised in the
three horizontal rows, 3, 4, 5.

Fig. 869.—Single ball solution.

We can now set to work upon these three rows in the same manner
as before, considering the rings as balls.
3rd row: We find (and leave) a ring upon 9.
4th row: The two corresponding rings, 17-20, neutralize each other,
and we suppress them. We carry 14 to 17, and take 17 with 18,
which comes into 16. We leave a ring on 16.
5th row: Carry the ring 26 to 23, take 23 with 22, which comes thus
to 24, and we leave a ring on 24.
We now have reduced our problem to three rings, 9, 16, and 24, all
in the central square, indicated in the diagram by horizontal bars. It
is easy to see that 9 will take 16 and 24 and come into 25, and 25
will remain alone—as was intended to be done—a single ball upon
the board, indicated by the circle around it in the cut.
By playing the “equivalent” method you will always arrive at this
result—a single ball in No. 25. It may now be perceived how we
cannot only arrive at a satisfactory solution, but by means of the
rings ascertain whether we shall succeed in our game without
disturbing a single ball. After some experience we may even learn to
dispense with the rings altogether.
Fig. 870.—Solitaire board.
 CHAPTER LVII.
THE MAGIC TOP—THE GYROSCOPE AND SCIENTIFIC GAMES
We will not do our readers the injustice to suppose that they are not
familiar with the ordinary top,—the delight of all school-boys and
young people,—of which, therefore, we forbear giving any
description; but we now desire to give some details of the
construction of the wonderful magic top. It is composed of a large
disc, with an axis turning on two pivots connected with a circle of
iron. When in repose, this plaything exhibits nothing of a remarkable
character; it is completely inert, obeying, like all other bodies, the
laws of gravity. But when we come to give the disc a movement of
rapid rotation, this inert instrument seems to assume a vitality of its
own if we attempt to move it; it resists, and seems to thrust back
the hand, and executes movements even in a contrary direction.
Besides this, it appears to be freed, in a certain measure, from the
laws of gravity; if we place it on its pivot, instead of falling, as it
would when the disc is motionless, it preserves the upright or
inclined position in which we place it, the upper extremity of the axis
slowly describing a horizontal circle round the fulcrum of the other
extremity.
Few persons are sufficiently familiar with the theory of mechanics to
understand these phenomena, and it often happens that such a top
purchased to amuse a child becomes an object of wonder and
interest to his seniors. We do not pretend here to explain
mathematically the reason of the facts before us, but the mechanical
principle on which this top is constructed is of such great scientific
importance, that we will, in a few words, explain it to our readers. It
is sufficient to have a little knowledge of mechanics to be aware that
a body in motion, subjected to the action of a force tending to give it
a directly contrary motion, will follow a movement in a third
direction, which is termed the resultant of the two others; and this
resultant approaches nearer to one of the original directions, in
proportion as the corresponding movement is more rapid in relation
to the other. If, for example, you strike a billiard ball, which is rolling
past you, in such a manner that you drive it regularly along in the
same direction, it appears only to obey a part of the given impulsion,
and continues its course in an oblique direction, the speed with
which it commenced rolling combining with the impulsion to produce
a resultant movement. If it is rolling very quickly, and you strike it
gently, it will scarcely turn out of its course. If, on the contrary, it is
moving slowly, and receives a violent shock, it will run off almost
exactly in the direction in which it has been struck.

Fig. 871.—The magic top.

Now that which occurs in this example of a body tending to two
movements at the same time, is also produced when it is a question
of movements of rotation, so that if a force acts upon a body in
rotation in such a manner as to give it a movement of the same kind
round another axis, a third movement will be originated round a
third axis, the direction of which will be nearest to that in which the
rotation is most rapid. Let us apply this very simple principle to our
top, and we shall see that magic has nothing whatever to do with
these movements, which at first glance appears so extraordinary.
Having set it in motion, we rest it on its pivot, its axis in a horizontal
position; we then find that we have two movements before us; first,
that which we gave the top ourselves, and secondly, the movement
of rotation which occurs round a second axis equally horizontal
passing through the fulcrum and perpendicular line to the first. A
movement of rotation therefore originates round a third axis placed
between the two first, but whilst the real axis of the top, obeying
this resultant movement, takes up its new position, the law of
gravity continuing to act, displaces and moves it a little further, so
that in endeavouring to reach its centre of gravity, it turns round its
fulcrum (fig. 871). From this explanation, it will be easily seen that
the more rapid the movement given to the top,—that due to gravity
remaining constant,—the nearer will be the axis of the resultant
movement to its real axis, and consequently the slower will be the
movement of rotation of the whole round the pivot. Thus this
apparently incomprehensible phenomenon is easily explained by
gravity, vertical force producing a movement of rotation in a
horizontal plane. One can also explain by analogous reasoning, and
calculation of passive resistance, why the axis of the top gradually
inclines in proportion as the speed of the latter diminishes, and the
speed of rotation round the fulcrum increases; why it falls
immediately if an obstacle is opposed to the latter movement, and
finally, why it produces on the hand which holds it, movements
which astonish persons so intensely who behold it for the first time.
The principle we have just described is often enunciated, by saying
that every body in rapid rotation rests in its plane, and can only be
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