Polarization

If the plane of vibration is changed in a random manner in very short interval of time, then
such a wave is known as un-polarized wave. Natural light or ordinary light is un-polarized in
nature.

Plane polarized wave

Light is polarized when its
electric fields oscillate in a
single plane, rather than in
any direction perpendicular to
the direction of propagation.

Light is an electromagnetic wave and transverse in nature.

 Properties of Electromagnetic
Waves
✓An electromagnetic
(EM) wave can be
described using vectors,
as it has both
magnitude and
directional components

✓It is a transverse
wave, which means it This 3D diagram shows a plane
vibrates at right angles linearly polarized wave propagating
from left to right with the same
to the direction in wave equations where and
which it travels
 Why Polarization ???
After the study of interference and diffraction, we know that light
behaves as wave. So light is a form of wave motion. But a question
still remains that what type of wave is this?

Longitudinal?
Transverse?
 Polarization

Polarized light will not be

transmitted through a
polarized film whose axis
is perpendicular to the
polarization direction.
 Polarization

Polarized light

The process of transforming un-polarized light into polarized

light is known as polarization.
 Polarizer & Analyzer
Consider an un-polarized light wave is passing through crossed polarizers.

Polarizer 1 Polarizer 2
(Vertical) (Horizontal)

Incident Beam
(Un-polarized)

Vertically
Polarized
Light Wave

This means that if initially un-polarized light passes through crossed polarizer,
no light will get through the second one.
Conclusion: Light is a transverse wave
Mathematical Representation of Plane polarized Light

Suppose light is propagating in z-direction,

Mathematically a plane polarized light can be
represented as: X


E x ( z , t ) = iˆE0 x cos(kz − t )
Z

k= Y
or v

E y (z , t ) = ˆjE0 y cos(kz − t ) v=
1


Polarized light consists of waves which are

vibrating in one direction only.
Un-polarized light

Polarized light
Plane of Vibration and Plane of Polarization
 Production of Polarized Light

1. By Reflection: Brewster’s Law

2. By Refraction: Malus Law
3. By Selective Absorption: Dichroic material
4. By Double Refraction:
▪ Nicol Prism
▪ Wave Plates
 Polarization by Reflection: Brewster’s Law
• In 1881 Brewster on the basis of his experimental observations discovered that when un-
polarized light is incident at polarizing angle on the dielectric medium the reflected light
is completely plane polarized having vibration perpendicular to the plane of incidence .
The polarizing angle is different for different reflecting surfaces.
• According to him the tangent of polarizing angle (θp) is equal to the refractive index of

 = tan 
the medium that is
p

 2 
 P = tan  −1

 1 
μ1

μ2
E-field radiation from electric dipole:
• At Brewster angle, when refracted beam is at 90 deg with the reflected
light, vibrating dipole in the plane of incidence will not radiate E field in
the direction of reflected beam.
• only those dipole will radiate E filed which are vibrating normal to
incidence plane or parallel to reflecting surface, so complete polarized.
 Polarization by Reflection: Brewster’s Law
Q: Show that  2 +  p = 
2

sin  p
2
tan  p = = =
cos  p 1 μ1

As per Snell’s law: 1 sin  P = 2 sin  2

μ2
Therefore cos  P = sin  2 = cos(90 −  2 )

 P + 2 =
2
Here, reflected light has polarization vector perpendicular to the plane of incidence.
Reflected and transmitted rays are at right angles to each other.
Use of Polaroid
Polarization by reflection: Brewster’s Law
For air-water interface, n1 = 1 and n2 = 1.33 (say) then
Brewster’s angle is:
p = tan-1(n2 / n1) =tan-1(1.33) ~ 530

Thus if the sunlight is incident on the sea at an angle close to the

polarizing angle, the reflected light is almost polarized. Now if view
through the rotation polaroid, the sea will appear more transparent
when the polaroid blocks the reflected light.
 Use of Polaroid

Without polarizer With polarizer

 Use of Polaroid

Without polarizer With polarizer

 Polarization by refraction with pile of plates:

transmitted beam is partially polarized

At polarization angle Ep is transmitted

100% while Es is transmitted 85%.

if this beam is made to undergo several reflections through

many plates, then emergent beam is almost plane polarized
Q1. A beam of light travelling in water strikes a glass plate
which is also immersed in water. When angle of incidence
is 510 the reflected light is plane polarized. Calculate the
refractive index of glass with respect to water.
 = 1.235

Q2. At certain temperature the critical angle of incidence

of water for total internal reflection is 480 for certain
wavelength. What is the polarization and refraction angle
for that wavelength incidenting on the water .
ip = 530 22`
r = 360 38`
 Law of Malus
When light passes through a polarizer, only the component parallel to the
polarization axis is transmitted. If the incoming light is plane polarized, the outgoing
intensity is:

I = I 0 cos 2  Intensity of plane polarized

wave is reduced by polarizer
 Law of Malus
I = I 0 cos  2

where
I is intensity of transmitted light.
I0 is intensity of incident light.
θ is angle between plane of incident
light and direction of polarizer.

• Un-polarized light have E-field vibration

in all directions.

• Therefore I = I0 <cos2> = I0/2

Two Consecutive Polarizer
 Three Consecutive Polarizer

When un-polarized light

falls on two crossed
Polaroids (axes at 90°),
no light passes through.
What happens if a third
Polaroid, with axis at
45° to each of the other
two, is placed between
them?
 Questions:

(a) Consider two crossed Polaroids placed in the path of

an unpolarized beam of intensity I0. If we place a third
Polaroid in between the two then, what will happen in
general.

(b) Assuming the pass axis of the third polaroid to be 450

to the pass axis of either of the polaroids, calculate the
intensity of the transmitted beam. Assume that all the
polaroids are perfect.
Ans: I0/8
Quest: An unpolarized light passes through a
vertically placed polarizer having horizontal
polarization axis. Subsequently it passes through a
polarizer with its pass axis at 90o with respect to
vertical and two polarizers having their polarization
axes at an angle 30o and 60o with vertical
respectively.
What will be the intensity of the emergent light?

Ans : (3/32)I0
 Double Refraction
❖ Many transparent solids are optically isotropic, meaning that the index of
refraction is equal in all directions through out the crystalline lattice. Examples
of isotropic solids are glass, table salt (sodium chloride, many polymers, and a
wide variety of both organic and inorganic compounds.

❖ Anisotropic crystals, on the other hand, have crystallographically distinct axes

and interact with light in a manner that is dependent upon the orientation of
the crystalline lattice with respect to the incident light.

➢ When light enters the optical axis of anisotropic crystals, it acts in a

manner similar to interaction with isotropic crystals and passes through at
a single velocity.

➢ However, when light enters a non-equivalent axis, it is refracted into two

rays each polarized with the vibration directions oriented at right angles to
one another, and traveling at different velocities. This phenomenon is
termed "double“ or "bi“ refraction and is seen to a greater or lesser
degree in all anisotropic crystals.
 Anisotropic crystals
When a ray enters such a crystal, it splits into two rays. This
phenomenon is known as double refraction or birefringence.
A material which displays two different indices of refraction, is said
to be ‘birefringent’. Such crystals are of two types:
1. Unaxial: calcite (Iceland spar) , tourmaline and quartz
(I) Have one direction (optics axis) along which two
refracted rays travels with same direction and same
velocity.
(II) One ray obeys the law of refraction (O-ray)

2. Bi-axial :Topaz, aragonite, Copper Sulphate, cane sugar, Mica

(I) Have two optics axis along which two refracted rays
travels with same velocity.
(II) None of the ray obey the law of refraction
 GEOMETRY OF CALCITE CRYSTAL

Principal Section: A plane containing the optic axis of the crystal and
perpendicular to its two opposite faces is called the Principal section of the
crystal for that pair of faces.

As Crystal has six faces there are three principal sections corresponding to
each pair of the opposite faces.
When a beam of unpolarized light incident on a uniaxial crystal it splits up into two
refracted rays.

• ORDINARY RAY (O-RAY)- Obeys the laws of refraction.

• EXTRAORDINARY RAY (E-RAY)- Does not obey the Snell’s law for which
(sin i/sin r) does not remain constant.
Optic axis

Optic axis

Difference between the refractive indices for O ray and E ray is known as birefringence
=(e-o)
 Polarization by Double Refraction
The “double bending” of the beam transmitted
through crystals is called Double refraction or
Birefringence.

Crystals displaying this property are called Birefringent

crystals. Example: Calcite, Tourmaline, Quartz, etc.

When an un-polarized light enters into an anisotropic

crystal, it splits into two beams, each of them being
characterized by a certain state of polarization. If we
could eliminate one of the beams by some method,
then we would obtained a polarized light.

Methods of eliminating one of the beam.

1. Selective absorption - Dichroism.

Example: Tourmaline crystal (Dichroic Crystal)

2. Total Internal Reflection

Example: Nicole prism
Polarization by Absorption: Dichroic materials
A number of crystalline materials absorb more light in one incident plane than
another, so that light progressing through the material become more and more
polarized as they proceed. This anisotropy in absorption is called dichroism.
There are several naturally occurring dichroic materials, and the commercial
material polaroid also polarizes by selective absorption.

Tourmaline crystal is a dichroic material

 Principle: To remove one of the two refracted beams in case
Nicol Prism of doubly refracting calcite crystal By total internal reflection.

Canada Balsam is a clear

and transparent substance
with an index of refraction
about midway between μO
and μE i.e. μO> μCB > μE

Calcite
μO = 1.6584
μE = 1.4864 Here, O-ray will have total
internal reflection because
Canada μO > μCB.

balsam
μCB = 1.55
 Nicol Prism

It can be used as polarizer and analyzer too.

Polarizer Analyzer

• • ••
• intensity
• maximum
 THEORY OF DOUBLE REFRACTION IN UNIAXIAL CRYSTAL

To explain the double refraction following experimental

observation must be considered:

✓ordinary ray (o-ray) obeys the laws of refraction (snell’s law) and have same velocity in
all direction.
✓extraordinary ray (e-ray) does not obey the snell’s law for which
sin i/sinr does not remain constant, have different velocity in
different direction inside the crystal
✓along optic axis velocities of the two rays are same.
✓ both rays travel along the same path but with different velocities in a direction
perpendicular to the optic axis.
 HUYGEN’S THEORY OF DOUBLE REFRACTION
IN UNIAXIAL CRYSTAL

On the basis of wave theory of light using the principle of

secondary wavelets.

When the light wave strikes the surface of a doubly

refracting crystal, every point of the crystal distributed by
the incident wavefront becomes the source of two
secondary wavelets, ordinary and extraordinary, which
spreads out into the crystal.
 HUYGEN’S THEORY OF DOUBLE REFRACTION
IN UNIAXIAL CRYSTAL

On the basis of wave theory of light using the

principle of secondary wavelets.
For O-ray the velocity is the same in all
directions, the wavefront is spherical.
O-ray wave front

Optics axis
HUYGEN’S THEORY OF DOUBLE REFRACTION IN UNIAXIAL RYSTAL
On the basis of wave theory of light using the
principle of secondary wavelets.
For E-ray the velocity is different in different
directions, the wavefront is an ellipsoid about the
optic axis.
E-ray wave front

θ Optics axis

Θ is the angle from optic axis.

 At Θ=0, ve

vo
At Θ= π/2. For negative crystal, ne < n0

Thus the minor axis will be along the optic axis, and the ellipsoid of revolution
will lie outside the sphere. vo

At Θ= π/2. For positive crystal, ne > n0 ve

The major axis will now be along the optic axis, and the ellipsoid of revolution will
lie inside the sphere
 In calcite the velocity of O ray In quartz the velocity of O
is less than velocity of E ray. ray is greater than velocity
vo < ve so no > ne and ro < of E ray. vo > ve so
re no < ne and ro > re

Along the optic axis vo=ve, both wave front will touch eachother

In negative uniaxial crystals the sphere lies inside the ellipsoid,

in positive uniaxial the ellipsoid lies inside the sphere.
Different cases negative uniaxial crystal
vo < ve so no > ne and ro < re
Calcite ne < no
ve > v o
vo < ve so no > ne and ro < re
vo < ve so no > ne and ro < re
 Oblique Incidence
Optic axis parallel to the surface of incidence, normal to the plane of incidence

vo < ve so no > ne and ro < re

 Double Refraction : Summary
•One ray obeys the laws of refraction, known as ordinary ray (O-ray).
•Other ray does not obey the Snell’s law for which sin i /sin r does not remain
constant, known as extraordinary ray (E-ray).
•Along optic axis velocities of the two rays are same as the double refraction is
absent. Sum of the intensities of the two rays equal to the intensity of the incident
ray
•Both rays travel along the same path but with different velocities in a direction
perpendicular to the optic axis.
•The ordinary ray is plane polarized in the principal plane of the crystal, i.e.
vibrations of the ordinary wave are perpendicular to the principal plane of the
crystal.
•Extraordinary ray is also plane polarized in the plane at right angle to the principal
plane, means it’s vibrations are in the principal plane
•Difference between the refractive indices for O-ray and E-ray is known as
birefringence = (o ~ e)
•Perpendicular to the optic axis double refraction absent but v0 < ve (calcite,
tourmaline, etc.) and v0 > ve (quartz crystal etc.).
 Light Wave

E y = E0 y sin (kz − t )

Vertically (y-axis) polarized y

wave having an amplitude
Eoy, a wavelength of λ and an
angular frequency ω, z
x
propagating along the z-axis.

ω = 2  ν = 2/T

It is also known as a plane polarized wave because the string is

always confined to the yz-plane.
 Plane-polarized light

Vertical
E y = E0 y sin (kz − t )

Horizontal

E x = E0 x sin (kz − t )

Wave vibrate in the yz-plane.

Superposition of two waves:
1) Same amplitude and wavelength,
2) Polarized in two perpendicular planes,
3) Oscillate in the same phase.
 Circularly polarized light

Right circular
Ex = E0 x sin (kz − t )
E y = E0 y sin (kz − t −  / 2)
E0 x = E0 y = E0

Left circular
Ex = E0 x sin (kz − t )
E y = E0 y sin (kz − t +  / 2)
E0 x = E0 y = E0
 Superposition of two circularly
polarized light beams:
1) same amplitude and
wavelength,
2) Left and right polarised waves,

Any plane polarized light wave can be obtained as a superposition of a left circularly
polarized and a right circularly polarized light wave, whose amplitude is identical
 Superposition of Two Plane Polarized Waves
Consider two linearly polarized waves propagating along z−axis with their
E−field vectors oscillating along two perpendicular directions.
Ex ( z , t ) = E0 x sin(kz − t )...(1)  is the phase difference introduced within the
E y ( z , t ) = E0 y sin(kz − t +  )...(2) crystal between two orthogonal components of
the incident ray.
From equation (1) and ( 2 )
Ex ( z , t )
= sin(kz − t )...(3) and
E0 x
E y ( z, t )
= sin(kz − t +  )...(4)
E0 y
E y (z, t)
= sin(kz − t)cos  + cos(kz − t)sin 
E 0y
2
Squaring both side
E y (z, t) E x (z, t) E (z, t)
= cos  + sin  1 − x 2 2
E Ex2 Ex Ey
E 0y E 0x E 0x  y
2 + 2 − 2 cos  = sin 2

2
E 0y E 0x E 0x E 0y
Ey Ex E
 − cos  = sin  1 − x 2
E 0y E 0x E 0x This is the equation of ellipse
 E y2 Ex2 Ex Ey
 + − 2 cos  = sin 2

E0 y2 E 0x 2
E 0x E 0 y
This is the equation of the ellipse tilted at an angle α which
is made by the major or minor axis of the ellipse with the x
axis.

This angle α is given by

2E ox E oy cos 
tan 2 = 2 2
E ox - E oy
 Eoy
1) When  = 0, 2, 4…. or 2n  Ey = Ex
Eox
Thus emergent ray is a linearly polarized light.

Eoy
2) When  = , 3, 5…. or (2n+1)  Ey = − Ex
Eox
This is again a straight line showing that emergent light will be a linearly polarized light.

2
E x2 E y
2
+ 2 =1
3) When  = (2n+1)/2 E0 x E0 y

This is a equation of simple ellipse. Thus emergent light is elliptically polarized.

4) When  = (2n+1)/2 and Eoy=Eox=Eo Ex2 + E y2 = E02

This is a equation of circle. Thus emergent light would be circularly polarized.
 Circularly Polarized Light
 3 5 
If  =  ,  , ,....... =, (2n + 1) and E0 x = E0 y = E0
2 2 2 2

Ex ( z , t ) = E0 cos(kz − t ) Ex (t ) = E0 cos(t )
at z=0
E y ( z , t ) = E0 cos(kz − t +  ) E y (t ) = E0 cos( − t )

For  = +/2 Ex (t ) = E0 cos(t ) E y (t ) = E0 sin t

2 2
 Ex (t ) = E0 cos t  E y (t ) = E0 sin t
T T

Now squaring and adding Ex and Ey

Ex2 + E y2 = E02
 Circularly Polarized Light
Ex (t ) = E0 cos(t ) E y (t ) = E0 sin t
2 2
 Ex (t ) = E0 cos t  E y (t ) = E0 sin t
T T

At t=0, Ex = E0 and E y = 0

T
At t= , Ex = 0 and E y = E0
4

T
At t= , Ex = − E0 and E y = 0
2
3T
At t= , Ex = 0 and E y = − E0
4

Left Circularly Polarized Light (LCP)

 Circularly Polarized Light
For z = 0 and  = -/2
2 2
Ex (t ) = E0 cos t & E y (t ) = − E0 sin t
T T

At t=0, Ex = E0 and E y = 0

T
At t= , Ex = 0 and E y = − E0
4

T
At t= , Ex = − E0 and E y = 0
2 Right Circularly
Polarized Light (RCP)
3T
At t= , Ex = 0 and E y = E0
4
Circularly Polarized Light
A right-handed/clockwise circularly
polarized wave as defined from the
point of view of the source. It
would be considered left-
handed/anti-clockwise circularly
polarized if defined from the point
of view of the receiver.

A left-handed/anti-clockwise
circularly polarized wave as defined
from the point of view of the
source. It would be considered
right-handed/clockwise circularly
polarized if defined from the point
of view of the receiver.
 Problems
Q.1: Explain the state of polarizations in the following equations:
(i)Ex= Eocos(ωt+kz); Ey= Eo/2cos(ω t+kz+) Ans.:PPL
(ii)Ex= Eosin(ωt+kz); Ey= Eocos(ωt+kz+ ) Ans.:RCP
(iii)Ex= E=sin(kz- ωt+ /3); Ey= Eosin(kz- ωt- /6) Ans.:LCP
(iv)Ex= Eosin(kz- ωt+ /4); Ey= Eo/2sin(kz- ωt) Ans.:LEP
 Retarders

In an optical device, which introduces a phase difference

between extra-ordinary and ordinary rays, doubly refracting
crystal plates cut in such a way that optic axis is parallel to the
refracting surfaces.

Path difference between E-wave & O-wave is (o ~ e)t.

 ot
 et

t
 Retarders
From the figure, y- and z-components of the vibration
would be

where k = ω/c represents free space propagation constant.

At X = 0, we have:

Inside the crystal the two components can be written as: θ = angle made by
vibration of plane
polarized ray with the optic axis

Therefore at the emerging surface (X = d) of the crystal, components would be

Thus phase difference at the emerging surface would be,

or path difference between O- and E-ray at the refracting surface would be

15B11PH111 ODD2020 Physics-1 62

P K A L K’ B L’ Q

• •
•
• O2
O1 •
•
•
• •
•
E1 • E2
•
•

O, E O, E

Optic Axis parallel to refracting surface, maximum bi-

refrengence with same path. Hence it can be used to make
wave retarders (QWP, HWP).
Within a material; e-ray and o-ray
move in same path with different
velocities ( optic axis is parallel to
refracting surface):

(a) Plane polarized (ϕ=0).

vibration in the incident plane
makes 0 or 900 with optics axis

(a) Circularly polarized (ϕ=90) and E0x

=Eoy
(b) Elliptically polarized (for all other
angles)
 Quarter-Wave Plate
If doubly refracting crystal is having thickness t such that path difference between
E-ray and O-ray is λ/4 i.e.
(  E ~ O )t =  The crystal is known as Quarter-Wave Plate (QWP).
4

t =
4( E ~ O )
In general 
(  E ~ O )t = (2n + 1) n= 0,1, 2, 3…
Phase difference,
4

 = (2n + 1) For n = 0, 2, 4,….. Emergent
2 light will be LCP
and for n = 1, 3, 5,… RCP

Use: QWP Convert plane polarized (PP) to circular polarized (CP) or

elliptically polarized (EP) light and vice verse.
 Quarter-Wave Plate
Thus, if a plane polarized light is incident normally on the refracting face of the QWP,
making angle θ with the principal section, we can divide this vibration in E-wave and O-
wave. After transmission through the QWP, they will have a phase difference π/2 and
resultant of these two vibrations will be elliptically polarized one.
 Half-Wave Plate
If doubly refracting crystal is having thickness t such that path difference between E-ray and
O-ray is λ/2 i.e.

(  E ~ O )t = 
2

t =
2( E ~ O )

(  E ~ O )t = (2n + 1)
Phase difference, 2
 = (2n + 1)
n= 0,1, 2, 3…

The crystal is known as Half-Wave Plate (HWP).

Use: HWP Convert Right circular polarized (RCP) or right elliptically

polarized (REP) light to LCP or LEP and vice verse.
Similarly λ (Full wave Plate) , λ/6 plate or λ/8 plate etc
 Production of Polarized Light
1. Plane polarized light:

2. Circularly polarized light:

QWP

Un-polarized light Plane polarized Vibration makes 450 angle

light with optic axis.

If quarter plate is at 450, light passing through it will be circularly polarized.

No variation of intensity with the rotation of analyzer.
 Production of Polarized Light
3. Elliptically polarized light:
 Analysis of Polarized Light
1. Plane polarized light:
Polarizer Analizer Intensity
maximum

Intensity
Zero

Intensity
maximum
 Analysis of Polarized Light
2. Circularly polarized light:
Analyzer

No variation circularly polarized light

in intensity

Analyzer
If variation in intensity is like plane polarized
light original light is circularly polarized.

Otherwise, original light is un-polarized.

 Scheme of analysis of a given beam of light
Given beam of light
Incident on a rotating Nicol prism

Variation in intensity with Variation in intensity with No Variation in intensity

minimum non zero minimum zero Conclusion: Given light is either
Conclusion: Given light is either Conclusion: Given light is circularly polarized or un-
elliptically polarized or partially plane polarized polarized.
polarized

Incident on a QWP with optic axis || to

the pass axis of the analyzing Nicol at the Incident on a QWP in any position and
position of maximum intensity and then then examined by rotating Nicol prism
examined by rotating Nicol prism

Variation in intensity Variation in intensity Variation in intensity No Variation in

with minimum zero with minimum non zero with minimum zero intensity
Conclusion: elliptically Conclusion: partially Conclusion: circularly Conclusion: un-
polarized polarized polarized polarized.
Plane of Vibration and Plane of Polarization
 Optical Activity
Rotation of plane of polarization on passing through a substance is called
optical activity. Substances exhibiting this property are called optically active
substances. There are two type of optically active substances:
❖ Right handed or dextrorotatory: Rotate the plane of
vibration in the clockwise direction as seen by the
observer facing the source. Examples: Sodium
chlorate, cane sugar.

❖ Left handed or laevorotatory: Rotate the plane of

vibration in the anti-clockwise direction as seen by an
observer facing the source. Examples: Fruit sugar,
turpentine.

Angle of rotation depends on the length and concentration of the medium.

Other Examples: Quartz crystals (Some may be dextro- and some laevo-
rotatory. Calcite is optically inactive.
 Biot’s law for optical rotation
   : angle of rotation of the plane of vibration for any given wavelength.
: length of the optically active medium traversed.
 In case of solution or vapours
  C, C: concentration of the solution or vapour
* The angle of rotation is inversely proportional to the square of the wavelength for
a given length of the optically active substance.
 The total rotation produced by a number of optically active substances is equal
to the algebric sum of the individual rotations.
 = 1 +  2 + 3 + .... =  i
i

The anticlockwise rotations are taken +ve ;

while the clockwise rotations are taken -ve.
Applications:
1. To find the percentage of optically active material present in the solution.
2. The amount of sugar present in blood of a diabetic patient determined by
measuring the angle of rotation of the plane of polarization.
 Fresnel’s Theory of Optical Rotation
❑ A plane polarized light on entering a crystal may be taken as superposition of RCP
and LCP light moving with the same angular velocity. For example:
ˆ 0 cos(kz − t ) + ˆjE0 sin(kz − t )
ER = iE
ˆ 0 cos(kz − t ) − ˆjE0 sin(kz − t )
EL = iE
ˆ 0 cos(kz − t ) Linearly Polarized Light
But E = ER + EL  E = 2iE
❑ In an optically inactive substance, these components travel with the same speed.
Hence, on emergence, produce a plane polarized light without any rotation of the
plane of polarization.
❑ In an optically active crystal, two components travel with different speeds so that
relative phase difference is developed between them on transmission through the
crystal. In dextrorotatory substance vR>vL and in laevorotatory substance vL>vR.
❑ On emergence from the optically active substance, the superposition of LCP and
RCP waves give a plane polarized wave with plane of vibration rotated.

 = (  R −  L )t

 Mathematical Treatment
RCP propagating in z-direction: ERx = E0 cos(k R z − t ) and ERy = E0 sin(k R z − t )

LCP propagating in z-direction: ELx = E0 cos(k L z − t ) and ELy = − E0 sin(k L z − t )

 
where kR =  R and k L = L
c c
Ex = ERx + ELx = E0 cos(k R z − t ) + E0 cos(k L z − t )
Now
 kR z + kL z   kR z − kL z 
 Ex = 2 E0 cos  − t  cos  
 2   2 
Similarly  k z + kL z   k z − kL z 
E y = 2 E0 cos  R − t  sin  R 
 2   2 
Ey k − k  k −k  R −  L
Now take
= tan  = tan  R L t   = R L t = t
Ex  2  2 c 2

or  = ( R −  L )t where, t = thickness of optically active substance

Fresnel’s Theory of Optical Rotation
 For optically active substances
R : the refractive index of clockwise vibration
L : the refractive index of anti-clockwise vibration
t : the thickness of the quartz plate,
Thus, the path difference between the two components is given by  = (  L ~  R )t
2
Corresponding phase difference will be = (  L ~  R )t

Angle of rotation of plane of vibration will be

  c c 
 = = (  L ~  R )t =  ~ t
2    vL vR 
 Specific Rotation
The rotation (in degrees) produced by a path of one decimeter length of a substance
of unit density for a given wavelength at a given temperature is defined as specific
rotation.

If θ is the rotation produced by l decimeter length of an optically active substance

having concentration of its solution c gm/cm3 then specific rotation at a given
temperature T for a given wavelength λ is expressed as:

 The unit of specific rotation is deg.(decimeter)-1(gm/cc)-1

S (T ,  ) =
lc The molecular rotation is given by the specific rotation
(If l is in cm)
10 and molecular weight.
S (T ,  ) =
lc
 Polarimeter
A device designed for accurate measurement of angle of rotation of
plane of vibration of a plane polarized light by an optically active
medium is said to be a polarimeter.

1. Laurent's Half shade polarimeter

2. Bi-quartz polarimeter

Laurent's Half Shade Polarimeter

Half-Shade Device (H)
It consists of a circular plate with one half
made up of quartz cut parallel to the optic axis
which is parallel to YY’ and its thickness is such
that it produces a path difference of /2 or a
phase difference of  between ordinary and
extraordinary components. Other half is made
up of glass, so that glass absorbs same light as
quartz plate does.


S=
lc
where l is length
of tube T1 in dm.
❑Let the plane polarized light incident normally on the half shade device be
along PQ making an angle with AC. The vibrations emerge from the glass
plate part of the half shade device as such i.e., there is no change along the
plane PQ.

❑Inside the quartz plate which is doubly refracting, the light is divided into
two components as we know, one ordinary component and the other
extraordinary component parallel to the optic axis along XX’ and YY’
direction.

❑The two components travel along

the same direction through
separation but with different
velocities. The ordinary component
moves with greater velocity than the
extraordinary component. On
emergence, a phase difference of is
introduced between them.
❑Due to this phase difference the direction of the ordinary component gets
reversed. If the initial position of the ordinary component is represented by
OM, then the final position is represented by ON. Now, on emergence the
resultant of the extraordinary OL and ordinary component ON will be OR
making an angle  with the y axis. The vibrations of the beam emerging out
of the quartz portion of the half shade device will be along RS.
❑The light emerging from Half shaded device passes through the tube
containing the optically active substance followed by an analyzer.
❑The analyzer is capable of rotation about a common axis. The rotation of
the analyzer can be read on a circular scale fitted with it.
❑The light after passing through the analyzer is viewed through a telescope
which is focused on the half shade device.
❑When the past direction is parallel to PQ then light from the glass portion
will pass unobstructed while the light from the quartz portion will be partly
obstructed. Due to this, the glass half will appear brighter than the quartz
half.
❑On the other hand, if the pass direction of the analyzer is parallel to RS,
light from the quartz portion will pass unobstructed, but thelight from the
glass portion will be partly obstructed. Thus the quartz half will appear
brighter than the glass half.
❑If however, the past direction of the analyzer is parallel to AC, i.e.y axis it
equally inclined to the two planes polarized lights.
❑Hence the field of view, in the two halves, will be equally bright because
the half shade device serves the purpose of dividing the field of view in 2
halves.
❑ A little change in the direction of the pass direction of the analyzer, makes
one half brighter other half darker.
❑ In the experiment to begin with, the experimental tube is filled with water;
the telescope is focused on the half shade device and analyzer is rotated till
the 2 halves are equally bright. This position is noted on the circular scale.
❑The tube is then filled with the optically active solution and placed in
position. The analyzer is rotated and it brought to a position such that the
two halves are equally bright again. This new position is noted and the
difference between the two regions gives the angle of rotation, pretty
accurately.


S=
lc
 Bi-Quartz Polarimeter


 = (  L ~  R )t


S=
lc

Left handed Quartz Right handed Quartz

 Transmission
axis of analyzer •White light source is used.
•Two semicircular quartz plates
(Right and Left handed) with Optic
axis perpendicular to crystal surface
(rotation effect only).
•Device is designed for yellow color.
•YY’ is tint of passes
•If Analyzer axes is perpendicular to
Transmission YY’ then yellow color will be
axis of analyzer
disappeared and we can get
resultant of Red and Blue colour
(Reddish violet color) as min
intensity.

Transmission
axis of analyzer

Biquartz is much more sensitive and accurate then Half shade

polarimeter. But having major drawback for color blind person.
Questions
1. Calculate the angle of polarization for a beam goes from (i) Air to water, (ii) water
to glass. Given water=1.33 and glass = 1.54.

2. Three Polaroids A, B and C are placed in a row. B is oriented at 600 and C is

oriented at 300 with A. If an unpolarized light with intensity I0 passes through this
combination, how much intensity will be transmitted through this system?

3. Calculate the thickness of a half wave plate of quartz for  = 6 x 10-5 cm? Given e
= 1.553, o = 1.544. Also calculate the thickness of quarter wave plate.

4. A plate of thickness 0.020 mm is cut from calcite with optic axis parallel to the
face. Given o = 1.648 and e = 1.481, find out those wavelengths in the range 400 to
780 nm for which the plate behaves as a HWP and for which the plate behaves as a
QWP.

5. A QWP has thickness of 0.002 cm. It is cut with faces parallel to optic axis, e =
1.592, o = 1.586. Monochromatic light incident normally on the plate emerges as (i) LCP
light, (ii) RCP light. Determine the wavelengths of light in each case assuming that there
is no variation of refractive indices with wavelength.

6. A transparent plate is given. Using two Nicol prisms how would you find whether
the given plate is QWP, HWP or simple glass plate.
7. How would you distinguish between circularly polarized light and elliptically
polarized light with the help of Nicol prism and QWP?
8. An ordinary beam of light is sent through three dichroic polarizer, the second of which is oriented at
250 with the first and the third at 500 with the first in the same direction. What intensity gets through
the system, relative to that of the incident unpolarized light. (a) neglecting light reflected from the six
surfaces and (b) assuming 4.0% of the light reflected at each surface?

9. A quartz plate cut perpendicular to the optic axis is to be used to rotate the plane of polarized light
through an angle of 900. If the light to be used is the green light of wavelength 5461 Å, find its
thickness.

10. If 20 cm length of a certain solution causes right handed rotation of 420 and 30 cm length of another
solution causes left handed rotation of 270 . What optical rotation will be caused by 30 cm length of a
mixture of the above solutions in the volume ratio 1 : 2. The solutions are not chemically active.

11. Plane polarized light passes through a quartz plate with its optic axis parallel to the refracting faces.
Calculate the least thickness of the plate for which the emergent beam will be plane polarized, given
μ0 = 1.5442, μe = 1.5533 for λ = 5893 Å.

12. Plane polarized light (with incident intensity 20 watt/m2) is incident on a wave plate with its faces cut
parallel to the optic axis. The principle refractive indices are μ0 = 1.5442, μe = 1.5532 for λ = 6000 Å.
Find
a. The Intensity ratio of extra ordinary and ordinary rays if the incident vibration makes an angle of
600 with optic axis;
b. Least thickness of the plate for which the emergent light is plane polarized out of phase.
c. Least thickness for which the phase difference between the two beams is 600.
d. Least thickness for which the outgoing light is elliptically polarized.
Problem 12. Plane polarized light (with incident intensity 20 watt/m2) is incident on a wave plate with
its faces cut parallel to the optic axis. The principle refractive indices are μ0 = 1.5442, μe = 1.5532 for λ
= 6000 Å. Find
a. The Intensity ratio of extra ordinary and ordinary rays if the incident vibration makes an angle of
600 with optic axis;
b. Least thickness of the plate for which the emergent light is plane polarized out of phase.
c. Least thickness for which the phase difference between the two beams is 600.
d. Least thickness for which the outgoing light is elliptically polarized.
Solution: a) For extra ordinary light, Intensity = 𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = 20𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 60 = 5𝑊/𝑚2

For ordinary light, Intensity, = 𝐼0 − 𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = 𝐼0 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 = 20𝑠𝑖𝑛2 60 = 15𝑊/𝑚2

b) Path difference between E-wave & O-wave is 𝜇 − 𝜇 𝑡 = 0.009𝑡 = λ = 6000.

𝑜 𝑒 2 2
Or 𝑡 = 3000
=
1000000
0.009 3
c) Phase difference between E-wave & O-wave is = 2𝜋 × 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
λ

d) Quarter wave plate