LEARNING

● Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience or practice.

● It differs from temporary changes like fatigue or drug effects.
● Learning can be inferred from performance (observable behavior).
● Types of learning include:
○ Conditioning (Classical & Operant)
○ Observational Learning
○ Cognitive Learning
○ Verbal Learning
○ Skill Learning

Paradigms of Learning

1. Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)

● Learning through association between two stimuli.

● Example: Bell (CS) + Food (US) → Salivation (CR) in dogs.
● Determinants:
○ Time gap between stimuli
○ Type of stimuli (appetitive or aversive)
○ Intensity of conditioned stimulus

2. Operant Conditioning (Skinner)

● Learning through rewards (reinforcement) and punishments.

● Example: A rat presses a lever (operant) → Gets food (reinforcement).
● Types of Reinforcement:
○ Positive: Adding something pleasant (e.g., rewards).
○ Negative: Removing something unpleasant (e.g., avoiding pain).
● Schedules of Reinforcement:
○ Continuous: Every response is reinforced.
○ Intermittent: Reinforcement is given at intervals (more effective).

3. Observational Learning (Bandura)

● Learning by watching and imitating others.

● Example: Children mimic behavior seen in adults or media.
● Influenced by rewards/punishments given to the model.

4. Cognitive Learning

● Focuses on mental processes rather than stimulus-response.

● Insight Learning (Kohler): Sudden realization of a solution.
● Latent Learning (Tolman): Learning remains hidden until needed.

5. Verbal Learning
 ● Learning through words, associations, and memory.
● Methods:
○ Paired-Associates Learning (linking words).
○ Serial Learning (remembering in order).
○ Free Recall (recalling words in any order).

Key Learning Processes

● Reinforcement: Strengthens behavior (positive or negative).

● Extinction: Learned response fades if not reinforced.
● Generalization: Responding to similar stimuli (e.g., fear of all loud noises).
● Discrimination: Differentiating between similar stimuli.
● Spontaneous Recovery: Extinct response reappears after a break.

Factors Facilitating Learning

● Motivation
○ Intrinsic: Learning for interest.
○ Extrinsic: Learning for rewards.
● Preparedness for Learning (biological readiness).
● Schedules of Reinforcement (continuous vs. partial reinforcement).

Learning Disabilities

● Some children struggle with learning despite normal intelligence.

● Symptoms:
○ Difficulties in reading, writing, speaking, and reasoning.
○ Short attention span and hyperactivity.
○ Poor motor coordination and space orientation.
○ Dyslexia (difficulty in reading and recognizing letters).
● Can be managed with remedial teaching.

Summary

● Learning is a permanent change in behavior through experience.

● Main Types: Classical Conditioning, Operant Conditioning, Observational Learning,
Cognitive Learning, Verbal Learning, and Skill Learning.
● Reinforcement and punishment shape behavior.
● Motivation and biological preparedness influence learning speed.

HUMAN MEMORY
1. Introduction to Memory

● Memory is the ability to retain and recall information over time.

 ● It helps in maintaining identity, interpersonal relationships, problem-solving, and
decision-making.
● Memory research started with Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885), who found that
forgetting happens rapidly at first and then slows down.

2. The Three Stages of Memory

Memory involves three interrelated processes:

1. Encoding – Information is recorded and registered for the first time.

2. Storage – Information is retained for future use.
3. Retrieval – Stored information is recalled when needed.

3. Information Processing Approach: The Stage Model (Atkinson & Shiffrin,

1968)

Memory works like a computer and has three systems:

1. Sensory Memory
○ Holds large amounts of sensory information for less than a second.
○ Includes iconic memory (visual) and echoic memory (auditory).
2. Short-Term Memory (STM)
○ Holds small amounts of information for up to 30 seconds.
○ Encodes information acoustically.
○ Information is lost if not rehearsed.
3. Long-Term Memory (LTM)
○ Unlimited capacity and permanent storage.
○ Encodes information semantically (meaning-based).

4. Working Memory (Baddeley, 1986)

● STM is more than a passive storage system; it acts as a "workbench" for thinking.
● Components:
○ Phonological loop (stores verbal/sound-based info).
○ Visuospatial sketchpad (stores visual/spatial info).
○ Central executive (organizes, monitors, and controls attention).

5. Levels of Processing (Craik & Lockhart, 1972)

● Shallow Processing: Focuses on surface features (e.g., shape of letters).

● Intermediate Processing: Considers sounds/phonetics.
● Deep Processing: Focuses on meaning, leading to better retention.

6. Types of Long-Term Memory

1. Declarative Memory (Facts & Events)

○ Episodic Memory: Personal life events (e.g., birthday celebrations).
○ Semantic Memory: General knowledge (e.g., meaning of words, mathematical
facts).
2. Procedural Memory (Skills & Actions)

7. Enhancing Memory

● Mnemonics (Memory techniques):

○ Keyword Method – Using familiar words to remember foreign words.
○ Method of Loci – Associating items with familiar locations.
○ Chunking – Grouping items to expand STM capacity (e.g., 1947 →
Independence Year).
○ First Letter Technique – Using acronyms (e.g., VIBGYOR for rainbow colors).
● PQRST Method (Thomas & Robinson)
○ Preview
○ Question
○ Read
○ Self-recitation
○ Test

8. Repressed Memories (Freud)

● Painful memories are unconsciously blocked (repressed).

● In severe cases, leads to amnesia or identity confusion (fugue state).

9. Summary

● Memory consists of encoding, storage, and retrieval.

● Three types: Sensory Memory, Short-Term Memory, Long-Term Memory.
● Forgetting occurs due to trace decay, interference, or retrieval failure.
● Mnemonics and deep processing improve memory.

THINKING
1. Nature of Thinking

● Thinking is a goal-directed mental process involved in problem-solving, reasoning,

decision-making, and creativity.
● It is an internal process that can be inferred from behavior.
● Thinking relies on mental images, concepts, reasoning, and problem-solving
strategies.

2. Building Blocks of Thought

● Mental Images: Mental representations of objects, people, or events (e.g., visualizing

a route to a familiar place).
● Concepts: Mental categories for grouping similar objects, events, or ideas (e.g.,
categorizing an apple as a fruit).
● Culture and Thinking: Thinking patterns vary across cultures. Some cultures focus on
analytical thinking (breaking down details), while others focus on holistic thinking
(seeing the bigger picture).

3. The Processes of Thinking

Problem Solving

● Problem-solving is the process of overcoming obstacles to achieve a goal.

● Steps in problem-solving:
○ Identify the problem
○ Gather information and represent the problem
○ Plan possible solutions (set sub-goals)
○ Evaluate and choose the best solution
○ Execute the solution
○ Evaluate the outcome
○ Modify or improve for future problem-solving
● Obstacles to problem-solving:
○ Mental Set: Sticking to old solutions instead of trying new ones.
○ Functional Fixedness: Difficulty in seeing new uses for familiar objects.
○ Lack of Motivation: Losing interest or giving up too soon.

Reasoning

● Deductive Reasoning: Starts from a general principle and applies it to a specific

case. Example:
○ All birds have feathers. A pigeon is a bird. → Therefore, a pigeon has
feathers.
● Inductive Reasoning: Starts from specific observations to form a general principle.
Example:
○ All observed swans are white. → Therefore, all swans must be white.
● Analogy: Comparing relationships between two different things (e.g., water is to fish
as air is to humans).

Decision-Making

● Decision-making involves choosing among alternatives based on evaluating risks

and benefits.
● Example: Choosing between studying for exams or practicing a sport for a
competition.
● Judgment and decision-making are influenced by personal experiences, biases, and
information available.

4. Nature and Process of Creative Thinking

● Creative Thinking: The ability to generate new, original, and useful ideas.
● Convergent Thinking: Finding one correct answer (e.g., solving a math problem).
● Divergent Thinking: Generating multiple unique solutions (e.g., thinking of different
uses for a paperclip).
● Characteristics of Creative Thinking:
○ Fluency: Generating many ideas.
○ Flexibility: Thinking in varied ways.
○ Originality: Producing unique ideas.
○ Elaboration: Expanding and detailing ideas.
● Lateral Thinking (Edward de Bono): Approaching problems from unconventional
angles using creativity.

Stages of Creative Thinking

1. Preparation: Understanding and gathering information about the problem.

2. Incubation: Taking a break from active thinking, allowing the subconscious mind to
work.
3. Illumination: The "Aha!" moment when a creative solution emerges.
4. Verification: Testing and refining the creative idea.

Enhancing Creative Thinking

● Observing problems and gaps in information.

● Generating multiple ideas and alternative solutions.
● Brainstorming: Encouraging free-flowing ideas without immediate judgment.

5. Thought and Language

● Relationship between Language and Thought:

○ Language Determines Thought (Whorf’s Hypothesis): Language shapes how
we think.
○ Thought Determines Language (Piaget): Thinking develops first, and
language follows.
○ Both Develop Together (Vygotsky): Thought and language influence each
other.

6. Development of Language

● Language is a system of symbols and rules used for communication.

● Stages of Language Development:
○ Crying & Cooing: Newborns express emotions through sounds.
○ Babbling (6 months): Repetitive sounds (e.g., "ba-ba").
○ One-word Stage (1 year): Single words convey meaning.
○ Two-word Stage (18-24 months): Simple phrases (e.g., "want milk").
○ Telegraphic Speech (2+ years): Short sentences with key words (e.g., "give
toy").
○ Complex Sentences (3+ years): Grammar and vocabulary improve.
● Theories of Language Acquisition:
○ Skinner (Behaviorist View): Language is learned through imitation and
reinforcement.
○ Chomsky (Nativist View): Humans have an inborn "Language Acquisition
Device" (LAD) that helps them learn language.
 7. Bilingualism and Multilingualism

● Bilingualism: Proficiency in two languages.

● Multilingualism: Knowing multiple languages.
● Benefits of Bilingualism:
○ Enhances cognitive skills and problem-solving abilities.
○ Improves attention and multitasking.
○ Strengthens cultural awareness and adaptability.

8. Summary

● Thinking is the process of analyzing, reasoning, problem-solving, and

decision-making.
● Problem-solving involves identifying obstacles and finding solutions.
● Reasoning (inductive & deductive) helps in logical thinking.
● Decision-making involves choosing the best alternative based on available
information.
● Creative thinking generates novel and original ideas.
● Language and thought are interconnected and influence each other.
● Language development follows predictable stages from infancy to adulthood.
● Bilingualism/multilingualism enhances cognitive flexibility and adaptability.

MOTIVATION & EMOTION

1. Introduction to Motivation and Emotion

● Motivation is the driving force behind human behavior, influencing goal-directed

actions.
● It explains why we act in certain ways (e.g., studying for exams, working towards
success).
● Emotion refers to feelings like happiness, anger, sadness, and fear that influence
our thoughts and actions.

2. Nature of Motivation

● The term motivation comes from the Latin word movere, meaning "to move."
● Motivation explains what drives behavior and helps in making predictions about
future actions.
● The Motivational Cycle:
1. Need: A deficiency in something (e.g., hunger).
2. Drive: A state of tension/arousal (e.g., feeling hungry).
3. Goal-Directed Behavior: Actions taken to reduce the drive (e.g., eating
food).
4. Achievement: The goal is met, and arousal is reduced.
3. Types of Motives

A. Biological Motives (Physiological Needs)

● Essential for survival and regulated by the body's biological systems.

● Examples:
○ Hunger: Triggered by low blood glucose levels and stomach contractions.
○ Thirst: Caused by dehydration and regulated by the hypothalamus.
○ Sex Drive: Influenced by hormones, social factors, and psychological
aspects.

B. Psychosocial Motives (Learned from Social Interactions)

● Need for Affiliation: Desire to form relationships and be socially connected.

● Need for Power: Desire to influence, control, or lead others.
● Need for Achievement (n-Ach): Striving for excellence and success.
● Curiosity and Exploration: Seeking new experiences and knowledge.

4. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (Theory of Self-Actualization)

● Proposed by Abraham Maslow, this theory arranges human needs in a hierarchical

order.
● Needs must be fulfilled step by step, starting from basic survival needs.
1. Physiological Needs – Basic survival needs (food, water, sleep).
2. Safety Needs – Protection, security, and stability.
3. Belongingness Needs – Love, relationships, and social connections.
4. Esteem Needs – Achievement, respect, and self-worth.
5. Self-Actualization – Reaching one’s full potential and creativity.

5. Nature of Emotions

● Emotions are complex patterns of arousal, subjective feelings, and cognitive

interpretation.
● They involve both physiological reactions (heart rate, sweating) and
psychological experiences (joy, fear, sadness, etc.).
● Basic emotions include happiness, sadness, anger, fear, disgust, and surprise.

6. Expression of Emotions

● Facial Expressions: Universal and can indicate emotions like joy, sadness, and
anger.
● Body Language & Gestures: Communicate emotions non-verbally (e.g., posture,
hand movements).
● Culture and Emotions:
○ Some cultures openly express emotions, while others encourage emotional
restraint.
○ Different cultures have unique ways of labeling and interpreting emotions.
7. Managing Negative Emotions

● Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): Severe emotional distress after a

traumatic event.
● Managing Exam Anxiety:
○ Preparation and Practice: Studying well in advance.
○ Relaxation Techniques: Deep breathing, meditation, and physical exercise.
○ Positive Thinking: Focusing on strengths and avoiding negative thoughts.

8. Enhancing Positive Emotions

● Develop Self-Awareness: Understanding one's emotions and reactions.

● Practice Gratitude: Focusing on positive aspects of life.
● Build Supportive Relationships: Maintaining strong social connections.
● Engage in Creative Activities: Finding hobbies and interests that bring joy.

9. Summary

● Motivation drives behavior towards achieving goals, while emotions influence our
reactions.
● Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs explains human motivation in a structured way.
● Emotions can be expressed through facial expressions, body language, and speech.
● Managing negative emotions like stress and anxiety is important for well-being.
● Positive emotions like joy and gratitude enhance mental health and social
relationships.