UNIT 3

(Geographic Information Systems)

G.BHOGAYYA NAIDU
Associate Professor, VBIT, HYD

Syllabus:
Geographic Information Systems: Introduction to GIS; Components of a GIS; Geospatial Data:
Spatial Data-Attribute data – Joining Spatial and Attribute data; GIS Operations: Spatial Data
Input- Attribute data Management –Data display- Data Exploration- Data Analysis.
COORDINATE SYSTEMS: Geographic Coordinate System: Approximation of the Earth,
Datum; Map Projections: Types of Map Projections-Map projection parameters commonly used
Map Projections - Projected coordinate Systems.

Introduction to GIS:
Geographical Information System (GIS) is a technology that provides the means to collect and
use geographic data to assist in the development of Agriculture. A digital map is generally of
much greater value than the same map printed on a paper as the digital version can be combined
with other sources of data for analyzing information with a graphical presentation. The GIS
software makes it possible to synthesize large amounts of different data, combining different
layers of information to manage and retrieve the data in a more useful manner. GIS provides a
powerful means for agricultural scientists to better service to the farmers and farming community
in answering their query and helping in a better decision making to implement planning.

Overview of GIS:

A Geographical Information System (GIS) is a system for capturing, storing, analyzing and
managing data and associated attributes, which are spatially referenced to the Earth. The
geographical information system is also called as a geographic information system or geospatial
information system. It is an information system capable of integrating, storing, editing,
analyzing, sharing, and displaying geographically referenced information. In a more generic
sense, GIS is a software tool that allows users to create interactive queries, analyze the spatial
information, edit data, maps, and present the results of all these operations. GIS technology is
becoming essential tool to combine various maps and remote sensing information to generate
various models, which are used in real time environment. Geographical information system is the
science utilizing the geographic concepts, applications and systems. ng activities for the
development of agriculture.

Geographical Information System can be used for scientific investigations, resource

management, asset management, environmental impact assessment, urban planning, cartography,
criminology, history, sales, marketing, and logistics. For example, agricultural planners might
use geographical data to decide on the best locations for a location specific crop planning, by
combining data on soils, topography, and rainfall to determine the size and location of
biologically suitable areas. The final output could include overlays with land ownership,
transport, infrastructure, labour availability, and distance to market centers.

Definition of GIS: Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer system build to capture,
store, manipulate, analyze, manage and display all kinds of spatial or geographical data. GIS
application is tools that allow end users to perform spatial query, analysis, edit spatial data and
create hard copy maps. In simple way GIS can be define as an image that is referenced to the
earth or has x and y coordinate and it’s attribute values are stored in the table. These x and y
coordinates are based on different projection system and there are various types of projection
system. Most of the time GIS is used to create maps and to print. To perform the basic task
in GIS, layers are combined, edited and designed.

List of GIS software:

Commercial or proprietary GIS software

 ESRI – Products include ArcView 3.x, ArcGIS, ArcSDE, ArcIMS, and ArcWeb
services.
 GRAM++ GIS – Low-cost GIS software product developed by CSRE, IIT Bombay.
 Autodesk – Products include MapGuide and other products that interface with its
flagship AutoCAD software package.
 Cadcorp – Developers of GIS software and OpenGIS standard
 Intergraph – Products include GeoMedia, GeoMedia Profesional, GeoMedia
WebMap
 ERDAS IMAGINE – A proprietary GIS, Remote Sensing, and Photogrammetry
software developed by Leica Geosystems Geospatial Imaging.
 SuperGeo – Products include SuperGIS Desktop & extensions, SuperPad Suite,
SuperWebGIS & extensions, SuperGIS Engine & extensions, SuperGIS Network
Server and GIS services.
 SuperMap GIS – Products include SuperMap iServer .NET/Java, SuperMap Deskpro,
SuperMap Objects, SuperMap Express, SuperMap IS .NET, eSuperMap,
SuperNavigation Engine, FieldMapper and services.
 IDRISI – Proprietary GIS product developed by Clark Labs.
 MapInfo – Products include MapInfo Professional and MapXtreme. integrates GIS
software, data and services.
 MapPoint – Proprietary GIS product developed by Microsoft.
 Caliper – Products include Maptitude, TransCAD and TransModeler. Develops GIS
and the only GIS for transportation.
 Pictometry – Proprietary software which allows oblique images to be draped with
shapefiles.
 Black Coral Inc — a leading edge product company developing geospatial
collaboration capabilities that enable better outcomes for personnel and tactical teams
operating in emergency response and military environments.
  STAR-APIC – european GIS developer, offers GIS products (WinSTAR, STAR
GIS), spatial data servers (STAR Server, STAR NeXt, GEOSPatial Hub), GIS-based
business solutions (AquaSTAR, STAR ELEC, PipeGuardian, etc.).
 CARIS (Computer Aided Resource Information System) – GIS systems for
hydrography and cadastral systems.
 GMS – Three-dimensional environment for building geologic and groundwater
models
 Manifold System – Low-cost GIS software package.
 Oracle Spatial – Product allows users to perform basic geographic operations and
store common spatial data types in a native Oracle environment.
 Orbit GIS Generic and multi-purpose GIS toolkit, written in Java.
 Safe Software – Spatial ETL products including FME, SpatialDirect and the ArcGIS
Data Interoperability Extension.
 Smallworld – developed in Cambridge
 TatukGIS – Products include a GIS development toolkit, Internet Map Server, GIS
Editor, free GIS Viewer, Aerial Imagery Corrector.
 Axpand – Proprietary GIS cartography product developed by Axes Systems. Modules
include data import/export, automatic generalization, visualization and on-screen
editing, pre-print configuration.

Open source software:

Most widely used open source applications:

• GRASS – Originally developed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, open source: a
complete GIS
• MapServer – Web-based mapping server, developed by the University of Minnesota.
• Chameleon – Environments for building applications with MapServer.
• GeoNetwork opensource – A catalog application to manage spatially referenced resources
• GeoTools – Open source GIS toolkit written in Java, using Open Geospatial Consortium
specifications.
• gvSIG – Open source GIS written in Java.
• ILWIS – ILWIS (Integrated Land and Water Information System) integrates image, vector
and thematic data.
• JUMP GIS – Java Unified Mapping Platform.
• MapWindow GIS – Free, open source GIS desktop application and programming
component.
• OpenLayers – open source AJAX library for accessing geographic data layers of all kinds,
originally developed and sponsored by MetaCarta
• PostGIS – Spatial extensions for the open source PostgreSQL database, allowing geospatial
queries. • Quantum GIS – QGIS is a user friendly Open Source GIS that runs on Linux,
Unix, Mac OSX, and Windows.
• TerraView – GIS desktop that handles vector and raster data stored in a relational or geo-
relational database.
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4 M’s in GIS:
 These four M’s are key activities which can be enhanced by using information system
through GIS.

 GIS is based on a mathematical framework of primitive map analysis operations

analogous to those of traditional statistics and algebra.

 From this perspective, GIS forms a tool box for processing maps and fundamental
concepts of spatial measurement.

 In many ArcGIS applications, you can measure distances and areas by sketching lines
and polygons on a map. This kind of measurement is called interactive measurement.
While most measurements take place on 2D maps, in ArcGIS Earth you can take 3D
measurements that account for elevation and depth

 GIS helps in identifying the impact of human behavior on natural resources and
leads to more effective utilization of the same. ... The major application of GIS in natural
resource management is in confronting environmental issues like a flood, landslide, soil
erosions, drought, earthquake etc

 A GIS is a tool that can process, display, and integrate different data
sources including maps, digital elevation models (DEMs), GPS (global positioning
system) data, images, and tables. 2. A GIS can be used to build a vector-based or raster-
based model.
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Key components of GIS:

1.Hardware: Hardware is the physical component of the computer and GIS runs on it.
Hardware may be hard disk, processor, motherboard and so on. All these hardware work
together to function as a computer. GIS software run on these hardware. Computer can be
standalone called desktop or server based. GIS can run on both of them.
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2. Software: GIS Software provides tools and functions to input and store spatial data or
geographic data. It provides tool to perform geographic query, run analysis model and
display geographic data in the map form. GIS software uses Relation Database
Management System (RDBMS) to store the geographic data. Software talks with the
database to perform geographic query.

Software Components of A GIS:

 Data input and verification

 Data storage and data base management

 Data output and presentation

 Data Transformation

 Interaction with the user.

3.Data: Data are the fuel for the GIS and the most important and expensive component.
Geographic data are the combination of physical features and it’s information which is
stored in the tables. These tables are maintained by the RDBMS. The process of
capturing the geographic data are called digitization which is the most tedious job. It is
 the process of converting scanned hardcopy maps into the digital format. Digitization is
done by tracing the lines along the geographic features for example to capture a building
you will trace around the building on the image.

Data:1) Raster data and 2)Vector data

Raster: Raster image store information in a cell based manner. It can be aerial photo,
satellite image, Digital Elevation Model (DEM). Raster images normally store continuous
data. (Ex- Continuous phenomena such as elevation, Temperature and soil chemistry,
rainfall, pressure.)

Vector: Vector data are discrete. It store information in x, y coordinate format. There are
three types of Vector data: Lines, Points and Area.

(Examples are Roads, Buildings, Water bodies, etc )

 Data such as standard map and graphics file formats, images, CAD files, spreadsheets,
relational databases, census data.

 A GIS stores information about the world as a collection of themed layers that can be
used together. A layer can be anything that contains similar features such as customers,
buildings, streets, lakes, or postal codes.

 This data includes either an explicit geographic reference, such as a latitude and longitude
coordinate, or an implicit reference such as an address, postal code, census tract name,
forest stand identifier, or road name.

 Data can be free or fee-based. The source of this data comes from a variety of places.

 Link to potential data sources.

Data types supported in ArcGIS

4.People: People are the user of the GIS system. People use all above three component to
run a GIS system. Today’s computers are fast and user friendly which makes it easy to
perform geographic queries, analysis and displaying maps. Today everybody uses GIS to
perform their daily job.

 Several VCU individuals are active in GIS projects. Some are in the system management
role, keeping the GIS servers running; some collect data and create the layers to specific
geographic areas, while others provide training on using GIS.

 Training

 The VCU Libraries supports spatial and numeric data research with technology, training,
and data resources. For more information, please visit: http://guides.library.vcu.edu/gis
 Authorized ESRI Instruction at VCU.

 Other links from ESRI:

• ESRI Homepage

• Discussion Forums

• Scripts & Tools

5.Methods (Procedure): A successful GIS operates according to a well-designed

implementation plan and business rules, which are the models and operating practices
unique to each organization.

 The procedures used to input, analyze, and query data determine the quality and validity
of the final product.

 The procedures used are simple the steps taken in a well defined and consistent method
to produce correct and reproducible results from the GIS system.

The necessary administrative, organizational, physical and cultural environments that

support GIS operations come under infrastructure. It also includes data clearing houses,
requisite skills, general organization patterns, and data standards

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Input & Output Devices

Input Devices:

 Digitizer: The digitizer is used in conversion of raster to vector.

 Scanner: It is used to convert the data to raster/digitizer on paper.
 Keyboard: The entry of attributes data id done through keyboard.
 Disk Drive: When the data is to be taken from another system into GIS, disk drive is
used.
Output Devices:
 Plotter: The plotter is used to plot the graphical information on a paper, once the analysis
is completed.
 Printer: The information is printed on a paper with the help of printer.
 Visual Display Unit: The results are displayed with the help of visual display unit, once
the analysis is completed.
 Tape Drive: Once the analysis is completed, tape drive is used for storing the results and
taking it to other systems.
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Geospatial Data:

 Geospatial data separates GIS from other information systems.

 E.g.-Road, we refer its location (where it is), and its characteristics (e.g. - length,
name, speed, limit, and direction),
 The location also called geometry or shape, represents spatial data, where as the
characteristics are attribute data.
 Thus a road, like any geospatial data, has two components of spatial data and
attribute data
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GIS Data Types:

 The basic data type in a GIS reflects traditional data found on a map. Accordingly, GIS
technology utilizes two basic types of data. These are:

 Spatial Data describes the location and shape of geographic features, and their spatial
relationship to other features. The information contained in the spatial database is held in
the form of digital co-ordinates, which describe the spatial features. These can be points
(for example, hospitals), lines (for example, roads), or polygons (for example,
administrative districts). Normally, the different sets of data will be held as separate
layers, which can be combined in a number of different ways for analysis or map
production.

 The Attribute/Information/Non-Spatial Database: The attribute data describe the

characteristics or qualities of the spatial features (i.e., descriptive information). The
amount of attribute data to be attached to a spatial feature can vary significantly
depending on the feature type and the applications. GIS links spatial data with geographic
information about a particular feature on a map. The information is stored as ‘attributes’
of the graphically represented feature.

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Representation of Spatial Information:

 Geographical features are depicted on map by POINT, LINE & POLYGON

 Point feature - A discrete location depicted by a special symbol or label.
 A single x,y coordinates
 LINE feature - Represents a linear feature. A set of ordered x,y coordinates
 POLYGON feature - An area feature where boundary encloses a homogeneous area
Joining Spatial and Attribute data:
  The geo-relational data model stores attributes data separately from spatial data in a split
system. The two data components are linked through the feature IDs.
 The object-based data model stores spatial data as an attribute along with other attributes
in a single system.
 The relational database model is the norm for data management in GIS
 A relational database is a collection of tables(relations), through a key , a common field
whose values can uniquely identify a record in a table.
 The feature ID serves as the key in the geo-relational data model to link spatial data and
attribute data.
 Relational database is efficient and flexible for data search, data retrieval, data editing,
and creating tabular reports.
 Each table in the data base can be prepared, maintained, and edited separately from other
tables.
 Vector Data: There are three types of vector data, points, lines and polygons. These data
are created by digitizing the base data. They store information in x, y coordinates.
Vectors models are used to store data which have discrete boundaries like country
borders, land parcels and roads.
 RASTER DATA MODEL:

 Raster data models present information through a grid of cells. Raster grids are usually
made up of square or rectangular cells. Unlike vector data models, which show
geographic data through points, lines, or polygons, raster data is displays one value in
each cell.

 An example of discrete raster data is population density. Continuous data examples are
temperature and elevation measurements. There are also three types of raster datasets:
thematic data, spectral data, and pictures (imagery). Digital Elevation Model (DEM)
showing elevation.

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GIS OPERATIONS:

To explain what we do in GIS

GIS activities into

Spatial Data Input 1. Data entry: Using existing data create new data
2. Data editing
3. Geometric transformation
4. Projection and re-projection
Attribute data 1. Data Entry and Verification
Management 2. Database management
 3. Attribute data manipulation
Data Display 1. Cartographic symbolization
2. Map design
Data Exploration 1. Attribute data Query
2. Spatial data Query
3. Geographic visualization
Data analysis 1. Vector data analysis: Buffering, overlay, distance measurement,
spatial statistics, map manipulation
2. Raster data analysis: Local, neighborhood, zonal, global(group of
cells), raster data manipulation
3. Terrain mapping and analysis
4. View shed and watershed
5. Spatial interpolation
6. Geo-coding and dynamic segmentation.
7. Path analysis and network applications

GIS Modeling 1.Binary Model

2.Index Model
3.Regression Model
4.Process Model

1. SPATIAL DATA INPUT:

 The most expensive part of a GIS project is data acquisition. We can acquire data by
using existing data or by creating new data.
 New digital spatial data can be created from satellite images, GPS data, Field surveys,
Street address, and text files with x-y coordinates. But the paper maps remain the
dominant data source.
 Manual digitalizing or scanning can convert paper maps into digital format.
 New maps requires editing(removes digitizing errors) and geometric transformation(new
maps same physical dim as its source map, into a real world coordinate system)
2. Attribute Data Management:
To complete a GIS database, we must enter and verify attribute data through digitizing and
editing. Attribute data reside as tables in a relational database.

The attribute table is organized by row and column. Each row represents a spatial feature, an
each column or field describes a characteristics. Attribute tables in a database must be
designed to facilitate data input, search, retrieval, manipulation, and output. Two basic
elements in the design of a relational database are the key and the type of data relationship:
the key established a connection between corresponding records in two tables, and the type
of data relationship dictates how the tables are actually joined or linked. In practice, attribute
data management also includes such tasks as adding or deleting fields and creating new
existing fields.
3. Data Display:
Maps are most effective in communicating spatial information, mapmaking is a routine GIS
operation. We derive maps from data query and analysis, and we prepare maps for data
visualization and presentation. A map for presentation usually has a number of elements:
Title, Subtitle, body, legend, north arrow, scale bar, acknowledgement, and border. These
elements work together to bring spatial information to the map reader.

The first step in mapmaking is assembling map elements. Window based GIS packages have
simplified this process by providing choices for each map element through menus and
palettes. But we must be aware of “default options”. Without a basic understanding of map
symbols, colors, and topology, we can easily produce a bad map according to cartographic
standards. The step is made design. Map design is a creative process that cannot be easily
replaced by default templates and computer code. The mapmaker must, experiment with the
layout and visual hierarchy. A poorly designed map can confuse the map reader and even
distort the information intended by the mapmaker.

4. Data Exploration:
Usually a precursor to data analysis, data exploration involves the activities of exploring
the general trends in the data, taking a close look at data subsets. And focusing on
possible relationships between data sets. Effective data exploration requires interactive
and dynamically linked visual tools. A window based GIS package is ideal for data
exploration. We can display maps, graphs, and tables in multiple but dynamically linked
windows so that, when we select a data subset from a table, it automatically highlights
the corresponding features in a graph and a map. This kind of interactivity increases our
capacity for information processing and synthesis, Because geospatial data consist of
spatial and attribute data, data exploration can be approached from spatial data, or
attribute data, or both. Additionally, data exploration in GIS can employ map based such
as data classification, data aggregation, and map compaction.

5. Data Analysis:
Classification data analysis into seven groups. The first two groups include basic
analytical tools. For vector data, these tools include buffering, overlay, distance
measurement, spatial statistics, and map manipulation. Buffering creates buffer zones by
measuring straight-line distances from selected features. Overlay, recognized by many as
the most important GIS tool, combines geometries and attributes from different layers to
create the output. Distance measurement calculates distance between spatial features.
Spatial statistics detect spatial dependence and patterns of concentration among features.
And map manipulation tools manage and alter layers in a data base.

Common tools for analyzing raster data are traditionally grouped into local,
neighborhood, zonal and global operations. A local operation operates on individual
cells: a neighborhood operation, a specific neighborhood such as a 3- by- 3 windows: a
 zonal operation, a group of cells with the same values or like features: and a global
operation, the entire raster. Often a raster data operation relates the input to the output
with a mathematical function. For example, a local operation can compute the average of
the input rasters on a cell-by-cell basis. Other tools that are not in the proceeding groups
can perform such tasks as data extraction and generalization.
 Query by attribute data: An attribute query is the process of searching and retrieving
records of features in a database based on desired attribute values. See Also Query. Such
queries are a fundamental part of managing and analyzing GIS data. Typically, this is
performed using a criteria-based query language, most commonly SQL.
 In most cases, the desired information can be given as a set of criteria based on the
available attributes, such as "having a code of 'CURRENT'." These criteria are formatted
in the appropriate query language as a Boolean expression, which can be validated as
either true or false for each record in the database. Individual criteria can be constructed
and combined using logical operators such as comparisons (>, <, =, >=, <=), Boolean
algebra (and, or, not), and functions (sin, cos, sqrt, etc.). An alternative to using attribute
query is to perform a spatial selection.

 Query by Spatial Data: Spatial data query refers to the process of retrieving data from a
map by working with map features. The GIS can carry out a number of such queries.
There are three forms of spatial data query:
 Selection by Cursor
 Selection by Graphic Object and
 Selection by Spatial Relationship (Topological Relationship)
Buffering: Buffer can be defined as an influenced area/ zone of an object in GIS. There
is a range of functions available in GIS that allow a spatial entity to influence its
neighbours.
The most common example is buffering, the creation of a zone of interest around a
point, Line or area with a given distance.
 Hybrid Data Query: Both Geo-graphic and Attribute
Ex:- Selecting all roads which fall entirely inside of a drawn circle and having a road
width greater than 10 m. Ponds having area less than 10 sq.m in TELANGANA State.

RASTER DATA QUERY:

Raster may also be queried by the following methods.
 Query by PIXEL values of the Raster.- Selecting all pixels which have values less than
10, raster data query can also use Boolean operations (AND, OR, and NOT)
 Query by ATTRIBUTE: Raster is classified image or thematic image or raster pixels are
joined with any attribute table, it can be queried by the attributes: Ex:- Acquiring pixels
count of vegetation class, Water class or settlement class, etc..
 Query by SPATIAL DATA: A raster may be queried by pointing the cursor on a cell to
identify its location and cell value. Graphic objects( like point, line, circle, rectangle or
polygon) can also be used to make a query on rater data. Ex- Obtaining the pixel values
which fall within the graphic object used for query.
 1. Vector data analysis: Buffering, overlay, distance measurement, spatial statistics, map
manipulation
2. Raster data analysis: Local, neighborhood, zonal, global(group of cells), raster data
manipulation
3. Terrain mapping and analysis
4. View shed and watershed
5. Spatial interpolation
6. Geo-coding and dynamic segmentation.
7. Path analysis and network applications

6. GIS Models and Modeling:

A model is a simplified representation of phenomenon or a system, and GIS modeling
refers to the use of a GIS and its functionality in building a model with geospatial data.
GIS models can be grouped into four general types: Binary, index, regression and process
models.

COORDINATE SYSTEM:

 In mathematics and applications, a coordinate system is a system for assigning a tuple

(ordered list) of numbers of each point in an n- dimensional space. It is a system used to
identify locations on a graph or grid.
 Ex- The system of assigning longitude and latitude to geographical locations is a
coordinate system.
 Curvilinear and Rectangular systems
 Curvilinear coordinate system: uses angular measurements from the origin to describe
one’s position.
 Ex- Geographical coordinate system (GCS) that measures angular latitude/ latitude
measurements.
 Rectangular coordinate system: uses distance measurements from the origin.
 Ex- a Cartesian coordinate system (CCS) that uses distance measurement.
 Cartesian Coordinate System: is used to uniquely determine each point in the plane
through two numbers, usually called the x- coordinate and the y- coordinate of the point.
 CGS is also used in space (where three coordinates are used) and in higher dimensions.
 The origin of the graticule (0,0) is defined by where the equator and prime meridian
intersect.
 Having 4 quadrants.
 Geographic coordinate system:- Is location reference system for spatial features on the
Earth’s surface.
 The coordinates are (x, y) pairs that are based on some universal origin point for
reference.
 The most commonly used is latitude and longitude.
 Latitude –The angle between the line joining the point to the centre of the earth and the
equatorial plane is called latitude, angles measured North – South direction
  Longitude – The counter-clock wise angular distance between the prime meridian plane
and the meridian plane of the point measured in equatorial plane is called longitude. east
or West
 Latitude and longitude measured either in decimal degree or in degree, minutes and
seconds of arc from reference lines that run East-West (latitude; equator) or North-
South (longitude; prime meridian)
 Latitude : In geography, latitude is a geographic coordinate that specifies the north–
south position of a point on the Earth's surface. Latitude is an angle which ranges from 0°
at the Equator to 90° at the poles. Lines of constant latitude, or parallels, run east–west as
circles parallel to the equator.
 Longitude is a geographic coordinate that specifies the east–west position of a point on
the Earth's surface, or the surface of a celestial body. It is an angular measurement,
usually expressed in degrees and denoted by the Greek letter lambda. Meridians connect
points with the same longitude



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APPROXIMATION OF EARTH:

 Map spatial features on the Earth’s surface is to select a Model that approximates the size
and shape of the Earth.(Sphere)
 The shape and size of GCS’s surface is defined by a sphere or spheroid.
 Earth Semi-Major axis (a= 6378 km, Equator, E-W)
 Earth Semi-Minor axis(b= 6357 kn, Polar axis, N-S)
 The flattening f=(a-b) / a,
 Eccentricity ‘e’ is another quantity which can also describes the shape of the Earth,
e2=(a2-b2)/ a2
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DATUM:A datum is a mathematical model of the Earth, Which serves as reference or base
for calculation the geographic coordinates of location.

 Horizontal datum's are used for describing a point on Earth surface, generally in latitude
and longitude.
 Vertical datum's are used to measure elevations or under water depths.
 Clark 1866, ground measured spheroid
 semi major axis3962.96 miles and
 semi minor axis-3949.21 miles
 NAD27 , NAD83 and presently we are using WGS84 (World Geodetic System)
 GPS receivers are based on WGS84
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** MAP PROJECTION:

 A globe is a true representation of the earth, which is divided into various sectors by the
lines of latitudes and longitudes, this network is called graticule.
 A map projection denotes the preparation of the graticules on a flat surface.
 A Systematic drawing of parallels of latitude and meridians of longitudes on a plane
surface for the whole earth or a part of it on a certain scale so the any point on the earth
surface may correspond to that on the drawing ( 3D surface to create a flat map sheet.)
 A map projection is a systematic transformation of the latitudes and longitudes of
locations from the surface of a sphere or an ellipsoid into locations on a plane.
Maps cannot be created without map projections. All map projections necessarily distort
the surface in some fashion. Depending on the purpose of the map, some distortions are
acceptable and others are not; therefore, different map projections exist in order to
preserve some properties of the sphere-like body at the expense of other properties. There
is no limit to the number of possible map projections.
SELECTION OF MAP PROJECTION:
 Conformality (shape): scale of the map is same at any direction.
 Distance: A map is equidistant when it portrays distances correctly from centre of the
projection to any other place on the map.
 Direction(Bearing): A map preserves direction when azimuths correctly in all direction.
 Area: A map portrays areas over the entire map is equal.
Classification of Map projection:
 Cylindrical
 Conical
 Azimuthal / Planar
 Miscellaneous

1. CYLINDRICAL PROJECTION:
 A normal cylindrical projection is any projection in which meridians are mapped to
equally spaced vertical lines and circles of latitude (parallels) are mapped to horizontal
lines.

 The mapping of meridians to vertical lines can be visualized by imagining a cylinder

whose axis coincides with the Earth's axis of rotation. This cylinder is wrapped around
the Earth, projected onto, and then unrolled.

 By the geometry of their construction, cylindrical projections stretch distances east-west.

The amount of stretch is the same at any chosen latitude on all cylindrical projections,
and is given by the secant of the latitude as a multiple of the equator's scale. The various
cylindrical projections are distinguished from each other solely by their north-south
stretching (where latitude is given by φ):
 North-south stretching equals east-west stretching (sec φ): The east-west scale matches
the north-south scale: conformal cylindrical or Mercator; this distorts areas excessively in
high latitudes (see also transverse Mercator).

 North-south stretching grows with latitude faster than east-west stretching (sec2 φ): The
cylindric perspective (or central cylindrical) projection; unsuitable because distortion is
even worse than in the Mercator projection.

 North-south stretching grows with latitude, but less quickly than the east-west stretching:
such as the Miller cylindrical projection (sec 4/5φ).

 North-south distances neither stretched nor compressed (1): equirectangular projection or

"plate carrée".

 North-south compression equals the cosine of the latitude (the reciprocal of east-west
stretching): equal-area cylindrical. This projection has many named specializations
differing only in the scaling constant, such as the Gall–Peters or Gall orthographic
(undistorted at the 45° parallels), Behrmann (undistorted at the 30° parallels),
and Lambert cylindrical equal-area (undistorted at the equator). Since this projection
scales north-south distances by the reciprocal of east-west stretching, it preserves area at
the expense of shapes.
2. CONICAL PROJECTION:

 The term "conic projection" is used to refer to any projection in which meridians are
mapped to equally spaced lines radiating out from the apex and circles of
latitude (parallels) are mapped to circular arcs centered on the apex.

 When making a conic map, the map maker arbitrarily picks two standard parallels. Those
standard parallels may be visualized as secant lines where the cone intersects the globe—
or, if the map maker chooses the same parallel twice, as the tangent line where the cone is
tangent to the globe. The resulting conic map has low distortion in scale, shape, and area
near those standard parallels. Distances along the parallels to the north of both standard
parallels or to the south of both standard parallels are stretched; distances along parallels
between the standard parallels are compressed. When a single standard parallel is used,
distances along all other parallels are stretched.

 Conic projections that are commonly used are:

 Equidistant conic, which keeps parallels evenly spaced along the meridians to preserve a
constant distance scale along each meridian, typically the same or similar scale as along
the standard parallels.

 Albers conic, which adjusts the north-south distance between non-standard parallels to
compensate for the east-west stretching or compression, giving an equal-area map.
 Lambert conformal conic, which adjusts the north-south distance between non-standard
parallels to equal the east-west stretching, giving a conformal map.

3. AZIMUTHAL PROJECTION:

 Azimuthal projections have the property that directions from a central point are preserved
and therefore great circles through the central point are represented by straight lines on
the map. These projections also have radial symmetry in the scales and hence in the
distortions: map distances from the central point are computed by a function r(d) of the
true distance d, independent of the angle; correspondingly, circles with the central point
as center are mapped into circles which have as center the central point on the map.
 The mapping of radial lines can be visualized by imagining a plane tangent to the Earth,
with the central point as tangent point.
 The radial scale is r′(d) and the transverse scale r(d)/(R sin d/R) where R is the radius of
the Earth.
 Some azimuthal projections are true perspective projections; that is, they can be
constructed mechanically, projecting the surface of the Earth by extending lines from
a point of perspective (along an infinite line through the tangent point and the tangent
point's antipode) onto the plane:
 The gnomonic projection displays great circles as straight lines. Can be constructed by
using a point of perspective at the center of the Earth. r(d) = c tan d/R; so that even just a
hemisphere is already infinite in extent.
 The orthographic projection maps each point on the Earth to the closest point on the
plane. Can be constructed from a point of perspective an infinite distance from the
tangent point; r(d) = c sin d/R. Can display up to a hemisphere on a finite circle.
Photographs of Earth from far enough away, such as the Moon, approximate this
perspective.
 Near-sided perspective projection, which simulates the view from space at a finite
distance and therefore shows less than a full hemisphere, such as used in The Blue
Marble 2012).
 The General Perspective projection can be constructed by using a point of perspective
outside the Earth. Photographs of Earth (such as those from the International Space
Station) give this perspective. It is a generalization of near-sided perspective projection,
allowing tilt.
 The stereographic projection, which is conformal, can be constructed by using the tangent
point's antipode as the point of perspective. r(d) = c tan d/2R; the scale
is c/(2R cos2 d/2R). Can display nearly the entire sphere's surface on a finite circle. The
sphere's full surface requires an infinite map.
 Other azimuthal projections are not true perspective projections:
4. MISCELLANEOUS PROJECTIONS:

• Projections other than azimuthal, conic, cylindrical, polyconic, pseudoconic and

pseudocylindrical are called miscellaneous projections. Miscellaneous projections
are map projections created by combining two or more projections.

______________________________________________________________________________

COMMONLY USED MAP PROJECTIONS:

1. Transverse Mercator(Gauss-Kruger)
2. Lambert Conformal Conic
3. Albers Equal-Area Conic
4. Equidistant Conic
Projected Coordinate System
 The Universal Transverse Mercator(UTM) Grid System
 The Universal Polar Stereographic (UPS) Grid System
 The State Plane Coordinate (SPC) System
 The Public Land Survey System(PLSS)
The Universal Polar Stereographic (UPS) Grid System:
UPS covers the Earth's polar regions, specifically the areas north of 84°N and south of 80°S,
which are not covered by the UTM grids, plus an additional 30 minutes of latitude extending into
UTM grid to provide some overlap between the two systems
The State Plane Coordinate (SPC) System:

The State Plane Coordinate System (SPCS), which is only used in the United States, is a plane
coordinate system (north-south and east-west lines are perpendicular) in which each individual
state has between one to six zones, depending on the state's size and shape.

The Public Land Survey System(PLSS):

The Public Land Survey System (PLSS) is the surveying method developed and used in the
United States to plat, or divide, real property for sale and settling. Also known as the Rectangular
Survey System, it was created by the Land Ordinance of 1785.

____________________________________________________________________________

What is MAP and its Classification:

A map is a symbolic representation of selected characteristics of a place, usually drawn on a

flat surface. Maps present information about the world in a simple, visual way. They teach about
the world by showing sizes and shapes of countries, locations of features, and distances between
places.

1. Topographic Map: In modern mapping, a topographic map or topographic sheet is a

type of map characterized by large-scale detail and quantitative representation of relief
features, usually using contour lines, but historically using a variety of methods.
2. Cadastral Map: A cadastral map is a comprehensive land recording of the real estate or
real property's metes-and-bounds of a country. In most countries, legal systems have
developed around the original administrative systems and use the cadastre to define the
dimensions and location of land parcels described in legal documentation
3. Relief Maps – Shows elevation difference of the Surface.
4. Geological Maps – Shows rock features, Earth crust etc.
5. Weather maps – Shows weather condition – daily, monthly and early
6. Climatic maps - Shows climatic conditions.
7. Vegetation maps – Shows variety of vegetation.
8. Cultural Maps- Shows cultural pattern.
9. Political Maps – Shows boundaries between different states.
10. Tourist maps – Shows tourist’s important features.

General-reference maps display objects from the geographical environment.

Ex.: Topographic maps. Often contain features like mountains, rivers, lakes, roads, houses, etc

A thematic map is used to visualize the spatial pattern of data related to a particular theme or
attribute.

Possible attributes include population density, family income, etc.

The automated construction of thematic maps offers many algorithmic challenges

(1) Qualitative Thematic Maps: Show only the spatial distribution, relation, or location of a
given attribute
(2) Quantitative Thematic Maps: show the spatial aspects of numerical data related to a
given attribute

 Choropleth Maps:

 The most commonly used type of quantitative thematic map.

 The regions of the map are shaded or patterned according to their data values.
 They are a very intuitive and the association between regions and data values is
immediate.
 However, choropleth maps are ill-suited to visualize absolute values.
 Users tend to mentally integrate over the region areas and will interpret all data as
densities.
 Furthermore, large regions tend to be overemphasized.
 Generally should be used only for regions of near-uniform size and shape and for data
that is uniformly distributed within each region.
Schematic Maps:

 Schematic maps visualize a set of nodes and edges (for example, highway or
metro networks) in simplified form to communicate connectivity information as
effectively as possible.
 Edges of a schematic map are often drawn using few orientations (like horizontal,
vertical, and sometimes diagonal) and with as few links as possible.
 Many schematic maps deviate substantially from the underlying geography since
edges and vertices of the original network are moved in the simplification process.
 Metro maps are a good example of this. In a metro map the exact geographical
positions of stations are abandoned, but the relative positions between stations are
mostly kept. This allows the network to be simpler than would be possible otherwise.
 However, this can be a problem if we want to use a schematic map for road network,
as a thematic layer. In that case the cities connected by the road network must keep
their correct geographical positions, for otherwise the base map cannot act as a proper
reference for the thematic map.

Flow Maps:

 Thematic maps that visualize the movement of objects, such as people or goods, between
geographic regions.
 Distributive flow maps are quantitative thematic maps that depict, Ex.: the amount of oil
exported by a country or the magnitude of migration between countries.
  One or more sources are connected to several targets by curves whose thickness
corresponds to the amount of flow between a source and a target.
 A (distributive) flow map typically consists of one or more flow trees which are drawn
atop the base map.
 A flow tree is a single-source flow, that is, it connects a single source (the root) to several
targets (the leaves). The widths of the flow lines of a flow tree are scaled proportionally
(linearly) to the values they represent.
 When a flow line (trunk) separates into several smaller lines (branches) the width of the
branches should add up to the width of the trunk .
 Flow trees sometimes follow the actual routes of the movement they depict.
 The first flow map was created by Henry Drury Harness in 1837.

MAP SCALE
• Map scale refers to the relationship (or ratio) between distance on a map and the
corresponding distance on the ground. For example, on a 1:100000 scale map, 1cm on
the map equals 1km on the ground

• There are at least three ways in which this relationship can be expressed. These are:

 1. Statement of Scale or Verbal Scale

 2. Representative Fraction (R. F.) (Ratio Scale)
 3. Graphical Scale
__________________________________________________________________

APPLICATIONS OF REMOTE SENSING AND GIS

Remote sensing and Geographical Information System (GIS) offers an abundant opportunity to
monitor and manage natural resources at multi-temporal, multi-spectral and multi-spatial
resolution. It is an urgent need to understand the specialized capabilities of an ever-expanding
array of image sources and analysis techniques for natural resource managers. In this review, we
compile the various applications of remote sensing and GIS tools that can be used for natural
resource management (agriculture, water, forest, soil, natural hazards). The information is useful
for the natural resource managers to understand and more effectively collaborate with remote
sensing scientists to develop and apply remote sensing science to achieve monitoring objectives.

In recent years, remotely sensed data has been widely used for its application in various natural
resource management disciplines. With the availability of remotely sensed data from different
sensors of various platforms with a wide range of spatiotemporal, radiometric and spectral
resolutions has made remote sensing as, perhaps, the best source of data for large scale
applications and study. The exhaustive data provided by remote sensing is now serves as an input
data for several environmental process modeling (Melesse et al., 2007). The integrated use of
remotely sensed data, GPS, and GIS will enable consultants and natural resource managers and
researchers in government agencies, conservation organizations, and industry to develop
management plans for a variety of natural resource management applications (Philipson &
Lindell, 2003). It is a potential tool to study change in land cover, forest density, coastal
morphology, status of reef and biodiversity of islands even if, located in remote place.

1. APPLICATION IN AGRICULTURE:
There has been increased emphasis on the potential utility of using remote sensing platforms to
obtain realtime assessments of the agricultural landscape. Precision agriculture is a production
system that promotes variable management practices within a field, according to site conditions.
This system is based on new tools and sources of information provided by modern technologies.
These include the global positioning system (GPS), geographic information systems (GIS), yield
monitoring devices, soil, plant and pest sensors, remote sensing, and variablerate technologies
for applicators of inputs (Seelan et al., 2003). Satellite remote sensing, in conjunction with
geographic information systems (GIS), has been widely applied and been recognized as a
powerful and effective tool in detecting land use and land cover change. It provides cost-
effective multi-spectral and multi-temporal data, and turns them into information valuable for
understanding and monitoring land development patterns. GIS technology provides a flexible
environment for storing, analyzing, and displaying digital data necessary for change detection
and database development. Satellite imagery has been used to monitor discrete land cover types
by spectral classification or to estimate biophysical characteristics of land surfaces via linear
relationships with spectral reflectances or indices (Steininger, 1996). In Andaman Island it was
used to identify and map rice growing areas and assessment of soil constraints.

2. APPLICATION IN SOIL SCIENCE

In nature soil properties are spatially variable therefore it should be estimated as continuous
variable rather than point values to have higher accuracy and wide applications (Burrough 1993).
Further, the traditional method of soil analysis and interpretation are laborious, time consuming,
thus becoming expensive hence, kriging and its variants have became widely recognized as an
important spatial interpolation technique in land resource inventories (Hengl et al. 2004). In this
context, with the advancement of geographical information system (GIS) and remote sensing
technology, predictive soil mapping techniques have been developed.
The in situ point measurements of soil quality can be made a regression analysis with exhaustive
satellite derived indices and the correlation is upscale to larger areas spatially. The spatial maps
are also an ideal input for spatially distributed models. Gopal Krishan et al., (2009) used
vegetation cover, slope and erosion status derived from remote sensing data to delineate four
major land degradation categories viz., undegraded, moderately degraded, degraded and severely
degraded. Similarly remote sensing and GIS was successfully used for natural resource mapping
and soil taxonomic study by Velmurugan and Carlos, (2009). The procedure for land resource
mapping is given in Fig. 1.

3. APPLICATION IN CROP-IRRIGATION DEMAND MONITORING:

Agriculture is the major consumer of water, utilizing more than 70% of the global fresh water.
Hence, the role of irrigation water plays a significant part in increasing land productivity. Land
surface evapotranspiration (ET) is one of the main components of the water balance that is
responsible for water loss (Michailidis et al., 2009) and it is of prime interest for environmental
applications, such as optimizing irrigation water use, irrigation system performance, crop water
deficit, etc. Also, poor irrigation timing and insufficient applications of water are universal
factors that limit agriculture production in many arid and semi-arid agricultural regions. In the
context of these problems, remote sensing technology has been emerged as an effective tool to
monitor irrigated lands over a variety of climatic conditions and locations over the last few
decades. It helps in determining when and how much to irrigate by monitoring plant water status,
by measuring rates of evapotranspiration and by estimating crop coefficients. The effective use
of surface water and the monitoring of consumptive use of water using remote sensing
techniques has been a topic of great interest for irrigation water policy makers.

4. APPLICATION IN CROP MODELLING:

It is possible to combine crop models and remote sensing in the way of evaluate yield variables
from remote sensed data for each time step in the model simulations, thus the use of remote
sensing allows us to fill the missing model parameters during the recalibration in field scale
(Batchelor et al., 2002). Additionally, getting data from crop models in field scale -remote sense
allows transferring the results from field scale to regional scale (Priya and Shibasaki, 2001).
Many ways of using remote sensing data with crop models have been suggested (Wiegand et al.,
1986 and Dele´colle et al., 1992). One way is estimating LAI (leaf area index) values by remote
sensing for calibrating into the crop models. Other way is early estimates of the final yield but
this method needs many remote sensing data during the growing season to use in crop models.
Baret et al., (2006) combined remote sensing observation with crop models for providing stress
quantification through assimilation approaches. Crop and soil model with GIS can be used to
detect methane emission from fields (Matthews et al., (2000) similarly it is used to estimate
global food production and the impacts of global warming using GIS and crop model. There are
several ways to reduce crop model uncertainty with remote sensing. One possibility is remote
sensing images can be used classify agricultural fields and crop types, In this way crop models
can be selected to use with this classification corresponding to soil input data. Remote sensing
can also be used to estimate crop growth indicator that can be integrated with crop models.

5. APPLICATION IN WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT:

Water as a resource is essential to support human existence. The availability of fresh water for
human use has been declining over the years, whereas the demand of growing population is
increasing. In this context, there is an urgent need to monitor and obtain a better understanding of
its use, which will provide information that can assist towards the development of effective water
management strategies and infrastructures. This can be of crucial importance, particularly to
regions on which the amount of water available is limited.

Understanding the complex water system requires a holistic approach to integrate the concepts
and ideas from different disciplines for sustainable water resource management. A field scale
study brings first insights to develop a detailed understanding about the manifold processes of
the water cycle. However, the political decisions are made at regional to national level and thus it
is crucial to reasonably upscale field scale studies to regional or national level. Hydrological
models are generally used for this purpose but often suffer problems of data scarcity or lack of
quality input data. Remote sensing technologies would then be a promising tool to integrate with
the models for getting continuous input data in data scarce regions. The launch of several Earth
Observation (EO) sensors from advanced satellites provides world-wide continuous
measurements on various hydrological components which are essential input data for
hydrological modeling. The data gaps due to lack of on-the-ground monitoring of water
resources around the world are now available using satellite acquisition. Thus, satellite products
and sophisticated computational techniques for the management of water can play an important
role in present and future of water resources. The satellite remote sensing for hydrological
applications includes, but not limited to rainfall (Global Precipitation Measurements (GPM) and
Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM); Soil moisture (Soil Moisture Active Passive
(SMAP) and Soil Moisture Ocean Salinity (SMOS); Actual Evapotranspiration (Surface Energy
Balance System); Mapping Evapotranspiration with Internalized Calibration (METRIC) and
Surface Energy Balance Algorithm for Land (SEBAL); Groundwater level monitoring by
Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) (Bastiaanssen et al., 1998; Liu, 2012; Sun,
2013).

Using satellite data and GIS, water bodies such as rivers, lakes, dams and reservoirs can be
mapped in 3D. The spatial water availability maps can be generated. The concerned authorities
can use the information for identifying the sites or regions that need effective protection and
management and decisions can be made regarding the sustainable management of water
resources in the identified regions

6. APPLICATION IN WATER QUALITY MONITORING:

Regular monitoring of water quality is required to manage and improve the quality for human
consumption purpose. In situ measurements and laboratory analysis of water samples are
currently used to evaluate water quality. Though such measurements are accurate for a point in
time and space, they do not give either the spatial or temporal view of water quality needed for
accurate assessment or management of water bodies. Furthermore they are expensive and time
consuming and cannot satisfy the regional or national monitoring need. Remote sensing
techniques can be used to monitor water quality parameters (i.e., suspended sediments
(turbidity), chlorophyll, and temperature). Optical and thermal sensors on boats, aircraft, and
satellites provide both spatial and temporal information needed to monitor changes in water
quality parameters for developing management practices to improve water quality. Remote
sensing has been also used to measure chlorophyll concentrations spatially and temporally based
on empirical relationships with radiance or reflectance (Ritchie et al., 1994). The empirical
relationships (algorithms) between the concentration of suspended sediments and radiance or
reflectance for a specific date and site were developed to predict the water quality for several
years (Ritchie and Cooper, 1991).

7. FOREST MANAGEMENT AND WILDLIFE HABITAT ANALYSIS:

Forest is a vital organ of our ecosystem; they impact human lives in several ways, despite of
having huge importance the world forest has been declining at an alarming rate. Being a
renewable resource, forest cover can be regenerated through sustainable management. Hence,
using remote sensing data and GIS techniques, a forest manager can generate information
regarding forest cover; types of forest present within an area of interest, human encroachment
extent into forest land / protected areas, encroachment of desert like conditions and so on. This
information is crucial for the development of forest management plans and in the process of
decision making to ensure that effective policies should put in place to control and govern the
manner in which forest resources can be utilized. The suitability and status of sites / forest area
for a particular species of wildlife can also be assessed using remote sensing data using
multicriteria analysis.

8. APPLICATION IN NATURAL DISASTER MANAGEMENT:

Extensive multi-temporal spatial data is required for the management of natural disasters such
flooding, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and landslides. In this context satellite remote sensing
is an ideal tool that offers information over large areas and at short time intervals, which can be
utilized in various phases of disaster management, such as prevention, preparedness, relief,
reconstruction, early warning and monitoring. Along with remote sensing, GIS techniques are
required to handle huge spatial data sets and hence have been gaining importance in disaster
management (Van Westen, 2000).

9. APPLICATION IN ROAD NETWORK:

Roads are important for easy transportation of goods and resources, human beings and other
transportable belongings. A good road network helps to promote and quickens the fiscal growth
of any country, through trade, tourism and other viable developments. It helps advance and
quicken the financial development of any nation and this is achieved through improvement in
businesses, exchange of goods and tourism [1]. In most African countries, road networks are in
bad shape due to either construction using sub-par materials or poor maintenance or sometimes
both. This work seeks to identify the benefits and potentials of the utilization of GIS and remote
sensing tools in detecting the distress of paved and unpaved road (such as road surface cracks,
potholes and surface roughness) at early stages in order to apply maintenance on time. Early
detection of road surface cracks provides information about the network condition of the road
before the repair costs become expensive. Also, to create and develop up to date digital database
of road connectivity, accessibility of public utilities services which can allow proficiency in
monitoring, administration, planning and ensuing development of the road network in the study
area. This study will also examine the strengths and weaknesses of the application of Remote
sensing and GIS techniques in developing nations.

The old-style method of monitoring surface road is by physical inspection, this method is very
tedious and time-consuming, costly and requires much manpower and materials. It also creates
danger to the monitoring team, etc. As more roads are constructed, the traditional method for
road inspection fails to meet its required purpose. It is therefore of high importance to develop
new and sustainable methods, tools and technologies that can be used to monitor roads
adequately

10. Mapping

GIS can be used to provide a visual interpretation of data. Google Maps is an excellent example
of a web-based GIS mapping solution that people use for everyday navigation purposes.
However, smart mapping technology has significantly advanced and is used in products
like Nobel’s GeoViewer, which gives cities, municipalities and private industry an in-depth look
at electric and water district assets in the field.

11. Telecom and Network Services

Organizations can incorporate geographic data into their complex network design, optimization,
planning, and maintenance activities. This data enhances telecom processes through better
customer-relationship management and location services.

12. Accident Analysis and Hot Spot Analysis

GIS data helps to identify accident locations, and road networks can be optimized using data
intelligence. This intelligence helps to improve road safety measures and allows better traffic
management.

13. Urban planning

GIS data analyzes urban growth and the direction of expansion. When appropriately applied, it
can discover new sites for further development, considering various factors that are necessary for
successful building.

14. Transportation Planning

GIS data is commonly used for managing transportation issues. With the addition of
environmental and topical data in a GIS platform, companies can plan for a new road or rail
route.

15. Environmental Impact Analysis

Data gathered via GIS applications is vital for conserving natural resources and protecting the
environment. Impact statements assess the magnitude of human impact on the environment,
which GIS integration helps indicate.
16. Agricultural Applications

GIS data helps create more efficient farming techniques, alongside analyzing soil data in an
advanced fashion. This can increase food production in different parts of the world.

17. Disaster Management and Mitigation

Efficient GIS systems protect the environment and are developed to assist risk and disaster
management.

18. Navigation

Web-based navigation maps use GIS data to provide the public with useful information. Web
maps are regularly updated per GIS information and are used consistently in everyday life.

19. Flood damage estimation

Governments use GIS data to map flood risk areas and can use the information to coordinate
relief efforts.

20. Natural Resources Management

With the help of GIS information, forests can be adequately maintained and managed. It is
especially crucial for the allocation and geographic distribution of water, one of the more
critical environmental constituents.

21. Banking

Banking has evolved to become market-driven, and a bank’s success depends mainly on its
ability to provide customer-driven services. GIS data plays an essential role in planning,
organizing, and decision making in the banking industry.

22. Taxation

GIS data helps solve taxation problems and maximize government income. It is used for building
permits and engineering and offers a system for managing property tax on a geographic basis.

24. Surveying
Surveying involves measuring the location of objects on earth, and more organizations are
using Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) for this function. This data incorporated into
a GIS system can estimate area and prepare digital maps.

25. Geology

Geologists use GIS data to analyze soil, assess seismic information, and create 3D displays of
geographic features. It can also be used to analyze rock characteristics, and identify the best
location for different functions.

26. Assets Management and Maintenance

GIS data helps organizations become more efficient with finite resources. With an understanding
of the population at risk, planners can allocate resources more efficiently.

27. Planning and Community Development

GIS data helps us understand and meet global challenges. As GIS technology rapidly advances,
there are various innovative applications in the planning sector. GIS tools can be used to
integrate geographic intelligence into planning processes, and have the potential to change how
we think and behave.

28. Dairy Industry

The dairy industry uses GIS data for distribution, production, and identifying the location of
shops. It is a useful tool for planning in the field of dairy farm management and allows for better
decision making.

29. Irrigation Water Management

The availability of water directly affects crop production in a given region. GIS data can identify
significant crops and determine yield, involving efficient techniques for spatial and time domain.

30. Pest Control and Management

Pest control is essential to agricultural production, and GIS technology plays a vital role in
mapping out infested areas. Organizations can consequently develop more effective pest
management plans.
With the rising pressure on natural resources due to the increasing human population, remote
sensing and GIS can be used to manage these precious limited resources in an effective and
efficient manner. Geospatial information are quite useful in the identification and analysis of
factors that affect the utilization of these resources. Hence, with the detailed understanding of
these factors, sound decisions can be arrived at that will ensure the sustainable use of natural
resources to meet the needs of the current as well as future generations.

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS:

1. Explain the different key components of GIS?

2. What are the different Software and Hardware components of a GIS?
3. GIS Applications in Real life explain with examples?
4. Define Map and explain the classification of Maps?
5. Explain about geospatial Data?
6. What is the difference between Spatial and Non-spatial data?
7. Explain in detail about Joining Spatial and Attribute data?
8. Explain the classification of GIS operations?
9. Write any two GIS Operations in detail?
10. Explain the following a)Spatial Data Input b) Attribute data
11. Explain the following a)Management b)Data display
12. Explain the following a)Data Exploration b) Data Analysis
13. What are the different major application areas of GIS?
14. Explain the following a) GIS queries b) GIS architecture
15. What is the difference between Map and a Globe with neat sketch?
16. Define coordinate system and Explain about the Cartesian coordinate system and
geographic coordinate system in detail?
17. Explain the following a) Approximation of the Earth b) Datum used in GIS c)MSL
d)Bench Mark
18. Define Projection and classification of Map projection?
19. Describe about Map projection parameters commonly used Map Projections?
20. Explain in detail about projected coordinate Systems?
21. Define Map scale? Explain Types of scale used in GIS mapping?
22. Explain in detail about Functional requirements of GIS?
23. Explain the following a) Raster data b) Vector data c) Spatial Data and d) Non-Spatial
data.
24. Define GIS? What are the four M’s in GIS?
25. Define map? Elements of a Thematic Map explain with neat diagram?