Syllabus: Flow Hydraulics and Urban Drainage (WRN-594 )

Sr. No. Contents

1. Introduction: Properties of fluids; Pressure and its measurement; Hydrostatic forces on surfaces;
Buoyancy and flotation; Kinematics of flow; Ideal flow; Dynamics of fluid flow
2. Flow measurements: Flow through orifices and mouthpieces; Notches and Weirs; Viscous flow;
Turbulent flow; Flow through pipes; Forces on submerged bodies; Compressible flow
3. Flow analysis: Strom water runoff generation; Frequency analysis; IDF relations; Design storm; Open
channel flow in urban watersheds; Estimation of runoff rates from urban watersheds; Flow routing.
4. Urban drainage design and analysis: Introduction to urban drainage; Types of urban drainage
systems; Hydraulics of urban drainage systems; Sewerage layout and design; Sewer network operation;
Hydrological and hydrodynamic modelling; Concept of Integrated Urban Drainage modeling;
Developments in 1D, 2D and 1D-2D urban stormwater models; Sensitivity testing; Data collection and
processing for urban drainage management; Conducting surveys; Verification and calibration
5. Management practices: Need of Integrated water resources management; Urban water resource
management; Social aspects of urban water management; Use of modern techniques in urban water
management; Storm water and flood management; Water conservation and cycling.
 Unit I:
Properties of Fluid
Introduction

• Substances in liquid or gaseous form are said to be fluid and they are capable of
deforming continuously under the action of shear stress, howsoever small the shear
stress might be.

• When a constant shear stress is applied, a solid eventually stops deforming at some fixed
strain angle whereas fluid never stops deforming and approaches a constant rate of
strain. In solid, stress is proportional to strain but in fluid stress is proportional to rate of
strain.

Fluid statics: study about fluid at rest.

Fluid kinematics: study about fluid in motion in absence of force.
Fluid Dynamics: study about fluid in motion along with the forces causing the motion.
 Ideal Fluid:
• Fluids having no viscosity, no surface tension and
are incompressible are called ideal fluid.
• No such fluid exists in real world. However, fluids
having very low value of viscosity, such as water
Types of Fluid and air, can be treated as ideal fluids for all practical
purposes.

Real Fluid:
• The fluids which are not ideal are real fluids.
Properties of Fluid
❑ Density:
• Ratio of Mass to Volume
• Denoted as ρ. Unit = Kg/m3
• Density of liquid is generally assumed to be constant
• Density of gases is directly proportional to pressure and inversely proportional to
temperature.

❑ Specific gravity or relative density:

𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
• =
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

❑ Specific weight or weight density:

𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
• =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
• Denoted as γ. Unit = N/m3
• γwater = 9810 N/m3
Vapor Pressure and Cavitation

At a liquid-air interface a continuous exchange of molecules takes place. The

liquid molecules evaporate and try to escape from the surface into gaseous form,
called the vapor. These vapor molecules exert a partial pressure in the space,
known as vapor pressure.
When the absolute pressure above any liquid drops below or to the vapor pressure,
boiling starts. This leads to the formation of small vapor-filled cavities in the liquid.
When subjected to higher pressure, these cavities, called "bubbles" or "voids",
collapse. This process of formation and collapsing of cavity is called Cavitation.

NOTE:
• Vapor pressure increases with temperature. Hence higher the temperature, higher
will be the chance of cavitation.
• Liquid with high vapor pressure evaporates readily and are known as volatile
liquid.
• Mercury has very low vapor pressure to evaporate. Hence it can be used in pressure
measuring equipment so that it can measure even low pressure without evaporating.
Bulk Modulus and Compressibility
• Bulk modulus of a substance is a measure of how resistive that material is to
compressibility. It is a ratio of change in pressure to the relative change in volume.
• If original pressure is ‘P’ in a liquid mass and its volume is ‘V’ and increase in
pressure ‘dP’ causes change in volume ‘dV’ then,

𝑑𝑃
• Bulk modulus of elasticity (K) = -
(𝑑𝑉/𝑉)
As, ρ = mass / volume
ρ*V = mass
change in mass = dm = 0
dm = ρdV + Vdρ = 0
-dV/V = dρ/ρ
So, 𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑃
K=- =
(𝑑𝑉/𝑉) (dρ/ρ )
• Compressibility is inverse of Bulk modulus.
• It is a measure of relative volume change of a fluid or solid as a response to a
pressure change.

(dρ/ρ)
Compressibility =
dP

By changing the pressure if density is not changing then the fluid is called
incompressible.
 Viscosity
• Viscosity is a measure of resistance of fluid to
deformation. It is due to internal frictional forces
that develop between different layers of fluids
when they are forced to move relative to each
other.
• Suppose there are two fluid layers, having velocity
‘u’ and ‘u +du’ respectively, passing over each
other with a gap of ‘dy’. Since the upper layer is
moving faster it tries to draw the lower slow-
moving layer along. Similarly, the slow-moving
layer also tries to retard the upper fast-moving
layer. Thus, a shear force ‘𝜏’ come in action
between the two fluid layers.
• In time ‘dt’, the top layer excels by ‘da’ distance w.r.t. to lower layer,

da = du.dt
Shear strain, dθ = da/dy = du.dt /dy
Rate of change of shear strain, dθ/dt = du/dy = velocity gradient.

• As in Newtonian Fluid, rate of shear strain is linearly proportional to shear stress

𝜏 ∝ dθ/dt
𝜏 ∝ du/dy

𝜏 = μ (du/dy)

Where, μ = dynamic viscosity (Ns/m2)

NOTE: No Slip Condition
In any real fluid, fluid has a tendency to adhere to the boundary, i.e., if boundary is
moving, the fluid attached to it will also move with the same velocity and if the boundary
is stationary, the fluid will also be at rest at the boundary.

Velocity gradient (slope of velocity profile) in the flow is maximum at the boundary and
decreases as moving away from the boundary hence the shear stress is maximum at the
boundary and decreases away form the boundary, Thus the effect of viscosity is maximum
at boundary, and it decreases away from the boundary.
Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluids

Fluids which obey Newton’s law of viscosity [𝜏 = μ (du/dy)] are called Newtonian fluids
and those fluids which do not obey this rule are called Non-Newtonian fluids.

For Non- Newtonian fluid

𝜏 = A (du/dy)n + B
Newtonian fluid

𝜏 = μ (du/dy)

Pseudo Plastic: (B = 0, n < 1)

✓ Fluids for which apparent viscosity decreases with du/dy.
✓ Also called as Shear Thinning Fluid.
✓ Example: Paint, blood, syrup, milk. etc.

Dilatant: (B = 0, n >1)
✓ Fluids for which apparent viscosity increases with du/dy.
✓ Also called as Shear Thickening Fluid.
✓ Example: Suspended starch or sand, sugar in water, etc.
Non-Newtonian fluid
Apparent
𝜏 = A (du/dy)n + B viscosity

𝑑𝜏
= n A (du/dy)n-1
𝑑(du/dy)

Thixotropic: (B ≠ 0, n < 1)
✓ Fluids showing an increase in apparent viscosity with time.
✓ Example: Ketchup, printer ink, etc.
✓
Rheopectic: (B ≠ 0, n >1)
✓ Fluids showing a decrease in apparent viscosity with time.
✓ Example: Gypsum paint, lubricants etc.

Bingham Plastic: (B ≠ 0, n = 1)
✓ Fluids requiring a certain minimum shear stress before they start flowing.
✓ Example: Toothpaste, sewage sludge, etc.
Surface Tension

At the interface of liquid and a gas, a film or a

special layer seems to form apparently due to
attraction of liquid molecule from below the
surface. As a result of the net downward force,
surface will be pulled down causing a curvature
to the surface. This creates tension on the
surface which is similar to the tension in a
stretched membrane. This is known as surface
tension (N/m).

As surface tension is primarily due to cohesion,

so as the temperature increases surface tension
decreases. Effect of pressure on surface tension
is negligible.
▪ A movable wire is placed over a fixed wire and
the assembly is dipped inside a soap solution. A
film forms as shown.
▪ The liquid film tends to pull the moveable wire
inward. A force F is needed to resist this pull.
▪ If σ is surface tension, and as we have two
interface S if liquid and gas as shown in the figure
below.

Net pull force = F = 2 (σ.b)

σ = F/2b
▪ Suppose the movable wire is moved by dx, then
Work done = F.dx
On putting value of F, we get,
Work done = 2 (σ.b). dx = σ. ΔA

σ = Work done / increase in surface area

CAPILLARITY
Capillarity effect is a consequence of surface tension and adhesion. It is defined as
the rise or fall of fluid in a small diameter tube inserted into liquid. The rise is called
capillarity rise and the fall is called capillarity fall.
Capillary Rise
d = diameter of glass tube open at both ends
H = height of the liquid in the tube
σ = surface tension of liquid
θ = angle of contact between liquid and glass tube
𝜌 = density of liquid

Under equilibrium, the weight of ‘h’ height of liquid in

the tube is balanced by the force at the surface of the
liquid in the tube due to surface tension.
𝜋
Wt. of liquid of ‘h’ height in tube = ( 𝑑 2 ℎ)𝜌g (1)
4
Vertical component of the force due to surface tension = σ cosθ . 𝜋d (2)

For equilibrium, 1 = 2

Rise = h= 4σcosθ/𝜌gd
Capillary Fall
When glass tube is dipped in mercury, two forces act
on the mercury inside the tube.

Force due to surface tension action downward

= σ cosθ . 𝜋d (1)

Force due to hydrostatic pressure acting upward

𝜋 2 𝜋 2
= 𝑑 γℎ = 𝑑 𝜌gℎ (2)
4 4

For equilibrium, 1 = 2,

Fall = h= 4σcosθ/𝜌gd