Concise Notes Chapter 5-8
Concise Notes Chapter 5-8
Paradigms of Learning
4. Cognitive Learning
5. Verbal Learning
● Learning through words, associations, and memory.
● Methods:
○ Paired-Associates Learning (linking words).
○ Serial Learning (remembering in order).
○ Free Recall (recalling words in any order).
● Motivation
○ Intrinsic: Learning for interest.
○ Extrinsic: Learning for rewards.
● Preparedness for Learning (biological readiness).
● Schedules of Reinforcement (continuous vs. partial reinforcement).
Learning Disabilities
Summary
HUMAN MEMORY
1. Introduction to Memory
1. Sensory Memory
○ Holds large amounts of sensory information for less than a second.
○ Includes iconic memory (visual) and echoic memory (auditory).
2. Short-Term Memory (STM)
○ Holds small amounts of information for up to 30 seconds.
○ Encodes information acoustically.
○ Information is lost if not rehearsed.
3. Long-Term Memory (LTM)
○ Unlimited capacity and permanent storage.
○ Encodes information semantically (meaning-based).
● STM is more than a passive storage system; it acts as a "workbench" for thinking.
● Components:
○ Phonological loop (stores verbal/sound-based info).
○ Visuospatial sketchpad (stores visual/spatial info).
○ Central executive (organizes, monitors, and controls attention).
7. Enhancing Memory
9. Summary
THINKING
1. Nature of Thinking
Problem Solving
Reasoning
Decision-Making
● Creative Thinking: The ability to generate new, original, and useful ideas.
● Convergent Thinking: Finding one correct answer (e.g., solving a math problem).
● Divergent Thinking: Generating multiple unique solutions (e.g., thinking of different
uses for a paperclip).
● Characteristics of Creative Thinking:
○ Fluency: Generating many ideas.
○ Flexibility: Thinking in varied ways.
○ Originality: Producing unique ideas.
○ Elaboration: Expanding and detailing ideas.
● Lateral Thinking (Edward de Bono): Approaching problems from unconventional
angles using creativity.
6. Development of Language
8. Summary
2. Nature of Motivation
● The term motivation comes from the Latin word movere, meaning "to move."
● Motivation explains what drives behavior and helps in making predictions about
future actions.
● The Motivational Cycle:
1. Need: A deficiency in something (e.g., hunger).
2. Drive: A state of tension/arousal (e.g., feeling hungry).
3. Goal-Directed Behavior: Actions taken to reduce the drive (e.g., eating
food).
4. Achievement: The goal is met, and arousal is reduced.
3. Types of Motives
5. Nature of Emotions
6. Expression of Emotions
● Facial Expressions: Universal and can indicate emotions like joy, sadness, and
anger.
● Body Language & Gestures: Communicate emotions non-verbally (e.g., posture,
hand movements).
● Culture and Emotions:
○ Some cultures openly express emotions, while others encourage emotional
restraint.
○ Different cultures have unique ways of labeling and interpreting emotions.
7. Managing Negative Emotions
9. Summary
● Motivation drives behavior towards achieving goals, while emotions influence our
reactions.
● Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs explains human motivation in a structured way.
● Emotions can be expressed through facial expressions, body language, and speech.
● Managing negative emotions like stress and anxiety is important for well-being.
● Positive emotions like joy and gratitude enhance mental health and social
relationships.